1

313
INTERMEDIATE

CHEMISTRY
OPTIONAL MODULE -3
&
LABORATORY MANUAL - 4

A.P. OPEN SCHOOL SOCIETY, GUNTUR, AMARAVATI.

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 FOREWORD

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DIRECTOR, APOSS
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CHAIR PERSON
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MEMBERS
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iv
 SENIOR SECONDARY COURSE
INTERMEDIATE (APOSS) COURSE
CHEMISTRY - ADDITIONAL CURRICULUM

CHIEF EDITOR

Sri K. Ananda Kishore, M.Sc., M.Ed., PE Dip. in Edn (London)

Director,
Andhra Pradesh Open School Society, Hyderabad.

EDITOR
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Asso. Prof. in Chemistry
Sarojini Naidu Vanitha Mahavidyalaya
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WRITER :

Dr. D. Karunakar M.Sc., Ph.d.

Lecturer in Chemistry
NMGDC, Jogipet.

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Regional Coordinator Coordinator

v
 HOW TO USE THE STUDY MATERIAL
Your learning material has been developed by a team of physics experts in open and distance learning.
A consistent format has been developed for self-study. The following points will give you an idea on
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At some places you will find some text in italics and bold. This indicates that it is
important. You must learn them.
Solved Examples will help you to understand the concepts and fix your ideas. In
fact, problem solving is an integral part of training in physics. Do them yourself and
note the main concept being taught through a particular example.
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turn the pages back and study the section again.
What have you learnt is essentially summary of the learning points for quick s/
recapitulation. You may like to add more points in this list.
Terminal exercises in the form of short, long and numerical question will help you to
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These are few selected websites that you can access for extended learning.
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vi
 Overview of the Learning Material
1
Module I 7. The Liquid State
Atoms, Molecules and Chemical 8. The Solid State
Arithmatics 9. Solutions
1. Mole Concept 10. Colloids
2. Chemical Arithmatics

Module II Module IV
Atomic Structure and Chemical Chemical Energetics
Bonding 11. Chemical Thermodynamics
3. Atomic structure 12. Spontaneity of Chemical
4. Periodic table and atomic properties Reactions
5. Chemical Bonding

Module III Module V

State of Matter Chemical Dynamics
6. The Gaseous State 13. Chemical Equilibrium
14. Ionic Equilibrium
15. Electro Chemistry
16. Chemical Kinetics
17. Adsorption and Catalysis

2
Module VI Module - VII
Chemistry of Elements Chemistry of Organic Compounds
18. Occurance and extraction of metals 25. Nomenclature and General Principles
19. Hydrogen and s-block Elements 26. Hydrocarbons
20. General Characteristics of the p-block 27. Compounds of Carbon Containing
Elements Halogens (Haloalkanes and Haloarenes)
21. p-block Elements and their 28. Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
Compounds - I 29. Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic
22. p-block elements and their Acids
Compounds - II 30. Compounds of Carbon Containing
23. d-Block and f-Block Elements Nitrogen
24. Coordination Compounds 31. Biomlecules

3
Module VIIIA Module - VIIIB
Environmental Chemistry Chemistry and Industry
32. Environmnetal Concerns 32. Petrochemicals
33. Air Pollution 33. Polymers
34. Water Pollution 34. Dyes, Paints and Pigments
35. Heavy Metal Contamination 35. Drugs and Medicines
36. Radioactive Pollution 36. Building Materials
vii
 CONTENTS
Module Name of the Lesson Page No

VIIIA Chemistry of Elements 32 Environmental Concerns 2

33 Air Pollution 13
34 Water Pollution 35
35 Heavy Metal Contamination 50
36 Radioactive Pollution 60

VIIIB Chemistry and Industry 32 Petrochemicals 71

33 Polymers 89
34 Dyes, Paints and Pigments 116
35 Drugs and Medicines 132
36 Building Materials 149
Student'sAssignment-7

viii
 MODULE VIIIA
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
32. Environmental Concerns
33. Air Pollution
34. Water Pollution
35. Heavy Metal Contamination
36. Radioactive Pollution

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 32
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

You know that the Earth is the only planet which supports life. The earth has just the
right kind of conditions of temperature range, air, water, soil for supporting life and is protected
from harmful rays from the outer space by the ozone layer. With progressive increase in
human population and human activities, the quality of air, water, soil and other natural sources
get degraded and become unfit for use by organisms. It causes unwanted effects. In this
lesson you shall learn about the sources of pollutants and their effects on environment. Thus
the environmental pollution in many ways threaten the existence of many organisms including
human being on the earth. Therefore, any threat of degradation or damage to the environment
should be a matter of concern.

Objectives
After reading this lesson you will be able to :
- define environment and biosphere;
- differentiate the various environmental segments;
- explain nature of threats to environment;
- define pollutants and its types;
- list sources of pollutants and
- explain the effects of pollutants on environment, organisms and humans in particular.

32.1. Components of Environment

Different organisms live in different types of surroundings such as air, water and soil.
Different kinds of living organisms share these surroundings. The surroundings are the
"environment" of an organism.

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Environment has two components
(i) physical or abiotic (non-living) components and
(ii) living or biotic components.

Abiotic components of environment are air, water, soil, energy radiation, etc. Biotic
components of environment are microbes (such as bacteria, algae and fungi), plants, animals
etc.,

Environment is the sum total of living and non living components surrounding an
organism.

Environment consists of four segments such as

(i) Biosphere (ii) Atomosphere (iii) hydrosphere, and (iv) Lithosphere

Biosphere : All the parts of the earth are not suitable for survival of organims. Some parts are
too hot or very cold to support life.

The part of earth on which organisms can survive and reproduce is called biosphere.

Survival of organisms depend upon a delicate balance between themselves and with the various
components of the environment. Any disturbance, damage or adverse change in the quality of
environment poses a threat to the survival and well being of organisms. Therefore, any threat
of degradation or damage to environment should be a cause of concern to all of us.

Atmosphere : Atmoshpere is the only place where free oxygen and water vapour exist.

Atmosphere is a thin layer of air (mixture of gases) around the earth which is a great
source to all living organisms.

Hydrosphere : Water plays an important role in the biosphere, without life is impossible.

Hydrosphere is the part of earth on which all types of water resources exists, viz., oceans,
seas, rivers, lakes, glaciers, ice caps, ground water, etc.

Lithosphere : Soil is a part of lithosphere which supports life.

Lithosphere is the part of the earth where all types of minerals, metals, organic matters,
rocks, soils, etc., exist

32.2 Threats to Environment

Environment gets damaged due to several reasons. The damage may be in the small
area or may affect a much larger area and its ill-effects may by felt all over the globe.
The environmental damages may be broadly classified as:

i) Regional, and (ii) Global

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Those environmental damages which affects living and non-living things locally over a small
area are termed as regional environmental damages.

The environmental damages which affects the living and non-living things globally or wider
part of the earth are called global environmental damages.

Some examples of both regional and global environmental damages are mentioned below.

Regional Environmental Damages :

(i) The vehicular combustion of fossil fuels (petrol and diesel) releases carbon monoxide
(CO), carbon dioxide (CO 2) and sulphur dioxide (SO 2) into the atmoshpere. SO2
combines with water droplets in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid (H2SO4). Sulphuric
acid causes acid rain in the atmosphere and damages the environment over a small area.

The environmental effects of acid rain include:

(a) leaching of nutrients from soil and

(b) corrosion of basic material such as limestone and marble.

(ii) Pesticides, especially DDT (dichloro diphenyl trichloro-ethane) and dieldrin used to
control mosquitoes and agricultural pests have become serious pollutants of air water
and soil. Being long lasting (do not break down to other molecules that is non-
biodegradable) under natural conditions. The pesticides remain in the soil and their
amount goes on increasing in soil and water with successive applications. Their ill effects
damage the environment locally.

(iii) Various industries like steel, non ferrous metals, fertilizers and petroleum are sources of
toxic pollutants like lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd, zinc (Zn), arsenic (As), nickel (Ni) and
mercury (Hg). These toxic metals pose a great threat to the local environment.

(iv) The industrial waste contains suspended matter, dissolved solids, toxic metals, chemicals,
strong acids, alkalies, oils, dyes, etc. These substances deplete the dissolved oxygen of
water and impair the biological activities, finally destroying aquatic life.

Two instances of environmental hazards due to pollution in our country are quoted below :

(i) The effluents like SO2, of Mathura refinery are posing a very serious threat to Taj Mahal.

(ii) The mishap which took place due to leakage of MIC (methyl isocyanate) on 2nd
December 1984 from factories of Union Carbide at Bhopal killed thousands of people
and have affected the health of those exposed to MIC.

Global environmental Damages

Some example of global damages are discuss below.

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(i) Chloroflouro carbons (CFCs), used as refrigerants, and various kinds of sprays or sols
(eg. perfumes, air freshner, etc.). CFCs cause ozone holes in the ozone layer. Ozone
hole refer to depletion of ozone molecules in the ozone layer due to the reaction of
CFCs. The holes in the ozone layer appear elsewhere and not where these chemicals
are used.

(ii) More ultraviolet radiations reach the earth through the ozone holes and the reflected
radiations from the earth are absorbed by CO2 water vapour, etc. The traped radiations
release more and more heat resulting in the phenomenon of Global Warming. This
effect is also known as Green House Effect.

Global environment damage affects quality of environment over a much larger area and is not
localised to the area where the damage is initiated. Global warming will cause ill effects and
are not confined to the area causing the damage. It causes wide range of effects like melting
of glaciers, polar caps, rise in water level or sea and flooding of costal plains, etc.

Intext Questions 32.1

1. Define environment.
...................................................................................................................................
2. What are the two components of environment ?
...................................................................................................................................
3. List three biotic components ?
...................................................................................................................................
4. Name two common toxic metals which pollute water.
...................................................................................................................................
5. How do CFCs affect the ozone layer ?
...................................................................................................................................
6. What are the different segments of environment ?
...................................................................................................................................

