4

Phonetics and Phonology

key concepts
Articulatory phonetics, phonetic symbols
Consonants, approximants, vowels
Syllables, feet
Phonology, phonemes, allophones, phonological rules

i n t ro d u c t i o n
In this chapter we sketch the pronunciation system of English. We begin
with phonetics, a system for describing and recording the sounds of lan-
guage objectively. Phonetics provides a valuable way of opening our ears to
facets of language that we tend to understand by reference to their written
rather than their actual spoken forms. Phonology concerns itself with the
ways in which languages make use of sounds to distinguish words from each
other.
Teachers should be knowledgeable about the phonetics and phonology
of English because (1) the sound system is primary and the basis for the
spelling system; (2) they may have to teach English pronunciation to stu-
dents who are not native speakers of English; (3) they may have to teach
poetry, which requires that they teach about rhyme, alliteration, assonance,
and other poetic devices that manipulate sound; (4) it is important to un-
derstand accents and language variation and to react appropriately to them
and to teach appropriate language attitudes about them to students (see our
chapters on Language and Society and Usage in Book II); (5) we are so liter-
ate that we tend to “hear” the sounds of our language through its spelling
system, and phonetics/phonology provides a corrective to that; and (6) pho-
netics and phonology provide systematic and well-founded understandings
of the sound patterns of English.

a rt i c u l ato ry p h o n e t i c s
We have three goals in this section. First, we introduce you to the ways in
which the sounds of English are produced. Second, we develop a system for
classifying speech sounds on the basis of how they are produced. Simultane-
ously we introduce an alphabet approximating that developed by the Inter-
national Phonetics Association (IPA), which will allow us to refer to sounds
quite precisely. When we want to indicate that letters are to be interpreted
as phonetic symbols, we enclose them in square brackets, [ ], and when we
want to indicate that letters are to be interpreted as letters from an ordinary
spelling system, we enclose them in angled brackets, < >.

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The phonetic alphabet uses many of the letters of the English alphabet, but
their pronunciations are very restricted and are not always the ones you might
expect. In this system, there are no “silent” letters—every phonetic symbol
represents an actual sound. Every letter always has the same pronunciation
regardless of its context, no letter has more than one pronunciation, and no
sounds are represented by more than one letter. To make fine distinctions,
phoneticians add special symbols, called diacritics, to the basic letters. For
some English sounds and for languages other than English, symbols not from
the English alphabet have been devised. (You might visit the IPA web site for
a full listing of the symbols.)
In the sections to follow, we describe the sounds represented by these
symbols and how these sounds are made. As we go through these sections,
pay attention to the ways in which individual sounds are ordinarily spelled
in English, as well as to the phonetic spellings.
To produce speech, air must flow from the lungs through the vocal tract,
which includes the vocal folds (popularly called the vocal cords, though
they are more like thick elastic bands than strings), the nose or nasal cav-
ity, and the mouth or oral cavity (See Figure 1). The vocal folds vibrate
for some sounds but not for others. Air flows through the nose for certain
sounds but not others. But the main creator of speech sounds is the mouth.
We will describe the roles that each of these elements plays in the following
paragraphs.

figure 1: vocal apparatus

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co n s o n a n ts
Consonants include the sounds we represent as <p, b, t, d, m, n, f, v, s, z,
l, r, h> in the ordinary alphabet. All consonants are produced by entirely
or almost entirely stopping the airstream coming from the lungs. When
we almost entirely stop the airstream we force it through such a narrow
opening that the airflow at that point is turbulent and noisy.
We classify consonants according to the following characteristics: (a)
whether or not the vocal folds are vibrating (voicing); (b) whether the
sound is made with a fully stopped or merely constricted airstream (its man-
ner of articulation); (c) where in the mouth the stoppage or constriction is
made (its place of articulation); (d) whether or not air is flowing through
the nasal cavity (nasality); and (e) whether or not the lips are pursed (lip-
rounding).

Voicing
As a warm-up exercise, make the sound fffff, and keep it going for a count of
five. Now make the sound vvvvv, and keep it going for a count of five. Now
alternate these two: fffffvvvvvfffffvvvvv. You probably noticed that vvvvv
had a “buzz” that fffff did not have. That “buzz” is caused by the vibrating
of your vocal folds—which you can check by putting your fingers on your
throat or by covering your ears as you alternate fffff and vvvvv. Now try the
same exercises with the first sounds of the following words: thigh, thy; sip,
zip. You should be able to feel the vocal folds vibrate as you make the second
sound of each pair.
Sounds produced with vibrating vocal folds (see Figure 1) are said to be
voiced; those produced without vocal cord vibration are voiceless. Table 1
lists the voiced and voiceless consonants of English. The letters in [ ] are the
phonetic symbols for the sounds.

voiced voiceless
by [b] pie [p]
my [m]
wet [w]
vie [v] fie [f]
thy [] thigh [T]
die [d] tie [t]
nigh [n]
zip [z] sip [s]
lie [l]
rye [r]

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beige [Z] bash [S]

jive [dZ] chive [tS]
yet [j]
guide [g] kite [k]
gong [N]
hive [h]

table 1: voiced and voiceless consonants

Exercise
1. Collect a set of words in which each of the voiced and voiceless
sounds listed in the two columns above occurs as the first sound of a
word, in the middle of a word (specifically between two vowels), and at
the end of a word, as in: [b] bird, rubbing, rub; [p] pan, tapping, tap.
How are each of these sounds ordinarily spelled? (Note: English single
and double consonants, as in rub and rubbing, tap and tapping, rep-
resent the same sound. The doubled consonants tell us how the vowel
before them is to be pronounced; cf. tapping, taping.)

2. Identify the sound represented by each of the following phonetic

symbols and for each sound collect five words in which it occurs: [p,
b, f, v, T, D, S, Z, tS, dZ, s, z]. How is each of these sounds ordinarily
spelled?

Nasality
Make the sound represented by <m> in the word Pam and continue it
for some seconds. As you continue it, pinch your nose and observe what
happens to the sound. It should stop immediately. This shows that air was
flowing through your nose as you produced this sound. Now try the same
little experiment with the <n> of pan and the <ng> of pang. You should find
that the air flows through the nose in these two cases also. Sounds in which
air flows through the nose are called nasal sounds. The air is allowed into
the nose by lowering the velum, the soft palate at the back of the mouth (see
Figure 1). English has three main nasal sounds:

[m] Pam clammy mat

[n] pan clannish Nat
[N] pang clingy ----

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Exercise
Using the data just above, say where [N] cannot occur in a word. How
are each of these nasal sounds ordinarily spelled?

