CORE Gateway College, Inc.

Better Education for Better Future

Eng. Elect.
Technical and Academic Writing

mj a. galicia
Eng. Elect.

Technical and Academic Writing

mj a. galicia
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Syllabus iii
Nature of Technical Writing 1
Definition and Its Characteristics 2
Purpose of Technical Writing 2
Functions of Technical Writing 3
Basic Principles of Good Technical Writing 3
Uses for Technical Writing 4
Activity 1 5
Activity 2 6
GRAMMAR 7
Subject - Verb Agreement 7
Rules for Subject-Verb Agreement 7
Practice Exercise 1 8
Practice Exercise 2 9
Practice Exercise 3 10
Practice Exercise 4 11
Exercise 1 13
Exercise 2 14
Exercise 3 15
Transitive and Intransitive verbs 16
Exercise 4 18
Exercise 5 19
Sentence Correction 20
Paragraph Correction 21
Composition Writing 22
Coherence 22
Exercise on Misplaced Modifiers 26
Exercise on Redundancy 26
 Activity 1 Misplaced Modifier 27

Activity 2 Misplaced Modifier 28

Activity 3 Redundancy 29

Activity 4 Redundancy 30
Unity 31
Verb Tense Exercise 33

Emphasis 34

Active and Passive Exercise 36

Paragraphs and Topic Sentences 37

Paragraph Organization Techniques 40
Paragraph Organization Exercise 1 40

Paragraph Organization Exercise 2 41

Paragraph Writing Topics 44

Four Major Types of Essays 46

Rubric for Essay Writing 48

Narrative Essay 49

How to write a descriptive essay 50

Business Correspondence 52

What is a Cover Letter 55

Sample Job Application Letter 56
Tips for writing a strong application letter 57

Memorandums and Letters 58

Memo Format 59
Five Tips for Effective Memos 60
Elements of a Business Letter 61

Strategies for Effective Letters 64

Key Takeaways 65

Exercises 65
References 66
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ix
Nature of Technical Writing

Technical Writing is compiling information effectively with reference to a context for a

specific user.

A Technical Writer prepares clear, concise written documentation which explain

technical communication (technical information) of a product or software to a target user. A
good Technical Writer should have strong communication skills (both verbal and written), can
effectively gather information, and develop content with the user in mind.

Technical Writing according to Markel, M. (2012) covers many genres and writing styles
depending on the information and audience. Although it is the sole purview of technical writers
to produce technical documents, anyone who works in a professional setting should be able to
produce technical documents of some sort. See Fig. 1 Spectrum of technical writing

Technical Writers
Instructions specialize in these
Manuals
Procedures Attorneys,
Process or
engineers,
Machine
researchers
Descriptions need these
Patents
TECHNICAL WRITING
Scripts
For day-to-day
business in
Magazine many technical
Articles fields
Reports
Books Letters, memos
Papers e-mails/notes, informal
reports, formal reports,
Theses status reports, surveys,
For teaching marketing, quality
and education control

Fig. 1 Spectrum of technical writing

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Definition and Its Characteristics

Technical writing is a type of writing where the author is writing about a particular
subject that requires direction, instruction, or explanation. This style of writing has a very
different purpose and different characteristics than other writing styles such as creative writing,
academic writing or business writing.

Technical writing, just as any other form of writing, has certain characteristics which
distinguish it from other types of writing. It is very different from writing opinion pieces, essays,
prose, non-fiction or fiction.

 It is clear and straight forward.

If you are interested in technical writing for professional purposes, it is very
important to know that this type of writing requires that the writer stick to the subject
matter and relay information in a clear and concise manner.

 The language is very direct and straight to the point.

The writing will avoid words that people do not understand and will avoid an
eloquent writing style.

 It is very detailed and informative.

The perfect example of technical writing is a textbook. The written content of most
textbooks is geared to providing information by describing the subject matter as fully as
possible.

 It is very structured.
This type of writing has a very obvious composition that makes it easy for the
reader to follow along. Solid structure is needed with technical writing as it allows the
audience to easily access the information as needed.

Purpose of Technical Writing

1. To inform
It is written to make another person understand or to do something. It is designed to
fulfill a need to tell and a need to know.

2 . To analyze events and their implications

It will explain how certain systems failed. This system may include education,
socioeconomic, political and the needed change.

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 3. To persuade and influence decisions
It will show how a business or an industry succeeds. Technical writing is ideally
characterized by the maintenance of impartiality and objectivity, by extreme care to
convey information accurately and concisely and by the absence of any attempt to
arouse emotions.

Functions of Technical Writing

 To serve as a basis for management decision

 To furnish needed information.
 To give instructions
 To explain techniques
 To report achievements
 To analyze problem areas
 To determine design and system requirements
 To serve as a basis for public relation
 To provide report to stockholders of companies
 To develop a product
 To provide service
 To record business through proposals

Basic Principles of Good Technical Writing

 Understanding the Reader

A basic consideration in technical writing is to know the target audience. The technical
writer should know how to adapt his writings and terminologies of the type of the intended
audience or readers. Difficult technical terms used must be carefully defined so that the
reader will easily understand the information being presented. If the reader fails to
understand what he reads, the writer fails in his mission. The technical writers should know
how important his readers are. The target readers help the writer to know what to write
about and how to write it.

 Knowing the Purpose of Each Technical Report

The technical paper must be organized around a central theme. The reader should
understand the main purpose after reading the paper. The purpose maybe is to describe a
thing, to report on a specific problem or project, or to analyze and solve a problem.

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 Knowing the Subject Matter

A technical writer must have a thorough knowledge of the subject he is to write about. If
the report is on the result of a technical experiment, the writer who writes the report should
explain what the problem is all about, what causes the problem and how the problem is
solved.
 Writing Objectively

A good technical writer must emphasize the facts and the data. The impersonal style is
basic to an effective technical writer. He represents facts, figures and statistics skillfully
woven around the subject matter.

Uses for Technical Writing

Technical writing is straightforward, easy to understand explanations and/or instructions

dealing with a particular subject. It is an efficient and clear way of explaining something and
how it works.

Some examples of technical writing include:

 Instruction manuals
one of the most common forms of writing in business and industry. These manuals
have many purposes: they are often used to train new employees; they can function as
operational policies and procedures.

a booklet or book, usually accompanying an appliance, device, computer game or

vehicle, which contains written guidelines informing how to use it

 Policy manuals / Procedure manuals

A policy manual is a formalized human resources document that presents a broad
overview of standard operating policies and procedures for an organization.

A procedures manual contains the policies, guidelines and processes for the whole
organization. It exists to help employees do their jobs in an approved and consistent
manner.

 User manuals
contains all essential information for the user to make full use of the information
system. This manual includes a description of the system functions and capabilities,
contingencies and alternate modes of operation, and step-by-step procedures for system
access and use.

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 Analysis Reports
An analytical report is a type of a business report that uses qualitative and quantita-
tive company data to analyze as well as evaluate a business strategy or process while
empowering employees to make data-driven decisions based on evidence and analytics

 Instructions for assembling a product

The instructions included with a product to show visually and with words and text how
to assemble the product.

Instruction Manual Sample

How to change engine oil in a few easy steps

When you are changing engine oil, always check the owner’s manual to find
the correct type and amount of oil needed and the correct type of oil filter.
1. Start the vehicle and allow the engine to warm up for a minute.
Doing so allows the existing oil in the engine to warm up so that it
drains out smoothly.
2. Locate the oil pan drain plug. See the owner’s manual for its
location. Place a used-oil pan directly beneath the drain plug.
3. Remove the oil pan drain plug and allow the used oil to drain.
Pulling out the oil dipstick will also allow for better flow.
Warning: Be careful - the used oil may be hot and could burn you.

ACTIVITY 1

What are Instructional Manuals?

 From your own experience, how helpful were they?
 What parts were difficult?
 What did you do if you had trouble understanding the
instructions? Or, what did you do if your product stopped
working properly?

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School Policy Sample

ACTIVITY 2

Make your own

school policy

*** freedom of expression is allowed

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GRAMMAR

Subject - Verb Agreement

REMEMBER: You must be able to identify the subject and verb in each independent clause
and dependent clause before you can begin to understand that subjects and
verbs should agree.

 An independent clause is a group of words that can stand on its own as a sentence: it
has a subject, a verb, and is a complete thought.

Examples:

 He ran. (Notice that while this sentence only contains two words, it is still
a complete sentence because it contains a one word subject and
a one word predicate that is also a complete thought.)

 He ran fast.

 A dependent clause is a group of words that also contains a subject and a verb, but it is
not a complete thought. Because it is not a complete thought, a dependent clause
cannot stand on its own as a sentence.

Examples:

 Because I woke up late this morning… (what happened?)

 When we arrived in class… (what occurred?)
 If my neighbor does not pay his rent on time… (what will happen?)

Rules for Subject-Verb Agreement

RULE 1

Subjects and verbs must AGREE with one another in number (singular or plural).

 If the subject is singular (one person, one thing), the verb must be singular.

 If the subject is plural (more than one person or thing), the verb must be plural.

 In present tenses, nouns and verbs form plurals in opposite ways

Noun - S  Verb + S = singular form

Noun + S  Verb - S = plural form

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 noun verb noun verb
The dog chases the cat. The dogs chase the cat.
   
singular singular plural plural
-S +S +S -S

PRACTICE EXERCISE 1

Underline the correct verb form (singular or plural).

1. The student (works, work).

2. He (studies, study) too.

3. All the students (walks, walk) to school.

4. These pictures (was, were) drawn by the instructor.

5. Children (wants, want) their parents to go to school.

RULE 2

 The number of the subject (singular or plural) is not changed by words that come
between the subject and the verb.

