Repeaters-2021-Medical-Biology

CHAPTER -2
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

Flowers are morphological and embryological marvels and the sites of sexual reproduction.
A complete flower consists of 4 whorls.
1) Calyx - unit - Sepals
2) Corolla - unit - Petals
3) Androecium - unit - Stamens
4) Gynoecium - unit - Carpels / pistils
♦ The androecium consists of a whorl of stamens representing the male reproductive organ
and the gynoecium represents the female reproductive organ.
♦ Stamen ≈ Microsporophyll

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Arceuthobium(smallest dicot (leafless) parasite) anther consists of only one microsporangium

(Monosporangiate)

♦ Stamens is the male reproductive organ made up of the anther and the filament.
♦ The anther is generally bilobed (dithecous), containing 2 longitudinally running chambers/ pollen
sacs per lobe (tetrasporangiate)
♦ These 2 lobes are joined by sterile parenchymatous cells called connective.
♦ Each chamber contain several pollen grains.
♦ The proximal end (from where the structure begins) of the filament of stamen is attached to
thalamus or petal (epipetalous). The distal end is connected to anther.
♦ Anther Walls (4 wall layers)
♦ The outer most layer is the epidermis, below this a layer of cells with special thickening ie,
endothecium which is hygroscopic ie, sensitive to water.
Cross Section of a Bithecous Anther

♦ The thickening of endothecium is due to α - cellulose.

♦ Inner to endothecium, there are few layers of cells called middle layers.
♦ The outer 3 layers perform the function of protection and also helps in the dehiscence of
anther to release the pollen.

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♦ The inner most layer which surrounds the microsporangium is the tapetum. It is the main
nutritive layer providing nourishment to the developing microspores, secrete enzymes and
hormones. Tapetal cells possess dense cytoplasm and generally have more than one nucleus
due to free nuclear division (nuclear division without cell wall formation).
♦ Tapetum also exhibit endomitosis (nuclear content increases, without nuclear division), which
may further lead to polyploid condition.
♦ Each microsporangium contain a large number of haploid microspores or pollen grains.
♦ At maturity, the layers of cells in between the two microsporangia on the same side disintegrates
and the microspores from the two microsporangia are liberated at a common point called
stomium which is composed of thin walled cells.

Tapetum

Secretory/Glandular/Parietal
Amoeboid/Periplasmodial/Invasive
(Common type)
* The content of the tapetal cells extrude out, * The tapetal cells secrete the required
unite to form an amoeboid mass called nutrients for the developing microspores
periplasmodium, move in between the and remain intact through out the
developing microspores and providing development of microspores and
nourishment to them. ultimately perish

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♦ Microsporogenesis

♦ When the anther is young, a group of compactly arranged, homogenous cells called
sporogenous tissue occupies the centre of each microsporangium.
♦ The process of formation of microspores or pollen grains from a pollen mother cell through
meiosis is called microsporogenesis.
♦ Each pollen mother cell gives rise to 4 haploid microspores.
♦ Each of the cells of pollen tetrad are haploid.

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♦ Pollen Tetrads

♦ All types of pollen tetrads are found in Aristolochia elegans.

♦ Compound Pollengrains
In plants like Annona, Typha, Elodea etc, the four pollens of a pollen tetrad never separate, but
form compound pollen grains.
♦ Pollinia / Transilator

♦ In plants like Calotropis, Orchids etc. the pollen grains within an anther sac are united to
form a mass of pollen called pollinium.
♦ Each pollinium has a stalk called caudicle and a sticky base called corpusculum.

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♦ Pollen grain (n)

♦ Study of pollen grain is called - Palynology

♦ Generally the pollengrains are 25 to 50 µm in diameter..

♦ Smallest Pollen grain → Myosotis (2.5 to 5 µm )
♦ Largest pollen grain → Mirabilis (4 O’clock plant) (> 100 µm )
♦ Longest pollen grain → Zostera (A marine Angiosperm)
♦ Pollen grain is the male gametophyte or first cell of male gametophyte in Angiosperms.
♦ It has a prominent 2 layered wall
♦ The outer layer is thick, known as exine which is made up of sporopollenin. (Sporopollenin
is the most resistant organic material known, so pollen grain can be well preserved as fossils.
No enzyme that degrade sporopollenin is so far known) and the inner layer is thin known as
intine which is made up of cellulose and pectin.
♦ Unthickend area on the exine is called germpore where sporopollenin is absent. If it is elongated,
it is called germinal furrow.
♦ In Monocots, the pollen grains are Monocolpate with one germpore and in Dicots, it is Tricolpate
with 3 germpores.