32.3 Pollution
In ancient times human settlements began and flourished along river banks as rivers provided
them basic facilities. Growth of population forced people to move to other places. They started
utilising natural resources such as trees and soil (mud) to build shelters. More waste material
started collecting at places they inhabitated. Humans themselves created conditions for disposal
of waste (sanitation). Humans then started industries to manufacture goods for their own

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comforts. Pesticides and chemical fertilisers were manufactured to grow more food for the
growing demand by population. Industries also generated wastes, which ultimately finds its
way to water sources. Pesticides and chemicals were washed into natural water bodies such
as sea, river, lakes and ponds and affected the aquatic organisms. Supply of potable (safe for
drinking) water diminished. All this badly affects life of organism including humans. All
such waste generated through human activities and spoiling the natural environment is termed
as pollutants. Damaging the natural environment by pollutants is termed as pollution.

Pollution refers to deterioration or unclean objectionable conditions in the quality of natural

resources such as air, water and soil because of the action or presence of unwanted substances
beyond a certain limit.

32.4 Pollutants
Pollutants are the substances or effect introduced into the environment in significant amounts
in solid, semi solid, liquid gas or sub molecular particle form which has a detrimental (bad)
effect on the environment.

The Pollutants may be classified in the following ways (Fig. 32.1).

POLLUTANTS

Natural Anthropogenic (man made)

Primary pollutants Secondary pollutants

Fig. 32.1 : Classification of Pollutants

32.4.1 Natural Pollutants

There can be several natural sources which are the cause of pollution. Some of them are listed
below.

(i) Fires in forests may be caused when lightening strikes the trees. Burning of tree produces
a lot of CO2 which is released to the atmosphere.

(ii) Soil erosion increases suspended particulate matter and dust in air. These may even
enter water bodies as they are washed down by rain or natural water falls.

(iii) Volcanic eruptions also add pollutants like SO2 and solid particles to the environment.

(iv) Volatile organic compounds from leaves, trees and dead animals naturally enter the
atmosphere.

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(v) Natural radioactivity and the other natural pollutants have been entering the environment
since ages. (But the low level of pollution has rarely endangered lives of organisms).

32.4.2 Anthropogenic Pollutants

Increased human activities releases a large amount of pollutants to the environment and poses
a threat to the human life. Pollutants added to the environment through human activities are
termed anthropogenic pollutants. These are of two kinds.

(i) Primary pollutants : Primary pollutants are added directly in a harmful form to the
atmoshpere. eg CO2 and CO from bruning of fossil fuel; SO2 and oxides of nitrogen
from vehicular combustion, thermal power stations, etc.

(ii) Secondary pollutants : Secondary pollutants are the products of reaction between the
primary pollutants and normal environmental constituents.
2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3

Thus, SO2 a primary pollutant which reacts with oxygen of air to gives SO3. Futher,
SO3 reacts with water vapour present in the atmosphere and forms H2SO4. Thus SO3
and H 2SO4 are secondary pollutants.
SO3 + H2O → H2SO4

2NO + O2 → 2NO2

Nitric Oxide (NO), a primary pollutant reacts with oxygen to give NO2 which is a
secondary pollutant.

Depending on the sources. anthropogenic pollutants may be classified further into

(i) Industrial Pollutants

(ii) Domestic Pollutants

(i) Industrial Pollutants : Paper, textile industries, tanneries and distilleries dispose various
effluents like oil, grease, plastic and metallic wastes into the environment.

(ii) Domestic Pollutants : Detergents, fluoride toothpastes, edible colours, food flavouring
agents, polythene bags and wrappers find their way into the environment as pollutants.
Methane is produced in cattle stomach and in stagnant paddy fields is also a domestic
pollutant.

Intext Questions 32.2

1. Define a pollutant.
...................................................................................................................................

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2. Name two sources of natural pollution.
...................................................................................................................................
3. Define a secondary pollutant.
...................................................................................................................................
4. What do yo mean by environmental pollution ?
...................................................................................................................................

32.5 Sources of pollutants

Many of the pollutants in our environment have natural as well as human related origins.
For example, the natural origin of pollutants includes the release of sulphur dioxide (SO2)
from volcanic eruptions, erosion of soil by wind and water, dissolved minerals carried on to
rivers and ocean by surface run off, etc.
The sources of pollutants are also classified :
(i) Stationary and
(ii) Mobile sources
Stationary Sources : The pollutants relased from a fixed location or a well defined area is
known as stationary source. e.g. smokestacks of power plants, smelters, surfacce mines, etc.
Mobile Sources : The pollutants released from diffused sources or the sources that move
from place to place is termed as a mobile source. e.g. automobiles, buses, aircrafts, ships,
trains, etc.
The various pollutants of water, their sources and effects are given in Table 32.1
Table No. 32.1 : Major Air Pollutants their Sources and Effects
Major Pollutants of Air Some of the Sources Some of the Effects
SO 2 Vehicular combustion, Irritation to the eyes, acid rain
fossil fuel burning premature falling of leaves
CO and CO2 Vehicular combustion and Global warming, green house
burning of fuels and effect CO has great affinity for
hydrocarbons haemoglobin and forms the
carboxy haemoglobin
Smoke, fly ash and soot Thermal power stations Respiratory diseases.
Lead and mercury Auto exhaust from gasolin, Affects the nervous system and
paints, storage batteries, circulatory system causing
fossil fuel burning nerve and brain damage.
CFCs Refrigerants and aerosol Kidney damage and ozone
depletion.

The various pollutants of water, their sources and effects are summerised in Table No. 32.2

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 Table No. 32.2 : Major Water Pollutants their Sources and Effects

Major Pollutants of water Some of the Sources Some of the Effects

Pesticides and insecticides Improper use in agriculture, Toxic to fishes, predatory
like DDT, BHC mosquitos repellants birds and mammals.
Plastics Homes and industries Kills fishes and animals
like cows
Chlorine compounds water disinfection with Fatal for plankton
chlorine, paper and (organisms floating on the
bleaching powder surface of industries water)
foul taste and odour, can
cause cancer in humans.
Lead Leaded gasoline, paints etc Toxic to organisms
Mercury Natural evaporation and Highly toxic to humans
dissolved industrial wastes,
fungicides
Acids Mine drainage, industrial Kills organisms
wastes
Sediments Natural errosion, run off Reduces ability of water to
from fertilizer and other assimilate oxygen.
factories, mining and
construction activities

The general effects of pollutants are produced due to interactions of pollutants among
themselves.
Contamination :
Contaminations refer to the mere presence of undesirable materials to a medium like air,
water, soil, etc. making it unfit for a particular use. For example, contamination of air by
hazardous exhaust from automobiles. It becomes a pollutant if its concentration exceeds the
level which can cause harmful effect.

32.6 Noise Pollution

Any unwanted sound is defined as noise. You know that the noises come from traffic, vehicles,
especially at peak hour everyday, loud speakers and building construction work. Industries
expose their workers to a high level of noises for long period of work everyday.

Prolonged exposure to high level of noise is harmful. Noise is measured in terms of 'decibel'
(db) - a scale expressing intensity of the sound.

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A very quiet room has a sound level of 20db, cars and household gadgets - 70db while a truck
horns produces a noise of 110 db.

Noise has harmful effects on human body. Noise of 70-80 db causes annoyance and irritation.
Above this level, breathing rate may be affected, blood vessels may constrict, movement of
digestive canal is disturbed, glandular secretions may be affected. Long exposure to high
noise levels can impair hearing.

Standards have now been laid down for different areas. Silence zones are the areas 100 meters
around hospitals, courts, schools and other institutes. Honking of vehicle horns, cracker
bursting, loud speakers and loud voice of hawkers selling their wares is prohibited. The noise
level has to be kept within 50 db. Similar restrictions have been laid down for industries and
commerical organisations.

Legislative Measures to Prevent Pollution

The best protection of the environment is not to generate pollutants in the first place. Thus,
the legislative measure have been introduced to deal specifically with envrionmental pollution
caused by industries. (Table 31.3) The basic feature of the legislative measures is to empower
the Central Government to correct differences of policy making and enforcement in the State
through action not specifically permitted under earlier laws.

Table 32.3 : Pollution control Legislations in India

Acts Year
Indian Forest Act 1927
Wildlife Protection Act 1972
The water (prevention and control of Pollution) Act 1974
The air (Prevention and control of Pollution) Act. 1981
The Environmental (Protection) Act. 1986
The National Environmental Tribunal Act. 1995

The pollution related laws like the Water Act (1974), Air Act (1981), and the Environ-
mental Protection Act (1995) do not give the right to an individuals to move the court under
the environment laws for damages caused to them by pollution. The right has been vested
only in the agencies of the State Government.

Intext Questions 32.3

1. Mention one bad effect each of SO2 and CO on humans.

...................................................................................................................................

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2. Name one source of each pollutant lead and CFC.
...................................................................................................................................
3. Name the two major sources of anthropogenic sources of pollutants in the environment.
...................................................................................................................................
4. Give two examples of stationary sources of pollution.
...................................................................................................................................

What You Have Learnt

• Surroundings in which we live is our environment.
• There are two components of environment : physical or abiotic and living organisms
or biotic
• Pollutants may be defined as substances added to natural surrounding.
• There are two major sources of pollutants - stationary and mobile.
• Pollutants have adverse effects on environment and living organisms.
• SO2, CO2, CO, smoke, Pb, Hg, CFC, etc. pollute air. Their sources and effects are
varied.
• Pollution in simple words in the unhealthy and harmful condition for living organisms
and non-living things.
• Pesticides, plastic, detergents, chlorine, mercury, etc. pollute water and endanger
life of aquatic organisms.
• Unwanted sounds are termed as noise. Sounds is measured in decibels. Beyong 70
decibels noise has harmful effects on humans.
• The Government of India has set up various environmental laws and judiciary system
to punish the polluters.

