CHAPTER 1

A Framework
for Crisis Management

Visualizing Crisis Management

V isualize the term crisis management and a number of images may pop into
your head. Consider these possibilities:

• Maybe you thought immediately of extremely catastrophic events that occurred

during the first half of the decade, such as the September 11, 2001, terrorist
attack on the World Trade Center in New York City and on the Pentagon in
Washington, D.C.; the Southeast Asia tsunami in December 2004; or the
onslaught of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans in August 2005.
• Maybe the second half of the decade with its catastrophic natural disasters
popped into your mind. In 2008, two major events occurred closely together,
both in terms of time and geography: the May 2 cyclone that struck Myanmar
(Burma), and the May 12 earthquake that caused mass damage and casualties
in the Peoples Republic of China.
• Perhaps you envisioned a team of managers, trying to work their way through a
product recall. Indeed, product recalls are significant crisis events that can
destroy brand loyalty, perhaps forever.
• You might have visualized a crisis management team meeting in a mobile
trailer, a block away from their burning factory, where total production capacity
has now been reduced to a heap of ashes. For this team, the hard part of getting
the company back online is just beginning.

One item you may not have considered was the conceptual framework that is
currently growing in this specialized field of management. A framework functions as a map
that helps us see how the different parts of a discipline are related to each other.

(Continued)

1
2 CRISIS MANAGEMENT IN THE NEW STRATEGY LANDSCAPE

(Continued)

This book offers a framework to help you understand the field of crisis management and
how you can better prepare for crisis events that may occur in your organization.
The onset of crises in organizations is a common occurrence in our contemporary
environment. The authors have noted a number of crisis events while preparing this
book. Consider these two related examples from the mining industry, each with vastly
different outcomes:

• During the month of August 2007, six miners were trapped and later presumed
to have died in the Crandall (no relationship to the author of this book) Canyon
Mine in Utah. Search and recovery efforts at the mine also resulted in the deaths
of three rescuers (Torres, 2007).
• During the first week of October 2007, 3,200 miners became trapped in a South
African gold mine after an electric cable broke that powered the lift that moved
workers to and from the mine. Fortunately, all of the miners were eventually
rescued in good health.

These two examples illustrate “sensational” types of crises; indeed, mention the
term crisis and many think about unprecedented events that result in catastrophic
damage and mass casualties. However, not all crises fall into this category. The problem
with associating only catastrophic events with a crisis is that they sound so dramatic that
most organizational leaders may assume an “it can’t happen to us” mentality. But then,
consider these crises that are more widespread, yet less dramatic:

• A drought across the southeast United States during the summer of 2007
threatened the drinking water supply in Atlanta, Georgia.
• A number of pet food manufacturers were affected by contaminated wheat
gluten, an input for making their product that has been linked to the deaths of
at least 15 animals.
• Toy maker Mattel recalled a number of toys after reports that many were coated
with lead paint. The toys had been manufactured in China on a contract with
Mattel (Parnell, 2007).

As these examples illustrate, not every organizational crisis is dramatic, but crises
can have far-reaching impacts if not managed properly.

Setting the Context

Unfortunate events will occur in the life of most organizations. In this book, we
refer to these events as crises. There are two broad approaches to the managing
of these events: (1) Try to keep them from reoccurring, and (2) mitigate or soften
the impact of the crisis when it does occur. Crisis management is the discipline
that addresses these two approaches.
This book is about crisis management. It is a field of growing interest because
many managers realize they are not immune to those sudden, unexpected events
that can put an organization into a tailspin, and sometimes even out of business.
 Chapter 1 • A Framework for Crisis Management 3

This book is written for students of crisis management. As present or future

leaders in your organizations, the key issue you will face is not if a crisis will occur,
but when, and what type. As a result, an understanding of crisis management is
an essential part of your toolkit for organizational and professional success.

Developing a Framework
for Studying Crisis Management
A starting point for understanding crisis management is to look at it in terms of
a framework. Frameworks are ways of grouping or organizing what we see in
organizational life. This book is about a framework, a way of visualizing crisis
management through the lens of a particular viewpoint. Our perspective is built
on the work of a number of crisis management researchers who have gone
before us. However, we add a new dimension to our framework. That dimension
is the existence of the internal and external landscapes that engulf the
organization and the crisis events that surround it. In the next section, we begin
the foundation of this framework by building on the work of past contributors
to the field of crisis management.

Crisis Definition
The definition of a crisis must be established before a suitable framework can
be developed. Numerous definitions have been offered, and most synthesize
previous definitions to some extent. Pearson and Clair (1998) offered one of the
first of the comprehensive definitions:

An organizational crisis is a low-probability, high-impact event that threatens

the viability of the organization and is characterized by ambiguity of cause,
effect, and means of resolution, as well as by a belief that decisions must be
made swiftly. (p. 60)

The following implications of this definition should be highlighted:

• A crisis is a low-probability event. This characteristic makes the planning

for a crisis even more troublesome. Events that are not perceived to
be imminent are hard to plan for. In addition, it is often difficult for
management to find the motivation to plan for such an event. The notion
is, “Why plan for something bad if it may not occur?” (Spillan & Crandall,
2002). Many managers have asked that same question, until they got hit
with a big crisis.
• A crisis can have a high-damage impact. Because of this reality, it should
be remembered that a crisis can devastate an organization, drive it into
the ground, kill it, or, at best, leave it reeling.
• The reference to ambiguity means that the causes and effects of the
crisis might be unknown, at least initially. Causes are often attributed to
some type of negligence, and the media can be an attacker in its quest
to single out the one culprit that caused the crisis to occur in the first
place. Unfortunately, as we will see throughout this book, crises can
4 CRISIS MANAGEMENT IN THE NEW STRATEGY LANDSCAPE

have multiple interrelated factors that can lead to a trigger event that
initiates the crisis.
• The ambiguity in this definition also implies that the means of resolving
the crisis are often debatable. In other words, several viable options may
be available for the crisis management team to use in its goal of mitigating
the crisis.
• Certain aspects of managing a crisis may require swift decision making.
The failure to act decisively during the acute stage of the crisis can often
intensify the ordeal.

A more recent definition by Timothy Coombs (2007) states:

A crisis is the perception of an unpredictable event that threatens important

expectancies of stakeholders and can seriously impact an organization’s
performance and generate negative outcomes. (pp. 2–3)

This definition emphasizes perception. A crisis is generally perceived to be a

threat by the organization’s stakeholders. Stakeholders are various groups that
have an interest in the organization. For example, employees, customers, and
the community in which the organization resides are considered stakeholders.
Coombs infers that not all stakeholders will perceive that a crisis is actually
occurring. A product defect that is detected by consumers, but not the company,
is an example of the incongruity that can take place. Nonetheless, a crisis has
occurred, because the perceptions of at least one group of stakeholders have
been impacted in a negative manner by the event. Recognizing this distinction
is important because there are occasions when management has gone into
denial, proclaiming that no crisis has occurred (or could ever occur, for that
matter), when in fact one has transpired (Sheaffer & Mano-Negrin, 2003).
Textbooks are full of examples of this type of denial, such as General Motors’
(GM) denial that anything was wrong with their Corvair automobile (Nader,
1965). In this early-1960s example of a corporate crisis, consumers and the
media claimed that the Corvair automobile was subject to instability when
going into a turn. Indeed, several accidents involving fatalities had occurred as
a result of this structural problem. GM maintained that the problem of instability
was caused by driver error, not a defect in the car. This denial that a crisis even
existed resulted in a huge public image problem for GM.
This book follows the crisis definition guidelines offered above. We will build on
the definition guidelines offered by Pearson and Clair in 1998 (which is the most
frequently cited in the crisis management literature), but we will also include the
perspective offered by Coombs. To paraphrase Pearson, Clair, and Coombs, we offer
the following definition to serve as our reference point throughout the book:

A crisis is an event that has a low probability of occurring, but should it

occur, can have a vastly negative impact on the organization. The causes of
the crisis, as well as the means to resolve it, may not be readily clear;
nonetheless, its resolution should be approached as quickly as possible.
Finally, the crisis impact may not be initially obvious to all of the relevant
stakeholders of the organization.
 Chapter 1 • A Framework for Crisis Management 5

Strategic Orientation
In many instances, crisis events in organizations are addressed with a short-
term, reactive perspective. When a crisis occurs, select individuals in an
organization—perhaps those on an established crisis management team—
convene to minimize the damage and present a positive image to the public. Any
preparations for dealing with such crises often focus on effective communications
and public relations. In contrast, organizations constantly face strategic challenges.
They must adapt to their changing business environments and modify their
strategies to survive and remain competitive. In doing so, their leaders tend to adopt
a long-term, proactive, and analytical perspective on strategic planning.
Between the extremes of traditional organizational crises and strategic
challenges are important obstacles to organizational success that are not always
easy to classify. At times, distinguishing between a crisis and a strategic challenge
may be difficult. Consider these potential scenarios, all of which are based on a
number of actual events that have occurred over the last several years:

• A supplier in another country produces a product that turns out to be

defective. The result is that the product is assembled as a component into a
domestic product, which causes the final product to fail, and in the process,
kills three people. Is this a crisis or a strategic challenge? The answer is both. It
is a crisis because there has now been a loss of life due to a defective product.
It is a strategic challenge because the supplier was selected for its ability to offer
a low cost for the product.
• A labor union stages a mass boycott of certain products that are manufactured
overseas. The message from the protest is that these products have caused the
loss of domestic jobs. The boycott causes some revenue loss for the companies
that manufacture and retail these products. In a few cases, vandalism occurs on
store properties that offer the products. Is this a crisis or a strategic challenge?
Again, it is both. It is a crisis because of the sudden and unexpected loss of
revenue for the companies involved. Furthermore, the damage and public
apathy is of concern because it requires swift and effective decision making to
ease the problem. It is a strategic challenge because the products are made
overseas for cost reasons.
• A major pharmaceutical company begins a program for expansion that
involves venturing into product lines that are cutting edge, and aimed at
addressing health needs for baby boomers, a market that is seen as a major
revenue source in the years to come. Several new drugs are approved and
introduced to the market. After a few years, however, one of the drugs is
linked to a deadly heart disease. Pressure to withdraw the drug is put firmly
on the pharmaceutical company. Is this a crisis or a strategic challenge?
Once again, it is both. It is a crisis because media attention is questioning the
credibility of the drug and, indirectly, the credibility of the company. A major
repercussion could result from this event, and swift and decisive decisions
are required. On the other hand, it is a strategic challenge because the drug
was in the firm’s long-term arsenal of products that would be popular and
viable over the next 20 years.
6 CRISIS MANAGEMENT IN THE NEW STRATEGY LANDSCAPE