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♦ Microgametogenesis

♦ When the pollen grain mature, the size of the nucleus of the pollen grain enlarges and it divides
mitotically to produce a bigger vegetative or tube cell and a smaller generative cell. The
pollen grains are generally shed at this 2 celled condition (60% Angiosperms).
♦ Later the generative cell floats in the cytoplasm of the vegetative cell and divides mitotically to
produce, 2 non-motile male gametes which are brought to the female gamete with the aid
(help) of a pollen tube (Siphonogamy), which emerges out through a germpore.

♦ The pollen tube is originated from the vegetative cell of the pollen grain, so it is also known as
tube cell.
♦ In 40% of Angiosperms, the pollengrains are liberated at the 3 celled condition (3 celled stage
of pollen means one vegetative cell and 2 male gametes).
♦ Parthenium/Carrot grass - that came into India as a contaminant with imported wheat, has
become ubiquitous in occurrence and cause pollen allergy.
♦ Pollen grains are rich in nutrients, so pollen tablets and syrups are available in the market for
supplementing food.

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♦ Pollen Viability
It is the ability of the pollengrains to germinate on the stigma to effect fertilization.
In some cereals such as Rice and Wheat, pollen grains lose viability within 30 minutes of their
release.
But in some members of Rosaceae, Leguminosae and Solanaceae they maintain viability for
months.
♦ Cryo-Preservation :
Pollen grains can be stored for years in liquid nitrogen at -196oC. Such stored pollen can be
used as pollen banks.
♦ In Angiosperms sexual reproduction is oogamous

♦ Callose wall - The microspore mother cells develops a layer of callose which can break the
plasmodesmatal connections among the pollen grains in a tetrad.
♦ Callase enzyme - Tapetum secrete callase enzyme, which can dissolve the callose
substances, by which the 4 pollens of a pollen tetrad are now united, hence separating the
pollens in a tetrad.

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♦ Pistil (Female reproductive structure)

♦ Pistil is a term used to indicate ovary, style and stigma together.

♦ Stigma is the landing platform for pollen grains.
♦ Ovules are seen within the ovary.
♦ After fertilization ovule is converted in seed and ovary into fruit (True fruit).

* Gynoecium Carpel / Pistil

Monocarpellary Multicarpellary
(with one carpel) (with many carpels)
eg. Pea

Syncarpous Apocarpous
(Carpels united) (Carpels free)
eg. Hibiscus, Papaver eg. Michelia

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♦ When the gynoecium of a flower having only one carpel (Monocarpellary) then -

Carpel =Pistil = Gynoecium

eg. Pea

♦ When the gynoecium of a flower having many carpels (ie, multicarpellary) and they are fused
together (ie, syncarpous) ; then -

Pistil = Gynoecium
♦ (Only one style and stigma for that many carpels)
eg. Hibiscus, Papaver

♦ When the gynoecium of a flower having many carpels and they are free (ie, Apocarpous); then

No. of carpels = No. of Pistils

♦ (each structure has ovary, style and stigma). eg. Michelia

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Stigma

Wet stigma Dry stigma

*The stigma which secrete exudates * The stigma which do not secrete any exudates.
eg. Petunia eg. Cotton

Style

Hollow style Solid style

*There may be one or many canals and the * It is characterised by the presence of a central
number of canals normally corresponds to strand of specialized cells that constitute
the number of carpels conducting/ transmitting tissue
* The special cells lining the stylar canal are eg. Gossypium (cotton)
the canal cells, which are secretory in nature.
eg. Lilium

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♦ Ovule ≈ Megasporangium

Anatropous ovule
(Most common type)
♦ Structure of ovule
♦ Ovules are attached to the placenta by means of a stalk called Funicle.
♦ The point of attachment of funicle to the body of the ovule - Hilum.
♦ Ovules are covered and protected by one or two envelops called integuments.