 A phrase or clause between subject and verb does not change the number of the
subject.

subject verb
 
A can of lima beans sits on the shelf

prepositional phrase

* The verb sits agrees with the subject can, not with beans.

subject verb
 
The women who went to the meeting were bored.

dependent clause

* The verb were agrees with the subject women, not with meeting.
 Make the verb agree with its subject, not with the word/s in between

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 RULE 3

 Compound subjects joined by and are always plural.

A pencil and an eraser make writing easier.

  
plural plural

 With compound subjects joined by or / nor, the verb agrees with the subject nearer
to it.

Neither the director nor the actors are following the lines.
  
singular plural plural

*** The plural verb are agrees with the nearer subject actors.

Neither the actors nor the director is following the lines.

  
plural singular singular

*** The singular verb is agrees with the nearer subject director.

PRACTICE EXERCISE 2

In each of the following sentences, underline the subject and the verb.
1. The buildings on each campus (was, were) recently completed.

2. All applications for the job (has, have) been received.

3. Every student in all classes (has, have) been notified of the CLAST test date.
4. The chalkboards in the school (is, are) scratched.

5. Each year the winner from all the schools throughout the state (seems, seem) to be very
much surprised.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE 3

Underline the correct form of the verb.

1. Neither science nor math (gives, give) me a problem.

2. Either the cat or the dogs (greets, greet) me at the door.

3. Neither the men who are listen as administrators nor the woman who is also listed
(has, have) been appointed to the board.

4. Either my cousin or my uncle (was, were) on the critical list.

5. Neither Ms. Jones nor a member of her staff (is, are) going to attend the meeting.

RULE 4

 Singular indefinite pronoun subjects take SINGULAR verb… Memorize them!

Anybody Each Everyone Nobody Somebody

Anyone Either Everything No one Someone

Anything Everybody Neither Nothing Something

Example:

Everybody who signed up for the snowboarding trip was taking lessons

Everyone on the team supports the coach

 Plural indefinite pronoun subjects take PLURAL verb… Memorize them!

Several Few Both Many

Example:

Several of the staff understand the idea of an attendance policy.

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  Some words may be either singular or plural, depending on how they are used.

Some Any All Most None

Example.

Some of the sugar is on the floor.

singular singular

* Sugar is uncountable; therefore, the sentence has a singular verb

Some of the marbles are on the floor.

plural plural

* Marbles are countable; therefore, the sentence has a plural verb.

PRACTICE EXERCISE 4
Underline the correct form of the verb.

1. Some of the students (has, have) left the building.

2. Each of her students ( is, are) special.

3. Several on the team (hits, hit) the ball really hard.

4. Everything in the buildings (was, were) destroyed.

5. Neither of the men (meets, meet) his class every day.

RULE 5

 Words such as athletics, economics, measles and news are usually SINGULAR,
despite their plural form.

Ex. Statistics is among the most difficult courses in our program.

 Titles of works, company names, words mentioned as words, and gerund phrases
are SINGULAR

Ex. Lost Cities describes the discoveries of many ancient civilizations

Delmonico Brothers specializes in organic produce and additive-free

meats.

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RULE 6

 Treat collective nouns (e.g. team, audience, crowd, class, family, etc.) as
SINGULAR unless the meaning is clearly plural

1. SINGULAR
 Collective nouns nearly always emphasize a group as a UNIT

Ex. The class respects the teacher

The board of trustees meets in Denver twice a year

The jury has awarded custody to the grandmother.

* In this example, the jury is acting as one unit; therefore, the verb is
SINGULAR

2. PLURAL
 Occasionally, a collective noun is treated as plural to draw attention to the
INDIVIDUAL members of the group
Ex. The jury members have been arguing for five days.
* In this example, the jury members are acting as twelve individuals;
therefore, the verb is PLURAL.

RULE 7

 Expressions of time, money, measurement, and weight are usually SINGULAR

when the AMOUNT is considered as one unit.
Ex. Five dollars is not too much to ask.
Ten days is not enough.

* On occasion, however these terms are used in the PLURAL sense.

Ex. There were thirty minutes to countdown.

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SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

Exercise 1

Directions: Some of the verbs in the following sentences agree with their subject(s); some do
not. If the verb does not agree with the subject, underline it and write the correct
form above it, otherwise write correct.

Ex. Each of the students take the bus. takes

1. Dr. Jones and her mother teaches music. ________________

2. Neither Dr. Jones nor her mother know how to boil water. ________________

3. There is the list of courses that you were looking for. ________________

4. Either you or your sister have to take notes on the lecture. ________________

5. Both the instructors and the students has left for the day. ________________

6. Spring classes was announced last week. ________________

7. Here are the list of supplies which you ordered. ________________

8. Everybody in this school have taken the shot that prevents measles. ________________

9. Some of the students in her class enters the essay contest every year. ________________

10. The women who registered early are going got get extra credit. ________________

11. Mr. and Mrs. Smith has been attending that conference for many years. ________________

12. The students and Dr. Lee prepares the bulletin each month. ________________

13. There goes one of the men who will conduct the research. ________________

14. Some of that paper are going to be presented at the workshop. ________________

15. Each of the children was promised a part in the play. ________________

16. Neither of the women has been late to class this semester. ________________

17. The section of paper which I read most often were missing. ________________

18. Several of the faculty takes roll everyday. ________________

19. Everything in this room fit with the decor of the home. ________________

20. All of the signs along the highway was removed ________________

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EXERCISE 2

Underline the subject (or compound subject) and then identify the verb that agrees with it.

Ex. Everyone in the telecom focus group (has / have) experienced problems with
cell phones

1. Your friendship over the years and your support (has / have) meant a great deal to us.

2. Hamilton Family Center, a shelter for teenage runaways in San Francisco, (offers / offer) a
wide variety of services.

3. The main source of income for Trinidad (is / are) oil and pitch.

4. The chances of your being promoted (is / are) excellent.

5. There (was / were) a Pokémon card stuck to the refrigerator.

6. Neither the professor nor his assistants (was / were) able to solve the mystery of the eerie
glow in the laboratory.

7. Many hours at the driving range (has / have) led us to design golf balls with GPS locators
in them.

8. Discovered in the soil of our city garden (was / were) a button dating from the Civil War
dating from the turn of the century.

9. Every year, during the midsummer festival, the smoke of village bonfires (fills / fill) the sky.

10. The story performers (was / were) surrounded by children and adults eager to see magical
tales.

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SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

Exercise 3

Directions: Underline the correct verb.

1. Everybody ( was - were ) asked to be quiet.

2. In a marathon, few of the starters ( finishes - finish ) the race.

3. Sixty days ( is - are ) not enough time to complete the project.

4. All of the workers ( is - are ) receiving their bonus.

5. On our street ( is - are ) many tall trees.

6. It ( don’t - doesn’t ) make any difference.

7. The value of cars and motorcycles ( has - have ) increased.
8. The principal and her husband ( is - are ) honored guests.

9. Either the pitcher or the base runners ( was - were ) caught napping.

10. One of my friends ( believe - believes ) in E.S.P.

11. Have you ever heard the expression, “No news ( is - are ) good news?”
12. There ( was - were ) several dents in the car.

13. Louise ( doesn’t - don’t ) want to drive that long distance.

14. Either Luis or Horace ( pay - pays ) the bills in our house.

15. A boy and a girl ( were - was ) here to see you.

16. The box of apples ( is - are ) on the porch.
17. Some of the job applicants ( is - are ) expected to pass the difficult screening test.
18. The army ( is - are ) conducting maneuvers in March.

19. Here ( come - comes ) the family now.

20. Neither of us ( is - are ) going to work.

21. ( Doesn’t - Don’t ) they know when to quit?

22. Thirty minutes ( is - are ) the time limit for the test.

23. Measles ( is - are ) a disease most children experience.

24. The class ( is - are ) turning in their registration forms today.

25. Beyond the mountains ( is - are ) a fertile valley.

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Transitive and Intransitive verbs

A transitive verb is a verb that has an object.

An intransitive verb is a verb that does not have an object.

I drink coffee everyday. Drink is a transitive verb

because it needs an object
verb object [coffee]

I run everyday. Run is an intransitive verb because it does not

need an object
verb

Explanation

Transitive verbs --

 need an object after them.

 can take direct or indirect objects.

Intransitive verbs --

 do not need an object.

can be followed by a complement, usually an adjective or adverb.

For example, The food smells good.
Subject + Verb + Complement

 Can be followed by a preposition (Verb + Preposition)

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Here is a short list of some common verbs that can be transitive or intransitive:

Verb Transitive Intransitive

move Could you move your car please? The trees were moving in the breeze.
start Taylor was found guilty The match starts at 3 p.m.
of starting the fire.
change Marriage hasn’t changed her. The area’s changed greatly in the last
decade.
close Close your eyes; I’ve got a sur- Most shops here close at 5.30 p.m.
prise for you.
open Open the window; it’s too hot in The museum opens at 10 a.m.
here!
stop Greg tried to stop her from leav- When the rain stopped, we went for a
ing. walk.
do Have you done your coursework? Joe’s doing well in his new job.
set Kate set a chair next to the bed. The sun was setting and a red glow
filled the sky.
run Michelle used to run a restaurant. The path ran over the hill.
live Our cat lived till he was 10. He was living a life of luxury abroad.
wash Have you washed your hands? I washed, dressed, and went out.
write Write your name here. Kevin couldn’t read or write.

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 Exercise 4 Distinguishing between Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Identify the underlined word/s. Write Transitive or Intransitive on the space provided.

____________________ 1. In spite of much indecision, Sarah finally put on her new

dress.