Manner of articulation

By manner of articulation we mean the kind of closure or constriction

used in making the sound. We classify English consonants according to
three manners of articulation: stops (full stoppage of the airstream some-
where in the oral cavity between the vocal folds and the lips, as in [p], [b],
[m]); fricatives (constriction of the airstream in the oral cavity produc-
ing turbulence and noise, as in [f], [v]); affricates (full stoppage of the
airstream followed immediately by constriction, as in [tS], [dZ]). Table 2
summarizes the different manners of articulation.

Stops
[p] pad [b] bad [m] mat
[t] tad [d] dad [n] Nat
[k] cad [g] gad [N] tang

Fricatives
[f] fie [v] vie
[T] thigh [D] thy
[s] Sue [z] zoo
[S] shoe [Z] jus (au jus)
[h] how

Affricates
[tS] chin
[dZ] gin

table 2: manners of articulation

Exercise
For each of the sounds listed in Table 2, collect five words in which the
sound occurs as the last sound of the word and another five in which
the sound occurs in the middle of the word (specifically, between two

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vowels), as [N] is in ring, ringing. How is each sound ordinarily spelled?

Place of articulation
By place of articulation we mean the area in the mouth at which the con-
sonantal closure or constriction occurs. English uses only seven places of
articulation (see Figure 1) which we describe and illustrate below.
Bilabial sounds are made by bringing both lips together to stop the air-
stream:

[p] pie cupping cup

[b] by clubbing cub
[m] my coming come

Labiodental sounds are made by bringing the top teeth into contact with
the bottom lip and forcing air between the two to create the fricatives:

[f] feel raffle tough

[v] veal ravel dove

Interdental sounds are made by placing the tip of the tongue between
the top and bottom teeth and forcing air through. Again, these are both
fricatives:

[T] thigh ether mouth bath (noun)

[] thy either mouth bathe (verb)

Alveolar sounds are made by bringing the tongue and the alveolar ridge
(the bony ridge just behind the top teeth) together to create either a stop or
fricative:

[t] tub boating boat [s] sip fussy grace

[d] dub boding bode [z] zip fuzzy graze
[n] knit boning bone [r] rip terror tear

(Alveo-)palatal sounds are made by bringing the blade of the tongue to,
or close to, the alveo-palatal area of the roof of the mouth to create fricatives
and affricates:

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[S] sure vicious rush

[Z] genre vision rouge
[tS] chin catcher etch
[dZ] gin edger edge

Velar sounds are created by stopping the airstream by bringing the back
of the tongue into contact with the velum:

[k] could backer tuck

[g] good bagger tug
[N] ------ banger tongue

Glottal sounds are created by either narrowing the vocal folds sufficient-
ly to create a fricative or closing them to create a stop:

[h] hat cahoots [?] butter (some varieties of English)

Exercise
For each of the sounds listed under Place of Articulation, find five
words in which the sound occurs. How are each of these sounds ordi-
narily spelled?

Approximants
Approximants are sounds made by narrowing the oral cavity but not enough
to cause turbulence in the airstream; the airstream is said to be smooth. The
beginning sounds of lye and rye are approximants. The narrowest point in
the airstream is wider in approximants than in fricatives, but is not as wide
as it is in vowels. Approximants are more sonorant (resonant, i.e., naturally
loud) than consonants, but less so than vowels. They are like consonants in
that they typically occur before or after the vowels of syllables (see below).
English has three kinds of approximants.
Lateral approximants are made by touching the tongue to the alveolar
ridge while allowing the air to pass along one or both sides, as in [l]—in
lack, call, and callow.
Central approximants are made by raising the sides of the tongue so that
the air flows along the center of the tongue, as in [r]—in rock, roll, and Rory.
[r] is regarded as an alveolar sound.
Glides (semivowels) come in two kinds: palatal and labio-velar. Palatal

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glides are made by raising the tongue toward the hard palate, close to where
the vowel in eat is made. The first sound of yet, yolk, and y’all is a palatal glide,
represented phonetically as [j]. Labio-velar glides are made by rounding the
lips and simultaneously raising the back of the tongue toward the velum,
close to where the vowel sound of ooze is made. Labio-velar glides thus have
two places of articulation—they are both labial and velar. The first sound of
wet, wall, and wink is a labio-velar glide, represented phonetically as [w].

Lateral [l] let
Central [r] Rhett
Glides Labio-velar [w] wet
Palatal [j] yet

Articulatory descriptions
An articulatory description of any consonant or approximant must specify
(at least) its place and manner of articulation, whether it is voiced or voice-
less, and whether it is nasal or oral. For example, [m] is made at the lips by
stopping the airstream, is voiced, and is nasal. These features are represented
as:

[m] [w] [l]

Voicing voiced voiced voiced
Place bilabial labio-velar alveolar
Manner stop glide lateral approximant
Nasality nasal oral oral
Example word mime wow low

We can gather all of the consonants that we have described into a single
chart:
labio‑ inter‑ (alveo-)
bilabial dental dental alveolar palatal velar glottal
stop pb td kg (?)
nasal stop m n N
fricative f v T sz S Z h
affricate tS dZ
approximants
glides (w) j (w)
lateral l
central r
table 3: english consonants and approximants

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Exercise
You should now be able to provide an articulator description for each of
the following sounds. Consult Tables 1-3.
[t] [k] [b] [d] [g]
Voicing
Place
Manner
Nasality
Example
word
[n] [N] [f] [v] [T]
Voicing
Place
Manner
Nasality
Example
word
[ð] [s] [z] [S] [Z]
Voicing
Place
Manner
Nasality
Example
word
[tS] [dZ] [l] [r] [h]
Voicing
Place
Manner
Nasality
Example
word
[w] [j]
Voicing
Place
Manner
Nasality
Example
word

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vow e l s
Vowels include the sounds we ordinarily represent as the letters <a, e, i, o,
u>, as well as a number of other sounds for which the ordinary alphabet has
no unique symbols.
Vowels are distinguished from consonants in several ways. As we have
seen, consonants are produced by constricting the airstream to various de-
grees as it flows through the oral tract. Vowels are produced with a smooth,
unobstructed airflow through the oral tract.
Differences in vowel quality are produced by different shapes of the oral
cavity. Characteristic vowel qualities are determined by (a) the height of the
tongue in the mouth; (b) the part of the tongue raised (front, middle, or
back); (c) the configuration of the lips; and (d) the tension of the muscles
of the oral tract. An articulatory description of a vowel must include all of
these features.