Answers to Intext Questions

1. What is environment ?

2. Explain the term anthropogenic pollutants.

3. Write four major pollutants of water, their sources and effects.

4. Differentiate between the Primary and Secondary Pollutants.

5. Name any three legislative measures (Acts) to protect the environment.

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 Answers to Intext Questions
32.1
1. The air, water, earth and living beings in a joint form is called environment.

2. There are two components of environment namely biotic and abiotic.

3. Living organisms such as plants, animals, microbles, etc.

4. Lead and Mercury.

5. Causes holes in the ozone layer.

6. Atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.

32.2
1. Any substance which is present in its excess concentration such as CO2. CO, SO2.
2. Volconic erruptions and run-off from surface mines.
3. Secondary pollutants are the products of reaction between the primary pollutant and
the normal environmental constituents.
4. Environmental pollution is the deterioration or unclean objectionable conditions in
the quality of natural resources such as air water and soil because of the action or
presence of unwanted substances in undersirable concentration.

32.3
1. Irritation to eyes by SO2 and difficulty in breathing.
2. Lead from exhaust of automobiles running on gasoline (petrol). CFC from refrigerants.
3. Industrial waste and automobile exhaust.
4. Smokestacks of power plants, run-off from surface mines.

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 33
AIR POLLUTION

Organisms have a close inter-relationship with their immediate environment. Oxygen

from air is taken in during respiration and carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere by
majority of organisms. The CO2 is taken up by plants to manufacture food. This harmonious
relationship between various organisms and nature has been disrupted by human activities.
Intensive agriculture, industrialisation, urbanisation have degraded our physical resources
and as a result soil, water and atmosphere have become highly polluted.
In this lesson we will define atmosphere and mention its constituents, discuss sources of air
pollution and damage done to plant and animal life by atmospheric pollutants. We shall also
outline measures that can stop further atmospheric pollution.

Objectives
After reading this lesson you will be able to :
• explain the composition of air;
• define air pollution;
• explain respiration, photosynthesis and decay cycle;
• cite examples of major air pollutants;
• recall sources of major air pollutants;
• identify relationship between carbon cycle and oxygen depletion by fossil fuel burning;
• explain nitrogen cycle;
• define greenhouse effect;
• recognize factors causing greenhouse effect;
• explain global warming;
• define ozone layer;
• explain depletion of ozone layer;

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• explain acid deposition/acid rain;
• recognise ill effects of carbon monoxide on haemoglobin and
• list measures for reducing air pollution.

33.1 Composition of Air

Youknow that the atmosphere is a thin layer of air surrounding the earth. it is held around the
earth due to gravitational pull of the earth. The air become thin (less dense) as we go higher
up from the surface.

Most of the air is present within 50km from the surface of the earth.

The atmosphere is broadly divided into four distinct zones, for example, troposhere,
stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere.

Troposphere is the zone where all weather events occur.

Stratosphere is the zone of water vapour and ozone wheareas in mesosphere low
concentrations of ozone is present.

Thermosphere is the zone where the gases are present in highly ionized form.

The termperature variation as we go away from earth is not uniform. It increases or decreases
as we go higher from the earth.

The increase of temperature with the increase of altitude is known as positive lapse rate.

The decrease in termperature with the increase of altitude is known as negative laps rate.

The composition of clean, dry and unpolluted air remains almost constant. The composition
of air remains constant due to various natural cycles like carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, etc. in
nature. Any disturbance in the cycles has a harmful effect on organisms. Natural atmospheric
air is made up of gaseous and non-gaseous constituents.

(a) Gaseous : Nitrogen and oxygen make up over 98% of volume of air. Other gases are
CO2, water vapour and inert gases such as argon, neon, krypton, helium, xenon, radon and
ozone are present in traces. These gases based on their available concertrations in the
atmosphere are broadly catagorised as major, minor and traces (Table 33.1)

(b) Non-gaseous : Smoke, dust and salt (through evaporation from the sea) are the non-
gaseous constituents of air.

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 Table 33.1 Composition of Atmosphere
Categories Gas Formula Percent by Volume
Major Nitrogen N2 78.9
Oxygen O2 20.94
Water vapour H 2O 0.1 to 5
Minor Carbon dioxide CO 2 0.035
Trace Helium He 0.00052
Methane CH 4 0.00015
Hydrogen H2 0.00005
Sulphur dioxide SO 2 0.000002
Ammonia NH 3 0.00001
Carbon monoxide CO 0.00001
Nitrogen dioxide NO 2 0.00001
Ozone O3 Trace

33.2 Carbon Transfer Pathways-Respiration, Photosynthesis

and Decay Cycle

There is a delicate balance between various constituents of air. Any disturbance in the
concentration of the constituents due to pollution will adversely affect the organisms. For
example, carbon is actively cycled between inorganic carbon dioxide and various kinds of
organic compounds of which organisms are made up of. It moves from inorganic to organic
form through the activity of autotrophs (auto; self; trophos : feed). The plants, synthesize
food trough photosynthesis are the "producers" in the food chain. The process which release
carbon dioxide into the environment in respiration. It is a process indispensible for survival
of almost all organisms. Another carbon transfer pathway is decay and decomposition of
organic matter brought about by micro organisms.

33.2.1 Respiration
Respiration is a process of exchange of gases between organisms and atmosphere. Atmosphere
is a reservoir of oxygen and organisms take in this oxygen for oxdiation of food. Oxidation of
food liberates energy. When oxygen reaches the cell of an organism a series of enzyme
catalysed reactions take place in which chemical bonds of glucose are broken, energy in the
form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is liberated and carbon dioxide is released. Carbon
dioxide goes back into the atmosphere. (Fig. 32.1) Thus a considerable amount of carbon
dioxide is returned to the atmosphere through respiratory activity of organisms.

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 Air
Atmospheric ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
Oxygen n
o
Series Electr w
of f l o
i c al
Glucose Chem ns (CO2)
(C 6H12O6) Reactio
(fresh food) ADP+Pi

(H 2O)
Fig. 33.1 : Cellular Respiration
Fig. 33.1 shows cellular respiration in which oxygen oxidises glocose through a series of
chemical reactions and an electron transport chain. Energy is released in the form of several
molecules of ATP. The CO 2 is given out and goes into the atmosphere. Some ATP molecules
are also used up in the process and break up into ADP (adenosine diphosphate and Pi (inorganic
phosphate).

33.2.2 Photosynthesis
Green plants pick up CO2 from the atmosphere and water from soil. Leaves of green plants
contain a green pigment chlorophyll - the photosynthetic pigment. Leaves trap solar energy
from sunlight. Light and the pigment interact and through a series of steps, starch is synthesized
by plants and oxygen is liberated. Oxygen moves into the atmosphere (Fig. 33.2). Infact for
the first two billion years after living organisms evolved on the earth, there was no oxygen.
Oxygen of the atmosphere resulted from photosynthetic organisms (e.g plants). So plants
are responsible for providing oxygen on the earth which is so valuable to living organisms.

Sunlight

H2O Choloro
-phyll NADP CO2
Source Reduced to
of Serves as electron
electrons pump when
simulated by
absorbed light NaDPH
Sugars and
O2 other compounds
Chlorophyll
such as starch
6CO2 + 12 H2O C6H12O6 + 6H2O
Sunlight
Into NADP-Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate
Carries of Photosysthetic electron transfer
atmosphere
Fig. 33.1 : Cellular Respiration

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33.2.3 Decay of Organic Matter
Micro organisms like bacteria and fungi bring about decay and decomposition of organic
matter left after the death of organisms. Due to microbial (by microorganisms) decomposition
of partially digested organic matter and dead organisms, CO2 is liberated and released into the
atmosphere. Thus the decay cycle also adds CO2 to the atmosphere.
In swamps, paddy (rice) fields and wetlands, anoxic (lack of oxygen) conditions prevail.
Methanogenic bacteria convert low molecular weight fatty acids into methane in these areas.
These bacteria can also convert CO2 into CH4 through a special anaerobic respiratory pathway.
An anaerobic pathway is one in which respiration takes place and food is broken down in the
absence of O2 since CO2 is not available (as in case of aerobic respiration) to autotrophic.
Veryfew organism, such as methonatrophs and nitrifers can oxidise methane and reintroduce
carbon into the normal carbon cycle.

33.3 Carbon Cycle in Nature

Carbon cycles is the most important biogeochemical gaseous cycle. Also, carbon is returned
to the environment as fast as it is removed.
The richest source of carbon is the ocean where carbon exists as carbonate and bicarbonate
ions. Carbon enters the atmosphere mainly as a product of aerobic respiration in the form of
CO2. Volcanic eruptions also release carbon from rocks deep in the earth's crust. CO2 is taken
in by plants for photosynthesis during which they use light energy for reducing CO2. Plante
are, therefore, termed photoautotrophs (photo means light). There are other organisms such
as some bacteria which use energy stored in chemical bonds for reducing carbon dioxide to
methane. They are termed Chemoautotrophs. Photosynthesis, however, is the most important
process through which inorganic carbon is converted into organic from.
CO2 in the atmosphere
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

RESPIRATION

Producers VOLCANIC ACTION

COMBUSTION

Organic matter
decomposers Carbon in coal
DECAY oil and natural gas
Soil Deep decomposition and compaction
in geologic time leads to formation
of fossil juels
Fig. 33.3 : The Carbon Cycle in Nature

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When producers and consumers die, decomposers reduce the organic matter of these dead
organisms and carbon moves into the soil. Producers, consumers and decomposers add CO2
to the atmosphere through respiration. Thus a balance in the proportions of O2 and CO2 is
maintained in nature. (Fig. 33.3)
When trees die and fall they get buried in the sediments and over a long geological time they
become fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are buried deep in the soil. Carbon in this from remains
unavailable till humans deliberately remove it.

33.4 The Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen and its compounds are essential for the maintenance of life processes in the biosphere.
For example, organisms cannot exist without amino acids, peptides, and proteins, all of which
are organic molecules containing nitrogen.

