1.

1 The Scope of Chemistry >

Chapter 1
Introduction to Chemistry

1.1 The Scope of Chemistry

1.2 Chemistry and You

1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist
1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > CHEMISTRY & YOU

Why might this creature interest you if

you were a chemist?
Fugu, also known as
puffer fish, is a sushi
delicacy that can also be
lethal.
Recently this toxin has
been put to good use, as
scientists have discovered
that a purified form of it
can treat severe pain in
cancer patients.
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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > What Is Chemistry?

What Is Chemistry?
Why is the scope of chemistry so
vast?

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > What Is Chemistry?

Matter is anything that

has mass and occupies
space.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > What Is Chemistry?

Matter is anything that

has mass and occupies
space.

The trees, the water,

and the buildings in the
figure are all examples
of matter.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > What Is Chemistry?

Chemistry answers many questions you

may have about the world you live in.
Chemistry is the study of the composition
of matter and the changes that matter
undergoes.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > What Is Chemistry?

Chemistry affects all aspects of life

and most natural events because
all living and nonliving things are
made of matter.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry >

What is wrong with an advertisement for

juice drinks that claims the juice is all-
natural and free of chemicals?

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry >

What is wrong with an advertisement for

juice drinks that claims the juice is all-
natural and free of chemicals?

Everything is made up of matter;

therefore, everything contains
chemicals. Even all-natural products
are made of chemicals.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Areas of Study

Areas of Study
What are five traditional areas of
study in chemistry?

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Areas of Study

Five traditional areas of study are:

organic chemistry
inorganic chemistry
biochemistry
analytical chemistry
physical chemistry

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Areas of Study

Most chemicals found in organisms

contain carbon.

Organic chemistry is defined as the

study of all chemicals containing carbon.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Areas of Study

An organic
chemist might
develop new
lightweight plastics
for flying disks.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Areas of Study

The study of chemicals that, in

general, do not contain carbon is
called inorganic chemistry.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Areas of Study

The study of chemicals that, in

general, do not contain carbon is
called inorganic chemistry.
Many inorganic chemicals are found in
nonliving things, such as rocks.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Areas of Study

An inorganic chemist
might develop metal
materials that provide
strong structural parts
for buildings.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Areas of Study

The study of processes that take place

in living organisms is biochemistry.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Areas of Study

The study of processes that take place

in living organisms is biochemistry.
These processes include muscle contraction
and digestion.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Areas of Study

A biochemist might
study how the energy
used for the
contraction of
muscles is produced
and stored.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Areas of Study

The area of study that focuses on the

composition of matter is analytical
chemistry.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Areas of Study

The area of study that focuses on the

composition of matter is analytical
chemistry.
A task that would fall into this area of chemistry
is measuring the level of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Areas of Study

An analytical chemist
might test the air for the
presence of pollutants.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Areas of Study

Physical chemistry is the area that

deals with the mechanism, rate, and
energy transfer that occurs when
matter undergoes a change.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Areas of Study

A physical chemist
might study factors
that affect the rate
of photosynthesis
in trees.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Areas of Study

The boundaries between the five

areas are not firm.
A chemist is likely to be working
in more than one area of
chemistry at any given time.
For example, an organic chemist
uses analytical chemistry to
determine the composition of an
organic chemical.
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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Areas of Study

Pure chemistry is the pursuit of

chemical knowledge for its own sake.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Areas of Study

Pure chemistry is the pursuit of

chemical knowledge for its own sake.

The chemist doesn t expect that there will

be any immediate practical use for the
knowledge.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Areas of Study

Applied chemistry is research that

is directed toward a practical goal or
application.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Areas of Study

Applied chemistry is research that

is directed toward a practical goal or
application.
In practice, pure chemistry and applied
chemistry are often linked.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > CHEMISTRY & YOU

Why would you study a puffer fish if

you were a biochemist? If you were an
organic chemist?

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > CHEMISTRY & YOU

Why would you study a puffer fish if

you were a biochemist? If you were an
organic chemist?
Biochemists might
study the puffer fish to
determine how its toxin
acts on the human
body.
Organic chemists might
study the composition
of the puffer fish toxin.
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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry >

Which area of study would you use to

determine the components of an unknown
liquid?

A. physical chemistry

B. biochemistry

C. organic chemistry

D. analytical chemistry

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry >

Which area of study would you use to

determine the components of an unknown
liquid?

A. physical chemistry

B. biochemistry

C. organic chemistry

D. analytical chemistry

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Big Ideas in Chemistry

Big Ideas in Chemistry

What are the central
themes of chemistry?

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Big Ideas in Chemistry

as follows:
chemistry as the central science
electrons and the structure of atoms
bonding and interactions
reactions
kinetic theory
the mole and quantifying matter
matter and energy
carbon chemistry
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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > BIG IDEA

Chemistry as the Central Science

Chemistry overlaps with all of the other
sciences.
Many physicists, biologists, astronomers,
geologists, environmental scientists, and others
use chemistry in their work.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > BIG IDEA

Electrons and the Structure of Atoms

Carbon, oxygen, and copper are all examples of
elements.
Elements are composed of particles called
atoms, and every atom contains a nucleus and
one or more electrons.
The type of products obtained in a chemical
reaction is largely determined by the electrons
in the reacting chemicals.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > BIG IDEA

Bonding and Interactions

Most elements exist in chemical compounds,
which are collections of two or more elements
held together by relatively strong attractive
forces.
These forces, called chemical bonds, greatly
influence the properties of compounds.
Weak bonds between the particles of an element or
compound can also contribute to the properties of
the material.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > BIG IDEA

Reactions
Chemical reactions involve processes in which
reactants produce products.
When you strike a match, the compounds in the
head of the match combine with oxygen in the air to
produce a flame.
New compounds, along with light and heat, are
formed.
The compounds in the match head and oxygen are
the reactants, and the new compounds are the
products.
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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > BIG IDEA

Kinetic Theory
The particles of matter are in constant motion.
The ways in which these motions vary with changes
in temperature and pressure determine whether a
substance will be a solid, liquid, or gas.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > BIG IDEA

The Mole and Quantifying Matter

In conducting a chemical reaction, you would
want to use just the right amount of the reacting
material so none is wasted.
This precise measurement is possible using the

the amount of material.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > BIG IDEA

Matter and Energy

Every chemical process uses or produces
energy, often in the form of heat.
The heat changes that occur in chemical reactions
are easy to measure.

Changes in a quantity called free energy allow

you to predict whether a chemical reaction will
actually occur under the given conditions.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > BIG IDEA

Carbon Chemistry
There are about 10 million carbon-containing
compounds, with new ones being prepared
each day.
Many of these compounds, including plastics and
synthetic fibers, are produced from petroleum.

Carbon compounds are the basis of life in all

living organisms.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry >

Explain what is meant by the statement

Chemistry is the central science.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry >

Explain what is meant by the statement

Chemistry is the central science.

All other fields of science rely on chemistry.

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Key Concepts

Chemistry affects all aspects of life and most

natural events because all living and nonliving
things are made of matter.

Five traditional areas of study are organic

chemistry, inorganic chemistry, biochemistry,
analytical chemistry, and physical chemistry.

the central science, electrons and the structure of

atoms, bonding and interactions, reactions,
kinetic theory, the mole and quantifying matter,
matter and energy, and carbon chemistry.
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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Glossary Terms

matter: anything that has mass and occupies space

chemistry: the study of the composition of matter and
the changes that matter undergoes
organic chemistry: the study of compounds containing
carbon
inorganic chemistry: the study of substances that, in
general, do not contain carbon
biochemistry: the area of chemistry that focuses on
processes that take place in organisms

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry > Glossary Terms

analytical chemistry: the area of chemistry that

focuses on the composition of matter
physical chemistry: the area of chemistry that deals
with the mechanism, the rate, and the energy transfer
that occurs when matter undergoes a change
pure chemistry: the pursuit of chemical knowledge for
its own sake
applied chemistry: research that is directed toward a
practical goal or application

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1.1 The Scope of Chemistry >

END OF 1.1

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1.2 Chemistry and You >

Chapter 1
Introduction to Chemistry

1.1 The Scope of Chemistry

1.2 Chemistry and You

1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist

1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry

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1.2 Chemistry and You > CHEMISTRY & YOU

How is chemistry used to study worlds

other than your own?
Scientists who know
chemistry have used
the Hubble Space
Telescope to discover
water and compounds
containing carbon on a
planet located 63 light
years from Earth.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Why Study Chemistry?

Why Study Chemistry?

What are three general

reasons to study chemistry?

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Why Study Chemistry?

Chemistry can be useful in

explaining the natural world,
preparing people for career
opportunities, and producing
informed citizens.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Why Study Chemistry?

Explaining the Natural World

Chemistry can help you satisfy your natural
desire to understand how things work.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Why Study Chemistry?

Explaining the Natural World

Chemistry can help you satisfy your natural
desire to understand how things work. For
example, chemistry can explain:
why cut apples turn brown
upon exposure to air.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Why Study Chemistry?