____________________ 2. Why were you saying those things to him?

____________________ 3. Until recently, the plant stood in the east corner of the atrium.

____________________ 4. The flamingos on the far side of the lake dipped their heads
into the water.

____________________ 5. After the debacle with the burned popcorn, the microwave no
longer works.

____________________ 6. Have you walked across the school's campus lately?

____________________ 7. Tabitha brought her dog to the veterinarian for its annual
shots.

____________________ 8. After three hours of argument, they made up with a kiss.

____________________ 9. The young man in the booth would not accept my ticket to the
concert.

____________________ 10. The box of paper clips spilled onto the floor from the table in
the front of the room.

____________________ 11. She was crying all day long.

____________________ 12. We showed her the photo album.

____________________ 13. The doctor advised me to exercise regularly.

____________________ 14. It was raining at that time.

____________________ 15. She laughed at the joke.

____________________ 16. She gave a cookie to the child.

____________________ 17. They slept in the street.

____________________ 18. I ate the cherries.

____________________ 19. My father doesn't drink milk.

____________________ 20. He always keeps his money in a wallet.

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 Exercise 5 Distinguishing between Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Underline the verb. Write Transitive or Intransitive on the space provided.

If Transitive encircle the object.

___________________ 1. What have you done to your hair?

___________________ 2. The students were walking through the new buildings on

campus.

___________________ 3. Helen brought up the subject again this evening.

___________________ 4. Until 10 o'clock on Saturday, each shopper may purchase only

one of the popular dolls.
___________________ 5. Are you coming to the costume party this weekend?

___________________ 6. The butter has been sitting on the counter for over three
hours.
___________________ 7. Hubert wrestled with his conscience over the incident.

___________________ 8. Two men with masks over their faces held up the bank on
42nd Street today.

___________________ 9. Subscribers will be writing about that controversial article for

months.

___________________ 10. The sun rises in the east.

___________________ 11. The teenager had wrecked his new car within days of its
purchase.
___________________ 12. The dog barks.
___________________ 13. He raised his hands.

___________________ 14. The information proved false.

___________________ 15. The child has fallen asleep.

___________________ 16. The donkey kept braying.

___________________ 17. The tea is hot.

___________________ 18. He told a story.

___________________ 19. She called again and again.

___________________ 20. We are human beings.

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Sentence Correction

When you are writing your paper or essay, it is very important to ensure that your
document does not contain typos, grammatical errors and bad sentence structure. Your work
will be badly judged if English is bad despite good content. For non-native English speakers, it
presents a particular challenge because of the difficulties in mastering the English, vocabulary,
grammar, and usage.

Activity # 1
The underlined word/s has an error, replace it with a correct usage.

1. Has Nancy took her medicines yet ? _____________

2. Henry has really grew. He is now fat as his brother. _____________

3. I shout in the top of my voice so nobody respond. _____________

4. Old people were respect by family of their wisdom. _____________

5. Please do not left the classroom until you complete your test. _____________

6. The whether was so cold that I didn't go out. _____________

7. Unless I study hard, I will pass all my exams. _____________

8. Ronnie is my age wherelse Steve is younger than I. _____________

9. He completed the race in spite his injury. _____________

10. Marie woke up late. Consequent she missed the train. _____________

1 1 . Smith is a poor man. Moreover he helps other poor people. _____________

12. I reach Semantan Street. _____________

13. About half past nine we arrive at the destination. _____________

14. We hear a lot of noise in the jungles _____________

15. We came out from the tree when it was safe. _____________

16. They thank the family for helping them. _____________

17. I screamed loudly to him. _____________

18. Parents need to spend more time on their children. _____________

1 9 . The sizes of houses varies according to the location. _____________

20. He also have a pair of brown eyes. _____________

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Sentence and Paragraph Correction
Activity # 2
Correct the mistakes. Write the answer on the space provided.

1. On cold, wet morning, my class was filled with excitement. Someone (1) have discover
that the next day was our teacher's birthday. Our teacher was the kindest person that ever
(2) exist. Thus it (3) is no surprise she was the favorite teacher (4) to the pupils. Everyone
(5) want to get her a present. I, very much wanted to (6) shown any appreciation too. That
afternoon, I (7) spends the whole afternoon (8) shop for a present. After a long search, I
finally made (9) on my mind. The next day I (10) gived her a bouquet of beautiful roses
and she exclaimed with pleasure.
ANSWERS:

1. _________________________ 6. _________________________
2. _________________________ 7. _________________________
3. _________________________ 8. _________________________

4. _________________________ 9. _________________________

5. _________________________ 10. _________________________

One of the underlined words is an error, replace it with a correct usage.

example : The fire spread quick ly, destroy three houses within
m inu tes .
a n s w e r : destroy - destroying

1. She c rossed the road witho ut look ing and was knock do wn b y a ca r.

____________________________________________

2. He go t ou t of the ca r , than he locked it an d wa lked to the o ff ice .

____________________________________________

3. I hope you will k in d c ons id er m y app lic at ion fo r a j ob in yo u r

company.

____________________________________________

4. T o m y o p i n i o n a d v e r ti s e m e n t s a r e m o r e h a r m f u l t h a n b e n e fi c i a l .

____________________________________________

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COMPOSITION WRITING - is a form of communication which is concerned with the
process of putting together words into sentences, sentences
into paragraphs and paragraphs into longer forms of
discourse.
The use of words to exchange
thoughts and ideas

3 Essential Elements in Composition Writing

1. COHERENCE
2. UNITY
3. EMPHASIS

A good paragraph has the characteristics of unity, coherence and emphasis. In unity a
paragraph must be unified on its structure. In coherence a paragraph must establish continuity
within or towards the other paragraph. In emphasis the idea within the paragraph should be
given importance and made to stand.

Coherence

Coherence is considered as the continuity between as well as within the paragraph. It is

very important to arrange and link the sentences between the paragraphs to be able to make
the readers follow the thought or the idea that want to be implied.

There are several logical orders in which coherence can be established. These logical
orders are the spatial orders, deductive order and inductive order. Chronological order is done
in such ways like narrating experiences, summarizing the steps in the process and explaining
events and movements. Spatial order can be established through the arrangement of visual
details in some consistent sequences such as from left to right, east to west, near or distant
and vice versa. Deductive order is done by establishing a general statement moving to the
more particular details that explain the general statement itself. Inductive order is done by
starting the statement with more particular detail going to and supporting the general state-
ment.

Coherence can also be established through the use of some special devices. These
transitional devices are the transitional keywords; the reference of pronoun, the repetition of
keywords and the use of the parallel structure. The transitional words and phrases serve as
indicators of the different relationships that need to be connected to be able to establish
coherence in the paragraph. The reference of pronoun is a device used to avoid needles

22
repetition in the paragraph. The repetition of keywords is used in such a way that the keywords
that are related to the central idea in order to establish coherence. The parallel structure is
used to call attention to similar idea in the paragraph.

SENTENCE COHERENCE (Logical Connection or Consistency)

is observed when the ideas in any form of composition are clearly related to one
another in an orderly sequence of thoughts.
GUIDELINES:

A. On places of modifiers - a word (such as an ADJECTIVE or ADVERB) or

phrase that describes another word.
ADJECTIVE - describes a noun or a pronoun
ADVERB - describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb
- often ends in “LY”
- used to show time, manner, place or degree.

***When the verb is a single word, the adverb is before it.

She often writes lessons.
She probably wanted some information.

Always learn your lessons before doing your exercises.

***Exception - The adverb is placed after : am – are- is- was- were.

Example: I am always happy

a.1 Word Modifiers should be placed before the nouns they modify.

example:
1. He is a responsible student.
adj. noun

2. Joy is an efficient teacher.

adj. noun

23
 a.2 when used as modifiers, prepositional phrases should be placed
immediately after the words they modify.

example:
1. The students in the library are studying.
noun prep. phrase

2. The child hid under the table.

verb prep. phrase

B. Misplaced modifiers - considered misplaced when they are not placed near the
words that they should modify in sentences.

* to secure coherence in sentences, avoid misplaced modifiers

example:

X 1. He is a janitor very industrious.

 He is a very industrious janitor.

adj. noun

*** guidelines a.1 ***

X 2. The man is my uncle with a hat.

 The man with a hat is my uncle.

noun prep. phrase

*** guidelines a.2 ***

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C. On Redundancy - refers to the problem of using excessive or unnecessary
words

* to secure coherence in sentences, avoid redundant ideas

example:

X 1. That is not the way how to do it.

 That is not the way to do it.

X 2. Please, return back the books this afternoon.

*** (return means back)
 Please, return the books this afternoon.

X 3. Please, repeat it again.

*** (repeat = again)
 Please, repeat it. OR Please do it again.

25
EXERCISE on MISPLACED MODIFIERS
Rearrange the modifiers by placing them at their rightful places. (Put an arrow)

1. The flowers are beautiful in my garden. *** guidelines a.1 ***

2. The flowers are beautiful in my garden.

3. The watch is expensive in my bag.

4. The principal comes to school early usually.

5. Our house needs repair which is for sale.

6. The news is terrifying about the accident.

7. The speaker delivered an speech inspiring.

8. I saw the dog of Pablo wiggling its tail.

9. Joyce will get married in June who just turned 18.

10. The man is my uncle who is standing.

EXERCISE on REDUNDANCY
Underline the redundant word or phrase.