Nitrogen is the most abundant gas (about 78% of the atmosphere), however, plants cannot
use free nitrogen (N2) directly. Plants, algae and bacteria take up inorganic nitrogen either as
_ +
the nitrate ion (NO3 ) or the ammonium ion (NO4) from the environment and use it to build
their own protein molecules i.e. organic nitrogen. Organic nitrogen is consumed by animals
and human beings to build their bodies.

Nitrogen is a relatively inert element and there are few processes that convert the stabilized
nitrogen to available nitrogen compounds. Nitrogen gas in the atmosphere is transformed by
lighting of bacterial uptake to nitrates or ammonia. In natural process the nitrogen-fixing
bacteria (some blue green bacteria) have a highly specialized ability to "fix" nitrogen i.e. they
change it to less mobile, more useful forms by combining it with hydrogen to make ammonia
(NH3). This is called Nitrogen fixation. In this from the nitrogen is used up by plants and
algae. They convert inorganic nitrogen compounds into organic compounds and nitrogen
becomes available. Through ecological food chains organic nitrogen enter into other living
organisms including humans and animals.

When organisms die, other bacteria able to convert the organic compounds containing nitrogen
back to nitrates, ammonia and then to molecular nitrogen (gas). In this way molecular nitrogen
is returned back to atmosphere. The process of releasing fixed nitrogen back to molecular
nitrogen is know as denitrification. The nitrogen cycle is shown in Fig 33.4.

Nitrogen fixation : N2 → NH3 (By bacteria)

_ _
Denitrification : NO 3 or NO 2 → N2 (by bacteria)

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 Fig. 33.4 : The Nitrogen Cycle

Intext Questions 33.1

1. Which gas is present in the maximum amount in the atmosphere ?
...................................................................................................................................

2. Name any two major constituents of air.

...................................................................................................................................

3. Which organisms are called autotrophs and why ?

...................................................................................................................................

4. Name the food constituent which is broken down during respiration to liberate energy
and carbon dioxide.

...................................................................................................................................

5. What is the green photosynthetic pigment present in plants ?

...................................................................................................................................

6. How does carbon get into the environment from dead organic matter ?

...................................................................................................................................

7. Are humans producers or consumers ?

...................................................................................................................................

8. Name two physical phenomena by which carbon is fixed in the nature.

...................................................................................................................................

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9. Name the atmospheric layer where ozone is mainly available.

...................................................................................................................................

33.5 Air Pollution

You have just learnt how nature has its own means of using up and getting back its components
such as CO2, O2 and N2. If the balance of CO2, O2 or N 2 is disturbed by human activity then
it will have adverse affect on life on the earth. Now you know why environmentalists are
deeply concerned about environmental pollution, tree plantations and afforestation.

Undesirable changes have occurred in the physical and chemical constituents of air due to
human activities. Undesirable change in the atmosphere is air pollution. Pollutant gases such
as SO 2 oxides of nitrogen, CO and excessive amount of CO 2 have been added to the
atmosphere. Air pollutant may be classified as particulate matter, liquid droplets and gaseous
pollutants (Fig. 33.5) :

Air Pollutants

Particulate pollutants Liquid droplets Gaseous pollutants

Soot Hydrocarbons SO 2
Fly ash H 2S
Flourides NO (x)
Lead NH 3
Dust from cement CO2 and CO
and other industries Photo-chemical
Sodium chloride Oxidants (O3, PAN)
Agricultural Chemicals Tobacco smoke

Fig. 33.5 : Classification and Example of Air Pollutants

33.5.1 Particulate Pollutants

particulate pollutants such as soot and fly ash are released by varioys industries as by products
of industrial processes. They are blown away by wind when they come out of the chimneys
and other outlets of industries and mix with air.
Suspended particulate matter is also emitted by exhaust of polluting diesel vehicles and ill
managed coal fired power plants. In nature, forest fires, wind erosion and volcanic eruptions
add suspended particulate matter into air. Examples of particulate pollutants are soot, flyash
from thermal power plants, cement dust, petrocoke from petroleum refineries. Some of the
particulate pollutants are discussed in detail below :
Fluoride : Aluminium, steel and electrochemical plants, blast furnaces, brick kilns, coal
combustion, tile and glass etching factories and flouride particles which settle on vegetation.

-20-
They burn tips of leaves and when cattle eat the vegetation they suffer from fluorosis resulting
in loss of teeth, weight and lameness. Humans also suffer from flurosis. Volcanoes also release
flourides which form gaseous as well as particulate pollutant.
Lead : Lead particles come into air from automobile exhausts. Lead is used as an antiknock
agent in automobile gasoline which contains tetraethyl lead. Paint, ceramic and pesticide
industries also add lead particles to the atmosphere. Manufacture of lead storage battries and
recycling of discarded batteries add to lead pollution. Lead interferes with devlopment of red
blood corpuscles and causes anaemia (lack of haemoglobin - the oxygen carrying pigment of
blood). Lead is a cumulative poison and prolonged exposure even in low concentration may
damage kidneys and liver.
Dust : Particulate matter less than 10 microns in size is dust. it reaches lungs, deposits along
the respiratory tract and causes asthma or even lung cancer. Dust from stone crushers is
another example of particular pollutant.
Sodium chloride : Sodium chloride is used to remove snow in winter and remains in the
environment. Some sodium chloride is also added to the environment when waves of the sea
spray it. Excess sodium chloride has been found to cause defoliation (leaf falling), suppression
of flowering and breaking of terminal shoots of apple.

Agricultural chemicals : Chemical insecticides, herbicides and other pesticides are known
to have damaging effects on plants. They are toxic to animals and humans also. Residues of
pesticides get suspended as particulate matter in air.

33.5.2 Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons which may be in the form of liquid droplets or gas pollute air. As liquid droplets
they spill or are added through seepage of oil fields and natural gas leakage. Methane is
emitted in the swamps and paddy fields by methanogenic bacteria. Methane (CH4) is also
generated in stomachs of ruminant animals. Incomplete combustion of fuels release 3,4
benzopyrene which causes lung cancer. Pesticides, paints and solvents also release
hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are a source of photochemical smog.

33.5.3 Gaseous Pollutants

SO2, CO 2, nitrogen oxides are commonly added to the air by human activities. Excess of
these have very serious damaging effects on the physical environment as well as on humans.

SO2 and H2S : These are released into atmosphere through smelting of ores containing sulphur,
manufacture of H2SO4 petroleum refining, combustion of fossil fuels, paper making, burning
of sulphur containing refuse and in nature through volcanic eruptions. Plants exposed to SO2
and H2S show defoliation (leaves falling off) and reduced growth.

-21-
In humans, SO2 pollution cause headache, vomiting, irritation of eye and respiratory passages.
SO2 reacts with water to form H2SO4 which is washed down as acid rain about which you
shall study later in the chaper.

Nitrogen Oxides : Anaerobic breakdown of nitrogenous compounds by bacteria is the natural

source of nitrogen oxides. Burning fossil fuel also releases them. Power generators, automobile
exhausts, explosives and nitrogenous fertilizer industries and the aother anthropogenic sources
produce nitrogen oxides.

NO2 : causes early dropping off of leaves and fruits in plants. Nitrogen oxides are one source
of photochemical smog, acid deposition and green house effect.

CO2 and CO : Combustion of oil, gas, coal and wood releases CO2 in the atmosphere. CO is
released chiefly from gasoline engines and burning of coal in defective furnaces. Motor vehicles
with internal combustion engines emit high levels of CO and hydrocarbons. Excess of CO2
can cause global warming, CO causes photochemical smog and has a fatal effect when in
haled by humans.

CO poisoning : CO has a high affinity for haemoglobin. It combines with the blood pigment
haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin. The normal function of haemoglobin is to carry
O2. But CO combines with haemoglobin about two hundred times faster than O 2. Tissues do
not get oxygen and die due to lack of oxygen. Carboxy haemoglobin is dark red in colour, the
victims of CO poisoning have dark red lips. Mild CO poisoning causes lung disorders like
bronchitis and emphysema. CO from cigarette smoke makes haemoglobin non functional in
smokers.

Photochemical oxidants : Primary pollutants such as nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons mix
in the atmosphere and form secondary pollutants like peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and ozone,
under the influence of UV radiation from the sun. Both PAN and O3 form photochemical
smog. PAN and O3 are toxic to plants. In humans they cause irritation of eyes coughing,
headachae, dry throat, respiratory problems and haemorrhage.

Tobacco smoke : Smoke from burning cigarettes or bidis contains nicotine, aromatic
hydrocarbons and tar. These cause problems of blood pressure and heart, windpipe and lungs
in the smoker as well as those around the smoker. Cigarette smoke is also carcinogenic.

The various human and natural activities which introduce air pollutants into the atmosphere
are summarised in Table 33.2

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 Table 33.2 : Common air pollutants, their sources and contribution of
Natural and Anthropogenic Pollution

Air Pollutants Some Sources Emission (% of total)

Natural Anthropogenic

Sulphur oxide (SOx) Fossil fuel burning, industry 50 50

biomass, biomass burning,
volcanoes, oceans

Carbon monixide (CO) Incomplete combustion, 91 9

methane oxidation, transportation
biomass, burning, plant metabolism

Nitrogen Oxide (NO x ) Fossil fuel burning, lightening, 40 60

biomass burning, soil microbes
Hydrocarbons (HC) Fossil fules, industrial processes, 84 16
evaporation of organic solvents,
agricultural burning, plant isoprenes
and other biogenics.

Suspended Particulate Biomass burning, dust, sea salt, 89 11

Materials (SPM) biogenic aerosols, gas to particle
conversion.

Intext Questions 33.2

1. What is atmospheric pollution ?
...................................................................................................................................
2. Name two particulate pollutants.
...................................................................................................................................
3. Name two gaseous pollutants ?
...................................................................................................................................
4. Name one source which causes pollution due to methane.
...................................................................................................................................
5. Name two air pollutants which form photochemical smog.
...................................................................................................................................