Explaining the Natural World

Chemistry can help you satisfy your natural
desire to understand how things work. For
example, chemistry can explain:
why cut apples turn brown upon exposure to air.
why the texture of eggs changes from runny to firm as
eggs are boiled.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Why Study Chemistry?

Explaining the Natural World

Chemistry can help you satisfy your natural
desire to understand how things work. For
example, chemistry can explain:
why cut apples turn brown upon exposure to air.
why the texture of eggs changes from runny to firm as
eggs are boiled.
why water expands as it freezes.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Why Study Chemistry?

Explaining the Natural World

Chemistry can help you satisfy your natural
desire to understand how things work. For
example, chemistry can explain:
why cut apples turn brown upon exposure to air.
why the texture of eggs changes from runny to firm as
eggs are boiled.
why water expands as it freezes.
why sugar dissolves faster in hot water than in cold
water.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Why Study Chemistry?

Explaining the Natural World

Chemistry can help you satisfy your natural
desire to understand how things work. For
example, chemistry can explain:
why cut apples turn brown upon exposure to air.
why the texture of eggs changes from runny to firm as
eggs are boiled.
why water expands as it freezes.
why sugar dissolves faster in hot water than in cold
water.
why yeast makes bread dough rise.
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1.2 Chemistry and You > Why Study Chemistry?

Preparing for a Career

Chemists contribute to society in many
ways. You do not need to have the word
chemist in your job title to benefit from
understanding chemistry.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Why Study Chemistry?

Preparing for a Career

Chemists contribute to society in many
ways. You do not need to have the word
chemist in your job title to benefit from
understanding chemistry.
A reporter may be asked to interview a chemist
to gather background for a story.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Why Study Chemistry?

Preparing for a Career

Chemists contribute to society in many
ways. You do not need to have the word
chemist in your job title to benefit from
understanding chemistry.
Turf managers have
the important task
of keeping the grass
on golf courses,
lawns, and soccer
fields healthy.
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1.2 Chemistry and You > Why Study Chemistry?

Preparing for a Career

Chemists contribute to society in many
ways. You do not need to have the word
chemist in your job title to benefit from
understanding
chemistry.
A firefighter must
know which
chemicals to use to
fight different types
of fires.
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1.2 Chemistry and You > Why Study Chemistry?

Being an Informed Citizen

Industry, private foundations, and the federal
and state government all provide funds for
scientific research.
Space exploration research could not take place
without federal funding.
NASA research has led to the development of many
items used on Earth. These include smoke
detectors, scratch-resistant plastic lenses, heart
monitors, and flat-screen televisions.
What if all the money spent on space exploration
was used to find a cure for cancer?
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1.2 Chemistry and You > Why Study Chemistry?

Being an Informed Citizen

You will need to make choices that will
influence the direction of scientific
research.
You may vote directly on some issues
through ballot initiatives or indirectly through
the officials you elect.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Why Study Chemistry?

Being an Informed Citizen

When it comes to scientific research,
there is no one correct answer.
However, knowledge of chemistry and other
sciences can help you evaluate the data
presented, arrive at an informed opinion,
and take appropriate action.

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1.2 Chemistry and You >

Which of the following careers would

require some understanding of
chemistry?

A. chef

B. doctor

C. farmer

D. all of the above

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1.2 Chemistry and You >

Which of the following careers would

require some understanding of
chemistry?

A. chef

B. doctor

C. farmer

D. all of the above

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Chemistry, Technology, and Society

Chemistry, Technology, and Society

What are some outcomes of
modern research in
chemistry?

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Chemistry, Technology, and Society

Many basic items you use every day,

such as the sneakers you wear or the
cereal you eat, are products of
technology.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Chemistry, Technology, and Society

Many basic items you use every day,

such as the sneakers you wear or the
cereal you eat, are products of
technology.
Technology is the means by which a
society provides its members with those
things needed and desired.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Chemistry, Technology, and Society

Modern research in chemistry

can lead to technologies that
aim to benefit the environment,
conserve and produce energy,
improve human life, and
expand our knowledge of the
universe.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Chemistry, Technology, and Society

Materials and the Environment

Chemists don t just study matter they also use
what they know about the structure and
properties of matter to make new materials with
different or improved properties.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Chemistry, Technology, and Society

Materials and the Environment

Chemists don t just study matter they also use
what they know about the structure and
properties of matter to make new materials with
different or improved properties.
For example, chemistry has played a large
role in developing plastics for different uses.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Interpret Graphs

15,000
(thousands of tons)

12,500
Waste produced

Note: The amount of

10,000 plastics packaging
in U.S. waste
7500
includes plastics
5000 packaging that is to
be recycled.
2500

0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2007

Year
Although plastics are a part of most of our
daily lives, there is concern that their use is
taking a toll on the environment and on
natural resources.
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1.2 Chemistry and You > Chemistry, Technology, and Society

Most plastics are made using petrochemicals,

which are chemical products derived from
petroleum.
The supply of
petrochemicals is limited.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Chemistry, Technology, and Society

Most plastics are made using petrochemicals,

which are chemical products derived from
petroleum.
The supply of
petrochemicals is limited.
There has been demand
for plastics that are better
for the environment, such
as the bioplastic shown
at right, which is made
from corn.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Chemistry, Technology, and Society

Energy
There are only two ways to meet the rising global
demand for energy conserve it or produce more
of it. Chemistry plays an essential role in both of
these options.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Chemistry, Technology, and Society

Energy
There are only two ways to meet the rising global
demand for energy conserve it or produce more
of it. Chemistry plays an essential role in both of
these options.
A knowledge of chemistry was necessary to
develop the batteries that run gasoline-
electric hybrid cars.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Chemistry, Technology, and Society

Energy
There are only two ways to meet the rising global
demand for energy conserve it or produce more
of it. Chemistry plays an essential role in both of
these options.
A knowledge of chemistry was necessary to
develop the batteries that run gasoline-
electric hybrid cars.
Chemists help design materials that collect
energy from the sun that is then converted
to electricity.
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1.2 Chemistry and You > Chemistry, Technology, and Society

Medicine and Biotechnology

Chemistry supplies the medicines,
materials, and technology that doctors
use to treat their patients.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Chemistry, Technology, and Society

Medicine and Biotechnology

Chemistry supplies the medicines,
materials, and technology that doctors
use to treat their patients.
Chemistry can also develop materials to
repair or replace body parts.
Diseased arteries can be replaced with
plastic tubes.
Artificial hips and knees made from metals
and plastics can replace worn-out joints.
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1.2 Chemistry and You > Chemistry, Technology, and Society

Medicine and Biotechnology

Biotechnology applies science to
the production of biological
products or processes.
It uses techniques that can alter
DNA in living organisms.
When genes from humans are
inserted into bacteria, the
bacteria act as factories that
produce chemicals of
importance to humans, such as
insulin.
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1.2 Chemistry and You > Chemistry, Technology, and Society

The Universe
To study the universe, chemists gather
data from afar and analyze matter that is
brought back to Earth.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Chemistry, Technology, and Society

The Universe
To study the universe, chemists gather
data from afar and analyze matter that is
brought back to Earth.
This vehicle was designed to
determine the chemical
composition of rocks and soil
on Mars.
Data collected at the vehicle s
landing site indicated that the
site was once drenched with
water.
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1.2 Chemistry and You > CHEMISTRY & YOU

How can chemistry be used to find

evidence of life on other planets?

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1.2 Chemistry and You > CHEMISTRY & YOU

How can chemistry be used to find

evidence of life on other planets?

By analyzing light from

stars, scientists can
study their composition,
and data gathered by
probes can be used to
analyze matter in space.

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1.2 Chemistry and You >

Name one way in which chemistry has

been used to help modern society
conserve energy.

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1.2 Chemistry and You >

Name one way in which chemistry has

been used to help modern society
conserve energy.

Some possible answers include:

batteries used in gasoline-electric hybrid

vehicles

materials used in solar-power generation

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Key Concepts

Chemistry can be useful in explaining the

natural world, preparing people for career
opportunities, and producing informed
citizens.

Modern research in chemistry can lead to

technologies that aim to benefit the
environment, improve human life, and
expand our knowledge of the universe.

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1.2 Chemistry and You > Glossary Terms

technology: the means by which a society

provides its members with those things needed
and desired

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1.2 Chemistry and You > BIG IDEA

Chemistry is relevant to many

professions.
A knowledge of chemistry can help
you become an informed citizen.

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1.2 Chemistry and You >

END OF 1.2

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist >

Chapter 1
Introduction to Chemistry

1.1 The Scope of Chemistry

1.2 Chemistry and You

1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist

1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > CHEMISTRY & YOU

How do you think Alexander Fleming

tested his hypothesis?
In 1928, Alexander
Fleming, a Scottish
scientist, noticed that the
bacteria he was studying
did not grow in the
presence of a yellow-
green mold.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > An Experimental
Approach to Science

An Experimental Approach to Science

How did Lavoisier help to
transform chemistry?