Tongue height
Pronounce the words eat and at. Now pronounce just the vowels of these
two words. Notice that as you go from the vowel of eat to the vowel of at,
your mouth opens. If this is not obvious to you just by playing with these
two vowels, look in a mirror as you produce them. Alternate the words, and
then just the two vowels.
Once you’ve become accustomed to the different degrees of openness of
these two vowels, pronounce ate between eat and at. The degree of open-
ness of its vowel falls between those of eat and at, so there is a continuous
increase in mouth openness as you go from one vowel to another. These
degrees distinguish high, mid, and low vowels. We will use the following
symbols for this sequence of vowels:

(1) eat [i] High

ate [e] Mid
at [] Low

Exercise
For each of the three vowels above, find five words in which the vowel
occurs. Be clear about which symbol most accurately applies to each
vowel. How is each of these vowels ordinarily spelled?

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Front and back vowels

Now compare the vowel of beat with that of boot. Alternate the words, and
then just the vowels. It will be more difficult this time to monitor the ac-
tivities of your tongue as you shift from one of these to the other, but try
anyway.
You produce the [i] of beat with the front (blade) of your tongue raised
toward your palate. If you draw in your breath as you make this vowel, you
will feel the cold air against your palate. As you shift from [i] to [u], the
vowel of boot, you will find yourself raising the back of your tongue. (You
will also find yourself pursing (rounding) your lips, but disregard this for
the moment.) Because of the relative positions at which these vowels are
made in the mouth, phoneticians call [i] and the other vowels in (1) front
vowels, and [u] a back vowel.
The back vowels, like the front ones, descend from high, through mid,
to low, in a continuous sequence. You can observe this by pronouncing the
words coot, coat, and cot, and then just their vowels. As you produce this
series of vowels you’ll find your mouth opening (monitor your lower jaw) as
you go from coot to coat to cot. We use the following symbols for these back
vowels:

(2) coot [u] High

coat [o] Mid
cot [A] Low

Exercise
For each of the three vowels just above, find five words in which the vowel
occurs. Be clear about which symbol most accurately applies to each vow-
el. How is each of these vowels ordinarily spelled?

We combine these two series of vowels in Table 4:

front back
high i u
mid e o
low  A

table 4: front and back vowels

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Exercise
For each of the vowels in Table 4, find five more words in which the vowel
occurs. Be clear about which symbol most accurately applies to each vow-
el. How is each of these vowels ordinarily spelled?

Lip rounding
As you compared [i] and [u] you probably noticed that your lips changed
shape as you shifted from the front vowel to the back one. Your lips were
rounded as you produced [u]. They were unrounded (spread or neutral)
as you produced [i]. As you moved through the series of back vowels you
may also have noticed that lip rounding decreased as you moved from high
to low. In fact the lips are unrounded during the pronunciation of [A]. In
English, the only rounded vowels are back, though many languages, such as
French and German, have rounded front vowels.

Exercise
Find five pairs of words to illustrate lip rounding. The first member of
each pair of words must include a rounded vowel; the second member
should be as similar as possible to the first, but must include a corre-
sponding vowel that is not rounded. Assign a phonetic symbol to each
vowel, e.g., heat [i], hoot [u]. As always, note how each vowel is ordi-
narily spelled.

Intermediate vowels
First, pronounce the words meat, mitt, mate, met, and mat. Then pronounce
just their vowels:

meat me [i]
mitt [I]
mate may [e]
met [E]
mat [{]

The vowels we’ve just added, [I] and [E], are intermediate in height between
[i] and [e], and [e] and [{], respectively.

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Exercise
For each of the vowels we’ve just discussed, find 5 more words in which
they occur. Note how they are ordinarily spelled.

Now pronounce the series of words suit, soot, sowed, sought, sot. Then
pronounce just their vowels:

suit cooed flew [u]

soot could [U]
sowed code flow [o]
sought fraught caw [O]
sot cot spa [A]

We’ve added two more intermediate vowels to the back series, [U] and [O].

Exercise
For each of the vowels we’ve just discussed, find 5 more words in which
they occur. Note how they are ordinarily spelled.

Now say the following words, paying attention to their vowels, and es-
pecially to the movement of your tongue as you go from one vowel to the
next: ate, up, oat. The vowel in ate is [e] and that in oat is [o]. The vowel in
up is represented by [V], called “wedge” or “caret.”
We hope that you noticed your tongue pull back as you went from [e] to
[V], and back farther as you went from [V] to [o]. [e] is a mid, front vowel,
and [o] is a mid back vowel. As [V] is between these two and at about the
same height, it is a mid central vowel.
We’ve now added five intermediate vowels: [I] as in mitt, hid, rip; [E] as
in wept, bed, flex; [U] as in hood, could; [O] as in caw; and [V] as in mutt. Of
these, [I] and [E] are front and unrounded, while [U] and [O] are back and
rounded, and [V] is central and unrounded. These new vowels differ from
the ones we introduced earlier in several ways:
1. In length: [i], [e], [u], [o], [O], and [A] are longer than [I], [E], [{],
[U], and [V], when they occur in the same contexts.
2. In position in the mouth: [i] and [e] are higher and farther front than
[I] and [E], respectively; [u] and [o] are higher and farther back than
[U] and [O], respectively.