• A major corporation establishes a compensation plan for its management

staff that rewards them on the basis of performance. As hoped, performance
indicators begin to look good in certain areas of the company, despite the fact
that the local economy has been faltering lately. For seven fiscal quarters,
two managers in particular are awarded bonuses based on meeting their
performance indices established under the compensation plan. Unfortunately, it
is discovered later that both managers have “cooking the books.” Both been
eventually fired, and the company is fined. During the ordeal, the company
receives much negative press because of the “unethical acts of its managers.” Is
this a crisis, or a strategic challenge? Of course, this answer is both. The crisis
aspect was manifested by showing the company in a negative light, and resulted
in both reputational and financial damage. This dilemma also has roots as a
strategic challenge. The decision to set up a bonus plan based on performance was,
in itself, not a bad decision. Indeed, most managers in both service and
manufacturing industries are compensated, in part, by performance. But some
plans are set up in such a way that they can invite unethical decisions on the part
of management.

Because of their link with strategic challenges, planning for crises should
be a part of the strategic management process. While traditional crisis
management approaches put this function as a separate planning process,
crisis planning should not exist in a vacuum, but should intertwine with
strategic planning. This theme is developed throughout the book.

Previous Crisis Management

Frameworks: Classifications of Crises
There are different types of crisis management frameworks. Some of the
earlier ones looked at types of crises. In their work on presenting corporate
policy during a crisis, Marcus and Goodman (1991) identified three types of
crises: accidents, product safety and health incidents, and scandals. Pearson and
Mitroff’s (1993) framework identified seven crisis families: economic attacks,
environmental accidents, occupational health diseases, psycho events (e.g.,
terrorism, sabotage, product tampering), damage to reputation, informational
attacks, and breaks (e.g., recalls, product defects, computer breakdowns). In a
similar crisis family arrangement, Myers (1993) offered a framework of crises
consisting of natural disasters (floods, hurricanes, etc.), environmental events
(aircraft accidents, contamination events, explosions), and incited incidents
(arson, sabotage, vandalism). Crandall, McCartney, and Ziemnowicz (1999) used
a five-family crises framework in their study of internal auditors. Specifically,
they identified crises in terms of operational problems, negative publicity events,
fraudulent crises, natural disasters, and legal issues.
Coombs (2006) offered the most recent framework and classified crises as follows:

• Attacks on organizations: computer hacking or tampering, rumors,

product tampering, workplace violence, and terrorism. The common
theme running through these crises is that the attacks originate from
outside the organization. However, that is not to say that all attacks are
externally generated. Certainly a disgruntled employee can cause an
attack as well, particularly in relation to workplace violence episodes.
 Chapter 1 • A Framework for Crisis Management 7

• When things go bad: defective products caused by company error, loss

of key personnel, industrial accidents, transportation problems, and
stakeholder challenges (when an outside group accuses the company of
wrongdoing). Often, these types of crises arise because of operational
problems in the company.
• When the organization misbehaves: not addressing known risks,
improper job performance that leads to an accident, legal and regulatory
violations. The common theme running through these crises is an ethical
breach of some type.

Coombs’s framework is noteworthy because it takes into account many of

the more recent crisis events that have occurred since the attacks of September
11. Crisis classification need not be complicated to be useful, as Coombs’s
classification illustrates.
Another framework is worth mentioning, especially in light of the 2007
Virginia Tech massacre incident, when a student, Seung-Hui Cho, went on a
shooting rampage, killing 32 people. Prior to this incident, Mitroff, Diamond, and
Alpaslan (2006) had completed their own categories of crises that could occur on
an American college or university campus. Their framework consisted of criminal
activities, informational crises (identity theft, fraud, confidentiality problems),
building safety issues, athletic scandals, public health problems (such as a disease
outbreak or food safety problem), unethical behavior/misconduct (plagiarism,
record tampering, or fraud), financial crises, natural disasters, legal/labor disputes,
and reputation problems. While such a framework may seem like just a list, it is
important to remember that crises tend to reside in families or categories.
Using a framework for classifying crisis events into families is a useful way
to organize the phenomena we see. Mitroff (1989) was one of the first crisis
management researchers to point out that while it is impossible to prepare for every
type of crisis that might happen to an organization, preparing for a few families of
crises is feasible. In this book, we present a framework of crisis families that take into
account the internal and external landscapes of the organization’s environment. But
first, we need to acknowledge that crisis events also occur in stages.

Previous Crisis Management

Frameworks: Stages of Crises
Frameworks have also been developed that account for the various stages of
a crisis. The more familiar frameworks emerged in the 1990s and generally
followed a three- or four-stage approach to analyzing the life of a crisis. Crisis
researchers knew that analyzing the stages of a crisis helped account for a more
holistic approach to understanding the crisis phenomenon. A crisis was more
than just an event. It was a life cycle phenomenon that had a birth, an acute
stage—the crisis—and an aftermath. Table 1.1 provides an overview of the various
frameworks that will be discussed next.