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > An Experimental
Approach to Science

The word chemistry comes from the word

alchemy.
Alchemists were concerned with searching for a way to
change other metals, such as
lead, into gold.
Alchemists developed the
tools and techniques for
working with chemicals.
They designed equipment
that is still in use today,
including beakers, flasks, tongs,
funnels, and the mortar and pestle.
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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > An Experimental
Approach to Science

In France, Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier did work in

the late 1700s that would revolutionize the
science of chemistry.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > An Experimental
Approach to Science

In France, Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier did work in

the late 1700s that would revolutionize the
science of chemistry.

Lavoisier helped to transform

chemistry from a science of
observation to the science of
measurement that it is today.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > An Experimental
Approach to Science

Lavoisier designed a balance that could

measure mass to the nearest 0.0005 gram.
He also settled a long-standing debate about
how materials burn.
He was able to show that oxygen is required
for a material to burn.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist >

Who is credited with transforming

chemistry from a science of observation
to a science of measurement?

A. Fleming

B. Lavoisier

C. de Mestral

D. Carothers

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist >

Who is credited with transforming

chemistry from a science of observation
to a science of measurement?

A. Fleming

B. Lavoisier

C. de Mestral

D. Carothers

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > The Scientific Method

The Scientific Method

What are the steps in the
scientific method?

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > The Scientific Method

The scientific method is a logical,

systematic approach to the solution of a
scientific problem.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > The Scientific Method

Steps in the scientific method

include making observations,
proposing and testing hypotheses,
and developing theories.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > The Scientific Method

Making Observations
When you use your senses
to obtain information, you
make an observation.
This scientist is making
observations with a
microscope.
Observation is an
essential step in the
scientific method.
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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > The Scientific Method

Making Observations
Suppose you try to turn on a flashlight
and you notice that it does not light.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > The Scientific Method

Testing Hypotheses
If you guess that the batteries in a
flashlight are dead, you are making a
hypothesis.
A hypothesis is a proposed explanation
for an observation.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > The Scientific Method

Testing Hypotheses
Replacing the batteries is an experiment,
a procedure that is used to test a
hypothesis.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > The Scientific Method

Testing Hypotheses
Replacing the batteries is an experiment,
a procedure that is used to test a
hypothesis.
The variable that you change during an
experiment is the independent variable,
also called the manipulated variable.
The variable that is observed during the
experiment is the dependent variable,
also called the responding variable.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > The Scientific Method

Testing Hypotheses
For the results of an experiment to be
accepted, the experiment must produce
the same result no matter how many
times it is repeated, or by whom.
This is why scientists are expected to publish
a description of their procedures along with
their results.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > The Scientific Method

Testing Hypotheses
Sometimes the experiment a scientist
must perform to test a hypothesis is
difficult or impossible.
For example, atoms and molecules, which
are some of the smallest units of matter,
cannot be easily seen.
A model is a representation of an object or
event.
Chemists may use models to study chemical
reactions and processes.
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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > The Scientific Method

Developing Theories
Once a hypothesis meets the test of
repeated experimentation, it may be
raised to a higher level of ideas. It may
become a theory.
A theory is a well-tested explanation for a
broad set of observations.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > The Scientific Method

Developing Theories
When scientists say that a theory can
never be proved, they are not saying that
a theory is unreliable.

They are simply leaving open the

possibility that a theory may need to be
changed at some point in the future to
explain new observations or experimental
results.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > The Scientific Method

Scientific Laws
The figure below shows how scientific
experiments can lead to laws as well as
theories.
Observations Hypothesis Experiments Theory
A hypothesis may be An experiment can A theory is tested by
revised based on lead to observations more experiments
experimental data. that support or and modified if
disprove a hypothesis. necessary.

Scientific Law
A scientific law
summarizes the results
of many observations
and experiments.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > The Scientific Method

Scientific Laws

A scientific law is a concise statement

that summarizes the results of many
observations and experiments.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > The Scientific Method

Scientific Laws

A scientific law is a concise statement

that summarizes the results of many
observations and experiments.
A law doesn t try to explain the
relationship it describes.
That explanation requires a theory.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > CHEMISTRY & YOU

What was Alexander Fleming s

hypothesis? How could he test his
hypothesis?

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > CHEMISTRY & YOU

What was Alexander Fleming s

hypothesis? How could he test his
hypothesis?
Other scientists had made the
same observation, but
Fleming was the first to
recognize its importance. He
assumed that the mold had
released a chemical that
prevented the growth of the
bacteria.
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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist >

What is a hypothesis?
A. information obtained from an experiment

B. a proposed explanation for observations

C. a concise statement that summarizes the

results of many experiments

D. a thoroughly tested model

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist >

What is a hypothesis?
A. information obtained from an experiment

B. a proposed explanation for observations

C. a concise statement that summarizes the

results of many experiments

D. a thoroughly tested model

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > Collaboration and
Communication

Collaboration and Communication

What role do collaboration and
communication play in science?

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > Collaboration and
Communication

No matter how talented the players on a team

may be, one player cannot ensure victory for
the team.

Individuals must collaborate, or work together,

for the good of the team.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > Collaboration and
Communication

When scientists collaborate and

communicate with one another,
they increase the likelihood of a
successful outcome.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > Collaboration and
Communication

Collaboration
Scientists choose to collaborate for
different reasons.
Some research problems are so complex
that no one person could have all the
knowledge, skills, and resources to solve
the problem.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > Collaboration and
Communication

Collaboration
Collaboration isn t always a smooth
process.
Working in pairs
or in a group
can be
challenging, but
it can also be
rewarding.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > Collaboration and
Communication

Communication
The way scientists communicate with
each other and with the public has
changed over the centuries.
Scientists working as a team can communicate
face to face.
They also can exchange ideas by e-mail, by
phone, and at local and international
conferences.
They publish their results in scientific journals.
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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > Collaboration and
Communication

Communication
Scientific journals are the most reliable source
of information about new discoveries.
Articles are published only after being
reviewed by experts in the author s field.
Reviewers may find errors in experimental
design or challenge the author s conclusions.
This review process is good for science
because work that is not well founded is
usually not published.
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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist >

Why are articles in scientific journals the

most reliable source of information about
new scientific discoveries?
A. The articles are reviewed by experts in the
author s field.

B. Any article that is submitted is published.

C. Everyone has access to the information.

D. The articles are short and easy to read.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist >

Why are articles in scientific journals the

most reliable source of information about
new scientific discoveries?
A. The articles are reviewed by experts in the
author s field.

B. Any article that is submitted is published.

C. Everyone has access to the information.

D. The articles are short and easy to read.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > Key Concepts

Lavoisier helped to transform chemistry

from a science of observation to the
science of measurement that it is today.

Steps in the scientific method include

making observations, testing
hypotheses, and developing theories.

When scientists collaborate and

communicate with one another, they
increase the likelihood of a successful
outcome.
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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > Glossary Terms

scientific method: a logical, systematic approach to the

solution of a scientific problem; steps in the scientific
method include making observations, testing
hypotheses, and developing theories
observation: information obtained through the senses;
observation in science often involves a measurement
hypothesis: a proposed explanation for an observation
experiment: a repeatable procedure that is used to test
a hypothesis

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > Glossary Terms

independent variable: the variable that is changed

during an experiment; also called manipulated variable
dependent variable: the variable that is observed
during an experiment; also called responding variable
model: a representation of an event or object
theory: a well-tested explanation for a broad set of
observations
scientific law: a concise statement that summarizes the
results of many observations and experiments

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist > BIG IDEA

Chemists use the scientific method to

solve problems and develop theories
about the natural world.

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1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist >

END OF 1.3

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry >

Chapter 1
Introduction to Chemistry

1.1 The Scope of Chemistry

1.2 Chemistry and You
1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist

1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > CHEMISTRY & YOU

How does having a plan make problem

solving easier?

Have you ever tried

to solve a crossword
puzzle? If you have,
you may have found
it helpful to develop a
strategy before you
begin.

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Skills Used in
Solving Problems

Skills Used in Solving Problems

What is a general approach to
solving a problem?

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Skills Used in
Solving Problems

Problem solving is a skill you use all the time.

A shopper must make many decisions. Some of

those are based on data, like the information on
a food label.
The skills you use to
solve a word problem
in chemistry are not
that different from
those you use while
shopping.
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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Skills Used in
Solving Problems

Effective problem solving always

involves developing a plan and
then implementing that plan.

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry >

Effective problem solving always involves

developing a plan and then

A. evaluating the plan.

B. doing the calculations.

C. making an estimate.

D. implementing the plan.

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry >

Effective problem solving always involves

developing a plan and then

A. evaluating the plan.

B. doing the calculations.

C. making an estimate.

D. implementing the plan.

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Solving Numeric
Problems

Solving Numeric Problems

What are the steps for solving
numeric problems?

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Solving Numeric
Problems

Most word problems in chemistry require

math because measurement is such an
important part of chemistry.
The techniques used in this course to solve
numeric problems are conveniently
organized into a three-step problem-solving
approach.

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Solving Numeric
Problems

The steps for solving a numeric

word problem are analyze,
calculate, and evaluate.