33.6 Effects of Excessive Atmospheric Pollutants on

Nature (Outdoor Pollution)
You are now familiar with the various atmospheric pollutants. Most of these are products of
fuel combustion. These pollutants have been released into atmosphere ever since human first

-23-
started burning wood and coal. Later on, pollutants are being released into air due to increased
industrial activity. The nature has not been able to remove all these pollutants because much
more pollutants are added than the nature can handle to maintain the balance. Therefore,
pollutants have now accumulated in the atmosphere to a proportion whereby atmospheric
composition of air has been significantly altered. It is the causes of physical phenomena such
as photochemical smog, acid rain, ozone depletion, greenhouse effect and global warming.
These are damaging to plants, animals and humans.
The figure Fig. No. 33.6 shows the four major effects of atmoshperic pollutants. In the diagram,
arrows from the pollutants depicts its involvement in the physical phenomenon. The sources
of the pollutants are depicted below the names of the pollutants. The four major phenomena
are subsequently discussed one by one. They are temperature inversion, photochemical smog,
acid rain, greenhouse effect and ozone layer (shield) depletion.
OZONE SHIELD DISTRUCTION

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING

ACID DEPOSTION

CHLOROFLORO CARBONS
DIOXIDE

PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
METHANE
CARBON MONOXIDE

HALONS
SULPHER DIOXIDE
NITROGEN OXIDES

HYDROCARBONS

CARBON

[NOX] [HCl] [CO] [SO 2 ] [CO 2] [CH4][CFCX][CXFXBrX]

Automobile Automobile
Fossil Plastic Form Fire
fuel extinguisher
Fossil fuel burning Farms
burning Deforestation
Deforestation
Fossil fuel Refrigiration
burning
Paints Solvents

Fig. 33.6 : Four Major of Atmospheric Pollutants

33.7 Temperature Inversion and Photochemical Smog

Pollutants like sulphur dioxide which is released while burning sulphur containing fuels (fossil
fuels) and particulate matter like spoot present stagnant air masses, get modified in sunlight
and form a sheet called photochemical smog.
Smog is a combination of fog, smoke and fumes released by mills and factories, homes
and automobiles.
When sunlight falls on stagnant air under low humid conditions in the presence of pollutants
such as SO 2 soot, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons, photochemical smog is formed

-24-
2
F
(photochemical: chemical reactions in the presence of light). Smog stays close to the ground
and reduces visibility and causes irritation.
Photochemical smog is also called PAN smog due to the formation of peroxyacetyl nitrate or
PAN and ozone which are formed from hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides in the presence of
solar radiation. PAN and ozone are called photochemical oxidants. Both of these are toxic
irritants to human lungs.
Smog formation is accompanied by Temperature inversion of Thermal inversion,
Temperature inversion causes smog to settle and remain near the ground till wind sweeps it
away. Normally, warm air rises up into atmosphere. When a layer of cool air at the ground
level is held there by an overying layer of warm stagnant air. it is called temperature or
thermal inversion (Fig. 33.7)
Coal.....

Rising warm air

Industrial smoke Domestic Smoke

(A) NORMAL CONDITIONS
No cool winds to disperse smoke
Cooler air due to drop in temperature
at night, settles at ground level
and forms smog
(B) FOG FORMATION Temperature inversion
Wamer air
Smoke+fog form a dense
blanket of smog which cools
and settles down

(C) TEMPERATURE INVERSION Peroxides

AND SMOG FORMATION O2
O2
NO 2 sool HC
SO 2 PAN
SO 2

Motor car
exhaust

(D) PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG

Fig. 33.7 : Formation of Photochemical Smog and Temperature Inversion

Exposure to smog causes respiratory problems, bronchitis, sore throat, cold, headache
and irritation to eyes (red shot eys). Smog also damages crops and reduces crop yield.

33.8 Acid Rain

Coal and oil burned by power plants and other industries release SO2 into air because coal
and oil contain small amount of sulphur. Automobile exhausts add SO2 and nitrogen oxides

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to the air. Both SO2 and nitrogen oxides are converted into acids HNO3 and H2SO4 when
they combine with oxygen and water vapour in the atmosphere as per the following photo
chemical reactions.

2SO2 + O2 +2H2O → 2H2SO4

4NO2 + O2 +2H2O → 4HNO3

This reaction in promoted by O 3 in smog. The acids, so formed are washed down from air to
earth during rain or snow fall. It is called acid rain or acid snow. The acids react with minerals
present in soil to form sulphates and nitrates due to acid rain.
Rain water even in its purest form is slighlty acidic with pH 5.6 due to dissolved CO2. But
areas near coal and oil burning industries and where motor vehicles ply in large numbers, pH
goes down to 2 and rain becomes strongly acidic. Mountain foot hills are the worst affected.
There is moisture laden air rises to higher altitudes it condenses to fall as rain or snow, dropping
its load of pollutants. In spring. snow melts and adds pollutants to lakes and other water
bodies.
When the dissolved pollutants drop as rain or snow (wet deposition) it is termed acid
precipitation. Deposition of dry gases and salts is dry deposition. Acid rain spreads over
areas of several hundreds to several thousand kilometers.

33.8.1 Effects of Acid Rain

Some of the effects of acid rain are listed below:
1) Excessive acid concentrations are phytotoxic (toxic to plants). There have been
widespread death of trees in forests due to acid rain.
2) Sea waters are rich in minerlas and have great buffering capacity. But buffering capacity
of fresh water bodies is low and acid deposits have a toxic effect on the fresh water
ecosystems.
3) Mature (capable of reproduction) fish survives in acid rain fed water bodies but fails to
reproduce. So there are no young fish in such waters.
4) Exposed surface of buildings, statues get corroded. Limestone or marble (CaCO3)
structures are specially damaged (Fig. 32.8).
The chemical reaction in like
CaCO3 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O.
The sulphates are leached out by rain water.
5) Acidic sulphate when present in the atmosphere causes laziness. Acidic mist falling on
the ground reduces visibility.

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 Fig. 33.8 : A Stone statue showing corrosive effects of Acid Rain

33.9 Green House Effect and Global Warming

The literal meaning and function of green house is to trap the heat. You must have seen
delicate plants being grown in a glass chamber which is comparatively warmer inside than
outside. Glass permits solar radiations to come in but restricts the outward movement of hear.
The radiations get trapped inside the glass chamber and raises the temperature.
Gases such as CO2, NO2, CFCs (chloro fluorocarbons) allow sun rays to pass through them
but then absorb and reradiate the heat back towards the earth. These are therefore termed as
green house gases.

Solar radiation reflected

by earth

Absorbed radiation
Green house re-emitted by
gases green house gases

Trapped
solar radiation global warming

Fig. 33.9 : Green House Effect

33.9.1 Greenhouse Gases

The common green house gases and their sources of pollution are listed below :
1) CO 2 - from fossil fuel burning.
2) NO 2 - from fertilizer plants, automobile exhaust use
and animal waste.

-27-
3) CH 4 - from bacterial decomposition, biogas, flooded
rice fields
4) CFCs - from freon, (a refrigerant), areosol sprays
5) HALONS (halocarbons) - from fire extinguishers.

33.9.2 How does Earth's Atmosphere Trap Heat ?

Radiations (ultra violet) from the sun penetrate the earth's atmosphere and reach earth. The
surface of earth partially absorbs the radiations. The rest is re-radiated as infrared radiation
from the earth's surface. In polluted air, molecules of CO 2, CH4, CFCs, N2O, O3 and water
vapours are present. These gases can absorb infrared radiations but cannot absorb the ultra
violet radiations. Energy of these trapped radiations raise the temperature of earth and its
atmosphere. Thus if proportion of green house gases increases in the atmosphere heat trapped
by them will raise the temperature of the earth and will cause global warming.
Greenhouse effect leading to global warming shall have severe effects on rainfall, sea level,
plant and animal growth.
Gloabl warming is defined as the increase in the average global temperature of the
atmosphere near earth's surface.
1) Rise in sea level : It is estimated that by the turn of the century a rise of 5OC in global
temperature will be due to effect of greenhouse gases if not checked now. Polar ice
caps would melt because of rise temperature and add mor water to sea. Moreover water
expands when it heats up. This will lead to rise of sea level. it will flood the low lying
coastal area and many cities will get submerged in water.
2) Drough : A 3OC warming will result in 10% decrease in precipitation (rain fall) and this
will decrease rain fall causing drought condition.
3) Effect on plant growth : Drought will reduce photosynthesis in plants and lead to
reduced growth of plants.
4) Effect on animals : Warmer conditions will encourage growth of pests.
5) Water shortage : Increase in temperature will lead to increased evaporation leading to
shortage of water for agricultural, municipal and industrial use.

6) Climatic changes : It has great effect on climate changes. For example, spring now
occurs about a week earlier than normal time.

7) Increase in CO2 : Warmer conditions accelerate microbial degradation of organic matter

and add more CO 2.

8) Day and Night temperature : Night temperatures have increased more than day
temperature as green house gases prevent heat from escaping at night.

-28-
9) Formation of ozone hole :

The atmosphere has two layers, the stratosphere and troposhere. Stratosphere lies 15 km to 50
km above the surface of earth. The energy of the sun splits some molecular O2 in this layer to
give individual (O) atoms which combine with intact molecular oxygen to give O3. The layer
of O3 forms a shield as it absorbs UV rays and prevent them from striking the earth. If UV
rays penetrate our atmosphere the life would not be possible as organisms cannot tolerate
heavy doses of UV radiation. Troposphere is the atmospheric layer closest to the earth's
surface whose compostion you have already studied. Chloro flourocarbons and halons and
halons released into the atmosphere have destroyed the ozone shield and an Ozone hole has
been detected at the South Pole of Antartic and North Pole of Arctic.