1. Her answer is more better.

2. The answers of the examinees are similarly the same.

3. A birth certificate is a necessary requisite for enrollment.

4. His polo shirt is red in color.

5. What she said was true fact.

26
ACTIVITY 1 MISPLACED MODIFIER
Underline the misplaced modifier and draw an arrow to its rightful place.

1. The teacher served cookies to the children wrapped in aluminum foil.

2. The mysterious woman walked toward the car holding an umbrella.

3. We returned the wine to the waiter that was sour.

4. Jessie spotted a stray puppy driving home from work.

5. The fans stood in line to buy tickets to the show for twenty minutes.

6. My friend uses a pen to write his essays with a gold cap.

7. Farmers in Ohio were spraying their crops wearing protective masks.

8. They gave a cat to my sister named Fluffy.

9. The student was punished by the teacher who cheated on the test.

10. We waited for the school bus inside the museum.

11. Kassie was walking her dog in a rain coat.

12. I bought a new car from a man with a great paint job.

13. I took a nap and dreamed about a faraway castle on my blue couch.

14. Virgil found a book about prehistoric animals in the library.

15. The woman wrote a play about two elephants in the red dress.

16. The water refreshed us from a fountain.

17. Did you see the medals that Aunt Elsa won in the attic?

18. This daruma doll is said to help wishes come true from Japan.

19. That boy will feed our dogs in the yellow shirt.

20. The rocks are from the playground in my shoes.

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ACTIVITY 2 MISPLACED MODIFIER
Correct the misplaced modifiers in the following sentences by putting an arrow to its rightful
place.

1. No one can shoot anything on this property except the owner.

2. He sat very quietly, rolling his eyes in his chair.

3. The book was missing from the library that we needed to finish our research.

4. The robber was a tall man with a mustache weighing 160 pounds.

5. We watched the newscast with anxious eyes.

6. You will only need to plant one row of corn.

7. She had a meal in a restaurant that was low in price

8. I gave the woman an umbrella who was interviewing for the job.

9. He promised never to remarry at her deathbed.

10. I nearly waited two hours for the bus.

11. We hiked through the forest wearing only light shirts and shorts.

12. Marian read an article in The New York Times about the effects of mercury poisoning.

13. Ted could see the airplane using binoculars.

14. Michelle whistled to the dog on the way to the movies.

15. Joe searched for someone to teach him how to play the guitar without success.

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ACTIVITY 3 REDUNDANCY
Indicate whether there is redundancy or unnecessary use of words in the following sentences.
Underline your answer

1. Shane’s alarm was set for 7 a.m. in the morning.

2. The burglar returned back to the scene of the crime.
3. At the end of the concert, the crowd rose to its feet and gave the musicians a standing
ovation.
4. We all need to cooperate together, or we will never make any progress.
5. For most people, riding in a hot-air balloon is a unique, once-in-a-lifetime opportunity.
6. The troops advanced forward toward the village.
7. Have you ever at any time spilled cranberry juice on a white carpet?
8. Many famous celebrities attended the Grammy Awards.
9. Mrs. O’Connor asked Tanya to circulate the sign-up sheet around to all the students in
the classroom.
10. Our neighbor who lives in the house next door has been the recipient of an invitation to
the governor’s ball.
11. The sarcastic remarks that Linda delivered had the effect of causing everyone to become
very angry.
12. Aluminum is a metal that is very light in weight.
13. The dental surgeon extracted out the bad tooth.
14. He mentioned about the treasure map in his letter.
15. They discussed about their plan at the meeting.
16. In actual fact, he had taken the bomb aboard the airplane.
17. She returned back the book to me only after three months.
18. He can hardly cope up with the huge volume of work.
19. There are free gifts for every purchase worth 50 dollars.
20. You get an extra bonus of an electric shaver if you phone in to order this product now.
21. The poorly maintained car emitted out clouds of thick, black smoke.
22. The beam of the searchlight penetrated through the darkness.
23. This pupil is industrious and hardworking.
24. This clever and intelligent student was selected for the medical course.
25. He started it first.

29
ACTIVITY 4 REDUNDANCY

Which word/phrase in the sentence is redundant and can be removed without changing the
meaning of the sentence? Put the letter of your answer on the space provided.

____ 1. In 2016, the musical Hamilton received a record-breaking 16 nominations for the Tony
Awards, breaking all previous records.
a. In 2016 c. the musical
b. for the Tony awards d. breaking all previous records
____ 2. Lisa and Manuel are working together and collaborating on a musical tribute to Mr.
Noones, our school's late janitor.
a. Lisa and Manuel c. and collaborating
b. a musical tribute d. our school's late janitor
____ 3. The pep rally was brief in length, but helped boost the morale of the athletes.
a. pep rally c. in length
b. boost the morale d. the athletes

____ 4. The amount of time we spent working on this project is approximately around 10
hours.
a. amount c. spent working
b. this project d. around

____ 5. The students finished the experiment by recording the growth of the plants although
they had originally intended to measure the plants' carbon output at first.
a. the experiment c. of the plants
b. plants' d. at first

____ 6. Maria promised and vowed that she would arrive to the restaurant on time, perhaps
even early.
a. and vowed c. would arrive
b. on time d. even early

____ 7. At 6 p.m. in the evening, detectives were called to investigate a domestic disturbance
at a home on Maple Lane.
a. in the evening c. investigate a domestic disturbance at
b. at a home d. on Maple Lane

____ 8. Barack Obama is a person who broke barriers by becoming the first African-American to
be elected President of the United States.
a. is a person who c. African-American
b. elected d. of the United States

____ 9. Before she passed away unexpectedly, the famous journalist managed to write an
autobiography about her life.
a. Before she passed away c. unexpectedly
b. famous d. about her life

____ 10. Despite the gusty winds and heavy rain, a high amount of humidity still remained in the
air after the storm.
a. and heavy rain c. high
b. still d. after the storm

30
Unity

A paragraph is a unit of composition that established oneness because it develops a

central and main idea on its structure. The entire paragraph must be unified on its structure
and all the sentences within the paragraph should focus on the topic sentence.

There are several violations in which the unity of the paragraph is lost. One of these is
by the inclusion of the second central idea which divides the idea of the entire paragraph.
Another violation is the inclusion of one or more sentences containing details that are not really
related to the paragraph’s main ideas. There are also cases in which there is no central idea
that was being established within the paragraph resulting to the disunity of sentences in
the paragraph composition.

- Sentence unity is when the parts of a sentence come together grammatically and
make sense. The reason sentence unity is important is because without it, a
sentence is incoherent. Sentence unity is taking care to keep sentence parts in line.

In order for a sentence to have unity an AGREEMENT must be considered:

1. Subject/verb agreement
A subject and its verb must agree, or correspond in number (singular, plural)

Agreement in number:

X Truth, like privilege and fair comment and criticism, are basic defenses
against libel suits.

 Truth, like privilege and fair comment and criticism, is a basic defense
against libel suits.

** The subject is Truth (singular), so the verb (is) should also be singular

 A verb is essential in a sentence. Verbs tell us what a subject is doing or what state
it is in. Verbs require correct forms and consistent tenses.

31
 2. Observe consistency or unity in tense. Avoid shifting from the present tense to past
tense or vice versa.

X Mario told us that he is in Manila yesterday.

 Mario told us that he was in Manila yesterday.

X Jose says he went to school regularly.

 Jose says he goes to school regularly.

3. Avoid mixing categories of gender in a sentence.

X The parish priest said that she would visit us.

 The parish priest said that he would visit us.

X The bride and his father were late from the wedding.
 The bride and her father were late from the wedding.

*** Unity means oneness - oneness of thought and of purpose. In order for a sentence to
have unity:
(1) its statements must be closely related,
(2) the relationship of its statements must be clear, and
(3) the statements must compose only one thought.

Unity is a very important characteristic of good paragraph writing. Paragraph unity

means that one paragraph is about ONLY ONE main topic. That is, all the sentences -- the
topic, supporting sentences, the detail sentences, and (sometimes) the concluding sentence --
are all telling the reader about ONE main topic.

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Verb Tense Exercise

Write the correct tense at the space.

1. Every Monday, Sally (drive) __________ her kids to football practice.

2. Usually, I work as a secretary at ABT, but this summer I (study) ____________________

French at a language school in Paris.
3. Shhhhh! Be quiet! John (sleep) ____________________ .

4. Don't forget to take your umbrella. It (rain) ____________________ .

5. I hate living in Seattle because it always (rain) _____________.

6. I'm sorry I can't hear what you (say) _________________ because everybody
(talk) ____________________ so loudly.
7. Justin is currently (write) _______________ a book about his adventures in Tibet. I hope
he can find a good publisher when he is finished.
8. Jim: Do you want to come over for dinner tonight?

Denise: Oh, I'm sorry, I can't. I (go) ________________ to a movie tonight with some
friends.
9. A: What (are you do) _________________ when the accident occurred?
B: I (try) ________________ to change a light bulb that had burnt out.

10. After I (find) _____________ the wallet full of money, I immediately (go) __________ to the
police and (turn) ___________ it in.

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Emphasis

Emphasis is the principle of the paragraph composition in which the important ideas are
made to stand. In here it is very important that the main points of the writer should be evident
inside the paragraph.

Having an emphasis can be achieved by using some devices such as the use of
emphasis by proportion, emphasis by pause and emphasis by position. In the emphasis by
proportion, the subordinate ideas should be given less substance while ideas which have
greater importance should be given more substance. In the emphasis by pause, the emphasis
is established by making chapter divisions, paragraph breaks as well as mark of
punctuation. In the emphasis by position, the beginning and end of the paragraph are
considered as crucial points where emphasis should be placed, emphasis are usually
positioned in these places.

Sentence emphasis refers to the process of making a sentence emphatic

(aggressive or forceful)

Refers to the process of bringing about important ideas in a manner in which the
forcefulness of thought is gained with the use of terms or expressions that strike interest and
attention

Observe brevity. Be concise. Avoid unnecessary words and repetitious expressions.

X I am suffering from cold and I am not feeling well today. I probably cannot join you
at the seminar tomorrow.

 I have a flu. I cannot join you at the seminar tomorrow.

*** Active voice (where the subject performs the action rather than receiving it) is more
forceful than the passive voice, so the reader will pay attention. This is particularly effective if
you want to come across as authoritative in your text.

Active / Passive Verb Forms

Sentences can be active or passive.

Active Form

In active sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing
receiving the action is the object. Most sentences are active.

[Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing receiving action]

34
 The professor teaches the students.
subject verb object
doing action receiving action

John washes the dishes.

subject verb object
doing action receiving action

Passive Form

In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the sentence and the
thing doing the action is optionally included near the end of the sentence. You can use the
passive form if you think that the thing receiving the action is more important or should be
emphasized.

[Thing receiving action] + [verb be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing doing action]

The students were taught by the professor.

subject passive verb
receiving action doing action

The dishes were washed by John.

subject passive verb
receiving action doing action

In order to recognize that a sentence is in passive voice, watch out for these keywords:

Be Were
Is Has Been
Are Have Been
A Will be
Was Being

 Note that the object of the passive verb is not always mentioned. If we have to mention it,
we usually introduce it by the conjunction ‘by’.

What to remember: to change a sentence from passive voice into active voice, identify the
subject.

35
Active and passive voice exercise
Sentences are given in the active voice. Change them into the passive voice.

1. He teaches English.
English ________________ by him.
2. The child is eating bananas.
Bananas _______________________ by the child.
3. She is writing a letter.
A letter _____________________ by her.
4. The master punished the servant.
The servant ___________________ by the master.
5. He was writing a book.
A book ______________________ by him.
6. Who wrote this letter?
By whom ______________________________
7. Somebody cooks meal every day.
Meal ________________ by someone every day.
8. He wore a blue shirt.
A blue shirt ___________________ by him.
10 James might cook dinner .
Dinner might ________________ by James
10. They are building a house.
A house ____________________ by them.
11. I have finished the job.
The job ________________________ by me.
12. I sent the report yesterday.
The report _______________ yesterday.
13. She bought a diamond necklace.
A diamond necklace __________________ by her.
14. Somebody had stolen my purse.
My purse _____________________ by somebody.
15. The wolf ate the rat.
The rat ________________ by the wolf.

36
Paragraphs & Topic Sentences

A paragraph is a series of sentences that are organized and coherent, and are all relat-
ed to a single topic. Almost every piece of writing you do that is longer than a few sentences
should be organized into paragraphs. This is because paragraphs show a reader where the
subdivisions of an essay begin and end, and thus help the reader see the organization of the
essay and grasp its main points.

Paragraphs can contain many different kinds of information. A paragraph could contain
a series of brief examples or a single long illustration of a general point. It might describe a
place, character, or process; narrate a series of events; compare or contrast two or more
things; classify items into categories; or describe causes and effects. Regardless of the kind of
information they contain, all paragraphs share certain characteristics. One of the most im-
portant of these is a topic sentence.

TOPIC SENTENCES

A well-organized paragraph supports or develops a single controlling idea, which is

expressed in a sentence called the topic sentence.

A topic sentence has several important functions:

 it substantiates or supports an essay’s thesis statement;
 it unifies the content of a paragraph and directs the order of the sentences;
 and it advises the reader of the subject to be discussed and how the paragraph will
discuss it.

Readers generally look to the first few sentences in a paragraph to determine the sub-
ject and perspective of the paragraph. That’s why it’s often best to put the topic sentence at the
very beginning of the paragraph. In some cases, however, it’s more effective to place another
sentence before the topic sentence—for example, a sentence linking the current paragraph to
the previous one, or one providing background information.

PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE

Most paragraphs in an essay have a three-part structure—introduction, body, and

conclusion. You can see this structure in paragraphs whether they are narrating, describing,
comparing, contrasting, or analyzing information. Each part of the paragraph plays an
important role in communicating your meaning to your reader.

Introduction: the first section of a paragraph; should include the topic sentence and any
other sentences at the beginning of the paragraph that give background
information or provide a transition.

37
Body: follows the introduction; discusses the controlling idea, using facts, arguments,
analysis, examples, and other information.

Conclusion: the final section; summarizes the connections between the information
discussed in the body of the paragraph and the paragraph’s controlling idea.

COHERENCE

In a coherent paragraph, each sentence relates clearly to the topic sentence or

controlling idea, but there is more to coherence than this. If a paragraph is coherent, each
sentence flows smoothly into the next without obvious shifts or jumps. A coherent paragraph
also highlights the ties between old information and new information to make the structure of
ideas or arguments clear to the reader.

Use transition words or phrases between sentences and between paragraphs.

Transitional expressions emphasize the relationships between ideas, so they help

readers follow your train of thought or see connections that they might otherwise miss or
misunderstand. The following paragraph shows how carefully chosen transitions lead the
reader smoothly from the introduction to the conclusion of the paragraph.

Example

There are three reasons why Canada is TOPIC

SENTENCE
one of the best countries in the world. First, it
has an excellent health care system. All
Canadians have access to medical services at a
reasonable price. Second, it has a high
standard of education. Students are taught by SUPPORTING
DETAILS
well-trained teachers and are encouraged to
continue studying at university. Finally, cities
are clean and efficiently managed. Canadian
cities have may parks and lots of space for
people to live. As a result, Canada is a CLOSING
desirable place to live. SENTENCE

38
SOME USEFUL TRANSITIONS

To show addition:

again, and, also, besides, equally important, first (second, etc.), further, furthermore,
in addition, in the first place, moreover, next, too

To give examples:

for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, that is, to illustrate

To compare:

also, in the same manner, likewise, similarly

To contrast:

although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite, even though, however, in contrast,
in spite of, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, though, yet

To summarize or conclude:

all in all, in conclusion, in other words, in short, in summary, on the whole, that is,
therefore, to sum up

To show time:

after, afterward, as, as long as, as soon as, at last, before, during, earlier, finally,
formerly, immediately, later, meanwhile, next, since, shortly, subsequently, then,
thereafter, until, when, while

To show place or direction:

above, below, beyond, close, elsewhere, farther on, here, nearby, opposite, to the left
(north, etc.)

To indicate logical relationship:

accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this reason, hence, if, otherwise,
since, so, then, therefore, thus

39
Paragraph Organization Techniques:

1. Find the topic sentence. It usually contains the main idea or the main topic
2. Next find the supporting sentences that support that topic sentence.
3. Find the concluding sentence or the closing sentence. It usually the final thought or
conclusion and marks the end of the article, paragraph or story.

Paragraph Organization Exercise 1

Read each of the following groups of sentences and arrange it in order to form a well-
organized paragraph. Write the answer (number) on the space provided.

1. Horses
I like horses in artwork.

_____ A. For example, it takes you from a place of turmoil and conflict to your own hearth.
_____ B. So, symbolically, the horse often represents what gets you from one (rotten) place
to another (better) place.
_____ C. One reason is that, to me, the horse is a symbol of transition.

_____ D. Or, it leads you into and out of battle; it helps you escape, engage in some
adventure or find new ways.

_____ E. By transition, I mean transition within our inner reality as well as transition in
our external reality.

2. Bubble wrap art

Bubble wrap was originally designed to be used as wallpaper.

_____ A. However, this wallpaper idea didn’t sell too well.

_____ B. The two were not, however, trying to make a product to be used as packaging
material.
_____ C. It was invented by two engineers: Al Fielding and Swiss inventor Marc Chavannes,
in Hawthorne, N.J. in 1957.

_____ D. They started out by sealing two shower curtains together in such a way that it would
capture air bubbles which would make the textured appearance for their wallpaper.

_____ E. Rather, they were trying to create a textured wallpaper.

40
3. Dionysus

Dionysus, also commonly known by his Roman name Bacchus, appears to be a god who
has two distinct origins.

_____ A. On the other hand, Dionysus also represents the outstanding features of mystery
religions, such as those practiced at Eleusis.
_____ B. Therefore, scholars have suspected that the god known as Dionysus is in fact a
fusion of a local Greek nature god, and another more potent god imported rather
late in Greek pre-history from Phrygia (the central area of modern day Turkey) or
Thrace.
_____ C. On the one hand, Dionysus was the god of wine, agriculture, and fertility of nature,
who is also the patron god of the Greek stage (theatre).
_____ D. A mystery religion is, basically, one that provided extreme and enriched inner
experience or ecstasy: personal and higher-level delivery from the daily world
through physical or spiritual intoxication.
_____ E. Whatever his origin, Dionysus is a god always looking to improve the human
condition by encouraging friendship, compassion, dance, laughter and joy.

Paragraph Organization Exercise 2

Instruction: Choose the best order and sequence of the following sentences to form a
well-organized paragraph.