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3. All vowels can occur in syllables (see below) that end in at least one
consonant (closed syllables); [i], [e], [u], [o], [O], and [A] can occur as
the final sound in a syllable (open syllables).
4. Muscle tension: [i], [e], [u], [o], [O], and [A] are produced with great-
er muscle tension in the articulators than [I], [E], [{], [U], and [V]
are. The former are tense vowels; the latter are lax. The greater tension
in [i], [e], [u], [o], [O], and [A] may explain why they are longer and
more peripheral, i.e., closer to the boundary of the mouth, than the
other vowels.
Even though there are several differences separating these two sets of
vowels, we will refer to them as tense and lax vowels. Table 5 lists all of
them:

tense lax
beat, bee [i] hit [I]
boot, boo [u] hood [U]
bait, bay [e] head [E]
boat, beau [o] hat [{]
bought, paw [O] hut [V]
pot, spa [A]

table 5: tense and lax vowels

You may have noticed that all of the example words we have used to exem-
plify the vowels we have distinguished consist of a single syllable. This is
because vowels in multi-syllabic words can differ from those in monosyl-
lables, and we wanted to compare vowels in similar contexts. We have now
distinguished the following vowels:

front central back

i u
 U
e o
E V O
{ A

table 6: english vowels in monosyllabic words

Not all American English speakers distinguish [O] and [A] in all contexts.

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In some dialects of American English (California, Midwest), the vowels [O]

and [A] in pairs of words such as sought and sot, caught and cot, and wrought
and rot are pronounced identically, though the vowel used is neither [O] nor
[A], but one intermediate between them.

Vowels in multi-syllabic words

Pronounce the words above, soda, sofa, comma, arena, patina, photograph,
paying particular attention to the vowel represented by the bold letters.
Then pronounce this vowel in isolation. This vowel is called schwa and
written [@]. Schwa is made at approximately the same place as [V], that is,
farther forward than the back vowels and farther back than the front ones.
Hence, it is central. In addition, [@] is mid, lax, and unrounded. It is heard
primarily in unstressed syllables, as in the words above. It is the vowel we
produce if we vocalize as we prepare to speak—uh. The tongue is said to
be in its neutral position as we pronounce this vowel.

Exercise
Find five words to illustrate the vowel [@]. Can you estimate how common
this vowel is in English? What letters of the alphabet ordinarily indicate this
sound?

We can present the vowels as we presented the consonants, on a chart

indicating their articulatory properties.

front central back

Unrounded Rounded

Upper high i u
Lower high I U
Upper mid e @ o
Lower mid E V O
Low  A

table 7: english vowels

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Exercise
1. Find five words to illustrate each of the vowels we distinguish in
Table 7. Be clear about which symbol most accurately applies to each
vowel.

2. Provide an articulatory description for each of the following vowels;

that is, indicate its height, position (front or back), tension, and lip con-
figuration.
[] [] [] [] [] []
Height
Position
Tension
Rounding
Example
word
[] [{] [o] [i] [@] [O]
Height
Position
Tension
Rounding
Example
word

Diphthongs
We have approached vowels as if they were articulated by a specific configu-
ration of the tongue, lips, and oral cavity, which is held constant throughout
their pronunciation. Vowels made like this are called monophthongs; oth-
ers, called diphthongs, involve a change in the configuration of the mouth.
The vowel sounds in the words boy, by, and how involve a change in
the shape of the mouth as the vowel is being produced. The vowel of boy
begins with approximately the mid back vowel [O] and finishes with ap-
proximately the high front lax vowel [I] (or the palatal glide [j]). The vowel
of by begins with approximately the low back vowel [a] (a low back vowel
slightly more forward than [A], but not as forward as [{]) and also finishes
with approximately [I] (or [j]). The vowel of how begins with approximately
[a] and finishes with approximately the high lax rounded vowel [U] (or the
labio-velar glide [w]). We represent these diphthongs as [OI], [aI], and [aU],
respectively (though many linguists use [Oj], [aj], and [aw]).

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Exercise
1. For each of the three diphthongs symbolized below provide four
more example words. In two of these words the diphthong should ap-
pear in a closed syllable (i.e., before a consonant, e.g., Boyd) and in
the other two words it should appear in an open syllable (i.e., not fol-
lowed by a consonant, e.g., boy).

[]
_________ _________ _________ _________
[]
_________ _________ _________ _________
[]
_________ _________ _________ _________

2. Are the English diphthongs tense or lax? (Hint: they can occur in open
syllables.)

A second set of English diphthongs is not as clearly distinguished as the

first, primarily because we tend to perceive them as simple vowels. However,
in a precise (narrow) phonetic transcription they must be represented as
diphthongs. The tense front vowel [e] is diphthongized. If you listen care-
fully you will notice that the vowel of bate is actually pronounced [eI]. The
tense back vowel [o] is also diphthongized: if you listen carefully you will
notice that the vowel of boat is actually pronounced [oU]. So, the front tense
vowel is diphthongized by the addition of a front vowel and the back tense
vowel is diphthongized by the addition of a back vowel. We can express this
pattern as a rule: Mid and high tense vowels are diphthongized by the addition
of a high lax vowel that matches the original vowel in frontness or backness.
Diphthongization of these vowels is a feature of English rather than a
universal feature of natural language. Other languages, notably Spanish and
German, do not diphthongize their corresponding vowels. The tendency to
diphthongize these vowels is one characteristic of the “foreign accent” that
betrays English speakers when they begin to learn these languages.

syllables and feet

It’s a lot easier to count syllables than to give them a satisfactory definition.
If the entire class were to count the syllables in this paragraph, there would
be considerable agreement about the number, but probably not about where
each syllable begins and ends. The fact that syllabic writing systems devel-
oped before alphabetic systems (see our Spelling chapter in Book II) sug-
gests that syllables are very salient linguistic units. That children seem to be
able to associate symbols with syllables before they can associate symbols

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with phonetic segments also points to the importance of the syllable.

Every syllable (symbolized as $) consists of at least a nucleus (symbolized
as N), which is typically a vowel. The nucleus may be preceded by an onset
(symbolized as O), consisting of one or more consonants, and followed by
a coda (symbolized as C), again consisting of one or more consonants. The
nucleus and the coda together make up a unit called the rhyme (R). The
diagram (3) illustrates the constituent of the single-syllable word then.

(3) $

O R

N C

ð E n

Because vowels are high in sonority, a syllable nucleus is usually a vowel.