1 2 3

Analyze Calculate Evaluate

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Solving Numeric
Problems

1 Analyze
First determine where you are starting from
(identify what is known) and where you are
going (identify what is unknown).

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Solving Numeric
Problems

1 Analyze
First determine where you are starting from
(identify what is known) and where you are
going (identify what is unknown).
If you expect the answer (the unknown) to
be a number, you need to determine what
unit(s) the answer should have.
Make a plan for using what is known to
arrive at the unknown.

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Solving Numeric
Problems

2 Calculate
For some problems, you will have to convert
a measurement from one unit to another.
For other problems, you may need to
rearrange an equation before you can solve
for an unknown.

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Solving Numeric
Problems

3 Evaluate
After you calculate an answer, you
should evaluate it.

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Solving Numeric
Problems

3 Evaluate
After you calculate an answer, you
should evaluate it.
Is the answer reasonable?
Does it make sense?
Did you copy the data correctly?
Did you choose the right equations?
Check that your answer has the correct unit(s)
and the correct number of significant figures.
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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Sample Problem 1.1

Estimate Walking Time

You are visiting Indianapolis.
You decide to walk from the Finish

Indiana State Capital to the

Murat Centre for an
afternoon performance. Start
According to the map, the
shortest route from the
capital to the theater is 8
blocks. How many minutes
will the trip take if you can
walk 1 mile in 20 minutes?
Assume that 10 blocks
equals 1 mile.
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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Sample Problem 1.1

1 Analyze List the knowns and the unknown.

This problem is an example of a conversion
problem. One unit of measure (blocks) must be
expressed in a different unit (minutes).
KNOWNS
distance to be traveled = 8 blocks
walking speed = 1 mile/20 minutes
1 mile = 10 blocks
UNKNOWN
time of trip = ? minutes
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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Sample Problem 1.1

2 Calculate Solve for the unknown.

Divide the number of The relationship

blocks to be traveled by 1 mile = 10 blocks
the number of blocks in can be interpreted
1 mile.

1 mile
8 blocks 10 blocks = 0.8 mile

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Sample Problem 1.1

2 Calculate Solve for the unknown.

Multiply the number of miles by the time it

takes to walk 1 mile.

0.8 mile 20 minutes = 16 minutes

1 mile

Notice how the units cancel.

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Sample Problem 1.1

3 Evaluate Does the result make sense?

The answer seems reasonable, 16

minutes to walk 8 blocks.
The answer has the correct unit.
The relationships used are correct.

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry >

Matthew has been collecting quarters in a

jar. He has 176 quarters. What is the value
of the coins in his jar?

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry >

Matthew has been collecting quarters in a

jar. He has 176 quarters. What is the value
of the coins in his jar?

176 quarters 1 dollar = 44 dollars

4 quarters

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Solving Nonnumeric
Problems

Solving Nonnumeric Problems

What are the steps for solving
nonnumeric problems?

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Solving Nonnumeric
Problems

Not every word problem in chemistry

requires calculations.
Some problems ask you to apply the concepts
you are studying to a new situation.
You still need to identify what is known and
what is unknown.
You still need to make a plan for getting from
the known to the unknown.
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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Solving Nonnumeric
Problems

The steps for solving a

nonnumeric problem are analyze
and solve.

1 2

Analyze Solve

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > CHEMISTRY & YOU

Pick a game you like to play or a type

of puzzle you enjoy solving. How does
having a plan make playing the game
or solving the puzzle easier?

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > CHEMISTRY & YOU

Pick a game you like to play or a type

of puzzle you enjoy solving. How does
having a plan make playing the game
or solving the puzzle easier?
In solving a crossword puzzle, you may try to

complete the fill-in-the-blank clues before

moving on to the more difficult clues.

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Sample Problem 1.2

Scheduling Classes
Manny needs to schedule his classes for next year. The
school day is divided into seven periods, and he must take
Algebra II, Art, Chemistry, English, History, and Physical
Education. Using the information from the course catalog,
find a way for Manny to schedule all his classes.

Algebra II is offered during either 1st or 2nd period.

Art is offered during 2nd period only.
Chemistry is offered during either 3rd or 6th period.
English is offered during either 6th or 7th period.
History is offered during either 4th or 7th period.
Physical Education is offered during 4th period only.
Lunch is scheduled for 5th period.
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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Sample Problem 1.2

1 Analyze Identify the relevant concepts.

Manny must take lunch during 5th

period.
Art is only available during 2nd period.
Physical Education is only available
during 4th period.

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Sample Problem 1.2

2 Solve Apply the concepts to this problem.

Place lunch, Art, and Physical Education

1st period
2nd period Art
3rd period
4th period P.E.
5th period Lunch
6th period
7th period
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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Sample Problem 1.2

2 Solve Apply the concepts to this problem.

Fill the remainder of the classes into

Since Art is only

available during 2nd
1st period Algebra II period, Manny must
2nd period Art take Algebra II during
1st period. Since P.E.
3rd period Chemistry is only available
4th period P.E. during 4th period, he
5th period Lunch must take History
6th period English during 7th period.
7th period History
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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry >

The steps for solving a nonnumeric

problem are:

A. solve and evaluate.

B. analyze, solve, and evaluate.
C. analyze and solve.
D. analyze, calculate, and evaluate.

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry >

The steps for solving a nonnumeric

problem are:

A. solve and evaluate.

B. analyze, solve, and evaluate.
C. analyze and solve.
D. analyze, calculate, and evaluate.

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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry > Key Concepts

Effective problem solving always involves

developing a plan and then implementing
that plan.

The steps for solving a numeric word

problem are analyze, calculate, and
evaluate.

The steps for solving a nonnumeric

problem are analyze and solve.
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1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry >

END OF 1.4

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 2.1 Properties of Matter >

Chapter 2
Matter and Change
2.1 Properties of Matter

2.2 Mixtures
2.3 Elements and Compounds
2.4 Chemical Reactions

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > CHEMISTRY & YOU

Why are windows made of glass?

In this lesson, you
will learn how
properties can be
used to classify
and identify
matter.

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 2.1 Properties of Matter > Describing Matter

Describing Matter

Why do all samples of a substance

have the same intensive properties?

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > Describing Matter

What you observe when you look at a

particular sample of matter is its properties.

Is a solid shiny or dull?

Does a liquid flow quickly or slowly?
Is a gas odorless, or does it have a smell?

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 2.1 Properties of Matter > Describing Matter

Properties used to describe matter can be

classified as extensive or intensive
properties.

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > Describing Matter

Extensive Properties
Recall that matter is anything that has
mass and takes up space.
The mass of an object is a measure of the
amount of matter the object contains.
The mass of a
basketball is greater
than the mass of a golf
ball.

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > Describing Matter

Extensive Properties
The volume of an object is a measure of
the space occupied by the object.
The volume of a basketball is greater than the
volume of a golf ball.

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 2.1 Properties of Matter > Describing Matter

Extensive Properties
Mass and volume are both examples of
extensive properties.
An extensive property is a property that
depends on the amount of matter in a
sample.

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > Describing Matter

Intensive Properties
There are properties to consider when
selecting a basketball besides mass and
volume.
The outer covering may be made of
leather, rubber, or a synthetic composite.
Each of these materials has different
properties that make the basketballs
suitable for different playing
situations.
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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > Describing Matter

Intensive Properties
For example, leather balls are suitable for
indoor play but not outdoor play.
Leather balls absorb water and dirt more
than rubber balls do.

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > Describing Matter

Intensive Properties
Absorbency is an example of an intensive
property.
An intensive property is a property that
depends on the type of matter in a sample,
not the amount of matter.

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > Describing Matter

Identifying a Substance
Each object in this figure has a
different chemical
makeup, or
composition.

The soda can is mainly

aluminum.
The watering can is
mainly copper.
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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > Describing Matter

Identifying a Substance
Matter that has a uniform and definite
composition is called a substance.

Aluminum and copper are examples of

substances, which are also referred to as
pure substances.

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > Describing Matter

Identifying a Substance
Every sample of a given substance
has identical intensive properties
because every sample has the same
composition.

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > Describing Matter

Identifying a Substance
Aluminum and copper have some properties in
common, but there are differences besides their
distinctive colors.
Aluminum is highly reflective and is often used in silver
paint.
Pure copper can scratch the surface of aluminum
because copper is harder than aluminum.
Copper is a conductor of heat or electric current.
Copper and aluminum are both malleable, which means
they can be hammered into sheets without breaking.
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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > Describing Matter

Identifying a Substance
Hardness, color, conductivity, and
malleability are examples of physical
properties.
A physical property is a quality or
condition of a substance that can be
observed or measured without changing the

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > Interpret Data

This table lists physical properties for some substances.