Three-Stage Frameworks
The most basic framework is the simple three-stage approach that follows a
precrisis, crisis, and postcrisis format. Smith (1990) offered a three-stage format
8
TA B L E 1 . 1 Frameworks for Crisis Management

3-Stage 3-Stage 3-Stage 4-Stage 4-Stage 5-Stage This Book:

Framework: Framework: Framework Framework Framework: Framework:

Pearson & Mitroff, Crandall, Parnell,

General Smith, 1990 Richardson, 1994 Myers, 1993 Fink, 1996 1993 & Spillan, 2009

Before the Crisis Crisis of Precrisis/disaster Normal operations Prodromal crisis Signal detection Landscape survey
management phase stage
Preparation/ Strategic planning
Prevention

During the Crisis Operational crisis Crisis impact/ Emergency Acute crisis stage Containment/ Crisis management
rescue phase response Damage limitation

Interim Processing Chronic crisis stage

After the Crisis Crisis of Recovery/demise Restoration Crisis resolution Recovery Organizational
legitimation phase stage learning

Learning
 Chapter 1 • A Framework for Crisis Management 9

consisting of a precrisis period, the crisis of management; a crisis period, the

operational crisis; and a postcrisis stage, the crisis of legitimation. The crisis of
management stage held that the actions of organizational leaders, plus a culture
that does not put a premium on preparedness, can lead to a climate where all
that is needed is a trigger event to start the crisis. Once the crisis is under way,
Smith maintains that the organization manages the crisis as best it can during
the operational crisis stage. This stage is characterized by building a supportive
climate among the key players involved in the crisis. Unfortunately, the crisis of
legitimation stage may be characterized by scapegoating on the part of a
number of parties, including the organization itself, as well as the government
and the media. Smith is correct when he identifies the human need to appear
legitimate in the eyes of the public after a crisis occurs.
Richardson (1994) offered a three-step framework similar to the one proposed
by Smith. The precrisis/disaster phase focuses on prevention by addressing the
threats that can cause a crisis. The crisis impact/rescue stage is the occurrence of
the actual crisis. During this period, management should work at mitigating the
crisis and offering support to those affected by it. The recovery/demise stage
involves restoring stakeholder confidence in the organization.

Four-Stage Frameworks
By adding an additional stage, these frameworks are meant to offer more
precision in examining the crisis progression. Myers (1993) offered a four-
stage approach that begins with the normal operations stage, a time when
prevention practices are established. In this stage, operations are normal, but
preparations are made to address an event should one occur. The second stage,
emergency response, involves the first hours immediately following the onset
of the crisis. Interim processing, the third stage, represents an intermediate
phase where temporary procedures are set up until normal operations can
resume. Restoration, the final stage, focuses on the transition back to normal
operations.
Fink (1996) also offered a four-stage framework beginning with the prodromal
stage. This stage occurs before the full-blown crisis, and is laced with warning signs
that a crisis may be imminent. In this stage, it is possible to prevent the crisis if the
warning signs are heeded. The acute crisis stage follows next and is evidenced by
the sudden onset of the event. This stage is where the crisis is most noticeable by
outsiders to the organization. The chronic crisis stage is less dramatic in appearance,
but is still significant since the organization is attempting to mop up the lingering
damages from the episode. The final stage is the resolution stage, where the organi-
zation is returning to its precrisis existence.

Five-Stage Framework
Unlike the previous four-stage frameworks, Pearson and Mitroff’s (1993) five-
stage framework provides an even more comprehensive approach to understanding
the stages of a crisis. These stages include:

• Signal detection: The occurrence of a crisis always begins with some forms
of warning. Signal detection is the stage that advances those warnings.
10 CRISIS MANAGEMENT IN THE NEW STRATEGY LANDSCAPE

Becoming adept at signal detection is a mindset, as well as a skill, that

organizations need to embrace.
• Preparation/prevention: This stage involves the formation of crisis management
teams and plans for attacking those crises that may occur. Crisis manage-
ment is approached in a systematic and ongoing manner to the point
where it is almost a science. The goal is to prevent as many crises as
possible and effectively manage those that do occur.
• Containment/damage limitation: This stage is where the actual manage-
ment of the crisis occurs. The intent is to contain the crisis to the greatest
extent possible, and to mitigate the event so that organizational and
stakeholder damage is kept to a minimum.
• Recovery: In this stage, attempts are made to resume activities to as close
to normal as feasible. The recovery will often proceed in stages as well.
Short-term recovery aims to get the system back on line so a minimal
acceptable level of service is achieved. Long-term recovery follows as
operational activities are restored to their precrisis level. In some cases,
improvements are made in the recovery process that bring the level of
operations up to a higher level than before the crisis. An example would
be a company that experiences a fire in its production facilities. After the
fire, the new facility that is built is usually better equipped with new
machinery and technology than what existed in the old facility.
• Learning: This stage involves activities of reflection where lessons are
learned from the crisis. The emphasis is not on searching for
scapegoats and displacing the blame onto other parties, a response
often encouraged in a litigious society. Instead, maximum attention is
focused on improving current operational problems and preventing
future ones.