However, a consonant with high sonority, such as [l,r,m,n,N] may also be
a nucleus. The sonority level of a syllable thus rises from the onset (if there
is one) up to a peak in the nucleus and falls off again in the coda. In this
respect, the onset and coda are (almost) mirror images of each other.
Parts of syllables may be repeated for poetic effects. Of these repetitions,
rhyme is the most important: it involves repeating the rhyme of syllables,
usually at the ends of lines, as the rhyming words in the following stanza
show:

(4) Piping down the valleys wild,

Piping songs of pleasant glee,
On a cloud I saw a child,
And he laughing said to me:
(William Blake, Introduction to Songs of Innocence)

The syllable onsets, [w] of wild, [tS] of child, [gl] of glee, and [m] of me are
not part of Blake’s rhymes.
Repeating onsets, or first sounds in onsets, as in then and there, creates
alliteration. Repeating nuclei, as in Mikey likes it, or the incredible edible egg
creates assonance.
In speech, syllables are combined into rhythmic units called feet, which
are also of considerable importance in scanning lines of poetry. Each foot
consists of at least one stressed syllable (its energy peak) and one or two

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unstressed syllables. Feet are differentiated from each other by the number
of stressed syllables they contain and by the position of the stressed (S)
syllable(s) relative to other syllables in the foot. In (5), S represents a stressed
syllable and U an unstressed one; the stressed syllable of each example word
is bolded.

(5)
Iambic: [U S] today
Trochaic: [S U] trochee
Anapestic: [U U S] intervene
Dactylic: [S U U] personal
Spondaic: [S S] good news

In English, stressed syllables tend to be approximately equally far apart in

time; as a result unstressed syllables may be articulated slower or faster, de-
pending on the type of foot. (See Beers (2003: 339) Appendix I: the 175
most common syllables (as ordinarily spelled) in the 5,000 most frequently
occurring English words.)

Exercise
1. In the stanza given in (4) above, identify each stressed syllable,
determine the feet, and identify the kind of meter (iambic, trochaic,
etc.) used.

2. How does your dictionary identify syllables and the stressed

syllable(s) in words? Why does your dictionary indicate syllabication of
words? (You’ll probably have to read the relevant section of your dic-
tionary’s front matter for this.) Would your dictionary and our system
always give the same syllabic analysis of words?

3. Compare the phonetic alphabet we introduced here with the system

used in your dictionary to indicate pronunciation. Which is simpler to
learn? Which is simpler to use? For whom? What other pros and cons can
you think of for each?

p h o n o lo g y
While phonetics is the study of the ways in which speech sounds are pro-
duced, phonology is the study of (1) how the speech sounds of a language
are used in that language to distinguish meaningful units (such as words)

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from each other, and (2) how sounds are patterned in a language. Conse-
quently, the study of phonology requires us to take meaning into consider-
ation, while phonetics does not. In this section we explore phonology and
the basic unit of phonological analysis, the phoneme.

phonemes
You might reasonably have assumed that whenever speakers distinguish be-
tween a pair of sounds, they will use that difference to distinguish between
words. For example, we know that English speakers distinguish between [s]
and [z], and we use this difference to signal the difference between the words
sip and zip. We will say that [s] and [z] contrast with each other in English.
In fact, all of the sounds we have described so far contrast with each other in
English and so are used by English speakers to distinguish words from each
other. You can test this out by taking any pair of sounds (as we took [s] and
[z]) and creating a pair of words (like sip and zip) which are identical, except
that where one has one sound, the other has the other sound, just as where
sip has [s], zip has [z]. Pairs of words like this are called minimal pairs,
and are used to demonstrate that pairs of sounds are used in a language to
distinguish words from each other. Sound units that distinguish words from
each other are called phonemes. We enclose phonemes in / / (e.g., /s/, /z/)
to distinguish them from sounds ([s], [z]) and ordinary letters (<s>, <z>).

Exercise
Phonemes are most easily identified through minimal pairs. Thus Pete
[pit] and beat [bit] differ only in that where [pit] has [p], [bit] has [b].
These two words make a minimal pair that shows that [p] and [b] rep-
resent separate phonemes in English, which we symbolize as /p/, /b/.
For each pair of sounds below, identify a minimal pair that shows that
they represent different phonemes.

[k]—[g] [T]—[ð] []—[] [l]—[r]

[n]—[N] [w]—[j] [aI]—[aU] [f]—[dZ]
[f]—[s] [i]—[I] [aI]—[oI] [tS]—[dZ]
[s]—[S] [E]—[] [tS]—[s] [k]—[N]

a l lo p h o n e s
Now listen to the vowels in the words cat and cad. Are they identical or dif-
ferent? We hope you said “different.” Can you now say how they differ? We

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hope you said that one was longer than the other. Now listen to the conso-
nants after the vowels. Are these the same or different? Again, we hope you
said different, and that you know that [t] is voiceless and [d] is voiced. Now,
which vowel, the longer or the shorter, precedes [d] and which precedes [t]?
We hope you said that the longer vowel precedes the voiced consonant.
Are the two vowels similar in any way? Again, we hope you said that they
seem to be longer and shorter versions of the same vowel, [{]. Let’s use [:]
to indicate extra length. So, the vowel before voiceless [t] is just [{], but the
one before voiced [d] is [{:].
Now let’s listen to some more word pairs like cat and cad:

root rood
moat mode
leaf leave
gape Gabe

Listen to the vowels in each pair. You should hear that the vowel in the sec-
ond word in each pair is a little longer than the vowel in the first.
Now determine the similarities and differences between the consonants
after the vowels in each word pair. You should find that the consonant in the
first word is the voiceless version of the consonant in the second word.
Turning our attention again to the vowels in each word pair: how are
they related? We hope you said that they were very similar vowels, specifi-
cally, short and long versions of the same vowel.
You should now be able to determine a very general rule of English.
When are vowels lengthened and when are they not lengthened?
Your answer should be something along the lines of: English vowels are
lengthened when they occur before a voiced consonant; otherwise they are not
lengthened.
So far we’ve seen [{] and [{:], [u] and [u:], [o] and [o:], [i] and [i:], and
[e] and [e:]; in each case the longer vowel occurs before a voiced consonant.
We’ve also noted that the vowels are otherwise virtually identical—they dif-
fer only in length. So it makes good sense to regard these pairs of vowel
sounds as slightly different pronunciations of the same vowel, and that
whether the vowel is lengthened or not depends on whether the consonant
that follows it is voiced or not.
Importantly, the long and short pairs of vowels do not contrast with
each other: English contains no pairs of words that are identical except that
where one contains a short version of a vowel, the other contains the longer
version of the same vowel. Consequently, the long and short versions of

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vowels do not represent separate phonemes.