Ategmic ovule (ovules without integuments)

eg. Santalum

♦ Integuments
Unitegmic ovule (ovules with one integuments)
eg. Gymnosperms, Gamopetalae

Bitegmic ovules (ovules with 2 integuments)

eg. Angiosperms

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♦ The basal portion of the ovule, from where the integuments originate is the chalaza.
♦ The integuments do not cover the ovule completely, at one end there is an opening called
micropyle.
♦ The main tissue, within the integuments is the nucellus (nursing tissue in ovule)

Crassinucellate ovule
(Ovules with massive nucellus)

♦ Nucellus

Tenuinucellate ovule
(ovules with thin nucellus)

♦ Within the nucellus there is the embryosac, which represents the female gametophyte in
Angiosperms.
♦ Raphe - Extension of funicle up to the region of chalaza.
♦ The number of ovules in an ovary may be one (eg. Wheat, Paddy, Mango) to many (eg. Papaya,
Watermelon, Orchids etc.)
♦ Different types of ovules
Based on the attachment of funicle and the orientation of the body of the ovule, ovules are of
different types.
(1) Orthotropous / Atropous ovule (primitive type)

eg. Polygonum, piper etc.

♦ Micropyle, chalaza and funicle are in a straight line

(2) Anatropous ovule (Most common type)

eg. Pea, Bean

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♦ Funicle is attached on one side of the body of the ovule, so that the micropyle is brought close
to the funicle.
(3) Hemitropous / Hemi-anatropous ovule

eg. Ranunculus

♦ Funicle is attached to the body of the ovule at right angles.

(4) Campylotropous ovule

eg. Cruciferae

♦ Body of the ovule is curved like a horse-shoe but embryosac is straight.

(5) Amphitropous ovule

eg. Papaver (poppy)

♦ Body of the ovule and embryosac are curved like a horse - shoe
(6) Circinotropous ovule

eg. Opuntia

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♦ Funicle is very long and coiled around the body of the ovule.
♦ Megasporogenesis

♦ One archesporial cell in nucellus near the micropyle become conspicuous and form the
megaspore mother cell. Since the megaspore is formed within the ovule; ovule is also known
as megasporangium.
♦ The megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to produce 4 haploid cells in a line - linear
tetrad.
♦ Of the 4 cells, if only one is functional, it is called monosporic or polygonum type of
embryosac development (most common type).
♦ If 2 functional Bisporic (eg. Allium type) and if all the 4 functional it is tetrasporic. (eg. Adoxa
type, Peperomia type etc.)
♦ This classification is done by Panchanan Maheswari.
♦ Usually the functional megaspore is one which is towards the chalazal end.

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♦ Megagametogenesis

Monosporic/Polygonum type of embryosac development

♦ Functional megaspore is the first cell of female gametophyte.

♦ Female gametophyte in Angiosperm is Embryosac.
♦ Typical Angiosperm embryosac at maturity is 8 nucleate and 7 celled (8 nuclei are one egg,
2 synergids, 2 polar nuclei and 3 antipodals)
(7 cells are one egg, 2 synergids, one central cell and 3 antipodals)
♦ In Angiosperms, functional megaspore develops into embryosac.
♦ The haploid nucleus of the functional megaspore by repeated 3 mitotic divisions form 8 haploid
nuclei of which 3 at the micropylar end form the egg apparatus, consisting of one egg and 2
lateral synergids.
♦ The synergids are characterised by the presence of a finger-like projections called filiform
apparatus towards the micropylar end. It play an important role in guiding the pollen tube into
the synergids. It is also useful for the absorption and transportation of materials from the nucellus
into the embryosac.
♦ Three nuclei at the chalazal end constitutes the antipodals.
♦ One nucleus from each pole move to the centre - polar nuclei (n) - and may fuse to form the
diploid secondary nucleus / definitive nucleus, which is situated in the large central cell.
♦ The pollen tube enters the embryosac through one of the synergids.

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* Entry of Pollen tube into the ovule through

Micropyle Chalaza Funicle/Integuments

Porogamy Chalazogamy Mesogamy

[Most common] eg. Casuarina eg. Cucurbita, Pistacia

Aporogamy

♦ Note
♦ Hypostase - Group of lignified cells below embryosac in nucellus. It prevents sinking of
embryosac into the base.

♦ Epistase - It is a cap like structure of cutinized cells formed by nucellar epidermal cells
above the embryosac. It secretes some chemical substances which attract the pollen tube
during fertilization.

