Biology S.S.S.

2 FIRST TERM SCHEME of work

SCHEME OF WORK FOR S.S.S. 2 FIRST TERM

WEE TOPIC
K

1 THE CELL

(a) Cell as a living unit

(b) Definition of cell

(c) Characteristics of living organisms

(d) Forms in which cells exist (Independent organisms, as a colony, a filament, cell as part
of a living organism).

2 (a) The cell structure and functions of cell components.

(b) Similarities and differences between plant and animal cells

(c) Cell theory

3 CELL AND ITS ENVIRONMENT (DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS).

DIFFUSION

(a) Definition of diffusion

(b) Process of diffusion

(c) Significance of diffusion

(d) Demonstration of diffusion

(e) Importance of diffusion in plants and animals

OSMOSIS

(a) Definition of osmosis

(b) Osmosis in living and non-living things

(c) Biological significance of osmosis

(d) Haemolysis

(e) Plasmolysis
 (f) Flaccidity

(g) Turgidity

4 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS OF CELL

(a) Autotrophic nutrition (photosynthesis and chemosynthesis)

(b) Heterotrophic nutrition (holozoic, saprophytic etc.)

(c) Mineral nutrition: Macro-nutrient and micro-nutrient

(d) Anabolism

5 CELLULAR RESPIRATION

(a) Definition of cellular respiration

(b) Process of aerobic respiration (Catabolism and Kreb’s cycle)

(c) Anaerobic respiration/fermentation

(d) Energy release

6 GROWTH

(a) Basis of growth; mitosis (cell division, cell enlargement and cell differentiation).

(b) Aspects of growth apical, axillary etc.

(c) Regulation of growth by hormones (plants and animals).

(d) Growth curves

7 IRRITABILITY/RESPONSES: CELL REACTIONS TO ITS ENVIRONMENT

(a) Types of responses

(b) Environmental factors that induce response

(c) Movement

(i) Cyclosis

(ii) Organelles for movement

(iii) Growth movement regulated by auxins

8 REPRODUCTION (ASEXUAL)

(a) Types of reproduction

 (b) Forms of asexual reproduction (Binary fission, budding, spore formation, vegetative
propagation-natural and artificial vegetative propagation).

9 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

(a) Conjugation

(b) Fusion of male and female gametes

(c) Meiosis

(d) Structure and functions of the male and female gametes.

10 REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

(a) Types of harmful traditional incision: Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)

(b) Care of reproductive organs

(c) Importance of prenatal care

(d) Effects of S.T.I and AIDS on foetus and infant.

(e) Risks involved in child delivery

(f) Importance of breast feeding

(g) Causes of infant mortality

(h) Causes of birth defects and other health related problems.

(i) Importance of knowledge of genetic disorder in family.

11 Revision

12 Examination

THE CELL

Cell as a Living Unit

The cell is defined as the structural and functional unit of a living organism. In other words, the cell is
the simplest, the smallest and the basic unit of life.

This is the simplest bit of living matter that can exist independently. A cell is a living unit because it
displays the characteristics of living things. They range from extremely small bacteria cells (1mm)
which can only be seen through a strong or powerful microscope, to a large yolk of an ostrich egg
(100mm).
Forms in Which Cells Exist

Living cells exist in different forms; some as independent organisms, some in colonies, some in
filaments while others are part of living organisms.

(1) Cell as an independent organism: Organisms such as amoeba, paramecium, euglena,

chlamydomonas consist of only one cell (unicellular organisms).

(a) Amoeba: It has an irregular shape and changes constantly. The protoplasm is made up of nucleus
and cytoplasm. Embedded in the cytoplasm are food vacuole and contractile vacuole. Amoeba moves
with the aid of pseudopodia.

(b) Paramecium: It is a unicellular organism visible with a light microscope. It’s size is about 0.15mm-
0.3mm. The shape resembles that of a slipper. It is found in muddy ponds and stagnant water
containing decayed organisms. Paramecium moves by means of cilia (ciliary movement) which occurs
on the surface of the body. It feeds on microscopic organisms such as bacteria and other protozoa.
As the cilia in the oral groove beats, food particles are carried towards the gullet. Cilia in the gullet
move in such a way that the food particles are carried to the bottom of the gullet. Oxygen dissolved
in water is used by paramecium and it brings out carbondioxide. Carbondioxide and nitrogenous
waste products are passed out by diffusion through the entire body surface into the surface of the
surrounding water.