Let’s now turn our attention to some consonants. For example, English
speakers pronounce the [t] in toll differently from that in stole. The [t] of toll
is breathier than the [t] of stole. The former is said to be aspirated, and the
latter unaspirated. We represent the aspirated [t] as [th], with the diacritic
[h] indicating aspiration. We represent the unaspirated [t] as [t] with no dia-
critic. The important point here is that English speakers do not signal any
difference in meaning with the difference between [th] and [t]. They treat
the two sounds as variant ways of pronouncing the “the same sound.” Sub-
stituting one of these sounds for the other would not affect the meaning of
a word, but it would create an odd and perhaps non-native pronunciation of
the word. No pair of English words is distinguished solely by the difference
between [t] and [th]. You can satisfy yourself that this is so by trying to find
a minimal pair of English words differentiated solely by the fact that where
one has an aspirated consonant the other has an unaspirated version of that
same consonant. (Don’t spend too long trying!)
Let’s now look at a different pair of English sounds. If we replace the
[t] in [rt] (rot) with [d], then we get the sequence of sounds [rd] (rod),
which, of course, is quite distinct in meaning from rot. Clearly, English
speakers treat the difference between [d] and [t] differently from the way
they treat the difference between [th] and [t] and between longer and shorter
versions of vowels. In the case of [t] and [d], the difference can signal a
difference in meaning; in the other cases it cannot. Differences in sound
that signal differences in meaning are said to be phonemic, distinctive, or
contrastive. Differences in sound that do not signal meaning differences
are non‑distinctive or non‑contrastive. One objective of phonology is to
identify which sound differences are contrastive and which are not. As we
have seen, the contrastive sound units are called phonemes.

Phonemes and allophones

A good way to think about a phoneme is as a group of phonetically similar
sounds that are treated as members of the same sound category. Because the
members of a sound category are treated as “the same sound” in a language,
they cannot be used for communicating differences in meaning. English
speakers treat [th] and [t] as belonging to the same sound category, so they
cannot be used to distinguish one word from another. Different phonemes
are different categories of sounds and the differences among these catego-
ries can signal differences in meaning. English speakers treat [t] and [d] as
belonging to different sound categories—/t/ and /d/, respectively—and so

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these can be used to differentiate one word from another.

Sound categories are abstractions. We can only perceive them when one
of their members is pronounced. The sounds that make up the category are
called the allophones of that phoneme. Thus [t] and [th] are allophones of
the English phoneme /t/. Notice that the individual sound symbols are the
same as those we used for phonetics, but to distinguish phonology from
phonetics, we enclose phonemes in slanted brackets / / and use square
brackets [ ] for phonetic notation. Perhaps the following diagram will help.
It represents the phoneme /u/ and two of its allophones:

/u/

[u] [u:]

That is, the phoneme /u/ is pronounced in (at least) two ways, [u] and [u:],
depending upon its context. Table 8 lists the phonemes of English.

Consonants: /p, t, k, b, d, g, m, n, N/
/f, T, s, S, h, v, ð, z, Z/
/tS, dZ/
/r, l, w, j/
Vowels: /i, I, e, E, , A, O, o, U, u, (@)/
Diphthongs: /OI, aU, aI/

table 8: english phonemes

As you have no doubt noticed, there are nearly 40 phonemes of English

(the number varies somewhat from dialect to dialect), while there are only
26 letters in the English alphabet. This is one of the reasons why the alpha-
bet appears to fit the language so poorly. (For more on English spelling see
our chapter on Spelling in Book II.)

Exercise
1. What phoneme is represented by the bolded letter(s) in the follow-
ing words? Make sure to enclose the symbols you choose in the phoneme
slashes //.
ton, bump, dip, comb, chin, zoom, shave, mango, thing, lame,
read, sleep, red, mat, good, caught, kite, bid, coy.

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2. Transcribe the following words in a phonemic (broad) transcription.

That is, just represent the phonemes that each word is composed of
and ignore the allophonic detail.
thin, then, cheese, rouge, June, shin, fling, heave, yak, cow.

Allophones and their contexts

We have already noted that if we substitute the aspirated allophone of /t/
for its unaspirated relative, then we create an odd pronunciation of a word.
[tIl] is the typical American English pronunciation of till, but [tIl] is not.
What, if any, patterns can we observe in where allophones of a phoneme can
and cannot occur?
Some allophones of a phoneme are in complementary distribution,
that is, they occupy different positions (contexts or environments) in
words—where one can occur the other cannot. As we have seen, English
has a very general pattern of lengthening vowels before voiced consonants.
That is, the allophone of a vowel phoneme before a voiced consonant will
be appreciably longer (up to three times longer) than the allophone of the
same vowel phoneme before a voiceless consonant. For example, listen to
the pronunciation of /E/ in bet and bed. You should have little difficulty in
hearing the difference in vowel length. We can represent the pattern of oc-
currence (distribution) of these two allophones of the phoneme /E/ as the
following phonological rule: When the phoneme /E/ occurs before a voiceless
consonant it is pronounced as its allophone [E]; when it occurs before a voiced
consonant it is pronounced as its allophone [E:]. (Remember: [:] is a diacritic
indicating a lengthened sound.)
In fact, the rule is much more general than this. Because it applies to all
vowels, we can write it as: In English a vowel is longer before a voiced consonant
than it is before a voiceless one. One of our objectives in studying a language
is to be able to describe these sound patterns, i.e., to be able to specify in
the most general terms possible the phonetic environments in which each
allophone occurs.
Let’s look at another very systematic set of English vowel allophones.
The vowels of cap and can differ phonetically: that of cap is a plain []; that
of can is nasalized, represented by [{~~]. (If you have trouble hearing the
difference, try starting to say each word normally and then omit the final
consonant.) The phoneme // thus has the allophones, [] and [{~]. In fact,
all English vowels have both nasalized and non-nasalized allophones. We
can represent this as the rule: Whenever an English vowel occurs before a nasal
consonant, it becomes nasalized; otherwise it is non-nasalized.