A Framework for Crisis Management

Table 1.1 presents another framework for crisis management—the one we
have adopted in this book. With this framework, we draw from the work of
previous crisis management researchers and add another dimension to the
analysis, the existence of the internal and external landscapes that engulf and
surround the organization. The internal landscape lies within the organization.
It consists of the employees, as well as the organizational culture of the
organization. It is the human side of the company that displays the strengths
and weaknesses of the organization.
The external landscape resides outside of the organization. It consists of
all stakeholders who have some vested interest in the organization, but are
not directly part of it. These include government regulatory agencies,
consumer groups, industry associations, and the media. It also consists of
groups that are not necessarily stakeholders but can still have a huge
impact on the operations of the company. These may include terrorist
groups, or a jealous spouse of an employee who works in the organization.
The external environment can also include vague types of forces, such as
the weather and other natural disasters, as well as a downturn in the
economy.
 Chapter 1 • A Framework for Crisis Management 11

TA B L E 1 . 2 A Framework for Crisis Management

Organizational
Landscape Survey Strategic Planning Crisis Management Learning

The
Identify the
Form the crisis
Return the
Evaluate the
Internal organization’s management organization to success and
Landscape weaknesses team an operational failure

Determine the
Develop worst- status outcomes of the
enthusiasm for case scenarios
Manage the crisis
crisis management
Formulate crisis primary management

Overview the management plan stakeholders process
organizational
Conduct mock
Strive for
culture disasters and organizational

Assess the ethical training learning
environment
Strive for

Evaluate company Crisis organizational
safety policies renewal

The
Determine the
Consider
Manage reactions
Reap the

External degree of existing of external benefits of
Landscape industry government stakeholders industry renewal
vulnerability regulations  Negative media
Be ready for

Determine the
Consider current coverage new government
degree of industry  Public outcry regulations
political stability standards  Web-based
Be aware of new

Assess the
Develop working criticism and stakeholder
organization in relationships company hate outlooks
relation to with the media Web sites
globalization  Impending
implications government

Assess the regulations
technological
implications

The progression of stages of a crisis follows a four-phase model. Table 1.2

illustrates this framework in the form of a two-by-four matrix. There is the
landscape survey, followed by strategic planning, then crisis management, and
finally the organizational learning stage. Of course, these stages can overlap to
some degree. Each stage is overviewed next.

Landscape Survey
The crisis manager’s work begins with the landscape survey, shown on the
far left side of the figure. The top half of the landscape survey looks at processes
that management needs to evaluate (i.e., inside the internal landscape).
Identifying weaknesses that exist within the organization is one such process.
Such weaknesses indicate where the company may be vulnerable to a crisis
attack. Enthusiasm for crisis management planning is another key element to
gauge. Some organizations are highly prepared for crisis events, whereas others
are more complacent (Pearson & Mitroff, 1993). The degree of enthusiasm for
12 CRISIS MANAGEMENT IN THE NEW STRATEGY LANDSCAPE

crisis management is also a function of the organization’s culture (Stead &

Smallman, 1999), its ethical environment, and the diligence with which the
company enforces its safety policies.
The bottom half of the landscape survey focuses on events occurring outside
of the organization, the external landscape. The industry vulnerability is at the
forefront of the types of crises a specific organization encounters. For example,
companies in the chemical industry are concerned about chemical leaks. Food
manufacturers focus on crises pertaining to disease problems such as an E. coli
outbreak. Within the hotel and lodging industry, the physical safety of guests is
a major vulnerability in terms of a potential crisis.
For companies operating across international borders, the degree of political
stability of the host country is important to consider. Another key factor is
the general attitude of the host country toward the home country of the
multinational corporation (MNC). Any heightened tensions that may exist
between these two groups can lay the groundwork for a potential crisis.
Globalization implications must also be evaluated. Much globalization seems to
progress at the expense of a major stakeholder. For example, manufacturing
operations that leave the home country for cheaper labor in another country
usually leave a wake of unemployed workers back in the home country. Such
moves do not sit well with local stakeholders such as labor unions.
The technological ramifications of the industry must also be considered as
part of the external landscape. For some industries, technology can lay the
groundwork for a crisis. In the aerospace industry, the smooth functioning of all
technological systems is essential for the safety of those in space, as well as
the successful accomplishing of the mission. In other industries, technology is
important but not necessarily life threatening—yet can still be the source of a
major crisis. Retail chains rely on information technology to communicate and
manage back and forth with their field units. A malfunction in such a system
will create a crisis, but not one that is physically harmful to employees or
customers.