_____ 1. A. One effective way is to diversify his funds to different investments like real
estate, stocks and money instruments like bonds and trust funds.
B. It is always best to expand money to different investment wheels.
C. A wise investor must not put all his eggs in one basket.
D. He should always consider the risks involved in investing his money.
1. CBAD 2. CBDA 3. CDAB 4. CDBA

_____ 2. A. It is very vital to have social media presence however personal blogs serve
as web domains.
B. Most people including celebrities and businessmen have blogs nowadays.
C. Therefore, building them will help anyone in promoting himself or his
business.
D. Apparently blogs are like our offices only they are in the internet.
1. BDAC 2. BADC 3. BACD 4. BDCA

41
_____ 3. A. The basic steps in building a website are easy to remember and registering
a domain name is the usual priority.
B. Designing a layout will come after that.
C. Finally, adding more content and social media presence are required to
keep your site active.
D. Then you need a hosting provider to host your site’s content in the World
Wide Web.
1. ABCD 2. ADBC 3. ACBD 4. ADCB

_____ 4. A. Speaking in English every day is also proven effective.

B. Another way is watching English movies and TV shows particularly with
English subtitles.
C. Reading articles in books, newspapers, and magazines is just among the
helpful ways.
D. There are many ways to improve and develop English proficiency.
1. DCBA 2. DACB 3. DABC 4. DCAB

_____ 5. A. Others don’t realize yet what to pursue because they have many dreams.
B. Finding the right course in college is one of the most challenging decisions
anyone can make.
C. Some people want to pursue their dreams ever since they were just little.
D. Indeed destiny is a matter of choice.
1. BDAC 2. BCDA 3. BADC 4. BCAD

_____ 6. A. While passport, airline tickets and valid IDs are required, proof of financial
capacity may be required for visa application.
B. Many Filipinos rejoiced hearing that good news.
C. The Bureau of Immigration announced recently that proof of financial
capacity is not a primary requirement at the airport.
D. Positive points go to the bureau for this.
1. CBAD 2. CADB 3. CABD 4. CBDA

_____ 7. A. This will be one of your tickets to land a job in the government.
B. That is why many people apply to take the Career Service examination.
C. If you passed the exam, you will get a certificate of eligibility.
D. Career Service Eligibility is a major requirement to apply for a job position in
the government.
1. DCBA 2. DBAC 3. DBCA 4. DCAB

42
_____ 8. A. Your passport will arrive in 7 days if you choose the rush processing.
B. Getting a passport is faster nowadays.
C. Now, it only takes about 10 working days.
D. Compared before, it would take about a month for the regular processing.
1. BCAD 2. BDCA 3. BADC 4. BACD

_____ 9. A. Facebook has been the number one social network in the web and the world
for quite long now.
B. Mobile instant messaging apps are also dominating social presence in the
internet.
C. After many acquisitions, Facebook bought Instagram, one of the fastest
growing photo sharing networks.
D. Because of that, Facebook acquired WhatsApp, a leading instant chat
platform like Kakaotalk.
1. ACBD 2. ABCD 3. ADCB 4. ADBC

_____ 10. A. They will help you to purchase through zero-interest installment schemes.
B. Thus, you must be wise and pay in full if you want to avoid never-ending
debts.
C. Credit cards are helpful if you know how and when to use them wisely.
D. However, they will produce interests from interests if you didn’t pay the
whole amount at the due date.
1. CDBA 2. CABD 3. CDAB 4. CADB

43
 Paragraph Writing Topics

1. Write a paragraph about an important person in history. Be sure to address the topic of
the paragraph, such as that person’s career, birthplace or prominent contribution. Use
supporting sentences to expand on the topic chosen.

2. Write a paragraph about your bedroom at home. Be descriptive, and use adjectives to
describe how the space looks and how you feel when you are in your bedroom.

3. Write a paragraph about a holiday that you celebrate. Use facts within the supporting
sentences to explain the holiday and the traditions that are associated with it.

4. Write a paragraph arguing your opinion on a controversial topic. Make sure to use factual
information to support your opinion, and conclude with why you feel the way that you do.

5. Write a descriptive paragraph about your garden. Identify the plants that are in the garden,
and use descriptive phrases to make the reader feel as if they are walking through your
garden.

6. Write a paragraph about a new invention that you would create. Use descriptive phrases
to describe your invention and to support the topic.

7. Write a persuasive paragraph asking your classmates to help take care of the school
better. Offer several reasons within your supporting sentences as to why they should care
about the well-being of their school building.

8. Write a paragraph describing a recent vacation that you took with your family. Be sure to
describe the paragraph in detail, and conclude with what you loved most about your trip.

9. Write a paragraph describing one object, but use all of the senses in your description.
Include a variety of adjectives to bring the paragraph to life for the reader.

10. Write a paragraph providing directions for how to care for your pet. Describe the pet and
include the materials needed to properly care for the animal.

11. Write a persuasive paragraph about why you should earn more money for the chores you
complete for your parents. Give solid reasons to support your argumentative topic.

12. Write a paragraph describing your favorite view, whether it is the view out your window
from home or a fleeting glimpse of a sunset on vacation. Describe the scene in detail.

44
13. Write a paragraph in response to a recent news article that you have read. Use the topic
sentence to address your feelings on the news piece, and the supporting sentences to
back up your opinion.

14. Write a paragraph about an item that you feel your school needs. Form an argument and
support your cause with facts and data.

15. Write a paragraph about a special childhood toy or memento. Describe why it is important
to you and how it makes you feel.

16. Write a paragraph about a recent science experiment that you conducted in school. Identi-
fy what you observed, what you learned and what improvements you might make to the
experiment.

45
 Effectively writing different types of essays has become critical to academic success.
Essay writing is a common school assignment, a part of standardized tests, and a requirement
on college applications. Often on tests, choosing the correct type of essay to write in response
to a writing prompt is key to getting the question right. Clearly, students can’t afford to remain
confused about types of essays.

There are over a dozen types of essays, so it’s easy to get confused. However, rest
assured, the number is actually more manageable. Essentially there are four major types of
essays, with the variations making up the remainder.

Four Major Types of Essays

Distinguishing between types of essays is simply a matter of determining the writer’s

goal. Does the writer want to tell about a personal experience, describe something, explain an
issue, or convince the reader to accept a certain viewpoint? The four major types of essays
address these purposes:

1. Narrative Essays: Telling a Story

In a narrative essay, the writer tells a story about a real-life experience. While telling a
story may sound easy to do, the narrative essay challenges students to think and write
about themselves. When writing a narrative essay, writers should try to involve the reader
by making the story as vivid as possible. The fact that narrative essays are usually written
in the first person helps engage the reader. “I” sentences give readers a feeling of being
part of the story. A well-crafted narrative essay will also build towards drawing a
conclusion or making a personal statement.

2. Descriptive Essays: Painting a Picture

A descriptive essay is an essay that describes something – an object or person, an event

or place, an experience or emotion, or an idea. The goal of this kind of essay is to provide
readers with enough detailed descriptions for them to be able to picture or imagine the
chosen topic.

3. Expository Essays: Just the Facts

The expository essay is an informative piece of writing that presents a balanced analysis
of a topic. In an expository essay, the writer explains or defines a topic, using facts,
statistics, and examples. Expository writing encompasses a wide range of essay
variations, such as the comparison and contrast essay, the cause and effect essay, and

46
 the “how to” or process essay. Because expository essays are based on facts and not
personal feelings, writers don’t reveal their emotions or write in the first person.

4. Persuasive Essays: Convince Me

While like an expository essay in its presentation of facts, the goal of the persuasive es-
say is to convince the reader to accept the writer’s point of view or recommendation. The
writer must build a case using facts and logic, as well as examples, expert opinion, and
sound reasoning. The writer should present all sides of the argument, but must be able to
communicate clearly and without equivocation why a certain position is correct.

47
 Rubric for Essay Writing
X 8-10 6-7 4-5 1-3 Points

INTRODUC- There is a well-developed Introduction creates Introduction ade- Background de-

TION and introduction with an interest. Thesis quately explains tails are a ran-
CONCLU- attention grabber that states the position. the background, dom, unclear
SION grabs the reader’s interest Conclusion effec- but may lack de- collection of in-
and continues to engage tively summarizes tail. Thesis states formation. Thesis
(Background
the reader up until the the topic. the topic, but key is vague and un-
History/
thesis statement. The elements are clear. Conclusion
Thesis State-
thesis statement should missing is not effective
ment)
clearly state the experi- and does not
ence or event that will be summarize main
described as well as the points.
effect on the writer. Con-
clusion should effectively
wraps up and re stresses
the importance of the
thesis.

MAIN Well developed main Three or more main Three or more Less than three
POINTS points/topic sentences points relate to the main points are ideas/main points
that relate directly to the thesis, but some present, but lack are explained
(Body Para-
thesis. Supporting exam- may lack details. details in describ- and/or they are
graphs)
ples are concrete and The narrative shows ing the event. poorly developed.
detailed. The narrative is events from the Little descriptive The story tells; it
developed with an effec- author’s point of language is used. doesn’t show
tive point of view. view, but could use
more descriptive
language.
ORGANIZA- Logical Progression of Logical progression Organization is Writing is not
TION ideas with a clear struc- of ideas. Transitions clear. Transitions organized. The
ture that enhances the are present are present at transitions be-
(Structure
thesis. Transitions are throughout the es- times, but there is tween ideas are
and Transi-
effective and vary say, but lacks varie- very little variety. unclear or non
tions)
throughout the para- ty. existent.
graph, not just in the topic
sentences.
STYLE Writing is smooth, skillful, Writing is clear and Writing is clear, Writing is confus-
and coherent. Sentences sentences have var- but could use a ing and hard to
(Sentence
are strong and expressive ied structure, Dic- little more sen- follow. Contains
Flow, Varie-
with varied structure. tion is consistent. tence variety to fragments and/or
ty, Diction)
Diction is consistent and make the writing run-on sentences.
words are well chosen. more interesting.
MECHANICS Punctuation, There are only a Distracting errors
spelling, and capital- few (3-4) errors in in punctuation,
(Spelling, Punctuation, spelling, and
ization are generally punctuation, spelling, and capi-
Punctuation, capitalization are all cor-
correct with few spelling, and capi- talization.
Capitaliza- rect. No errors.
errors (1-2) talization.
tion)

Total Points: _________x 2= _________/100 Points

48
Narrative Essay: Write your autobiography

Writing about your own life can be confusing. You may find it hard to brainstorm ideas
and maintain inspiration. In order to make sure that you won’t get stuck wondering what ideas
to include in your essay, here is a list of questions that should set you on the right track:
 How would you describe yourself with three adjectives?
 What famous quotes describe you and your life best?
 What is the ethnic and social background of your family?
 Who and what made you who you are today?
 What are your biggest achievements so far?
 What are your main goals?
 What are your main strengths and weaknesses?
 What are your key values?
 What are your worst and best memories of your childhood?
 What has been the most memorable day for you?
 What are your relations with your family members?
 What is the most vital life lesson you’ve learned so far?
 What fault could you never forgive yourself, or others, for?