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In fact, the situation is a bit more intricate that this. Because nasals are
voiced, we should expect a vowel before them to be lengthened relative to
the same vowel before a voiceless sound. And, indeed, this is what we find.
Listen to the vowels in cat, cad, and can. You should notice that the first
vowel is unlengthened, [{]; the second one is lengthened, [{:]; and the
third one is both lengthened (in fact, probably even more than the second
one) and nasalized, [{~:].

Exercise
1. What sounds are presented by the bolded letter(s) in the following
words? Provide an allophonic (narrow) transcription.
mad, back, spill, cat, tang

2. Try your hand at distinguishing allophones of phonemes. Using the

discussion above as a guide, see if you can describe the phonetic dif-
ferences between the allophones of the designated phoneme in the
example words.
a. /k/: kin, skin
b. /E/: bet, Ben
c. /e/: rate, raid
d. //: bat, bad
e. /l/: lead, pull
f. /k/: cool, keel

p h o n o lo g i c a l ru l e s
As we saw above, a phonological rule is a general statement about the
distribution of a phoneme’s allophones, e.g., those of /t/. There are several
types of phonological rules to represent the several patterns of distribution
of sounds in a language.
The rule for the [th] allophone of /t/ can be seen as adding extra breathi-
ness after the release of a voiceless stop. This rule adds the aspiration feature
to the consonant. Such rules are referred to as feature addition rules.

Exercise
Listen carefully to the sounds represented by the bolded letters in each
of the following pairs of words: steal, teal; spin, pin; skate, Kate.
What phonetic difference can you hear between the [t] of steal and the

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[t] of teal? Write the two sounds in narrow (allophonic) phonetic tran-
scription. Where does each of these two sounds occur in the example
words? Answer the same questions for the [p] of spin and pin and the
[k] of skate and Kate. What general pattern applies to all three pairs of
sounds? Express this general pattern as a phonological rule.

Feature changing rules change the value of a component feature of a

sound, for instance, from non-nasal to nasal or from short to long. The
nasal pronunciation of the vowel of can is due, as we’ve seen, to the influ-
ence of the nasal consonant /n/ that comes immediately after it. In this
case, the rule changes an oral (non-nasal) sound to a nasal one.
Segment deletion rules remove sound segments. For instance, in infor-
mal speech, a segment deletion rule removes the second of a pair of conso-
nants at the end of one word when the next word begins with a consonant.
Thus words such as frost and ask are pronounced as [fras] and [s] when
they occur before consonants (e.g., Ask Katie). This effect is especially likely
when the last consonant of the first word is phonetically similar to the first
consonant of the next word, as in used to [jus t@], instead of [just t@], (which
leads to the incorrect spelling use to). French adjectives which end in conso-
nants routinely lose those consonants if the following word begins with a conso-
nant: ‘small friend’ petit ami [p@tit ami] vs. ‘small book’ petit livre [p@ti livr].
Phonological rules may also reverse the order of segments in words. In
some dialects of English the verb ask is pronounced as [ks], reversing [s]
and [k]. Several hundred years ago, the word bird, now pronounced as [b@rd]
was pronounced [brId]. The vowel and the [r] switched places. Rules that
reverse a sequence of segments are called metathesis rules.
Some rules, such as the vowel nasalization rule, make a segment and its
neighbor more alike. Such rules are called assimilation rules.

Exercise
1. (a) Identify the rapid, natural pronunciation of the sound represent-
ed by the letter <n> in the words input, intake, and inquest. (b) Iden-
tify the sound immediately after the sound represented by <n> in each
word. (c) In what ways are the sound represented by <n> and the sound
immediately following it in each word similar? (d) Express the similarity
between the members of the pairs of sounds in all three words in one
general rule. (e) What kind of phonological rule is this?

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2. Examine the rapid, natural pronunciation of <n> in the phrases be-

low. Write each entire phrase phonemically. Then try to state a rule
that accounts for the different pronunciations. What type of rule did you
discover?
a. In Bill’s house
b. In Ted’s house
c. In Greg’s house

3. Describe the phonetic difference between the allophones of /k/

(written as <c> and <k> in ordinary spelling) in the two columns of
words:
coop keep
could kid
coat Kate
cot cat
Express the difference and the distribution of the allophones as a pho-
nological rule. What kind of rule did you come up with?

Assimilation can be so thoroughgoing that two sounds can merge into

one. For example, [t,d,s,z] are palatalized—i.e., pronounced [tS, dZ, , Z] re-
spectively—when they occur at the ends of words and the next word begins
with the palatal glide [j]. For example, Did you? is typically pronounced as
[dIdZ@] or even [dZ@]; the [dZ] results from the coalescence of [dj].
The study of phonology shows that languages make use of unpredict-
able units (phonemes) to differentiate words from each other. It also shows
that languages employ very general patterns of sounds. By representing the
general, predictable patterns as phonological rules, we leave only that in-
formation which is unpredictable and idiosyncratic to be listed in the set of
phonemes. This way we minimize the number of basic phonemic units we
need to posit; we also minimize the number of times any given piece of in-
formation is mentioned, thus simplifying the overall grammar or descrip-
tion of the language. For example, English has two series of vowels, those
with and those without nasalization. The nasalized vowels occur only be-
fore nasal consonants; the non-nasalized ones occur everywhere else. If we
merely listed all these vowels as belonging to the language, then we would
have postulated far more basic units than we—or native speakers—really
need. And we would have missed the generalization that the two series of
vowels are really quite alike, one series being merely a predictable positional

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variant of the other. We capture this generalization by eliminating the series

of nasalized vowels from our inventory of basic units and replacing it with
the nasalization rule.

Exercise
1. Arabic speakers learning English often produce [b] where English re-
quires [p], e.g., saying “bark” instead of “park.” Describe the phonetic
difference between [b] and [p].