33.10 Depletion of ozone layer

Ozone shield depletion is primarily caused due to the following reasons:

(a) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are the heat transfer agents used in refrigerators and air
conditioners, and foaming agents in foam cups and cartons.

(b) Halons or halocarbons are anti fire agents used in fire extinguishers.

The ozone in the stratosphere is being depleted bythe presence of mainly cholorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) and halogen gas, particularly chlorine. The highly energetic ultra violet radiation
splits up the CFCs, releasing chlorine. The released chlorine is responsible for convertion of
the ozone into oxygen molecule consequently depletion of ozone layer occurs as per the
following equations.

Cl + O3 → ClO + O2

ClO + O → Cl + O2

It is believed that one molecule of CFC is capable of destroying 1,00,000 ozone molecules in
the stratosphere. The area where the ozone is completely destroyed is known as ozone hole.
The first ozone hole was observed over Antaractic Ocean.

The important function of ozone layer in the stratosphere in to protect us from dangerous ultra
violet (UV) radiations from the sun by absorbing it.

33.10.1 Effects of Ozone Depletion

Ozone layer depletion will allow more UV rays to enter the troposphere and will cause a
series of harmful effects such as :
1) Plants and animals living on the surface will start dying.
2) UV radiation will fasten the formation of smog

-29-
3) Temperature of the earth will increase leading to rise in sea level and flooding of low
lying areas.
4) More UV rays will directly fall on the skin of humans causing skin cancer.
5) Leaves of plants will show chlorosis (loss of chlorophyll and yellowing).

33.11 Effects of Air Pollution on Humans

Air is mobile and impact of air pollution on ecosystems is reduced as wind blows away
pollutants. But when winds are calm, air pollution becomes not only damaging but life
threatening.
The damaging effects of atmospheric pollution have been described along with the account
on pollutants. Long term exposure to moderate pollution causes more discase and death.
Some adverse effects of air pollution on humans are summarised in table 33.3
Table 33.3 : Effects of air pollutants on humans
Disease / Discomfort Caused by
Emphysema. Bronchitis CO, SO2, PAN, O3
Eye irritation, headache SO2, PAN, O3
Silicosis, Asbestosis Suspended particulate matter like
silica, asbestos
Coronary artery disease Tobacco smoke
Anemia, kidney, liver damage Pb
Fluorosis, Skin Cancer Fluorides
Poisoning death CO

33.12 Control of Air Pollution

The alarming rate at which the atmosphere is being polluted, soon there will be more ailing
human beings than healthy. The need of the hour is to put a quick check to atmospheric
pollution.
Since most of air pollutants are emitted during combustion of fossil fuels, there are two practical
approaches for air pollution control which are discussed below :
i) One approach is control undesirable changes in the air we breathe by observing the
following precaution :
a) Limiting pollutants into air by using sulphur - free oil and coal, using catalytic
convertors in automobiles and avoiding burning of waste material.
b) Taking stringent measures against release of emissions from industries.

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ii) The other approach is to use sources of energy other than fossil fuels such as wind,
water, solar power, etc. Use bicycles and battery powered cars rather than vehicles with
internal combustion engines. Service vehicles should use lead free petrol.
Above all, it is necessary to educate the general public. Air pollution should become every
human being's concern. Only then will the air become more congenial to healthy living.

Intext Questions 33.3

1. What is smog ?
...................................................................................................................................
2. Name two photochemical oxidants.
...................................................................................................................................
3. Name two gases which form acid rain.
...................................................................................................................................
4. Mention any four greenhouse gases.
...................................................................................................................................
5. What are the sources of freons and halons in air ?
...................................................................................................................................
6. What effect does acid rain have on marble statues ?
...................................................................................................................................
7. Mention one measure to control air pollution.
...................................................................................................................................

What You Have Learnt

• Nature's balance has been upset by human activities releated to urbanisation,
industrialsation and intensive agriculture.
• Atmosphere is made up of gases of which nitrogen - 78%, oxygen - 21%, carbondioxide
- 0.1 to 0.3%, inert gases 1%.
• Increase of temperature with altitude is known as positive lapse rate where as decrease
in temperature with increases of altitude is negative lapse rate of temperature.
• Carbon is actively cycled between its inorganic form to organic form through respiration
and photothensis. Decay cycle converts organic carbon to inorganic carbon.
• During respiration food is oxidised through a series of enzyme controlled steps in which
chemical bonds of glucose are broken down to release enery and CO2 is liberated.

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• In photosynthesis green plants trap solar energy and synthesize starch from CO2 and
H2O. Oxygen is released into air.
• After death of roganisms are degraded by microorganisms. The carbon in organisms
moves back environoment.
• Air pollution is due to
i) particulate matter (soot, dust)
ii) aerosols composed of hydrocarbons
iii) gases like SO2, NO2 are mostly released by burning fossil fuels.
• NO2 and hydrocarbons are modified by sunlight to form photochemical smog. Smog is
a combination of smoke and fog. Automobile exhausts give out NO2 and hydrocarbons.
They form PAN (peroxyacetyl nitrate) which along with ozone and SO 2 forms
photochemical smog.
• Smog cools and settles down near the earth and forms a blanket, while warmer air
covers it. Thus there is 'temperature inversion' with warm air above and cool air below
unlike in the normal conditions.
• SO2, and NO2, form acids which drop as H2SO4, and HNO3 on statues and spoil them.
This is called acid precipitation. Acid rain kills trees, prevents reproduction in fish and
causes poor visibility.
• Greenhouse gases are CO2, NO2, CH 4, chlorofluorocarbons and halons. They trap solar
radiation and cause global warming.
• Global warming due to greenhouse effect leads to drought, rise in sea level, lack of rain
and water shortage.
• There is a layer of ozone in stratosphere, which protects us from UV radiation by
absorbing it.
• Chlorofluorocarbons which are used in refrigerators and foam cups as aerosols and
halons used in fire extinguishers, when released into the air cause depletion of ozone
shield which protects us from harmful effects of solar radiations. it is feared that ozone
depletion will have damaging effects on humans such as causing skin cancer.
• Complete destruction of ozone layer over an area is termed as ozone hole.
• Air pollution causes respiratory diseases such as emphysema and bronchitis, eye irritation,
fluoroisis, cancer and may even be fatal.
• Control measures include use of sulphur free oil and coal, use of alternative sources of
energy such as wind and solar power, use bicycle and battery powered vehicles, stop
burning waste indiscriminately, have stringent measures for release of emissions from
industries and above all educate general public and caution them against releasing air
pollutants.

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 Terminal Exercise
1. How are fossil fuels formed in nature ?
2. What are the damaging effects of SO2 and NO2 on plants and animals ?
3. Write a note on carbon monoxide poisoning.
4. What is thermal inversion and how is it caused ?
5. Enumerate the various effects of acid rain.
6. What is ozone hole? What are the effects of ozone depletion?
7. Whydoes sea level rise due to global warming ?
8. How do greenhouse gases cause global warming.
9. Mention five diease/discomforts in humans caused by different air polutants.
10. Enumerate the various measures of control of air pollution.

Answers to Intext Questions

33.1
1. nitrogen
2. nitrogen and oxygen
3. plants; because they synthesize their own food
4. glocose
5. chlorophyll
6. through decay and decomposition
7. consurmers
8. i) volcanic eruption and ii) combustion
9. stratosphere

33.2
1. undesirable level of undesirable and harmful substances in the atmosphere
2. soot, fluoride, Pb dust, NaCl (any two)
3. SO2, CO2, CO, NH3, H 2S (any two)
4. methanogenic bacteria, ruminant stomach, fermentation in water logged paddy fields
(any one).
5. PAN and O3

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33.3
1. fog and smoke
2. O3 and PAN
3. SO2 and NO
4. CO2, NO2, CH4, CFC Halons
5. refrigerants, fire extinguishers
6. corrode them
7. reducing use of fuel which releases air pollutants and use clean renewable fuels. Educate
everyone about dangers of pollution.

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 34
WATER POLLUTION

Water is essential for the existence of all life forms. In addition to household uses, water is
vital for agriculture, industry, fishery and tourism etc. Increasing population, urbanisation
and industrialisation has led to the decreased availability of water. The quality of water used
is also being deteriorated as it is getting more and more polluted. You may be aware of at least
some health hazards and harmful effects of water pollution. In this lesson a detailed account
of various types, sources and effects of water pollutants is given. Some methods of water
pollution control and legislatures involved have also been discussed.

Objectives
After reading this lesson you will be able to :
• list earth's water resources;
• define water pollution and its different parameters;
• list the major types of water pollutants, their sources and effects;
• distinguish between natural and man-made pollutants;
• use the concept of biological oxygen demand (BOD) and account for the changes in a
water body;
• state methods for the prevention of water pollution;
• compare primary, secondary and tertiary treatment of sewage and
• know necessary legislative measures for prevention of water pollution in the country.

34.1 Water Resources on Earth

You may be aware that about three fourths of our planet earth's surface is covered by water.
However, very little of it is available for consumption. Most (about 97%) of the water on
earth is present in the seas and oceans. It is too salty to be of any use for drinking, agriculture
and industrial purposes. The remaining 3% is fresh water; 75% of which is locked up in the

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polar ice caps and in glaciers and quite deep under the earth's surface as underground water.
which we can use, comes to us from two sources:
i) Surface Water
ii) Ground Water
Let us learn about these in detail.
i) Surface Water : Rain and snow are good natural resources of fresh water. It is estimated
that of all the precipitation (rain water and snow) that falls on the earth, about one-third is
absorbed by the plants and another one-third seeps down into the soil and the remaining one
third runs off the surface into streams and rivers. This part of precipitation, which runs off to
form streams, rivers and lakes, is called the surface water.
Precipitation (rain or snow) that runs-off into stream, rivers and lakes is called surface
water.
The small fraction of usable surface water is continuosly replenished by means of the
hydrological cycle, Fig. 33.1

Clouds
Precipitation
of Land
Precipitation Surface
Evapotranspiration Snow
on Oceans Run-off
Percolation
Water Table
Evaporation River
Ground
Ocean Water Flow

Fig. 34.1 : A schematical representation of Hydrological Cycle

The hydrological cycle involves evaporation of water from oceans, rivers and other sources
to form clouds. The clouds on saturation with water vapours cause precipitation falling back
on earth's surface. On surface, the water runs off to rivers and finally to oceans. The water
again evaporates and the cycle continues.
Surface water has a natural tendency to clean itself as it contains certain organisms that break
down pollutants into harmless substances.