Physical Properties of Some Substances
Substance State Color Melting point Boiling point
(°C) (°C)
Neon Gas Colorless 249 246
Oxygen Gas Colorless 218 183
Chlorine Gas Greenish-yellow 101 34
Ethanol Liquid Colorless 117 78
Mercury Liquid Silvery-white 39 357
Bromine Liquid Reddish-brown 7 59
Water Liquid Colorless 0 100
Sulfur Solid Yellow 115 445
Sodium chloride Solid White 801 1413
Gold Solid Yellow 1064 2856
Copper Solid Reddish-yellow 1084 2562
The states of the substances are given at room temperature.
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 2.1 Properties of Matter > Describing Matter

Identifying a Substance
Physical properties can help chemists
identify substances.
For example, a colorless substance that

and melted at
be water. It would likely be ethanol.

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > CHEMISTRY & YOU

Glass is often used to make windows,

while copper is often used in electrical
wires. What properties of glass make it
a desirable material to use for
windows?

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > CHEMISTRY & YOU

Glass is often used to make windows,

while copper is often used in electrical
wires. What properties of glass make it
a desirable material to use for
windows?
Glass is transparent, so it can be seen through;
hard, so it stays in place within window frames;
and heat resistant, so it helps prevent the
transfer of heat between outside and inside.

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter >

You want to compile a list of

properties of a substance, but you

volume. What kinds of properties can

you determine without knowing the
amount of matter in the sample?

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 2.1 Properties of Matter >

You want to compile a list of

properties of a substance, but you

volume. What kinds of properties can

you determine without knowing the
amount of matter in the sample?

properties.

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > States of Matter

States of Matter

What are three states of matter?

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > States of Matter

Depending on the circumstances, you use

three different words to refer to water
water, ice, and steam.
Water, which is a common substance, exists in
three different physical states.
So can most other substances.

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > States of Matter

Three states of matter are solid, liquid,

and gas.

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > States of Matter

Solids
A solid is a form of matter that has a definite
shape and volume.

shape of its container.

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > States of Matter

Solids
A solid is a form of matter that has a definite
shape and volume.

shape of its container.

The particles in a
solid are packed
tightly together, often
in an orderly
arrangement.
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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > States of Matter

Solids
A solid is a form of matter that has a definite
shape and volume.
As a result, solids are almost incompressible;
that is, it is difficult to squeeze a solid into a
smaller volume.
In addition, solids expand only slightly when
heated.

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 2.1 Properties of Matter > States of Matter

Liquids
The particles in a liquid are in
close contact with one
another, but the arrangement
of particles in a liquid is not
rigid or orderly.

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > States of Matter

Liquids
The particles in a liquid are in
close contact with one
another, but the arrangement
of particles in a liquid is not
rigid or orderly.
Because the particles in a
liquid are free to flow, a liquid
takes the shape of the
container in which it is placed.
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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > States of Matter

Liquids
The particles in a liquid are in
close contact with one
another, but the arrangement
of particles in a liquid is not
rigid or orderly.
However, the volume of the

shape changes.

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 2.1 Properties of Matter > States of Matter

Liquids
The volume of a liquid is fixed or constant.
Thus, a liquid is a form of matter that has
an indefinite shape, flows, and yet has a
fixed volume.

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > States of Matter

Liquids
The volume of a liquid is fixed or constant.
Thus, a liquid is a form of matter that has
an indefinite shape, flows, and yet has a
fixed volume.
Liquids are almost incompressible.
However, they tend to expand slightly when
heated.

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > States of Matter

Gases
Like a liquid, a gas takes the shape of
its container.

But, unlike a liquid, a gas can expand to

fill any volume.

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 2.1 Properties of Matter > States of Matter

Gases
A gas is a form of matter that
takes both the shape and
volume of its container.

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 2.1 Properties of Matter > States of Matter

Gases
A gas is a form of matter that
takes both the shape and
volume of its container.
The particles in a gas are usually
much farther apart than the
particles in a liquid.

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 2.1 Properties of Matter > States of Matter

Gases
A gas is a form of matter that
takes both the shape and
volume of its container.
The particles in a gas are usually
much farther apart than the
particles in a liquid.
Because of the space between
particles, gases are easily
compressed into a smaller volume.
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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > States of Matter

Gases
The words vapor and gas are sometimes used
interchangeably. But there is a difference.
The term gas is used for substances, like
oxygen, that exist in the gaseous state at
room temperature.
Vapor describes the gaseous state of a
substance that is generally a liquid or solid
at room temperature, as in water vapor.

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 2.1 Properties of Matter >

A substance is in a state in which it

takes the shape of its container. What
state or states could it be in?

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter >

A substance is in a state in which it

takes the shape of its container. What
state or states could it be in?

The substance could be either a liquid or a gas,

as each takes the shape of its container.

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > Physical Changes

Physical Changes

How can physical changes be

classified?

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 2.1 Properties of Matter > Physical Changes

The melting point of

The figure at left

shows how the heat

can melt a sample of

gallium.

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 2.1 Properties of Matter > Physical Changes

The shape of the sample changes during

melting as the liquid begins to flow, but
the composition of the sample does not
change.
Melting is a physical change.
During a physical change, some properties
of a material change, but the composition of
the material does not change.

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 2.1 Properties of Matter > Physical Changes

Words such as boil, freeze, melt, and

condense are used to describe
physical changes.
So are words such as break, split,
grind, cut, and crush.
There is a difference between these
two sets of words. Each set describes
a different type of physical change.

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 2.1 Properties of Matter > Physical Changes

Physical changes can be classified

as reversible or irreversible.
Melting is an example of a reversible
physical change.
If a sample of liquid gallium cools
below its melting point, the liquid
will become solid.

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 2.1 Properties of Matter > Physical Changes

All physical changes that involve a

change from one state to another are
reversible.

Cutting hair, filing nails, and cracking

an egg are examples of irreversible
physical changes.

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 2.1 Properties of Matter >

Water boils and becomes water vapor.

Is this a reversible or irreversible
physical change?

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 2.1 Properties of Matter >

Water boils and becomes water vapor.

Is this a reversible or irreversible
physical change?

It is a reversible physical change because it

involves a change from one state to another.

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > Key Concepts

Every sample of a given substance has

identical intensive properties because
every sample has the same
composition.

Three states of matter are solid, liquid,

and gas.

Physical changes can be classified as

reversible or irreversible.

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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > Glossary Terms

mass: a measure of the amount of matter that

an object contains; the SI base unit of mass is
the kilogram
volume: a measure of the space occupied by
a sample of matter
extensive property: a property that depends
on the amount of matter in a sample
intensive property: a property that depends
on the type of matter in a sample, not the
amount of matter
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.
 2.1 Properties of Matter > Glossary Terms

substance: matter that has a uniform and

definite composition; either an element or a
compound; also called pure substance
physical property: a quality or condition of a
substance that can be observed or measured

solid: a form of matter that has a definite

shape and volume
liquid: a form of matter that flows, has a fixed
volume, and has an indefinite shape

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 2.1 Properties of Matter > Glossary Terms

gas: a form of matter that takes the shape

and volume of its container; a gas has no
definite shape or volume
vapor: describes the gaseous state of a
substance that is generally a liquid or solid at
room temperature
physical change: a change during which
some properties of a material change, but the
composition of the material does not change

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 2.1 Properties of Matter > BIG IDEA

Chemistry as the Central Science

Physical properties, such as melting
point and boiling point, are used to
describe matter.

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 2.1 Properties of Matter >

END OF 2.1

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 2.2 Mixtures >

Chapter 2
Matter and Change
2.1 Properties of Matter

2.2 Mixtures

2.3 Elements and Compounds

2.4 Chemical Reactions

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 2.2 Mixtures > CHEMISTRY & YOU

Why aren't there coffee grounds in a cup

of coffee?

Coffee is often
brewed by mixing
hot water with
ground coffee
beans.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Classifying Mixtures

Describing Matter
How can mixtures be classified?

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 2.2 Mixtures > Describing Matter

A salad bar provides a range of items, such as

lettuce, tomatoes, cheese, and green peppers.
Customers choose which items to use in their
salads and how much of each item to use.
So, each salad mixture has different types and
amounts of components.

A mixture is a physical blend of two or more

components.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Describing Matter

Most samples of matter are mixtures.