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♦ Endothelium / Integumentary tapetum

In most of the plants belonging to Gamopetalae (flowers with fused petals) with Tenuinucellate
ovules, (with thin nucellus), the nucellus degenerates at an early stage of ovule development
and then the inner most layer of the integument become specialized to perform nutritive in
function for the embryosac and it is called endothelium.
♦ Peperomia type embryosac (Tetrasporic and 16 nucleate)

♦ In this type, the endosperm is formed by fusing 8 polar nuclei + one male gamete, so the
endosperm is polyploid.
♦ Oenothera type embryosac (Monosporic and 4 nucleate)

♦ Here the endosperm is formed by fusing one polar nucleus + one male gamete, so it is diploid.
♦ Here the functional megaspore is the one which is towards the micropylar end.
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♦ Pollination
Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma is called pollination.

Pollination

Self/Autogamy Cross / Allogamy

* Transfer of pollen grains from the anther * Transfer of pollen grains from
to the stigma of the same flower the anther to the stigma of another flower
* It is possible in bisexual flowers
and not possible in unisexual flowers

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♦ Geitonogamy
Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another flower of the same plant. It is
functionally cross pollination (because it takes place between 2 flowers) but genetically similar
to self pollination (because the 2 flowers are of the same plant).
♦ It is not possible in dioecious plants.
♦ Xenogamy
Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another flower of a different plant of
the same species.
Note♦ Dioecious plants prevent both autogamy and geitonogamy.
♦ Monoecious plants prevent autogamy but not geitonogamy.
♦ Agents of Pollination
♦ Plants use 2 abiotic (wind and water) and one biotic (animals) agents to achieve pollination.
♦ Only a small proportion of plants use abiotic agents; majority of plants use biotic agents for
pollination.
♦ Pollination by wind is more common amongst abiotic pollinations.

* Agents of Pollination

Animals - Zoophily Insects - Entomophily (Most common)

eg. Members of Labiatae. eg. Ocimum

Bats - Chiropterophily
eg. Adansonia

Birds - Ornithophily
Wind - Anemophily eg. Bottle brush

Common among abiotic pollinators.

eg. Poaceae, Corn cob
Snails - Malacophily
*Coconut eg. Aroideae, Colocasia
*Cannabis
*Grasses Ants - Myrmocophily
eg. Rubiaceae, Ixora
Water - Hydrophily

Pollination above water level - Epihydrophily

eg. Hydrilla, Vallisneria

Pollination below water level - Hypohydrophily

eg. Zostera

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♦ In most of the water pollinated species, pollen grains are protected from wetting by a
mucilaginous covering.
♦ Flowers are not very colourful and do not produce nectar are characters common to both wind
and water pollinated flowers.
♦ The insects that consume pollen or nectar without bringing about pollination are called pollen/
nectar robbers.
♦ Not all aquatic plants use water for pollination.
eg. Water hyacinth, Water lily (Pollinated by insects / wind)
♦ Characteristic features of entomophilous flowers
♦ Brightly coloured floral parts.
♦ Presence of nectar
♦ Fragrance or foul smell
♦ Rough and sticky pollen grains due to the presence of pollen kitt. (composed of lipids and
carotenoids) eg. Hibiscus
♦ Presence of Honey guides (light flowers with dark centre) eg. Ladies finger
♦ Small flowers are made conspicuous by their aggregation.
eg. Sunflower.
♦ Characteristic features of Anemophilous flowers
♦ Exposed stamens with versatile anthers. (The filament is attached at a point nearly at the
centre of the connective so that the anther can move freely).

♦ Plumose / Feathery stigma

- To easily trap wind blown pollen grains / (air-borne pollen grains)