Strategic Planning
The strategic planning phase focuses on preventing crises when possible,
and planning how to mitigate their effects when prevention is not possible.
Within the internal landscape of the organization, crisis planning begins with
forming the crisis management team. The team acts as the body that prevents
or manages crisis events. One of the tasks of the team is to periodically assess
potential crises that may happen to the organization. For example, school
districts for all grade levels, as well as colleges and universities, should plan
regularly for a dysfunctional student who may become violent on school
property. Another potential crisis involves the quick evacuation of a building,
such as in the event of a fire.
Crisis management teams also formulate plans that lay out general
guidelines for managing a crisis (Coombs, 2006). Such guidelines include who
should address the media, where to locate key contact information for
stakeholders such as employees and customers, and procedures for managing
specific crises that are unique to the organization. In other words, these
 Chapter 1 • A Framework for Crisis Management 13

guidelines address the organization’s potential crises. During the strategic

planning stage, some teams will conduct mock disasters in order to test the
organization’s crisis management response.
A survey of the external landscape looks at what is going on in the industry
to prevent and manage crisis events. Existing government regulations in many
industries are designed to prevent a crisis from occurring. Examples of these
types of agencies abound. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the
Transportation Security Administration (TSA) work to ensure safety in the air
travel industries. Almost all industries impose additional standards through
associations that exist for that particular industry.
The strategic planning process will also focus efforts on developing effective
working relationships with the media in the community. It is important that
these relationships be established before a crisis occurs, so that if one does
occur, the company spokesperson(s) will be familiar with those individuals
from the media. In actual practice, most larger organizations have public
relations personnel who work with the media on a regular basis.

Crisis Management
The crisis management stage addresses the acute phase of the crisis. From
the organizational (internal landscape) perspective, efforts are focused on
containing the crisis and resuming operations as quickly as possible. Up to this
point, we have discussed stakeholders in a broad sense, without regard to the
varying effects they may experience from the crisis. In actuality, there are
primary and secondary stakeholders of the organization. Primary stakeholders
typically include the owners, employees, customers, local communities, and
suppliers (Wheeler & Sillanpää, 1997). Secondary stakeholders include any
other groups that have some type of interest in the organization. For example,
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) has an interest in
companies that use animals for laboratory research. A crisis can result when
such a group takes an activist stand against a company that uses animals for
this purpose.

Organizational Learning
After the crisis ends, the organization must take time to learn from what has
occurred. One of the keys to learning the most from a crisis is not to wait too
long after the event has occurred. If too much time elapses before reflection
and evaluation occur, management may reach a stage termed “forgetfulness”
(Kovoor-Misra & Nathan, 2000). In this stage, the organization has returned to
normal operations, and the motivation to evaluate and learn from the crisis
wanes.
At a minimum, management must evaluate how the crisis was handled and
what changes need to be made in the crisis management plan. Pearson and
Clair (1998) suggested that such an evaluation can be examined in terms of
degrees of success and failure. For example, an organization may succeed in
resuming operations in a timely manner, but fail at protecting its reputation.
Instead of learning from a crisis, some organizations do not seem to heed the
14 CRISIS MANAGEMENT IN THE NEW STRATEGY LANDSCAPE

lessons from the event, and as a result, repeat the same mistakes when similar
incidents occur in the future. On the other hand, an organization that is
successful at learning will change its policies and procedures when necessary
and apply that new knowledge to future crisis events.
In the external landscape, industry regulators often reevaluate and renew
their procedures after a crisis. Certainly the airline industry has changed
dramatically in terms of safety regulations after America’s worst terrorist
incident on September 11, 2001. Government regulations are often implemented
after a crisis, usually to increase the safety of stakeholders in the affected
industry. Stakeholders external to the organization may also change their
outlooks after a crisis. At a minimum, such stakeholders will be more aware
and compassionate toward an organization that has experienced a crisis. The
Virginia Tech massacre generated a wave of sympathy and solidarity among
many citizens throughout the country, and even worldwide. At the same
time, some parties were also critical of the university, questioning whether
certain measures could have been taken to prevent or mitigate the crisis.

Development of the Book

This book is organized around the crisis management framework introduced
above. The layout of the book is in six sections.

Section One: Introduction to the Book

Chapter 1. A Framework for Crisis Management
The present chapter outlines the framework that will be presented in the
book. Figure 1.1 overviews the progression of the remaining chapters.

Section Two: Landscape Survey

Chapter 2. The Crisis Management Landscape
This chapter begins our survey of the strategic landscape that breeds many
of the crises facing organizations. The focus is on six of the broader trends that
are common across most cultures and business environments.

Chapter 3. Sources of Organizational Crises

In this chapter, we explore the sources of crises from several perspectives.
First, an analysis of the external environment is presented from the political–
legal, economic, social, and technological perspectives. The external environment
is important to analyze because many crisis events emerge from the volatility
of these four sectors of the environment. Crises are also viewed from the
organizational life cycle perspective because different stages of the life cycle have
their own unique vulnerabilities to a crisis.
 Chapter 1 • A Framework for Crisis Management 15

FIGURE 1.1 Overview of the Book

Organizational
Landscape Survey Strategic Planning Crisis Management Learning

The
Internal
Landscape
Chapter 4 –
Strategic Planning Chapter 6 – Chapter 10 –
and Assessing Crisis Organizational The Underlying
Vulnerability Strategy Role of Ethics
and Crises in Crisis
Management

Chapter 7 – Chapter 9 –
Crisis The
Management: Importance of
Chapter 5 – Taking Organizational
Chapter 2 – Chapter 3 – Forming the Action When Learning
The Crisis Sources of Crisis Disaster Hits Chapter 8 –
Management Organizational Management Crisis
The Landscape Crises Team and Communication
External Plan

Landscape Crisis

Section Three: Strategic Planning

Chapter 4. Strategic Planning and Assessing Crisis Vulnerability
In this chapter, we outline the strategic planning process and its link to crisis
anticipation and prevention. The second part of the chapter focuses on crisis
vulnerability, the anticipation of unique events that may occur at a specific
organization.