(c) Euglena: It is a protist and a typical example of an organism sharing both plant and animal
characteristics. The organism possess gullet, flagellum, contractile vacuole, eye spot, pellicle,
myonemes etc. which makes it an animal and chloroplasts, pyrenoids and paramylum granules which
also makes the organism a plant.

(d) Chlamydomonas: It is a simple microscopic plant. It has a flagella for movement, eyespot,
chloroplasts, food vacuole and contractile vacuole.

(2) Living cells as a colony: Some organisms are made up of many similar cells which are joined or
massed together but cannot be differentiated from each other. This aggregation of similar cells is
called the colony. E.g. volvox, pandorina and sponge.

(3) Living cells as filaments: Some cells are organised into filaments in which identical cells are joined
from end to end to form unbranched filaments. Each cell functions as an independent cell. Examples
are oedogonium and spirogyra.

(4) Cells as part of a living organism: In multicellular organisms, a group of numerous, similar cells
arranged together and performing a specific function is called a tissue. A group of tissues forms an
organ. A group of organs which work together to perform specific function are called a system.

Assignment

Draw the structures of the amoeba, chlamydomonas, euglena and paramecium in your note.
Difference between colonial organisms and filamentous organisms

S/N COLONIAL ORGANISMS FILAMENTOUS ORGANISMS

(i) Absence of intracellular cell wall Presence of intracellular cell wall

(ii) The identical cells form a mass The cells form end-to-end arrangements in linear
form

(iii) Cells are connected by cytoplasmic All cells are physiologically independent.
materials i.e. physiologically dependent.

THE CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF CELL COMPONENTS.

Structure Of Plant Cell And Animal Cell
The structure of both plant and animal cell can be seen under a microscope. Each cell is bounded by
a thin membrane and it is composed of a protoplasm which can be further divided into cytoplasm and
nucleus.
The cytoplasm is a fluid material that consists of cytoplasmic organelles such as; lysosome, golgi
bodies, mitochondrion, endoplasmic recticulum, vacuole etc. The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear
membrane and it is made up of chromosomes (chromatin granules) and nucleolus.
Only animal cells have centrosomes. Plant cell possess starch granules, cellulose cell wall and some
plastids

DIAGRAM OF AN
ANIMAL CELL
 DIAGRAM OF A
PLANT CELL

CELL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

S/N CELL COMPONENT FUNCTIONS

1. Cell (i) It aids in selective absorption of materials into the cell.

membrane/Plasmalemma
(ii) It also protects the cell.

2. Cell wall (i) It allows free passage of nutrients in and out of the cell

(ii) It provides shape and mechanical support for the cell

3. Ribosomes It is responsible for protein synthesis

4. Lysosomes This is the site for respiratory enzymes

5. Chloroplast (i) It contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis

(ii) It is the site for sugar synthesis

6. Golgi bodies Functions in the synthesis, packaging and distribution of

materials

7. Endoplasmic recticulum It aids transport of materials within the cytoplasm

8. Mitochondrion (i) It is the site for cellular respiration and release of energy

(ii) It is known as the power house of the cell because it

helps to release energy for all cellular activities

9. Nucleus (i) It controls all life activities of the cell

 (ii) It stores hereditary information because it contains DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic acids) inside the chromosomes

10. Nuceolus It produces ribosomes for protein synthesis

11. Chromosome These are thread-like bodies found within the nucleus of a
cell. They carry DNA

12. Centriole They are important in cell division. They also serve as basal
body from which cilia or flagella arise.

13. Tonoplast This is the membrane that bounds the vacuole

14. Vacuole It contains cell sap which acts as an osmoregulator by helping

to remove excess water in cells.

15. Starch granules They store starch in the cell

Special Cell Components In Unicellular Organisms

S/ CELL COMPONENT FUNCTIONS

N

1. Pyrenoid Protein body in chloroplasts of algae involved in carbon

fixation, starch formation and storage.