Some mixtures are easier to recognize
than others.
You can easily recognize chicken noodle
soup as a mixture of chicken, noodles,
and broth.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Describing Matter

Recognizing air as a mixture of gases is

more difficult.
But the fact that air can be drier or more
humid shows that the amount of one
component of air water vapor can vary.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Describing Matter

Based on the distribution of their

components, mixtures can be
classified as heterogeneous mixtures
or homogeneous mixtures.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Describing Matter

Heterogeneous Mixtures
In chicken noodle soup, the ingredients in
the soup are not evenly distributed
throughout the mixture.
There is likely to be different amounts of
chicken and noodles in each spoonful.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Describing Matter

Heterogeneous Mixtures
A mixture in which the composition is not
uniform throughout is a heterogeneous
mixture.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Describing Matter

Homogeneous Mixtures
The substances in the
olive oil are evenly
distributed throughout
the mixture.

look like a mixture.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Describing Matter

Homogeneous Mixtures
The same is true for
vinegar.
Vinegar is a mixture of
water and acetic acid,
which dissolves in the
water.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Describing Matter

Homogeneous Mixtures
Olive oil and vinegar
are homogeneous
mixtures.
A homogeneous
mixture is a mixture in
which the composition
is uniform throughout.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Describing Matter

Homogeneous Mixtures
Olive oil and vinegar
are homogeneous
mixtures.
A homogeneous
mixture is a mixture in
which the composition
is uniform throughout.
Another name for a homogeneous mixture is a
solution.
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 2.2 Mixtures > Describing Matter

Homogeneous Mixtures
Many solutions are liquids.
But some are gases, like air.
And some are solids, like stainless steel, which is
a mixture of iron, chromium, and nickel.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Describing Matter

Homogeneous Mixtures
The term phase is used to describe any
part of a sample with uniform composition
and properties.
By definition, a homogeneous mixture consists of
a single phase.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Describing Matter

A heterogeneous
mixture consists of two
or more phases.
When oil and vinegar
are mixed, they form
a heterogeneous
mixture with two
layers, or phases.
The oil phase floats
on the water, or
vinegar, phase.
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 2.2 Mixtures >

At the beach, you realize that both

ocean water and sand are mixtures.
Which is a homogeneous mixture (or
solution)? Which is a heterogeneous
mixture?

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 2.2 Mixtures >

At the beach, you realize that both

ocean water and sand are mixtures.
Which is a homogeneous mixture (or
solution)? Which is a heterogeneous
mixture?

Salt water is a homogeneous mixture, or

solution. Sand is a heterogeneous mixture.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Separating Mixtures

Separating Mixtures
How can mixtures be separated?

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 2.2 Mixtures > Separating Mixtures

If you have a salad containing an

ingredient you don't like, you can
remove it with a fork.
Many mixtures are not as easy to separate.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Separating Mixtures

To separate a mixture of olive oil and

vinegar, for example, you could decant, or
pour off, the oil layer.
Or, you might cool the mixture until the oil
turned solid.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Separating Mixtures

To separate a mixture of olive oil and

vinegar, for example, you could decant, or
pour off, the oil layer.
Or, you might cool the mixture until the oil
turned solid.
Pouring off the oil layer takes advantage of the fact
that oil floats on water.
Cooling until the oil layer turns solid takes
advantage of a difference in the temperatures at
which the olive oil and vinegar freeze.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Separating Mixtures

Differences in physical properties can

be used to separate mixtures.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Separating Mixtures

Filtration
The coffee filter at right can
separate ground coffee
beans from brewed coffee.
The liquid brewed coffee
passes through the paper
filter, but the solid coffee
grounds cannot pass
through the filter.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Separating Mixtures

Filtration
Filter paper used in a laboratory is similar
to coffee filters.
Filter paper is often placed in a funnel.
Then the mixture is poured into the funnel.
Solid particles that cannot pass through the
filter remain in the funnel.
The rest of the particles pass through.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Separating Mixtures

Filtration
The process that separates a solid from a
liquid in a heterogeneous mixture is
called filtration.

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 2.2 Mixtures > CHEMISTRY & YOU

Brewed coffee is a mixture of ground

coffee beans and water. What process
is used to separate ground coffee
beans from brewed coffee?

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 2.2 Mixtures > CHEMISTRY & YOU

Brewed coffee is a mixture of ground

coffee beans and water. What process
is used to separate ground coffee
beans from brewed coffee?

Filtration is used to separate ground coffee

beans from brewed coffee.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Separating Mixtures

Distillation
Tap water is a homogeneous mixture of
water and substances that are dissolved
in the water.
One way to separate water from the other
components in tap water is through a
process called distillation.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Separating Mixtures

Distillation
During a distillation, a liquid is boiled to
produce a vapor that is then condensed
into a liquid.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Separating Mixtures

Distillation
The figure below shows an apparatus used to perform
a small-scale distillation.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Separating Mixtures

Distillation
As water in the distillation flask is heated, water vapor forms,
rises in the flask, and passes into a glass tube in the condenser.
The tube is surrounded
by cold water, which
cools the vapor to a
temperature at which it
turns back into a liquid.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Separating Mixtures

Distillation
As water in the distillation flask is heated, water vapor forms,
rises in the flask, and passes into a glass tube in the condenser.
The tube is surrounded
by cold water, which
cools the vapor to a
temperature at which it
turns back into a liquid.
The liquid
water is
collected in a
second flask.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Separating Mixtures

Distillation
The solid substances that were dissolved in the water
remain in the distillation flask.
This is because their
boiling points are much
higher than the boiling
point of water.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Sample Problem 2.1

Separating a Heterogeneous Mixture

How could a mixture of

aluminum nails and iron
nails be separated?

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 2.2 Mixtures > Sample Problem 2.1

1 Analyze Identify the relevant concepts.

In order to identify how to separate

aluminum and iron nails, the properties of
both aluminum and iron must be known.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Sample Problem 2.1

2 Solve Apply concepts to this situation.

List the properties of each substance in
the mixture.
Aluminum Iron
metal metal
gray color gray color

in water in water
not attracted to attracted to
magnet magnet
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 2.2 Mixtures > Sample Problem 2.1

2 Solve Apply concepts to this situation.

Identify a property that can be used to
separate different substances from each
other.
The ability to be attracted by a magnet is a
property that iron and aluminum do not
share.
You could use a magnet to remove the iron
nails from a mixture of iron and aluminum.

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 2.2 Mixtures >

Which physical property does

filtration rely on to separate
mixtures? Which does distillation
rely on?

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 2.2 Mixtures >

Which physical property does

filtration rely on to separate
mixtures? Which does distillation
rely on?

Filtration relies on the size of a particle, or

molecule, of a substance. Distillation relies
on the boiling point of the substance.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Key Concepts

Mixtures can be classified as

heterogeneous mixtures or as
homogeneous mixtures, based on the
distribution of their components.

Differences in physical properties can

be used to separate mixtures.

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 2.2 Mixtures > Glossary Terms

mixture: a physical blend of two or more

substances that are not chemically combined
heterogeneous mixture: a mixture that is not
uniform in composition; components are not
evenly distributed throughout the mixture
homogeneous mixture: a mixture that is
uniform in composition; components are
evenly distributed and not easily distinguished
solution: a homogeneous mixture; consists of
solutes dissolved in a solvent

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 2.2 Mixtures > Glossary Terms

phase: any part of a sample with uniform

composition and properties
filtration: a process that separates a solid
from the liquid in a heterogeneous mixture
distillation: a process used to separate
components of a mixture using differences in
boiling points

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 2.2 Mixtures >

END OF 2.2

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds >

Chapter 2
Matter and Change
2.1 Properties of Matter
2.2 Mixtures

2.3 Elements and Compounds

2.4 Chemical Reactions

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > CHEMISTRY & YOU

Why does burned toast taste so bad?

Bread that is
toasted to a nice
golden brown
makes for a tasty
addition to
breakfast.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Elements
and Compounds

Distinguishing Elements and Compounds

How are elements and compounds

different?

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Elements
and Compounds

Substances can be classified as elements

or compounds.
An element is the simplest form of matter
that has a unique set of properties.
Oxygen and hydrogen are two of the
more than 100 known elements.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Elements
and Compounds

Substances can be classified as elements

or compounds.
A compound is a substance that contains
two or more elements chemically combined
in a fixed proportion.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Elements
and Compounds

Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen are

chemically combined in the compound
sucrose.
In every sample of sucrose, there are twice
as many hydrogen particles as oxygen
particles.
The proportion of hydrogen particles in
sucrose is fixed.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Elements
and Compounds

There is a key difference between elements

and compounds.
Compounds can be broken down into
simpler substances by chemical
means, but elements cannot.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Elements
and Compounds

Breaking Down Compounds

Physical methods that are used to separate
mixtures cannot be used to break a
compound into simpler substances.
Boil liquid water and you get water vapor, not
the oxygen and hydrogen that water
contains.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Elements
and Compounds

Breaking Down Compounds

Physical methods that are used to separate
mixtures cannot be used to break a
compound into simpler substances.
Dissolve a sugar cube in water and you still
have sucrose, not oxygen, carbon, and
hydrogen.
This does not mean that sucrose or water cannot
be broken down into simpler substances.
But methods must involve a chemical change.
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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Elements
and Compounds

Breaking Down Compounds

A chemical change is a change that
produces matter with a different
composition than the original matter.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Elements
and Compounds

Breaking Down Compounds

Heating is one of the processes used to break
down compounds into simpler substances.

The layer of sugar is heated until it breaks

down into solid carbon and water vapor.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > CHEMISTRY & YOU

What happens to the compounds in

bread when it is overcooked that
causes the change in the taste of the
bread?

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > CHEMISTRY & YOU

What happens to the compounds in

bread when it is overcooked that
causes the change in the taste of the
bread?