Chapter 5. Forming the Crisis Management Team and Plan

The essence of crisis planning is forming the crisis management team and
then the crisis plan. In this chapter, guidelines are provided for both tasks. The
chapter offers advice on how crisis management training efforts should proceed.

Chapter 6. Organizational Strategy and Crises

This chapter concludes the discussion on strategic planning by turning the
reader’s attention to the various levels of business and corporate strategy. We
also emphasize the importance of control mechanisms in the planning process.
16 CRISIS MANAGEMENT IN THE NEW STRATEGY LANDSCAPE

Section Four: Crisis Management

Chapter 7. Crisis Management: Taking Action When Disaster Hits
Managing the crisis when it hits is the topic of Chapters 7 and 8. While the
first two phases of our framework are proactive (i.e., the landscape survey
and strategic planning), this phase is reactive in that the acute stage of the
crisis must be addressed. Decision making proceeds at a faster pace since the
focus of the organization is to restore operations to normal as quickly as
feasible.

Chapter 8. Crisis Communication

One of the most important challenges of crisis management is to manage
communication effectively both from within and outside the organization.
Indeed, the area of crisis management originally concentrated on communication
with outside stakeholders. In fact, much of the early days of crisis management
was more appropriately considered “damage control” procedures with the media.
This chapter returns to this tradition and updates the reader on the latest trends in
crisis communication.

Section Five: Organizational Learning

Chapter 9. The Importance of Organizational Learning
This chapter focuses on the need to learn from the crisis event.
Organizational learning does not come naturally, however, as the push to get the
organization back to normal often supersedes the need for reflection on
preventing future crises. This chapter concludes by examining factors that can
impede learning, as well as how to build a learning organization.

Chapter 10. The Underlying Role of Ethics in Crisis Management

This chapter examines how executive misbehavior is a major force behind
many crises that occur in organizations today. Much of the discussion
focuses on why these ethical blunders come about and what can be done to
prevent them.

Section Six: An Alternative

Paradigm and Emerging Trends
Chapter 11. Chaos Theory: An Alternative Paradigm in the
Study of Organizational Crises
A number of researchers have noted that crisis events are complex
phenomena and should be studied using analyses that acknowledge this
complexity. Chaos theory offers one such viewpoint. This chapter draws
 Chapter 1 • A Framework for Crisis Management 17

on the concepts of chaos theory as an alternative perspective to studying

crisis events.

Chapter 12. Emerging Trends in Crisis Management

This chapter takes a look into the future of crisis management. Emerging
trends are identified in each of the four areas of the framework: landscape
survey, strategic planning, crisis management, and organizational learning.

Summary
The field of crisis management is growing in scope and sophistication. This book
acknowledges such changes by recognizing that crisis management should be a
part of the strategic management process. Drawing on the work of others in the
field, we employ a crisis management framework that utilizes a two-by-four matrix
that recognizes four phases of the crisis management process. In addition, we add
the importance of acknowledging the internal and external landscapes that exist
within each phase. Such a framework is important because it guides us through the
process of crisis management in a systematic manner that is both reactive and
proactive. By reactive, we mean responding to the crisis event effectively with a
minimal amount of damage. By proactive, we mean planning for such events
before they occur, and learning from these events after they have transpired.

Questions for Discussion

1. Why do you think crisis researchers put so much emphasis on classifying

crisis events according to different categories?
2. Why is it important to understand a crisis in terms of its different stages?
3. Discuss a recent crisis event that occurred where you work. Discuss the
different stages of the crisis in terms of:
• Landscape survey—what events were going on inside and outside of
your organization that contributed to the formation of that crisis?
• Strategic management—what plans designed to address the occurrence
of this particular event were already in place at your organization?
What mechanisms existed outside of the organization (such as industry
controls or government regulations) that were designed to prevent the
occurrence of this event?
• Crisis management—how did your organization respond to the crisis?
Were any outside agencies or stakeholders involved in helping your
organization manage the crisis?
• Organizational learning—what lessons did your organization learn
from experiencing this crisis? Were there any changes in agencies or
other stakeholders that will lead to their doing things differently in the
future should a similar crisis recur?
18 CRISIS MANAGEMENT IN THE NEW STRATEGY LANDSCAPE

Chapter Exercise
As a class, determine the following:

• What events could happen to the class that would constitute a crisis? (Write
these on the board and then seek a consensus as a class on what the top five
crisis events would be. Then focus on these as you go to the next step below.)
• What crisis plans are available that could address each of these five
potential crises? Distinguish between resources that are available inside
the classroom and those that exist outside of the classroom.