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♦ A single ovule in each ovary and numerous flowers packed into an inflorescence (to prevent
wastage of ovule)
♦ Smooth, dry, light pollen grains, produced in large quantity.
♦ Nocturnal flowers
Flowers which are opening at night are called nocturnal. Generally white in colour and with
good smell. eg. Jasmine, Yucca.
♦ Pollinated by moth.
♦ Chasmogamous flowers
In majority of Angiosperms flowers open at maturity. Such flowers are called chasmogamous.
♦ Cleistogamous flowers (Bisexual flower which never open)
In plants like Commelina, Viola (Common Pansy), Oxalis etc. flowers remain closed even at
maturity. So only self pollination is possible (cleistogamous flowers are invariably autogamous)
♦ Advantage is there is no need of any pollinating agents. (In such flowers the anthers and
stigma lie close to each other)
♦ (The above plants (ie. Commelina, Viola, Oxalis) possess both cleistogamous (below ground)
and chasmogamous (on the aerial part of plant) flowers.
♦ Homogamous flowers
In bisexual flowers, both androecium and gynoecium are maturing at the same time.
♦ Devices for self pollination
(1) Bisexuality - Both androecium and gynoecium present in the same flower.
(2) Homogamy - Anthers and stigma in a flower mature simultaneously.
(3) Cleistogamy - Flowers remain closed even at maturity
(4) Bud pollination - Pollination occurs before the opening of flowers
♦ Devices to promote Cross Pollination [Outbreeding Devices]
(1) Dicliny - Unisexuality of flowers, ie androecium or gynoecium present in a flower.
(2) Dichogamy - In certain bisexual flowers, androecium and gynoecium are maturing at
different times. They are of 2 types :
a) Protogynous flowers - Flowers in which gynoecium maturing first. eg. Sapota
b) Protandrous flowers - Flowers in which androecium maturing first. eg. Sunflower

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(3) Herkogamy - Self pollination is prevented by relative position of stigma and stamen.

(4) Heterostyly : To promote cross pollination, the flowers have different heights of stamens
and styles.

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(5) Self sterility / Incompatibility / Intraspecific incompatibility / Self incompatibility

In some plants like orchids, the pollen grain of a flower has no effect on its stigma. It is
called self sterility.
♦ It may be due to prevention of pollen germination, retardation of growth, de-orientation of
pollen tube or even failure of nuclear fusion.
♦ If it is due to the genotype of the pollen grain, it is called gametophytic incompatibility
(because pollen grain is the male gametophyte) and if it is due to the genotype of the stigmatic
tissues, it is called sporophytic incompatibility (because stigma is part of the sporophyte).
(6) Pollen Pre-Potency : In members of family Poaceae; which are pollinated by the agency
of wind, preference for germination is given to foreign pollen (ie, pollengrains from some
other flowers of same species).
♦ Artificial Hybridization
It is used to produce superior crop varieties in bisexual flower.
The correct sequence of process in artificial hybridization is
S e le c tio n o f p a r e n ts E m a s c u la tio n B a g g in g P o lle n d u s tin g R e b a g g in g

♦ Emasculation - Removal of anthers from a bisexual flower bud before the anther dehisces
(breaks). If the female parent produces unisexual flowers, there is no need of emasculation.
♦ Bagging - Emasculated flowers have to be covered with a bag of suitable size to prevent
contamination of its stigma with unwanted pollen.
♦ Pollen - Pistil Interaction
All the events from pollen deposition on the stigma until the pollen tube enters the ovule
are together referred to as pollen - pistil interaction.
Pistil recognizes the deposited pollen as compatible or incompatible and then accepting
the compatible pollen and rejecting the incompatible one.
Acceptance or rejection is mediated by chemical components of the pollen interacting
with those of the pistil.
The pollen grain germinate on the stigma and resulting pollen tube grow through the style
and reaches the ovule.
It enters the ovule through the micropyle and then enters one of the synergids through the
filiform apparatus.
♦ Double fertilization

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♦ One of the male gametes fuses with the egg to form the diploid zygote. This is called syngamy
discovered by Strasburger in Monotropa.
♦ The other male gamete fuses with two polar nuclei(or diploid secondary nucleus) to form the
triploid Primary Endosperm Nucleus (PEN). Since the PEN is formed by the fusion of 3 haploid
nuclei ie, 2 polar nuclei + one male gamete; the process is called triple fusion discovered by
Nawaschin.
♦ Thus in an embryosac, there occur two sexual fusions ie, one in syngamy and other in triple
fusion, the phenomenon is called double fertilization, discovered by Nawaschin in Fritillaria
and Lilium.
♦ Total number of nuclei involved in double fertilization is 5 (ie., 2 nuclei in syngamy and 3 nuclei
in triple fusion)
♦ Formation of endosperm always precedes the development of the embryo.
♦ Central cell is the mother cell of endosperm. (The central cell after triple fusion becomes the
primary endosperm cell)
♦ Endosperm Development
The Primary Endosperm Nucleus in the Primary Endosperm Cell [PEC] undergoes repeated
mitotic divisions to form the triploid nutritive tissue that is the endosperm.
(1) Free nuclear type (Most common type)

eg. Rice (Paddy), Wheat, Maize, Coconut, Sunflower etc.