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ii) Ground Water : The part of precipitation that seeps into the ground as a result of
gravity and fills the pores between soil particles and rocks under it is called ground water.
The water bearing layers of soil and rocks are called aquifers. Ground water is very important
for agricultural and industrial purposes. Ground water in the form of wells and springs is
often the only source of water supply especially in villages and small towns.
In spite of a good numebr of water resources, we have shortage of usable water. This is due
to increasing population, urbanisation and industrialisation. There is a need to optimise use of
water and also conserve surface run off of water by means of rainwater harvesting groundwater
conservation, making use of recycling methods etc.

34.2 Water Pollution - Parameters

A large amount of water is discharged back after domestic and industrial usage. This is
contaminated with domestic waste and industrial effluents. When this contamination reaches
beyond certain allowed concentrations, it is called pollution and the contaminants are called
the pollutants. Water pollution may be defined as the contamination of streams, lakes, seas,
underground water or oceans by substances, which are harmful for living beings. If the
concentration of substances naturally present in water increases then also the water is said to
be polluted.

Water pollution may be desined as the contamination of streams, lakes, seas,

underground water or oceans by substances, which are harmful for living beings.
Industrialisation and population explosion are two important factors for water pollution.

Water may be called polluted when the following parameters stated below reach beyond a
specified concentration in water.

i) Physical parameters. Colour, odour, turbidity, taste, temperature and electrical

conductivity consitute the physical parameters and are good indicators of contamination.

For instance, colour and turbidity are visible evidences of polluted water while an offensive
odour or a bitter and difference than normal taste also makes water unfit for drinking.

ii) Chemical parameters : These include the amount of carbonates, sulphates, chlorides,
flourides, nitrates, and metal ions. These chemicals form the total dissolved solids, present
in water.

iii) Biological parameters : The biological parameters include matter like algae, fungi,
viruses, protozoa and bacteria. The life forms present in water are affected to a good
extent bythe presence of pollutants. The pollutants in water may cause a reduction in
the population of both lower and higher plant and animal lives. Thus, the biological
parameters give an indirect indication of the amount of pollution in water.

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 34.3 Water Pollution - Sources
Water pollutants refer to the substances which are capable of making any physical, chemical
or biological change in the water body. These have undesirable effect on living organisms.
As mentioned earlier, the water used for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes is
discharged with some undesirable impurities in it. This contamination leads to the pollution
of water, which is generally called the fresh water pollution. Fresh water pollution may be
classified into two types: surface water pollution and ground water pollution.

34.3.1 Surface Water Pollution

When pollutants enter a stream, river or lake these gives rise to surface water pollution. The
surface water pollution has a number of sources. These can caterogrised as:
• Point and Non-point Sources
• Natural and Anthropogenic Sources
i) Point and Non-point Sources

The well-defined sources that emits pollutants or effluents directly into different water bodies
of fresh water are called point sources. Domestic and industrial waste are examples of this
type. The point sources of pollution can be effectively checked. On the other hand, the non-
point sources of water pollution are scattered or spread over large areas. This types of sources
deliver pollutants indirectly through environmental changes and account for majority of the
contaminants in streams and lakes. For example, the contaminated water that runs off from
agriculture farms, construction sites, abandoned mines, enters streams and lakes. It is quite
difficult to control non-point sources.

ii) Natural and Anthropogenic Sources

As mentioned earlier, an increase in the concentration of naturally occuring substances is also

termed pollution. The sources of such an increase are called natural sources. Siltation (which
includes soil, sand and mineral particles) is one such natural source. It is a common natural
phenomenon, which occurs in most water bodies. Indiscriminate deforestation makes soil
loose and flood waters bring silt from mountains into streams, rivers and lakes.

On the other hand, the human activities that result into the pollution of water are called
anthropogenic or man made sources of water pollution. For example, domestic (sewage and
waste water), industrial and agricultural wastes that goes into the rivers, lakes, streams and
seas are anthropogenic sources. Certain materials that are leached from the land by run-off
water and enter the various water bodies also belong to this category. The anthropogenic
sources of water pollution are shown in Fig. 34.2.

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 Precipitation
Land fill dump Pumping
Pumping or refuse pile Disposal or Injection
Well well Lagoon pit Well
Imigation
Sewer
Stream
Septic tank
or cesspool Water
table

Percolation Leakage Aquifer (fresh)

Leakage Discharge

Leakage
Aquifer (fresh)

Intentional input
Discharge or Injection
Uninternational input
Direction of ground water movement Aquifer (saline)

Fig. 34.2 : Anthropogenic Sources of water pollution

34.3.2 Ground Water Pollution

When the polluted water seeps into the ground and enters and aquifer it results into ground
water pollution. The most of our villages and many townships, ground water is the only
source of drining water. Therefore, pollution of groundwater is a matter of serious concern.
Ground water gets polluted in a number of ways. The dumping of raw sewage on soil, seepage
pits and septic tanks cause pollution of groundwater. Fig. 34.3. The porous layers of soil hold
back solid particles while the liquid is allowed to pass through. The solube pollutants are able
to mix with the groundwater. In addition to these, the excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers
and unchecked release of toxic wastes and even carcionogenic substances by industrial units
many result in slow tricking down through the earth's surface and mixing with the groundwater.
This problem is very serious especially in areas where water table is high (i.e.,, where water
is available near surface of earth).

The ground water can move over large distances by virtue of the large empty space available
below the earth's surface. This way if some impurities seep into the ground water at one
point, they may be observed at a different point far removed from the point of source. In such
a case it is difficult to estimate the source of water pollution. However, suspended impurities
and bacterial contaminants are removed in the process of seepage by the soil acting as an
absorbent and filter, and water acting as a solvent.

Since the movement of groundwater through the porous rock is very slow, pollutants which
get mixed the groundwater are not readily diluted. Furthermore, groundwater does not have
access to air (in contrast to surface water) therefore, oxidation of pollutants into harmless
products in groundwater does not occur.

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 34.4 Water Pollutants
You have read the various sources from where pollutants enter the water bodies. Let us now
learn about the various types of pollutant arising out of these sources. These can be broadly
put under the following types.
i) Sewage Pollutants (Domestic and Municipal Waste)
ii) Industrial Pollutants
iii) Agricultural Pollutants
iv) Radioactive and Thermal Pollutants
i) Domestic and Municipal Pollutants : The sewage contains garbage, soaps, detergents,
waste food and human excreta and is the single largest sources of water pollution.
Pathogenic (disease causing) microogranisms (bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae) enter
the water system through sewage making it infected. Typhoid, chloera, gastroenteritis
and dysentery are commonly caused by drinking infected water. Water polluted by
sewage may carry certain other bacteria and viruses cannot grow by themselves, but
reproduce in the cells of host organisms. They cause a number of diseases, such as,
polio, viral hepatitis and may be cancer which are resistant to like the organic matter are
oxygen demanding substances. They are responsible for deoxygenation of water-bodies
which is harmful for aquatic life.
Other ingredients which enter the various water bodies are the plant nutrients, i.e., nitrates
and phosphates. They support growth of algae, commonly called algal bloom (blue-
green species). This process is called eutrophication and is discussed in details in the
next section.
ii) Industrial Pollutants : Many industries are located near rivers or fresh water streams.
These are responsible for discharging their untreated effluents into rivers like highly
toxic heavy metals such as chromium, arsenic, lead, mercury, etc. along with hazardous
organic and inorganic wastes (e.g. acids, alkalies, cyanides, chlorides, etc.) River ganges
receives wastes from textile, sugar, paper and pulp mills, tanneries, rubber and pesticide
industries. Most of these pollutants are resistant to breakdown by microorganisms (called
nonbiodegradable), therefore damage the growth of crops and the polluted water is
unsafe for drinking purposes.
Factories manufacturing plastic, caustic soda and some fungicides and pesticides release
mercury (a heavy metal) along with other effluents in nearby water body. Mercury
enters the food chain through bacteria, algae, fish and finally into the human body. The
toxicity of mercury became evident by the Minamata Bay tragedy in Japam during the
period 1953-60. Fish died due to mercury comsumption and those who ate fish were
affected by mercury poisoning and quite a few died. The milder symptoms of mercury
poisoning are depression and irritability but acute toxic effects can cause paralysis,
blindness, insanity, birth defects and even death. The high concentration of mercury in