2. We noted that English has approximately 40 phonemes but only 26

letters of the ordinary alphabet to represent them. Illustrate with ap-
propriate examples at least three ways in which the English spelling
system uses those 26 letters to represent its almost 40 phonemes.

r e f e r e n c e s a n d r e s o u rc e s
Ashby, Patricia. 1995. Speech Sounds. London, UK: Routledge.
Attridge, Derek. 1995. Poetic Rhythm: an Introduction. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Beers, Kylene. 2003. When Kids Can’t Read: What Teachers Can Do.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Celce-Murcia, Marianne, D.M. Brinton, and J.M. Goodwin. 1996. Teaching
Pronunciation: A Reference for Teachers of English to Speakers of Other
Languages. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Crane, B.L., E. Yeager, and R.L. Whitman. 1993. Phonetics. In L.M. Cleary
and M.D. Linn (eds.). Linguistics for Teachers. pp. 397-410. New York:
McGraw Hill.
Hogg, R. and C.B. McCully. 1987. Metrical Phonology: A Coursebook.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Kreidler, Charles W. 1997. Describing Spoken English. London, UK:
Routledge.
Ladefoged, Peter. 2001. A Course in Phonetics. (4th ed.) Ft. Worth, TX:
Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich.
_____2005. Vowels and Consonants. (2nd ed.) Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Lass, Roger. 1984. Phonology: An Introduction to Basic Concepts. Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press.
McMahon, April. 2001. An Introduction to English Phonology. Oxford, UK:
Oxford University Press.
Pennington, Martha C. 1996. Phonology in English Language Teaching.

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London, UK: Longman.

Yavaş, Mehmet. 2006. Applied English Phonology. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

g lo s s a ry
affricate: sound produced with full stoppage of the airstream followed im-
mediately by constriction.
allophone: non-distinctive phonetic variant of a phoneme.
alveo-palatal: sound produced at the hard palate just behind the alveolar
ridge.
alveolar: sound produced at the alveolar ridge, the bony ridge behind the
teeth.
approximants: sounds produced when the articulators approach each other
but not so closely as to cause turbulence in the airstream; they include later-
als (the tongue touches the top of the mouth but the air is allowed to pass
along one or both sides, as in [l]); central (the sides of the tongue are raised
so that air flows along the center of the mouth, as in [r]); as well as the la-
biovelar [w] and palatal [j].
aspirated: consonant sound released with a puff of air.
assimilation rule: phonological rule that makes a sound similar to a nearby
sound. e.g., palatalization.
back vowel: vowel produced with the back of the tongue raised toward the
soft palate.
bilabial: sound produced with constriction or closure of the lips.
broad transcription: the attempt to record pronunciation without regard
to non-contrastive details. See narrow transcription.
central: vowel—e.g., [@]—produced with the tongue raised at the center
of the mouth rather than at the front or back.
coda: last part of a syllable; follows the nucleus.
complementary distribution: when the allophones of a phoneme occupy
different positions in words.
consonant: sound produced with complete or partial obstruction of the air
flow through the mouth. See vowel.
contrastive (also distinctive): sounds used in a language to signal differ-
ences of meaning.
diacritic: phonetic symbols used to represent fine differences in pronuncia-
tion, e.g., the [h] that indicates aspiration.
diphthong: vowel unit that begins with one oral configuration and ends
with another. See monophthong.
distinctive: See contrastive.
distribution: specific circumstances (environments) in which a sound oc-

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curs, e.g., at the beginning, middle, or end of a word.

environment: See distribution.
feature changing rule: rule that changes the value of a component feature
of a sound, e.g., from stop to fricative, from non-nasal to nasal, or from lax
to tense.
foot: a rhythmic unit consisting of at least one stressed syllable and 1-2
other syllables, typically unstressed.
fricative: sound produced with constriction of the airstream, producing
friction.
front vowel: vowel produced with the front of the tongue raised toward
the hard palate.
glides: sounds, e.g., [j] and [w], that are intermediate in openness and so-
nority between consonants and vowels. Also called semivowels.
glottal: sound produced by constricting or stopping the airstream at the
vocal folds.
high vowel: vowel pronounced with the mouth in the least degree of open-
ness. See mid vowel and low vowel.
interdental: sound produced with the tongue protruding between the
teeth.
labiodental: sound produced with constriction between the bottom lip
and top teeth.
labiovelar: sound produced by raising the back of the tongue to or toward
the velum and rounding the lips, e.g., [w].
lateral: sound produced with the tongue touching the top of the mouth
with air allowed to pass along one or both sides, as in [l].
lax: sound produced with musculature of the mouth relatively relaxed. See
tense.
low vowel: vowel pronounced with the mouth in the greatest degree of
openness. See high vowel and mid vowel.
manner of articulation: the kind of closure or constriction used in mak-
ing a consonant sound.
metathesis rule: phonological rule that reverses the order of segments in
words.
mid vowel: vowel pronounced with the mouth in an intermediate degree of
openness. See high vowel and low vowel.
minimal pair: two words of different meaning that are phonetically the same
except for one sound, e.g., pit and bit (used to demonstrate that [p] and [b]
contrast with each other).
monophthong: vowel unit consisting of a single segment held constant
during its pronunciation. See diphthong.

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narrow transcription: attempt to record non-contrastive details of pro-

nunciation. See broad transcription.
nasal, nasalized: sounds articulated with air flowing through the nasal cav-
ity.
non-contrastive (also non-distinctive): sounds not used in a language to
signal different meanings.
nucleus: central part of a syllable, i.e., the segment with the highest sonor-
ity.
onset: initial part of a syllable; precedes the nucleus.
phoneme: contrastive or distinctive sound category; distinguishes words
from each other.
phonetics (articulatory): the study of how speech sounds are produced.
phonological rule: a general statement about the distribution of a pho-
neme’s allophones and about other phonological processes.
phonology: the study of the ways in which a given language shapes sounds
into distinctive categories of perception and of its rules of pronunciation.
place of articulation: the area in the mouth at which the consonantal
closure or constriction occurs.
rhyme: the nucleus and coda of a syllable.
rounded: vowel sound produced with the lips pursed. See unrounded.
schwa: a mid central unrounded vowel, represented as [@].
segment deletion rule: phonological rule that eliminates a sound from
pronunciation in a word or phrase.
semivowel: see glide.
sonorant: sounds produced with a smooth airflow, allowing for a high de-
gree of resonance.
stop: sound produced with full stoppage of the airstream anywhere in the
oral cavity from the vocal folds to the lips.
tense: sound produced with musculature of the mouth relatively tight. See
lax.
unrounded: vowel produced without lip rounding. See rounded.
velar: sound produced with constriction at the soft palate.
voiced: sound produced with the vocal folds vibrating.
voiceless: sound produced with the vocal folds not vibrating.
vowel: sound produced with smooth, unobstruction air stream through the
mouth. See consonant.

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