2. Contractile vacuole It helps in the regulation of water in unicellular organisms and

excretion of nitrogenous wastes.

3. Pellicle The thin outer covering of a protozoan that supports the cell
membrane.

4. Eyespot or stigma It allows cells to sense light direction and intensity.

5. Ectoplasm The outer (non-granulated) part of the cytoplasm

6. Endoplasm Inner (often granulated) part of a cells cytoplasm

7. Micronucleus This is the storage site for genetic materials of the organism.

8. Macronucleus It controls non-reproductive cell functions such as metabolism.

(meganucleus)

9. Flagellum/cilia/pseudopodia These are organelles for movement in unicellular organisms.

Differences Between Plant And Animal Cells

S/N PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL

1. Presence of chloroplast Absence of chloroplast.

 2. Definite rectangular shape Irregular or spherical shape.

3. Presence of rigid cellulose cell wall Absence of rigid cellulose cell wall.

4 It has no flexible cell membrane It has a flexible cell membrane.

5 Large but few vacuoles Small but numerous vacuoles.

6. Nucleus is located at the edge of the Nucleus is at the center of cytoplasm.

cytoplasm.

7. Absence of centrioles and centrosome Presence of centrosome and centrioles.

8. It stores lips as oil It stores lipids as fats.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

 They both have nucleus.
 They both have golgi bodies for packaging and distribution of materials.
 They have chromosomes which contain DNA.
 They both have have ribosomes.
 They both have cell membrane.
 They both have lysosomes.
 They both have endoplasmic recticulum.
 They both have mitochondria.
 They both have cytoplasm.
 They both have nucleolus.
 They both have vacuole.

CELL THEORY
In 1665, an English scientist called ROBERT HOOKE designed one of the earliest light microscope
with which he eaxmined a thin section of the cork of an oak tree. He discovered many empty spaces
surrounded by walls. He called these empty spaces ‘cell’ (from the latin word cella which means small
room). He later examined plant parts saw that the cells were filled with juice-like structure.
In 1835, a French biologist FELIX DUJARDIN discovered that the cells were made up of living
substances which he named protoplasm.
In 1838, a German botanist named MATTHIAS SCLEIDEN revealed that the body of all plants are
made up of cells which he described as a unit of life.
In 1839, a German zoologist THEODORE SCHWANN discovered that all animals are made up of cells.
In 1859, another German biologist RUDOLF VIRCHOW concluded that all cells come from pre-existing
cells.
In the past centuries, scientists have established that cells contain materials through which
information is passed from one generation to the next. The cell theory states that:
 The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms. i.e. it is the basic
organizational unit of life
 All living organisms are composed of cells and can either be unicellular or multicellular.
 There is no life apart from life of cells
 All cells come from the reproduction of pre-existing cells.
 A Cell contains information for its structural and functional development in its nucleic acids
(DNA and RNA). This information is passed down from parents to offspring cells.
Assignment

(1) Describe the shape, location and functions of any four specialized cells in animals and one
specialized cell in plant.

THE CELL AND ITS ENVIRONMENT (BIOPHYSICAL PROCESSES)