*** Answering these questions should help to find inspiration and generate brilliant ideas for
your autobiographical essay.

Here is a sample outline template that can come in handy:

1. Intro
 Basic background information that engages readers
 Thesis statement – main idea and key points

2. Body
 Thesis statement
 Supporting ideas (details, facts, reasons, and a smooth transition between every idea)
 Summary
Use this outline for every paragraph in the main body. Include at least 3 paragraphs.

3. Conclusion
 Restate your thesis statement
 Summary of all key ideas
Conclusion (lessons you’ve learned, personal thoughts, etc.)

49
How to write a descriptive essay

Remember these writing goals when writing a descriptive essay.

a. Use your senses

Think about all five of your senses (sight, sound, hearing, touch, taste) when you write
about your topic. Let your readers ‘see’ your topic with two or three senses.

I spent yesterday in the park. I saw many trees, and I heard the shouts
of children playing a game. The sun was burning brightly, and I ended up in
the shade to cool off.

b. Consider your point of view

Many descriptive essays use a straightforward look at their topic, but sometimes a
creative point of view lets your readers see the topic in a new light. For instance, you can
describe a tree from the point of view of a bird, or items in your bedroom described by a person
from the past. Writing a descriptive essay with a creative point of view can be very effective,
but be aware of what your audience wants!

I walked along a dirt path, lined by trees on each side. A bird chirped
above me, and I wondered what it saw from up in its nest. The dirt path cut
straight through his neighborhood, and I imagined the chirping bird as a
grumpy man yelling at us. The zooming bicycles must seem like strange
animals to the bird.

c. Consider figurative language

Descriptive essays are all about imagery. Similes and metaphors can create vivid images
to your descriptive writing.

All along the path, the trees grew close together, and their branches
touched like old friends holding hands.

d. Don’t slip into narrative

A descriptive essay should ‘paint a picture’ — not show a movie. You won’t see dialogue, a
chain of events, or characters (unless a character is the topic) in a descriptive essay. Keep
your essay focused on a single, steady image.

50
 On the other side of the wooded path sits a large pond with a lawn
beside it. Ducks quack loudly while kids chase each other on the flat green
lawn. On the far side of the grass I see the glint of sunlight of the metal
cart of a hotdog stand.

e. Be clear with your word-choice

A successful descriptive essay requires careful word choice. Take a close look at the
adjectives (describing words) you use. See if you can find a more specific or descriptive word.
Also make sure you use clear, active verbs (action words).

The ducks waddled around eating bread crumbs that two grey-haired
ladies tossed towards them. The large pond nearby was surrounded by thick
grass as tall as a child.

f. Search for unique details

Find small, interesting details that others may not see. Think about focusing your
description in a way that will give your audience a new view on something they might’ve
already seen.

I watched the ducks for a while. They scrambled after the bread on
their awkward, webbed feet. The nostrils on their bills were shaped like
question marks. When they gobbled the bread I saw a ridges of bumps, like
teeth, lining their bills.

Describe an inspiring friend or family member.

We remember people who inspire us. And people love to read about
inspiring individuals. If you describe an inspiring person, think about
the impact that a person made on you.

Questions to develop this essay topic: What did this person do

that was inspiring? How did that person act toward others?

51
Business Correspondence

Business Correspondence is an umbrella term for all written communications used in

business relationships with business partners or for internal communication in the organization.

 business letters may be defined as a media or means through which views are
expressed

 and ideas or information is communicated in writing in the process of business activities

Business correspondence include:

 Curriculum Vitae (CV) or Resume

 Motivation Letter
 Notice, Termination of employment
 Letter of Application
 Cover Letter
 Letter of Recommendations
 Advertising and marketing printed materials (brochures, leaflets)
 Newsletter
 Demand - demand response - Business offer (Proposal, Bid)
 Claim - a response to the claim
 Business Contract
 Confirmation of reservation
 Reminder - Reminder response
 Letter of Claim/Complaints - response to complaint
 Urgency - response to urgencies
 E-mail communication
 Direct Marketing (Direct Mail)
 Invitation card

CV (Curriculum Vitae) stands for a professional resume. It is a structured

document that contains basic facts about your education, qualifications and relevant work
experience.

52
 A well written Curriculum Vitae (CV) or Resume is one of the most important factors in
finding a job. Along with a cover letter it is the first showcase for potential employers. Its care-
ful preparation should therefore not be underestimated. Currently, most companies prefer
structured CV, where all in essential points for the job are mentioned.

HR managers recommend to vary the CV for each job according to the specifications
and requirements for the job. This allows not only emphasizing your skills but it will be also
obvious that you are really interested in this job and thus you increase your opportunities to be
invited for an interview.

 CV must be brief - up to 2 pages

 CV must be clear
 CV must be true
 Data in a CV are arranged from the newest to the oldest

Basic structure of the CV:

 Title - Curriculum Vitae (or Resume) - full name, including degree

Personal Information
 Name - full name, degree
 Address - permanent and temporary residence
 Phone
 E-mail
 Date of Birth
 Nationality
 Marital Status - optional

Work Experience

 Period from - to - the time period in which you were employed in that occupation
- in chronological order from the newest

 Name of the employer

Type of business - in what field the enterprise operates (e.g. accounting, IT,
banking, insurance, tourism, etc.)

53
  Job position - position and function in the enterprise

Main activities - briefly describe what was your job description

 Graduates without experience can list summer jobs, internships and

participation in various international projects organized by the school

Education
 Period from - to - in chronological order from the newest
 Name of the institution - including faculty and major field
 Main subjects - e.g. economic, technical, legal, arts, etc.

Education degree - university, secondary education (elementary education doesn’t

need to be shown)

Personal Skills and Competences

 Native language
Other languages - their knowledge level and eventually achieved certification
including the year of achievement
 Reading
 Writing
 Speaking
 Courses - a variety of tests and training that you’ve done outside of education

Work on PC - PC skills (beginner, intermediate, advanced), software or platform ti-

tles, accompanied by obtained certificates

Abilities and skills - Abilities and skills - Highlight other skills that you could apply in
a new job (such as responsibility, communication, teamwork, professional behav-
ior, management skills, accuracy, reliability, etc.)

54
What is a Cover Letter?

Before you start writing a cover letter, you should familiarize yourself with the
document’s purpose. A cover letter is a document sent with your resume to provide additional
information on your skills and experience.

The letter provides detailed information on why you are qualified for the job you are
applying for. Don’t simply repeat what’s on your resume -- rather, include specific information
on why you’re a strong match for the employer’s job requirements. Think of your cover letter as
a sales pitch that will market your credentials and help you get the interview. As such, you want
to make sure your cover letter makes the best impression on the person who is reviewing it.

A cover letter typically accompanies each resume you send out. Employers use cover
letters as a way to screen applicants for available jobs and to determine which candidates they
would like to interview. If an employer requires a cover letter, it will be listed in the job posting.
Even if the company doesn’t ask for one, you may want to include one anyway.

When applying for a job, a cover letter should be sent or posted with your resume or
curriculum vitae. A cover letter is a (typically) one-page document that explains to the hiring
manager why you are an ideal candidate for the job. It goes beyond your resume to explain in
detail how you could add value to the company.

Your job application letter is an opportunity to highlight your most relevant qualifica-
tions and experiences, enhancing your resume, and increasing your chances of being called for
an interview.

Your letter should detail your specific qualifications for the position and the skills you
would bring to the employer. See below for how to email your application letter.

As with all cover letters, the body of this job application letter is divided into three
sections: the introduction, which details why the applicant is writing; the body, which discusses
relevant qualifications; and the closing, which thanks the reader and provides contact infor-
mation and follow-up details.

55
Sample Job Application Letter

John Donald
8 Sue Circle
Smithtown, CA 08067
909-555-5555
[email protected]
Date ____________

George Gil
XYZ Company
87 Delaware Road
Hatfield, CA 08065

Dear Mr. Gil

I am writing to apply for the programmer position advertised in the Times Union. As requested, I
am enclosing a completed job application, my certification, my resume, and three references.
The opportunity presented in this listing is very interesting, and I believe that my strong technical
experience and education will make me a very competitive candidate for this position. The key
strengths that I possess for success in this position include:
 I have successfully designed, developed, and supported live use applications
 I strive for continued excellence
 I provide exceptional contributions to customer service for all customers

With a BS degree in Computer Programming, I have a full understanding of the full lifecycle of a
software development project. I also have experience in learning and excelling at new technologies
as needed.

Please see my resume for additional information on my experience.

I can be reached anytime via email at [email protected] or my cell phone, 909-555-5555.

Thank you for your time and consideration. I look forward to speaking with you about this employ-
ment opportunity.

Sincerely,

Signature (for hard copy letter)

John Donald

56
Tips for Writing a Strong Application Letter

 Get off to a direct start: In your first paragraph, explain simply why you are writing.
Mention the job title and company name, and also where you came across the job listing.
While you can also briefly mention why you are a strong candidate, this section should be
short and to-the-point.

 Offer something different than what's in your resume: It's rare to send an application
letter without also sending a resume. Your application letter, therefore, doesn't have to
duplicate your resume. Your language can be a bit more personal than in resume bullet
points — you can tell a narrative about your work experience and career.

 Make a good case. Your first goal with this letter is to move on to the next step: an
interview. Your overarching goal, of course, is to get a job offer. Use your application letter
to further both of these causes. Offer details about your experience and background that
show why you are a good candidate. How have other jobs prepared you for the position?
What would you bring to the position, and to the company? Use this space to emphasize
your strengths.

 Close with all the important details. Include a thank you at the end of your letter. You can
also share your contact information. If you'd like, mention how you will follow up.

57
Memorandums and Letters

L E A R N I N G O BJ E C TI V E S

1. Discuss the purpose and format of a memo.

2. Understand effective strategies for business memos.
3. Describe the fifteen parts of a standard business letter.
4. Access sample business letters and write a sample business letter.