♦ Here the primary endosperm nucleus divides repeatedly and the nuclei so produced gets
arranged at the periphery, leaving a large central vacuole. Cytokinesis begins from the periphery
towards the centre, making the endosperm cellular at maturity.
(2) Cellular type

eg. Adoxa, Peperomia etc.

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♦ In this type, every nuclear division is followed by cytokinesis, making the endosperm cellular
from the beginning.
(3) Helobial type

eg. Vallisneria

♦ The first division is followed by cytokinesis, making 2 unequal cells. The subsequent divisions
are free-nuclear, making the endosperm cellular at maturity.
♦ It is common in Monocots
♦ Embryogenesis
It refers to the process of development of embryo from the zygote.
♦ Zygote - is the vital link that ensures continuity of species between organisms of one generation
and the next.
♦ Embryo - is the progenitor of the next generation.

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♦ Suspensor - It pushes the proembryo into the endosperm to absorb nourishment.

♦ The developing embryo passes through different stages such as - Zygote → Proembryo
→ Globular embryo → Heart shaped embryo → Mature embryo.
♦ Mature dicotyledonous embryo has 2 cotyledons(embryonal leaves) and an embryonal axis
with epicotyl and hypocotyl

♦ Tigellum - Embryonal axis to which the cotyledons are attached.

♦ Epicotyl - The portion of embryonal axis above the level of cotyledons, which terminates with
the plumule/stem tip.
♦ Hypocotyl - The cylindrical portion of the embryonal axis below the level of cotyledons that
terminates with the radicle / root tip. The root tip is covered with a root cap.
♦ Monocot embryo
♦ Scutellum - It is the single cotyledon of the monocot embryo. Eg. Grasses
♦ Epiblast - Rudimentary second cotyledon of monocot embryo.
♦ Coleorrhiza - It is the protective covering of radicle and root cap.
♦ Coleoptile - It is the protective covering of plumule.
♦ Holoblastic Development
If the embryo is developed from the entire zygote, then the process is called holoblastic.

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♦ Meroblastic development
If the embryo is developed from a portion of the zygote, then the process is called meroblastic.
♦ Note - Aleurone layer - The outer covering of endosperm (3n) separates the embryo by a
proteinous layer called aleurone layer. Since it is a part of endosperm it is triploid (3n).
 Seed - Its the final product of sexual reproduction.

Seeds (2n)

Albuminous / Endospermous Non-albuminous/Non-endospermous/

Ex-albuminous
(with endosperm)
(without endosperm)
* Endosperm is not completely *Endosperm is completely consumed
consumed by the embryo and the by the embryo and the food is stored
food is stored in the endosperm. in the cotyledons.
eg. Paddy,Wheat, Maize,Barley(Monocot) eg. Pea, Bean, Ground nut, Gram(Dicot)
Castor (Dicot) etc. and Orchid (Monocot)

♦ Perisperm (2n)
The residual, persistent nucellus in seed is called, perisperm. It act as nutritive layer in seeds.
eg. Black pepper, Beet etc.
♦ Chalazosperm (2n)
In certain plants like Cynastrum, the chalazal cell divides to form some cells called
chalazosperm. It provide nutrition to the embryo.
♦ Aril (2n)
It is considered to be the modified third integument. Function is protection. eg. Nut meg, Litchi
(In Litchi, juicy aril is the edible part)

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♦ Caruncle (2n)
Spongy outgrowth from the region of micropyle as seen in Castor.
Note - Castor seeds are with endosperm, perisperm and caruncle.
♦ Sarco - testa (2n) - Fleshy testa ie., the seed coat. eg. Pomegranate (here sarcotesta
consists of epidermal cells derived from the integument).
♦ Polycotyledony - Presence of more than two cotyledons in an embryo. eg. Pinus
♦ Adventive embryony - Here embryos develop directly from nucellus (eg. Citrus, Mangifera,
Opuntia etc.) or integuments (eg. Spiranthus)
♦ Maternal / Parental tissues in adventive embryony are nucellus or integuments.

* Polyembryony - Occurrance of more than one embryo in a seed. Discovered by Leeuwenhoek in Citrus.