Living cells are always surrounded by watery environment. Examples of such watery environment
include; the fresh or salt water in which unicellular organisms live or the intracellular fluid that bathes
the body cells of higher /multicellular organisms.
The nature of states of matter makes diffusion and osmosis possible.
DIFFUSION
This is the process by which molecules or ions of a substance move from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration until they are evenly distributed. This substance may
be solid, liquid or gas.
The difference in the concentration of the substances in the two regions before diffusion occurs is
called concentration/diffusion gradient.
Factors Affecting the Rate of Diffusion
(1) State of matter: Diffusion of gases is much faster than that of liquids. Diffusion is slow in solids
(2) The size of molecules being distributed: The smaller the molecule, the faster the rate of
diffusion
(3) Difference in concentration of both regions: The greater the difference in concentration of
molecules, the faster the rate of diffusion.
(4) Temperature: The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion.
(5) Diffusion distance: The greater the distance, the slower the rate of difusion.
(6) Density: The higher the density of the medium, the slower the rate odiffusion.
(7) Surface area: The larger the surface area, the faster the rate of diffusion.
(8) Shaking or stiring: When shaken or stirred, molecules of diffusing substances are cause to
move faster.
Importance Of Diffusion To Flowering Plants
 Movement of carbon dioxide and oxygen through the stomata of leaves during respiration.
 There is movement of gases through the stomata of the leaves during photosynthesis.
 Water vapour leaving the leaves during transpiration.
 Mineral uptake by plant roots.
Importance Of Diffusion To Animals
 Exchange of nutrients, oxygen and metabolic products between the foetus and pregnant
mother through the placenta.
 Gaseous exchange in mammals occurs in the lungs during respiration.
 Movement of digested and soluble food from the villi of small intestine to the blood stream
then into tissue, fluids and cells.
 Removal of excretory products in unicellular organism.
Diffusion In Nature Or Non-Living Conditions
 The spread of insecticide in a room
 The spread of the odour of a perfume from a person or a corner of a room
 Diffussion of molecules (gases and liquids) in iodine, potassium per manganite and copper
sulphate solutions.

OSMOSIS

This is defined as the flow of water or solvent molecules from a region of dilute (lower) concentration
or a weaker solution to a region of concentrated or stronger solution through a selectively (semi-
permeable) or differentally permeable membrane.
This movement of solvent molecules is ‘against’ a concentration gradient.
Osmosis is a special form of diffusion
Conditions necessary for osmosis to take place
 Presence of a strong solution, e.g. sugar or salt solution.
 Presence of a weak solution e.g. distilled water.
 Presence of a selectively permeable membrane.
 Differnce in the concentration of substances.

The environment of an organism is classified as follows:

(i) Hypotonic solution: This occurs when the solution of the surrounding medium of the cell is
weaker than that of the medium within the cell.This will cause water to move into the cell
(endosmosis). This will make the cell swell until it eventually bursts.
(ii) Hypertonic solution: This occurs when the solution of the surrounding medium is stronger
than that of the medium within the cell. This will cause water to move out of the cell into the
environment (exosmosis). This will make the cell to shrink.
(iii) Isotonic solution: This is when the surrounding medium has the same concentration with the
cell and there is no movement of water in and out of the cell.
The pressure created when water moves across membranes of living cells into a solution of higher
concentration is called Osmotic Pressure.
The pressure which a solution can potentially exert is called Osmotic potential.
Osmoregulation is the control of fluctuations in the concentration of substances in cell fluids by
special devices such as the contractile vacuoles in amoeba and paramecium.
Processes in which Osmosis Occurs
 Entering of water from the soil into the root hairs.
 Movement of water from one living cell to another.
 Re-absorption of water back into the kidney tubules.
Difference between osmosis and diffusion

S/N DIFFUSION OSMOSIS

1. Occurs in solids, gases and liquids. Occurs in liquid medium only

2. Differentially membrane is not required. Differentially permeable membrane is

required

3. It occurs in living and non-living It occurs naturally in living organisms

organism/conditions.

4. Molecules diffuse into any space Water molecules moves between two
accessible to them. solutions of different osmotic pressures
leading to the establishment of an osmoti
equilibrium.

Haemolysis
Haemolysis is defined as the process by which red blood cells or corpuscles split or burst as a result
of too much water passing into it. This situation will occur when a red blood cell is placed in a weaker
or hypotonic solution where the red blood cell takes in water and becomes swollen (turgid) and
eventually burst.
Crenation
This is the process by which animal cells placed in a hypertonic solution shrinks. Water leaves the
cells by osmosis, which causes the plasma membrane to wrinkle and the cellular contents to
condense. Frequent use of laxatives or consumption of a lot of salt can lead to crenation.
Plasmolysis
When a living cell (plants) is placed in a hypertonic solution, water leaves the cell vacuoles and
enters the stronger solution. The cell vacuoles and the protoplasm shrink away from the cell wall. It
is said to be plasmolysed. If plasmolysis process continues, the cell membrane will tear and this
results in permanent damage and eventual wilting or death of the plant.
Flaccidity
Flaccidity is the condition in which plant lose water to their surrounding faster than they can absorb.
When a plant loses more water than it absorbs, it becomes flaccid. Flaccidity usually occurs when
there is no water in the soil, especially where there is drought. The continuous loss of water can
result in the death of the plant.
Similarities between plsmolysis and haemolysis
 Both occur in living cells
 Both processes make cells to lose their function.
 Both processes can lead to the death of cells concerned.
 Both are influenced by external factors.
Differences between plasmolysis and haemolysis