The compounds undergo

a chemical change that
changes the taste of the
bread. They are broken
down into solid carbon.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Elements
and Compounds

Breaking Down Compounds

Can the substances that are produced
when sugar is broken down when heated
also be broken down?
There is no chemical process that will break
down carbon into simpler substances
because carbon is an element.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Elements
and Compounds

Breaking Down Compounds

When an electrical current passes through
water, it is broken down into oxygen and
hydrogen.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Elements
and Compounds

Properties of Compounds
In general, the properties of compounds are
quite different from those of their
component elements.
Sugar is a sweet-tasting white solid, but
carbon is a tasteless black solid.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Elements
and Compounds

Properties of Compounds
In general, the properties of compounds are
quite different from those of their
component elements.
Hydrogen is a gas that burns in the presence
of oxygen a colorless gas that supports
burning.
The product of this chemical change is
water, a liquid that can stop materials
from burning.
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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Elements
and Compounds

Properties of Compounds
When the elements sodium and chlorine
combine chemically to form sodium
chloride, there is a change in composition
and a change in properties.
Sodium is a soft gray
metal.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Elements
and Compounds

Properties of Compounds
When the elements sodium and chlorine
combine chemically to form sodium
chloride, there is a change in composition
and a change in properties.
Chlorine is a pale
yellow poisonous
gas.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Elements
and Compounds

Properties of Compounds
When the elements sodium and chlorine
combine chemically to form sodium
chloride, there is a change in composition
and a change in properties.
Sodium chloride
(commonly known
as table salt) is a
white solid.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds >

Can elements be broken down by

chemical changes? Can compounds?

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds >

Can elements be broken down by

chemical changes? Can compounds?

There are no chemical processes that can

break down an element into simpler
substances. Compounds can be broken
down by chemical changes.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Sub-
stances and Mixtures

Distinguishing Substances and Mixtures

How can substances and mixtures be
distinguished?

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Sub-
stances and Mixtures

Deciding whether a sample of matter is a

substance or a mixture based solely on
appearances can be difficult.
After all, homogeneous mixtures and
substances will both appear to contain only
one kind of matter.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Sub-
stances and Mixtures

Sometimes you can decide by considering

whether there is more than one version of
the material in question.
You can buy whole milk, low-fat milk, no-fat
milk, light cream, or heavy cream.
From this information, you can conclude
that milk and cream are mixtures.
You might infer that these mixtures differ
in the amount of fat they contain.
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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Sub-
stances and Mixtures

Sometimes you can decide by considering

whether there is more than one version of
the material in question.
Most gas stations offer at least two blends of
gasoline.
The blends have different octane ratings
and different costs per gallon.
So, gasoline must be a mixture.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Sub-
stances and Mixtures

If the composition of a material is fixed,

the material is a substance. If the
composition of a material may vary, the
material is a mixture.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Distinguishing Sub-
stances and Mixtures

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Sample Problem 2.2

Classifying Materials

When a certain blue-green

solid is heated, a colorless
gas and a black solid form.
All three materials are
substances. Is it possible to
classify these substances as
elements or compounds?

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Sample Problem 2.2

1 Analyze Identify the relevant concepts.

A compound can be broken down into

simpler substances by a chemical change,
but an element cannot. Heating can cause
a chemical change.

A compound is made of two or more

elements that are chemically combined.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Sample Problem 2.2

2 Solve Apply concepts to this situation.

List the known facts and relevant
concepts.
A blue-green solid is heated.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Sample Problem 2.2

2 Solve Apply concepts to this situation.

Determine if the substances are
elements or compounds.
A colorless gas and a black solid appear.
Before heating, there was one substance.
After heating, there were two substances.
The blue-green solid must be a compound.

possible to know if the colorless gas and the

black solid are elements or compounds.
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 2.3 Elements and Compounds >

No matter what you do to a silvery

more likely to be a substance or a

mixture?

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds >

No matter what you do to a silvery

more likely to be a substance or a

mixture?
It is most likely a substance. If it was a
mixture, it would likely have separated
when manipulated chemically or physically.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Symbols and Formulas

Symbols and Formulas

What do chemists use to represent
elements and compounds?

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Symbols and Formulas

Chemists use chemical symbols to

represent elements, and chemical
formulas to represent compounds.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Symbols and Formulas

Using symbols to represent different kinds

of matter is not a new idea.
For thousands of years, alchemists used
symbols, such as the ones below, to represent
elements.
Alchemists and the
English chemist John
Dalton (1766 1844)
both used drawings to
represent chemical
elements.
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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Symbols and Formulas

The symbols used today for elements are

based on a system developed by Swedish
chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1779 1848).
He based his symbols on the Latin names of
elements.
Each element is represented by a one- or
two-letter chemical symbol.
First letters of chemical symbols are capitalized.
When a second letter is used, it is lowercase.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Symbols and Formulas

If the English name and the Latin name of

an element are similar, the symbol will
appear to have been derived from the
English name.
Examples include Ca for calcium, N for
nitrogen, and S for sulfur.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Interpret Data

Symbols and Latin Names for Some Elements

Name Symbol Latin name
Sodium Na natrium
Potassium K kalium
Antimony Sb stibium
Copper Cu cuprum
Gold Au aurum
Silver Ag argentum
Iron Fe ferrum
Lead Pb plumbum
Tin Sn stannum

40
 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Symbols and Formulas

Chemical symbols provide a shorthand way

to write the chemical formulas of
compounds.
The symbols for hydrogen, oxygen, and
carbon are H, O, and C.
The formula for water is H2O.
The formula for sucrose, or table sugar, is
C12H22O11.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Symbols and Formulas

Subscripts in the chemical formulas tell you

how many of each type of element are in
the compound.
The subscript 2 in H2O indicates that there
are always two parts of hydrogen for each
part of oxygen in water.
Because a compound has a fixed
composition, the formula for a compound is
always the same.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds >

Chemical symbols are abbreviations

for the names of elements in what
language?

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds >

Chemical symbols are abbreviations

for the names of elements in what
language?
Chemical symbols are abbreviations for
the names of elements in Latin.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > The Periodic Table A
Preview

The Periodic Table A Preview

Why is a periodic table useful?

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > The Periodic Table A
Preview

All the known elements are organized in a

special table called the periodic table.
A periodic table is an arrangement of
elements in which the elements are
separated into groups based on a set of
repeating properties.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > The Periodic Table A
Preview

The periodic table allows you to easily

compare the properties of one element
(or a group of elements) to another
element (or group of elements).

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > The Periodic Table A
Preview

Each element is identified by its symbol

placed in a square.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > The Periodic Table A
Preview
Each element is identified by its symbol
placed in a square.
The elements are listed in order from left to
right and top to bottom by atomic number, a
number that is unique to each element.
The atomic number of the element is shown
centered above the symbol.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > The Periodic Table A
Preview
Each element is identified by its symbol
placed in a square.
The elements are listed in order from left to
right and top to bottom by atomic number, a
number that is unique to each element.
The atomic number of the element is shown
centered above the symbol.
Hydrogen (H), the lightest element, is in the top left
corner.
Helium (He), atomic number 2, is at the top right.
Lithium, atomic number 3, is at the left end of the
second row.
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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > The Periodic Table A
Preview

Each horizontal row of the periodic table

is called a period.
There are seven periods in the periodic
table.
The number of elements per period ranges
from 2 (hydrogen and helium) in Period 1
to 32 in Period 6.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > The Periodic Table A
Preview

Within a period, the properties of the

elements vary as you move across the
period.
This pattern of properties then repeats as
you move to the next period.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > The Periodic Table A
Preview

Each vertical column of the periodic table

is called a group, or family.
Elements within a group have similar
chemical and physical properties.
Note that each group is identified by a
number and the letter A or B.
Group 2A contains the elements
beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium
(Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), and
radium (Ra).
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 2.3 Elements and Compounds >

Which elements are included in the

periodic table?

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds >

Which elements are included in the

periodic table?

All known elements are included in the

periodic table.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Key Concepts

Compounds can be broken down into

simpler substances by chemical
means, but elements cannot.

If the composition of a material is fixed,

the material is a substance. If the
composition may vary, the material is a
mixture.

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Key Concepts

Chemists use chemical symbols to

represent elements, and chemical
formulas to represent compounds.

The periodic table allows you to easily

compare the properties of one element
(or group of elements) to another
element (or group of elements).

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Glossary Terms

element: the simplest form of matter that has a

unique set of properties; an element cannot be
broken down into simpler substances by
chemical means
compound: a substance that contains two or
more elements chemically combined in a fixed
proportion
chemical change: a change that produces
matter with a different composition than the
original matter

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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > Glossary Terms

chemical symbol: a one- or two-letter

representation of an element
periodic table: an arrangement of elements in
which the elements are separated into groups
based on a set of repeating properties
period: a horizontal row of elements in the
periodic table
group: a vertical column of elements in the
periodic table; the constituent elements of a
group have similar chemical and physical
properties
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 2.3 Elements and Compounds > BIG IDEA

Chemistry as the Central Science

Matter may be made of elements or
compounds.
Elements and compounds are pure
substances but can be physically
combined to make heterogeneous or
homogeneous mixtures.
These different forms of matter may
undergo physical or chemical changes.
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 2.3 Elements and Compounds >

END OF 2.3

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions >

Chapter 2
Matter and Change
2.1 Properties of Matter
2.2 Mixtures
2.3 Elements and Compounds

2.4 Chemical Reactions

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > CHEMISTRY & YOU

What happened to the match?