MINI CASE

PET FOOD CRISIS

During the spring of 2007, a widespread crisis erupted within the pet food industry. Many dog and cat
owners noticed their pets were getting sick and some even died. The common thread that was
eventually found was melamine, a chemical that shows up as protein when chemical tests are conducted
on the food item. Melamine was added to wheat gluten and rice concentrate that had been imported
from China. The gluten and concentrate are ingredients that are added to pet food (Malanga, 2007).
The crisis eventually resulted in a widespread recall of pet foods. More than 100 U.S. pet food
companies recalled their products, including Procter & Gamble’s company, Iams. As it turned out,
Iams was hurt the most by the crisis; its sales plummeted nearly 17% (Neff, 2007a). Other brands
affected included Del Monte’s Jerky Treats, Gravy Train Beef Sticks, and Pounce Meaty Morsels.
Wal-Mart’s Ol’ Roy and Supervalu’s Happy Trails brands were also recalled (McTaggart, 2007).
But within this crisis was another crisis. Criticism was emerging from, of all places, a crisis
management consultant who claimed the pet food companies waited too long to issue a recall.
Mike Paul, a crisis communications consultant, stated: “In any crisis, the first 24 to 48 hours are
most important, and there’s an expectation that in the first 24 hours a lot can and should be done”
(Neff, 2007b, p. 29). Mr. Paul’s concern centered on the fact that consumers first reported a problem
around February 20. Recalls, however, were not under way until March 16. The lapse of time may
have caused more pets to die from the ill-fated food.
The actual number of deaths has not been determined, and may never be. The problem is that
many pets all over the country were reported sick, but not all of them died. Inevitably, some pets
would have died anyway of other causes, so tracing these deaths back to the tainted pet food is
difficult. For the record, Menu Foods, a pet food manufacturer, reported that 15 cats and 1 dog
had died from eating the food (Neff, 2007b).

Sources
Malanga, S. (2007, May 9). Pet plaintiffs. Wall Street Journal, A16.
McTaggart, J. (2007). Pet food crisis rocks industry. Progressive Grocer, 86(5), 10–12.
Neff, J. (2007a, May 14). In the wake of pet-food crisis, Iams sales plummet nearly 17%. Advertising Age,
78(20), 3–91.
Neff, J. (2007b, March 26). Pet-food industry too slow: Crisis-PR gurus. Advertising Age, 78(13), 29.
 Chapter 1 • A Framework for Crisis Management 19

References
Coombs, W. (2006). Code red in the boardroom: Neff, J. (2007a, May 14). In the wake of pet-food
Crisis management as organizational DNA. crisis, Iams sales plummet nearly 17%.
Westport, CT: Praeger. Advertising Age, 78(20), 3–91.
Coombs, W. (2007). Ongoing crisis communication: Neff, J. (2007b, March 26). Pet-food industry too slow:
Planning, managing, and responding (2nd ed.). Crisis-PR gurus. Advertising Age, 78(13), 29.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Parnell, J. (2007, September 10). Importing problems
Crandall, W. R., McCartney, M., & Ziemnowicz, C. with Chinese goods. News & Observer, p. 11A.
(1999). Internal auditors and their perce- Pearson, C., & Clair, J. (1998). Reframing crisis management.
ptions of crisis events. Internal Auditor, 14(1), Academy of Management Review, 23(1), 59–76.
11–17. Pearson, C., & Mitroff, I. (1993). From crisis prone to crisis
Fink, S. (1996). Crisis management: Planning for the prepared: A framework for crisis management.
inevitable. New York: American Management Academy of Management Executive, 7(1), 48–59.
Association. Richardson, B. (1994). Socio-technical disasters:
Kovoor-Misra, S., & Nathan, M. (2000, Fall). Timing Profile and prevalence. Disaster Prevention &
is everything: The optimal time to learn from Management, 3(4), 41–69.
crises. Review of Business, pp. 31–36. Sheaffer, Z., & Mano-Negrin, R. (2003). Executives’
Malanga, S. (2007, May 9). Pet plaintiffs. Wall Street orientations as indicators of crisis management
Journal, p. A16. policies and practices. Journal of Management
Marcus, A., & Goodman, R. (1991). Victims and Studies, 40(2), 573–606.
shareholders: The dilemmas of presenting Smith, D. (1990). Beyond contingency planning:
corporate policy during a crisis. Academy of Towards a model of crisis management.
Management Journal, 34(2), 281–305. Industrial Crisis Quarterly, 4(4), 263–275.
McTaggart, J. (2007). Pet food crisis rocks industry. Spillan, J., & Crandall, W. R. (2002). Crisis planning
Progressive Grocer, 86(5), 10–12. in the nonprofit sector: Should we plan for
Mitroff, I. (1989, October). Programming for crisis something bad if it may not occur? Southern
control. Security Management, pp. 75–79. Business Review, 27(2), 18–29.
Mitroff, I., Diamond, M., & Alpaslan, C. (2006). Stead, E., & Smallman, C. (1999). Understanding
How prepared are America’s colleges and business failure: Learning and un-learning lessons
universities for major crises? Change, 38(1), from industrial crises. Journal of Contingencies and
60–67. Crisis Management, 7(1), 1–18.
Myers, K. (1993). Total contingency planning for disasters: Torres, K. (2007). Mine tragedy in Utah. Occupational
Managing risk . . . minimizing loss . . . ensuring Hazards, 69(9), 15.
business continuity. New York: John Wiley. Wheeler, D., & Sillanpää, M. (1997). The stakeholder
Nader, R. (1965). Unsafe at any speed. New York: corporation: A blueprint for maximizing
Grossman. stakeholder value. London: Pittman Publishing.