S/N PLASMOLYSIS HAEMOLYSIS

1. It occurs in plant cells It occurs in red blood cells

2. It leads to the shrinking of plant cells It leads to the bursting of red blood cells.

3. It occurs in hypertonic solution It occurs in hypotonic solution

4. The process is reversible The process is irreversible

Turgidity
Turgidity is defined as the condition in which cells absorb plenty of water up to a point where the cell
is fully stretched. At this point, the cell is said to be turgid. Turgidity occurs when a cell is placed in
hypotonic solution (distilled water)as a result of the fact that the cytoplasmic solution is stronger than
the water, the cell absorbs water and becomes turgid.
Turgidity is useful to the plant because it makes them stand erect, gives support to the plant stem,
leaves, flowers and guard cells.
Active transport
Active transport is the movement of molecules across a cell membrane from a region of lower
concentration to a region of higher concentration (i.e. against the concentration gradient). Active
transport requires cellular energy to achieve this movement. The requirement for energy
differentiates it from osmosis.
Active transport is used by cells to accumulate needed molecules such as glucose and amino acids.
Active transport powered by adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is known as primary active transport.
Transport that uses an electrochemical gradient is called secondary transport.

PROPERTIES AND FUNCTION OF THE CELL

All living cells are made up of seven types of materials. These include Carbohydrates, proteins, fats
and oils, vitamins ,minerals, water, and nucleic acids. The cell needs these substances to enable
them grow and reproduce. Metabolic processes are important for life. if they stop, the cell will die.
NUTRITION
Nutrition is the process by which living organsims obtain and utilize food. This is done to provide
energy and materials for their growth, activities and reproduction.
Usefulness of food
 To provide energy needed for various physical and metabolic activities.
 To make new cells for growth and replacement of worn out tissues.
 To make essential sunstances such as hormones and enzymes.
MODES OF NUTRITION
Based on their mode of feeding, living organisms can be classified into two major groups. These are;
 Autotrophic (self-feeders)
 Heterotrophic (dependent feeders)
AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
This type of nutrition is carried out is carried out by green plants through the process of
photosynthesis and some certain bacteria (e.g. Nitrifying bacteria) through the process of
chemosynthesis.
Organisms that carry out this type of nutrition are called autotrophs. Autotrophs are capable of
manufacturing or synthesizing their own food.
Autotrophs synthesize organic materials from inorganic materials. Some organisms derive their
energy for this process from sunlight (photosynthesis) and are called photoautotrophs. Example:
Green plants. Other organisms use chemical energy(chemosynthesis) and are called
chemoautotrophs.

HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
This is the type of nutriton in which organisms cannot make their own food but depend directly or
indirectly on plants for food. Organisms that cannot manufacture their food are called heterotrophs.
Heterotrophs eat ready-made complex organic food.
Most animals, fungi, protozoa and some bacteria belong to this group.
Forms/types of heterotrophic nutrition include;
(a) Holozoic Nutrition: Holozoic organisms ingest complex (solid) organic food. this food is eaten,
digested and absorbed into the body. Nearly all animals are holozoic. Holozoic animals have
developed sensory, nervous, mucular and digestive structures to enable them search, catch and
utilize their food.
Holozoic animals are either herbivores, carnivores, omnivores or scavengers.
(b) Saprophytic Nutrition: Saprophytes (sapros – rotten; phyton – plant) are decomposers. They
liberate energy for their own use by breaking down complex organic matter from the dead bodies of
other organisms. enzymes are secreted from the cells to the dead organic matter and the digestion of
the dead organic matter takes place outside the cells (extracellular digestion). The digested and
soluble food substances are then absorbed by the cells.
At the same time this process releases vital chemical elements into the soil which are absorbed by
autotrophs. Thus saprotrophs aid the recycling of materials from dead organisms to living ones.
Most fungi (e.g. mucor, mushroom and yeast) and bacteria are examples of saprophytes
(c) Parasitic nutrition: Parasites are organisms that live in or on another living organisms (called
the host) generally deriving benefits from it. The parasites cause harm to the host organism. Those
that live on the surface of their host are called ectoparasites while those that live within their host are
called endoparasites. Parasites have special structures such as haustoria, sucker, hooks, and
muscular lips e.t.c. that help them take in food into their bodies.
Parasites cause disease in plants and animals.
Examples of parasites include some members of the following; viruses, bacteria, protozoa,
platyhelminthes and fungi.
(d) Symbiotic or Mutualistic Nutrition: This involves two organisms of different species that live
together and benefit from each other. This type of assocition is called symbiosis. In some cases, the
two organisms becomes so dependent on each other that they cannot live alone.
Example of a mutiualistic/symbiotic association include;
 that between an algae and fungus in lichen
 termites and the protozoa living in their gut.
(e) Commensalism: This is a feeding relationship that involves two organisms where one gains and
the other neither gains nor looses. Example: the relationship between shark and remora fish.
(f) Insectivorous (Carnivorous) Plants: Insectivorous plants are autotrophic but obtain organic
matter and animal nitrogen from insects, however not bigger than the size of a grasshopper. These
plants have special devices or structural adaptation for trapping and digesting insects and other small
organisms. Examples include: pitcher plants, bladderwort, butterwort, water fly trap, sundew, and
Venus flytrap.
NUTRITIONAL (MINERAL) REQUIREMENTS
All cells contain protoplasm and cell membrane, the nutrients they need for their activities, growth
and reproduction are similar.
Nutritional Requirements of Animal Cells
The seven macro-nutrients required by animals include; sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium,
phosphorus, sulphur and chlorine.
The fourteen micro nutrients required by animals include; iron, manganese, zinc, iodine, flourine,
selinium, colbalt, molybdenum, copper, chromium, nickel, barium, lithium and bromine.
Nutritional Requirements of Plant Cells
The seven macro-nutrients required by plant cells include; sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium,
phosphorus, sulphur and iron.
The micro-nutrients required by plant cells include; nickel, chlorine, manganese, zinc, boron,
molybdenum and copper
METABOLISM
This is the sum of all chemical reactions (changes) taking place within a living cell that provides
energy for vital processes and for synthesizing new organic material.
Metabolic reactions that break substances down are called catabolic reactions e.g. respiration,
digestion etc.
Metabolic reactions that builds up substances are called anabolic reactions e.g. building up a protein
from amino acids.
The energy released by the catabolic process of respiration is used to drive the anabolic reactions
that build up proteins.
Anabolism
Anabolism or biosynthesis is the set of biochemical reactions that construct complex organic
molecules from smaller components. Cells use these processes to make polymers, grow tissues, and
repair damage.
Anabolic reactions are endergonic, meaning they require an input of energy to progress and are not
spontaneous. The hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from catabolic reactions powers many
anabolic processes. In general, condensation and reduction reactions are the mechanism behind
anabolism.
You may have heard of anabolic steroids in connection with drug taking by athletes. These chemicals
reduce the rate of protein breakdown and may enhance the build-up of certain proteins.
Examples of anabolic reactons include;
 Reaction of Glycerol with fatty acids to make lipids
 Simple sugars combining to form disaccharides and water
 Amino acids joining to form di-peptides
 Reaction of carbon dioxide and water to form glucose and oxygen in photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
Roles of Enzymes in Metabolism
Enzymes are organic catalysts usually proteinous in nature which promote or speed up chemical
reactions (changes) in living cells but are not themselves used up in the process. Enzymes accelerate
metabolic reactons without changing their composition in the process.
To speed up the rate of reactions, enzymes lowers the amount of energy required to start (activation
energy) a metabolic reaction or by taking the reactants through another pathway that requires less
energy.