In this lesson, you

will learn to
recognize whether
the burning match is
a chemical change
or physical change.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Chemical Changes

Chemical Changes

What always happens during a

chemical change?

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Chemical Changes

Words such as burn, rot, rust, decompose,

ferment, explode, and corrode usually
signify a chemical change.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Chemical Changes

Words such as burn, rot, rust, decompose,

ferment, explode, and corrode usually
signify a chemical change.
The ability of a substance to undergo a
specific chemical change is called a chemical
property.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Chemical Changes

Iron is able to combine with oxygen to

form rust.
The ability to rust is a chemical property of
iron.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Chemical Changes

Chemical properties can be used to identify

a substance.
But chemical properties can be observed only
when a substance undergoes a chemical
change.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Chemical Changes

When charcoal is broken into smaller

pieces, the change is a physical change.
The substances present
before the change are
the same substances
present after the change,
although the charcoal
pieces are not as large.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Chemical Changes

When charcoal is broken into smaller

pieces, the change is a physical change.
During a physical
change, the composition
of the matter never
changes.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Chemical Changes

During a chemical change, the

composition of matter always
changes.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Chemical Changes

When the charcoal is heated and burned,

a chemical change occurs.
The substances in
charcoal react with
oxygen in the air to
form other
substances.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Chemical Changes

A chemical change is also called a

chemical reaction.
One or more substances change into one
or more new substances during a
chemical reaction.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Chemical Changes

A chemical change is also called a

chemical reaction.
One or more substances change into one
or more new substances during a
chemical reaction.
A substance present at the start of the
reaction is a reactant.
A substance produced in the reaction is a
product.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Chemical Changes

In the burning of charcoal, carbon and

oxygen are the main reactants, and
carbon dioxide is the main product.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions >

What is always true of a chemical

change that is never true of a
physical change?

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions >

What is always true of a chemical

change that is never true of a
physical change?

During a chemical change, the composition of

the matter always changes. During a physical
change, the composition of the matter never
changes.

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 Recognizing Chemical
2.4 Chemical Reactions > Changes

Recognizing Chemical Changes

What are four possible clues
that a chemical change has
taken place?

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 Recognizing Chemical
2.4 Chemical Reactions > Changes

Possible clues to chemical change

include a transfer of energy, a
change in color, the production of a
gas, or the formation of a
precipitate.

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 Recognizing Chemical
2.4 Chemical Reactions > Changes

Every chemical change involves a

transfer of energy.
For example, energy stored in natural gas
is used to cook food.

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 Recognizing Chemical
2.4 Chemical Reactions > Changes

Every chemical change involves a

transfer of energy.
For example, energy stored in natural gas
is used to cook food.
When the methane in natural gas chemically
combines with oxygen in the air, energy is given
off in the form of heat and light.
Some of this energy is transferred to and
absorbed by food that is cooking over a lit gas
burner.
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 Recognizing Chemical
2.4 Chemical Reactions > Changes

Every chemical change involves a

transfer of energy.
For example, energy stored in natural gas
is used to cook food.
The energy causes chemical changes to take
place in the food.
The food may change color and brown as it
cooks, which is another clue that chemical
changes are occurring.

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 Recognizing Chemical
2.4 Chemical Reactions > Changes

You can observe two other clues to

chemical change while cleaning a bathtub.
The ring of soap scum that can form in a
bathtub is an example of a precipitate.

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 Recognizing Chemical
2.4 Chemical Reactions > Changes

You can observe two other clues to

chemical change while cleaning a bathtub.
The ring of soap scum that can form in a
bathtub is an example of a precipitate.

A precipitate is a solid that forms and

settles out of a liquid mixture.

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 Recognizing Chemical
2.4 Chemical Reactions > Changes

You can observe two other clues to

chemical change while cleaning a bathtub.
The ring of soap scum that can form in a
bathtub is an example of a precipitate.
Some bathroom cleaners that you can use to
remove soap scum start to bubble when you spray
them on the scum.
The bubbles are produced because a gas is
released during the chemical change that is taking
place in the cleaner.
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 Recognizing Chemical
2.4 Chemical Reactions > Changes

If you observe a clue to chemical

change, you cannot be certain that a
chemical change has taken place.

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 Recognizing Chemical
2.4 Chemical Reactions > Changes

If you observe a clue to chemical

change, you cannot be certain that a
chemical change has taken place.
The clue may be the result of a physical
change.

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 Recognizing Chemical
2.4 Chemical Reactions > Changes

If you observe a clue to chemical

change, you cannot be certain that a
chemical change has taken place.
The clue may be the result of a physical
change.
For example, energy is always transferred when
matter changes from one state to another.
Bubbles form when you boil water or open a
carbonated drink.

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 Recognizing Chemical
2.4 Chemical Reactions > Changes

If you observe a clue to chemical

change, you cannot be certain that a
chemical change has taken place.
The only way to be sure that a chemical
change has occurred is to test the
composition of a sample before and after
the change.

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 Recognizing Chemical
2.4 Chemical Reactions > Changes

Clues to chemical change often have

practical applications.
Production of a Gas
Bubbles of carbon
dioxide form when two
antacid tablets are
dropped into a glass of
water.

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 Recognizing Chemical
2.4 Chemical Reactions > Changes

Clues to chemical change often have

practical applications.
Color Change
When a test strip is
dipped in a solution, the
color change is used to
determine the pH of the
solution.

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 Recognizing Chemical
2.4 Chemical Reactions > Changes

Clues to chemical change often have

practical applications.
Formation of a Precipitate
One step in the
production of cheese is
a reaction that causes
milk to separate into
solid curds and liquid
whey.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > CHEMISTRY & YOU

Are the changes that happen to a

burning match chemical or physical
changes? How do you know?

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > CHEMISTRY & YOU

Are the changes that happen to a

burning match chemical or physical
changes? How do you know?
A burning match is
undergoing a chemical
change. There is a transfer
of heat, a production of
light, and a change of color.
The composition of the
materials also changes
during the burning process.
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 2.4 Chemical Reactions >

How can you determine for sure that

a chemical change has taken place?

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions >

How can you determine for sure that

a chemical change has taken place?

The only way to determine for sure if a

chemical change has taken place is to test
the composition of a sample before and after
the change.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Conservation of Mass

Conservation of Mass
How are the mass of the reactants
and the mass of the products of a
chemical reaction related?

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Conservation of Mass

When wood burns, substances in the

wood combine with oxygen from the air.
As the wood burns, a sizable amount of
matter is reduced to a small pile of ashes.
The reaction seems to involve a reduction
in the amount of matter. But appearances
can be deceiving.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Conservation of Mass

During any chemical reaction, the

mass of the products is always
equal to the mass of the reactants.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Conservation of Mass

Two of the products of burning wood

carbon dioxide gas and water vapor
are released into the air.
When the mass of these cases is
considered, the amount of matter is
unchanged.
Careful measurements show that the total
mass of the reactants equals the total mass
of the products.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Conservation of Mass

Mass also holds constant during

physical changes.

When 10 grams of ice melt, 10 grams of

liquid water are produced.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Conservation of Mass

The scientific law that reflects these

observations is the law of conservation
of mass.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Conservation of Mass

The scientific law that reflects these

observations is the law of conservation
of mass.
The law of conservation of mass states
that in any physical change or chemical
reaction, mass is conserved.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Conservation of Mass

The scientific law that reflects these

observations is the law of conservation
of mass.
The law of conservation of mass states
that in any physical change or chemical
reaction, mass is conserved.
Mass is neither created nor destroyed.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Conservation of Mass

The law of conservation of mass is more

easily observed when a change occurs
in a closed container.

When the liquids in the figure at left are mixed,

they react. None of the products are gases.
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 2.4 Chemical Reactions >

To what changes does the law of

conservation of mass apply?

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions >

To what changes does the law of

conservation of mass apply?

The law of conservation of mass applies to

chemical and physical changes.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Key Concepts

During a chemical change, the

composition of matter always changes.

Four possible clues to chemical change

include a transfer of energy, a change in
color, the production of a gas, or the
formation of a precipitate.

During any chemical reaction, the mass

of the products is always equal to the
mass of the reactants.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Glossary Terms

chemical property: the ability of a substance

to undergo a specific chemical change
chemical reaction: a change in which one or
more reactants change into one or more
products; characterized by the breaking of
bonds in reactants and the formation of bonds
in products
reactant: a substance present at the start of a
reaction

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > Glossary Terms

product: a substance produced in a chemical

reaction
precipitate: a solid that forms and settles out
of a liquid mixture
law of conservation of mass: in any physical
change or chemical reaction, mass is
conserved; mass can be neither created nor
destroyed

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions > BIG IDEA

Chemistry as the Central Science

The different forms of matter may
undergo physical or chemical
changes.

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 2.4 Chemical Reactions >

END OF 2.4

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