Memos

A memo (or memorandum, meaning “reminder”) is normally used for communicating

policies, procedures, or related official business within an organization. It is often written from a
one-to-all perspective (like mass communication), broadcasting a message to an audience,
rather than a one-on-one, interpersonal communication. It may also be used to update a team
on activities for a given project, or to inform a specific group within a company of an event,
action, or observance.

Memo Purpose

A memo’s purpose is often to inform, but it occasionally includes an element of

persuasion or a call to action. All organizations have informal and formal communication net-
works. The unofficial, informal communication network within an organization is often called
the grapevine, and it is often characterized by rumor, gossip, and innuendo. On the grapevine,
one person may hear that someone else is going to be laid off and start passing the news
around. Rumors change and transform as they are passed from person to person, and before
you know it, the word is that they are shutting down your entire department.

One effective way to address informal, unofficial speculation is to spell out clearly for all
employees what is going on with a particular issue. If budget cuts are a concern, then it may be
wise to send a memo explaining the changes that are imminent. If a company wants employ-
ees to take action, they may also issue a memorandum.

While memos do not normally include a call to action that requires personal spending,
they often represent the business or organization’s interests. They may also include
statements that align business and employee interest, and underscore common ground and
benefit.

58
Memo Format

A memo has a header that clearly indicates who sent it and who the intended recipients
are. Pay particular attention to the title of the individual(s) in this section. Date and subject lines
are also present, followed by a message that contains a declaration, a discussion, and a
summary.

In a standard writing format, we might expect to see an introduction, a body, and a

conclusion. All these are present in a memo, and each part has a clear purpose. The declara-
tion in the opening uses a declarative sentence to announce the main topic. The discussion
elaborates or lists major points associated with the topic, and the conclusion serves as a
summary.

59
Five Tips for Effective Business Memos

Audience Orientation

Always consider the audience and their needs when preparing a memo. An acronym or
abbreviation that is known to management may not be known by all the employees of the
organization, and if the memo is to be posted and distributed within the organization, the goal is
clear and concise communication at all levels with no ambiguity.

Professional, Formal Tone

Memos are often announcements, and the person sending the memo speaks for a part
or all of the organization. While it may contain a request for feedback, the announcement itself
is linear, from the organization to the employees. The memo may have legal standing as it
often reflects policies or procedures, and may reference an existing or new policy in the
employee manual, for example.

Subject Emphasis

The subject is normally declared in the subject line and should be clear and concise. If
the memo is announcing the observance of a holiday, for example, the specific holiday should
be named in the subject line—for example, use “Thanksgiving weekend schedule” rather than
“holiday observance.”

Direct Format

Some written business communication allows for a choice between direct and indirect
formats, but memorandums are always direct. The purpose is clearly announced.

Objectivity

Memos are a place for just the facts, and should have an objective tone without
personal bias, preference, or interest on display. Avoid subjectivity.

Letters

Letters are brief messages sent to recipients that are often outside the organiza-
tion. They are often printed on letterhead paper, and represent the business or organization in
one or two pages. Shorter messages may include e-mails or memos, either hard copy or elec-
tronic, while reports tend to be three or more pages in length.

60
 While e-mail and text messages may be used more frequently today, the effective
business letter remains a common form of written communication. It can serve to introduce you
to a potential employer, announce a product or service, or even serve to communicate feelings
and emotions. We’ll examine the basic outline of a letter and then focus on specific products or
writing assignments.

All writing assignments have expectations in terms of language and format. The
audience or reader may have their own idea of what constitutes a specific type of letter, and
your organization may have its own format and requirements. This chapter outlines common
elements across letters, and attention should be directed to the expectations associated with
your particular writing assignment. There are many types of letters, and many adaptations in
terms of form and content, but in this chapter, we discuss the fifteen elements of a traditional
block-style letter.

Letters may serve to introduce your skills and qualifications to prospective employers,
deliver important or specific information, or serve as documentation of an event or decision.
Regardless of the type of letter you need to write, it can contain up to fifteen elements in five
areas. While you may not use all the elements in every case or context.

Elements of a Business Letter

Content Guidelines

This is your address where someone could send a reply. If your letter
1. Return includes a letterhead with this information, either in the header (across the
Address top of the page) or the footer (along the bottom of the page), you do not need
to include it before the date.

The date should be placed at the top, right or left justified, five lines from
2. Date
the top of the page or letterhead logo.

3. Reference Like a subject line in an e-mail, this is where you indicate what the letter is
(Re:) in reference to, the subject or purpose of the document.

Sometimes you want to indicate on the letter itself how it was delivered.
4. Delivery This can make it clear to a third party that the letter was delivered via a
(Optional) specific method, such as certified mail (a legal requirement for some types
of documents).

5. Recipient
This is where you can indicate if the letter is personal or confidential.
Note (Optional)

61
 Content Guidelines

A common salutation may be “Dear Mr. (full name).” But if you are unsure
about titles (i.e., Mrs., Ms., Dr.), you may simply write the recipient’s name
(e.g., “Dear Cameron Rai”) followed by a colon. A comma after the saluta-
tion is correct for personal letters, but a colon should be used in business.
The salutation “To whom it may concern” is appropriate for letters of
recommendation or other letters that are intended to be read by any and all
6. Salutation individuals. If this is not the case with your letter, but you are unsure of
how to address your recipient, make every effort to find out to whom the
letter should be specifically addressed. For many, there is no sweeter sound
than that of their name, and to spell it incorrectly runs the risk of
alienating the reader before your letter has even been read. Avoid the use
of impersonal salutations like “Dear Prospective Customer,” as the lack of
personalization can alienate a future client.

This is your opening paragraph, and may include an attention statement, a

reference to the purpose of the document, or an introduction of the person
or topic depending on the type of letter. An emphatic opening involves using
the most significant or important element of the letter in the introduction.
7. Introduction
Readers tend to pay attention to openings, and it makes sense to outline
the expectations for the reader up front. Just as you would preview your
topic in a speech, the clear opening in your introductions establishes con-
text and facilitates comprehension.

If you have a list of points, a series of facts, or a number of questions, they

belong in the body of your letter. You may choose organizational devices to
draw attention, such as a bullet list, or simply number them. Readers may
skip over information in the body of your letter, so make sure you empha-
8. Body
size the key points clearly. This is your core content, where you can outline
and support several key points. Brevity is important, but so is clear support
for main point(s). Specific, meaningful information needs to be clear,
concise, and accurate.

62
 Content Guidelines

An emphatic closing mirrors your introduction with the added element of

tying the main points together, clearly demonstrating their relationship.
The conclusion can serve to remind the reader, but should not introduce
new information. A clear summary sentence will strengthen your writing
and enhance your effectiveness. If your letter requests or implies action, the
9. Conclusion
conclusion needs to make clear what you expect to happen. It is usually
courteous to conclude by thanking the recipient for his or her attention, and
to invite them to contact you if you can be of help or if they have questions.
This paragraph reiterates the main points and their relationship to each
other, reinforcing the main point or purpose.

“Sincerely” or “Cordially” are standard business closing statements.

(“Love,” “Yours Truly,” and “BFF” are closing statements suitable for per-
10. Close sonal correspondence, but not for business.) Closing statements are normal-
ly placed one or two lines under the conclusion and include a hanging com-
ma, as in Sincerely,

Five lines after the close, you should type your name (required) and, on the
11. Signature
line below it, your title (optional).

12. Preparation If the letter was prepared, or word-processed, by someone other than the
Line signatory (you), then inclusion of initials is common, as in MJD or abc.

Just like an e-mail with an attachment, the letter sometimes has additional
13. Enclosures/ documents that are delivered with it. This line indicates what the reader
Attachments can look for in terms of documents included with the letter, such as
brochures, reports, or related business documents.

14. Courtesy The abbreviation “CC” once stood for carbon copies but now refers to
Copies or courtesy copies. Just like a “CC” option in an e-mail, it indicates the
“CC” relevant parties that will also receive a copy of the document.

15. Logo/
A formal business letter normally includes a logo or contact information for
Contact
the organization in the header (top of page) or footer (bottom of page).
Information

63
Strategies for Effective Letters

Remember that a letter has five main areas:

1. The heading, which establishes the sender, often including address and date
2. The introduction, which establishes the purpose
3. The body, which articulates the message
4. The conclusion, which restates the main point and may include a call to action
5. The signature line, which sometimes includes the contact information

64
Always remember that letters represent you and your company in your absence. In order to
communicate effectively and project a positive image,

 be clear, concise, specific, and respectful;

 each word should contribute to your purpose;
 each paragraph should focus on one idea;
 the parts of the letter should form a complete message;
 the letter should be free of errors.

K E Y TA K E AW A YS

 Memos are brief business documents usually used internally to inform or persuade
employees concerning business decisions on policy, procedure, or actions.
 Letters are brief, print messages often used externally to inform or persuade
customers, vendors, or the public.
 A letter has fifteen parts, each fulfilling a specific function.

E XE R C I S E S

1. Find a memo from your work or business, or borrow one from someone you know.
Share it with your classmates, observing confidentiality by blocking out identifying
details such as the name of the sender, recipient, and company. Compare and con-
trast.
2. Create a draft letter introducing a product or service to a new client. Post and share
with classmates.
3. Write a memo informing your class that an upcoming holiday will be observed. Post
and share with classmates.
4. Find a business letter (for example, an offer you received from a credit card compa-
ny or a solicitation for a donation) and share it with your classmates. Look for com-
mon elements and points of difference.
5. Now that you have reviewed a sample letter, and learned about the five areas and
fifteen basic parts of any business letter, write a business letter that informs a pro-
spective client or customer of a new product or service.

65
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66
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about-them/

67