Simple Polyembryony

fertilization
[Many egg Many zygote Many embryo]
eg. Onion, Ground nut, Mango etc.

Cleavage Polyembryony

by division

Zygote
Proembryo

♦ Zygote by division form proembryo and it undergoes longitudinal splitting and from each splitted
piece, an embryo is formed. eg. Pinus

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♦ Changes after pollination and fertilization

1) Ovule (2n) → Seed (n)
2) Ovary (2n) → Fruit (2n) → True fruit
3) Ovary wall (2n) → Fruit wall(2n) / Pericarp
4) Integuments(2n) → Seed Coat (2n)

Outer Testa Inner Tegmen

5) Zygote (2n) → Embryo (2n)

6) PEN (3n) → Endosperm (3n)
♦ False fruits - Fruits develop from any part other than ovary.
eg. Apple, Strawberry, Cashew apple - Thalamus also contributes to fruit formation.

♦ Apomixis
It is a modified form of asexual reproduction, which mimics sexual reproduction in which seeds
are formed without fusion of gametes. A diploid cell of nucellus develops into an embryo giving
a diploid seed. Eg. Some species of Asteraceae and Grasses
♦ Parthenocarpy
Development of fruit from unfertilized flower resulting in the formation of seed-less fruits.
eg. Banana, Pine apple (Natural parthenocarpy)
♦ Parthenogenesis
Development of an organism, from unfertilized female gamete ie, the egg.
eg. Honey bees, Rotifers, some lizards and Birds (Turkey) and also in some plants
♦ Amphimixis
True sexual reproduction, which involve the fusion of haploid male and female gametes to
produce the diploid zygote.
This is the common process that occur in Angiosperms.

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♦ Ubisch granules / Orbicules

The role of tapetum was discovered by Ubisch. He observed ubisch granules, which are formed
from tapetum.
It has role in the formation of
- exine of pollen grains (sporopollenin)
- pollen kit on entomophilous pollen grains
- proteins for compatibility
♦ Obturator
Any ovular structure which directs the growth of pollen tube towards micropyle. It develops
from funicle / placenta.
♦ Ruminate endosperm

Mature endosperm with any degree of irregularity or unevenness in its surface is called ruminate
endosperm.
It is caused by the activity of seed coat or by the endosperm itself.
eg. Members of family Annonaceae, Myristica (Nutmeg), Areca catechu
♦ Xenia - Effect of pollen on endosperm.
♦ Meta - Xenia - Effect of pollen on other tissues
♦ Polyspermy

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♦ It is a situation where more than two male gametes may reach inside a single embryosac.
♦ It may be due to entry of more than one pollen tube inside the embryosac or due to the presence
of more than two male gametes in a single pollen tube.
♦ Polyspermy may bring about fertilization of egg by more than one male gamete or the
supernumerary male gametes may fertilize other components of the embryosac, such as
synergids or antipodals.
♦ Heterofertilization
In the embryosac, which receives two or more pollen tubes, the male gamete nucleus fusing
with the egg nucleus may be derived from one pollen tube and one fusing with the polar nuclei
may be derived from another, then the process is called heterofertilization.
Most Common
1) Anther - Bithecous anther with tetrasporangiate condition.
2) Tapetum - Secretory / Glandular / Parietal
3) Pollen grain at the time of liberation - 2 celled stage (Generative and vegetative cell)
4) Ovule - Anatropous ovule
5) Ovule based on the number of integuments - Bitegmic ovule
6) Pollen tube entry into ovule - Porogamy (through micropyle)
7) Embryosac development - Monosporic / Polygonum type
8) Pollinating agent - Insect (Entomophily)
9) Abiotic pollinating agent - Wind (Anemophily)
10) Endosperm development - Free-nuclear type

11) Pollen tetrads

Tetrahedral in Dicots

Isobilateral in Monocots

12) Pollen grain based on the number of germpores

Monocolpate in Monocots

Tricolpate in Dicots

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Pollination Mechanisms
1) Crotolaria - Piston mechanism
2) Calotropis - Clip/Transilator / Rider mechanism
3) Salvia - Lever / Turn - pipe mechanism
4) Aristolochia - Pit - fall mechanism
5) Ficus - Pollinated by female Blastophage (Wasp)
6) Yucca - Pollinated by female Pronuba (moth)
7) Ophrys - Pollinated by male Dielis

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