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 water and in fish tissues results from formation of soluble monomethylmercury ion,
(CH3, Hg+) and volatile dimethylmercury [(CH3)2 Hg] by anaerobic bacteria in sediments.
iii) Agricultural Waste: Manure, fertilizers, pesticides, wastes form farms, slaughterhouse,
poultry farms, salts and silt are drained as run-off from agricultural lands. The water
body receiving large quantities of fertilizers (phosphates and nitrates or manures becomes
rich in nutrients which leads to eutrophication and consequent depletion of dissolved
oxygen. Consumption of water rich in nitrates is bad for human health especially for
small children.
Pesticides (DDT, dieldrin, aldrin, malathion, carbaryl etc.) are used to kill insect and
rodent pests. Toxic pesticide residues enter the human body through drinking water or
through food chain (biomagnification). These compounds have low solubility in water
but are highly soluble in fats. For example, the concentration of DDT in river water
may be very low but some fish over a period of time accumulate so much of DDT that
they becomes unfit for human consumption. The use of pesticides in our country is
increasing very rapidly.
Some of these chemicals which are highly toxic become metabolised by animals that
graze on fields. Therefore, these poisonous chemicals have been often observed in the
humanfood chain. The presence of these chemicals in humans even in minute amount
can cause hormonal imbalance and may lead to cancer.
iv) Physical Pollutants : Physical pollutants can be of different types. Some of them are
discussed below :
(a) Radioactive Wastes : Radionucleides found in water are radium and potassium - 40.
These isotopes originate from natural sources due to leaching from minerals. Water
bodies are also polluted by accidental leakage of waste material from uranium
and thorium mines, nuclear power plants and industries, research laboratories and
hospitals which use radioisotopes. Radioactive materials enter human body through
water and food, and may be accumulated in blood and certain vital organs. They
cause tumours and cancer.
(b) Thermal Sources : Various industries, nuclear power plants and thermal plants
require water for cooling and the resultant hot water in often discharged into rivers
or lakes. This results in thermal pollution and leads to the imbalance in the ecology
of the water body. Higher temperature lowers the dissolved oxygen level (which
is very essential for marine life) by decreasing the solubility of oxygen in water.
Fish and other aquatic organism can get affected by a sudden change in water
temperatures.
(c) Sediments : Soil particles carried to streams, lakes or oceans form the sediments.
The sediment become polluting due to their large amount. Soil erosion defined as
the soil carried by flood water from crop land, is responsible for sedimentation.
The sediments may damage the water body by introducing a large amount of
nutrient matter.

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(v) Petroleum Products : Petroleum products are widely used for fuel, lubrication, plastics
manufacturing, etc. and happen to be poisonous in nature. Crude oil and other related
products generally get into water by accidental spillage from ships, tankers, pipelines
etc. Besides these accidental spills, oil refineries, oil exploration sites and automobile
service centres pollute different water bodies. Oil slick which floats on the water surface
causes death of marine life and severely affects the ecosystem of the ocean.
A list of various types of water pollutants, their sources and effects have been summarised in
Table 34.1.

Table 34.1 : Types of pollutants, their sources and effects

Pollutant Sources of Pollutants Effects and Significance

1. Pathogens Sewage, human and animal Depletion of dissolved oxygen

wastes, natural and urban runoff in water (foul odour) health
from land, industrial waste effects (outbreaks of water
borne (diseases)

2. Organi Pollutants Automobile and machine waste, Disruption of marine life,

G Oil and grease tanker spills, offshore oil leakage aesthetic damage
G Pesticides and Chemicals used for better yield (Toxic effects (harmful for
weedicides from agriculture aquatic life), possible genetic
G Plastics Industrial and household waste defects and cancer; kills fish
G Detergents Industrial and household waste Eutrophication, aesthetics

3. Inorganic pollutants Agricultural runoff Algal bloom and

Fertilizers eutrophication, nitrates cause
(phosphates and methemoglobenemia
nitrates)

Acides and alkalies Mine drainage, industrial wastes, Kill fresh water organisms,
natural and urban runoff unit for drinking, irrigation
and industrial use.

4. Radioactive Natrual sources, uranium mining Cancer and genetic defects

materials and processing, hospitals and
research laboratories using
radioisotopes

5. Heat Cooling water for industrial, Decreases solubility of oxygen

nuclear and thermal plants in water, disrupts aquatic
ecosystems

6. Sediments Natural erosion, runoff from Affects water quality, reduces

agricultural land and fish population
construction sites

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 Intext Questions 34.1
1. Define water pollution.
...................................................................................................................................
2. What do you understand by surface water ?

...................................................................................................................................
3. List any three anthropogenic sources of water pollution ?

...................................................................................................................................
4. List the parameters indicating water pollution.

...................................................................................................................................
5. Name the element which causes Minamata disease ?

...................................................................................................................................

34.5 Water Pollution and Some Biological Effects

The natural source of water in the form of precipitation or rain is the purest form available in
nature. However after reaching the surface and then underground it gets contaminated by a
number of pollutants. There are some biological factors also mentioned earlier responsible for
spoiling the quality of water. These include the lower plants like algae and bacteria which are
the causes of nutrient accumulation in aquatic systems. This nutrient accumulation gives rise
to a condition called eutrophication explained below.

34.5.1 Eutrophication
Eutrophication is a process by which a water body slowly becomes rich in plant nutrients
such as Nitrates and Phosphates due to soil erosion and run off from the surrounding land.
Let us try to understand this phenomenon. A water system like a lake or any reservoir may get
a large inflow of organic matter from domestic wastes and run off from the surrounding land.
Increasing human population, intensive agriculture and rapid industrial growth have led to an
increasing release of domestic waste, agricultural residues, industrial wastes and land run-off
into various water bodies. Nutrients are released from organic waste by aerobic (oxygen
requiring) bacteria which start decomposing it. Dissolved oxygen is consumed in this process.
As more and more organic matter enters a water body, more is the deoxygenation of the water
body and larger is the production of nutrients. These nutrients fertilize an abnormal growth of
algae and other large water plants such as duckweed. As more plants grow, some of them die

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also due to larger Oxygen demand and therefore Oxygen deficiency in the water body (i.e.,
deoxygenation of the water body). Such a water body is said to be eutrophied and the process
is called eutrophication. The word eutrophication is derived from the Greek word which
means well nourished as (eu:true, trophos:feeding)

Eutrophication of a water body results due to the release of large amount of nutrients
by the actionof aerobic bacteria on organic wastes entering a water body naturally or
by human activity.

The above discussion leads us to a concept called biological oxygen demand (BOD). Let us
try to understand by the description given below.

34.5.2 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

The quality for oxygen used up by microorganisms at 27OC and in drakness during 3 days in
breaking down organic wastes in a water body is called its biological oxygen demand (BOD).

It can be explained int he following manner.

You know that there are many organic compounds or waste present in a water body. The
microorganisms present in the system act upon this waste for their own consumption and
growth. In the process the metabolic activity requires oxygen which is met by the dissolved
oxygen present in water. It is this amount of oxygen which is defined as biological oxygen
demand (BOD). The BOD value of an aquatic system depends upon:

• the type and amount of organic waste

• the organisms acting on it

• temperature and pH

The greater the amount of organic waste in the water body, the greater is the amount of
oxygen required to break it down biologically and therefore higher is the BOD value of
water. This value is a good measure in evaluating the degree of pollution in a water body.
The less polluted water shows comparatively low value of BOD. Its value is used as a criterion
for managing water pollution of a water body. An evaluation is made by determining oxygen
concentration in water before and after incubation at 20 OC in dark for 5 days.

34.5.3 Biomagnification
A variety of toxic chemicals move through food chains. Toxic pesticides may be sprayed for
controlling insect pests, fungi, herbs, but they concentrate in the food chain and harm to other
(non target) organisms. For example, DDT was sprayed in the U.S. to control mosquitoes at

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a concentration expected to be harmless to non target organisms like fish and birds. DDT
accumulated in the marshes and planktons. Planktons were eaten by fish and the fish had a
higher concentration of DDT in its body. Further, when birds ate the fish, they accumulated
still higher concentration. This increase in concentration of accumulated toxic chemicals as
one goes higher in the food chain is termed biomagnificaiton. Biomagnification has at times
threatened the reproduction and survival of carnivores (secondary consumers) who occupy
the highest level of the food chain.

34.6 Water Pollution - Some Control Measures

Waste water generated by household activity, industries or garbage landfills is called sewage
which is classified as the municipal water pollution. Sewage contains solid matters in the
form of suspended colloidal and dissolved organic matter, detergent, mineral matter, nutrients
and gases. Sewage is one of the major causes of water borne diseases and therefore the
treatment of sewage is one of the important tasks. For a long time treatment of municipal
waste in the form of sewage involved mainly of the removal of suspended solids, oxygen
demanding materials and harmful bacteria. Now the disposal of the solid residue from sewage
has been improved by applying municipal treatment processes.

The treatment of this waste water is carried out in the following three stages:

i) Primary treatment

ii) Secondary treatment, and

iii) Tertiary treatment

Primary Treatment : When the waste water is to be dumped off into a river or flowing steam,

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the treatment is carried out by sedimentation, coagulation and filtration. This is known as
primary treatment. If the water is required for drinking purposes, it has to undergo further
treatment called secondary and tertiary treatments. The following steps are performed to do
primary treatment of water:

i) Sedimentation : This step is carried out in large tanks specially built for this purpose in
sewage treatment plant. The polluted water is allowed to settle so that silt, clay and
other matter settle to be bottom and water is slowly allowed to move out. Fine particles
do not settle and are thus required to be removed in the next step.

ii) Coagulation : Fine particles and colloidal suspension are combined into large particles
by a process called coagulation. This step is carried out by the addition of special
chemicals called coagulants (flocculants) such as potash alum. The large particles either
settle to the bottom or are moved in the next step.

iii) Filtration : Suspended particles, flocculants, bacteria and other organisms are filtered
by passing the water through a bed of sand or finely divided coal or through some
fibrous materials. The total impurities collected in these steps are called sludge. It is
used as a valuable fertilizer. On compositing (i.e. the action of anaerobic bacteria), it
releases sludge gas. It consists mainly of methane gas which is used for cooking purposes.

Secondary or Biological Treatment : The water after primary treatment is not fit for drinking
purposes and has to undergo further treatment. This is done through secondary or biological
treatment. A commonly used method is to allow polluted water to spread over a large bed of
stones and gravel so that the growth of different microorganisms needing nutrients and oxygen
is encouraged. Over a period of time a fast moving food chain is set up. For example, bacteria
consume organic matter from the polluted water; protozoa live on bacteria. Every form of life
including algae and fungi help in the cleaning up process. This is called secondary treatment
of water. It involves the following processes.

i) Softening : By this treatment undersirable cations of calcium and magnesium are removed
from hard waters. Either water is treated with lime and soda ash to precipitae Ca2+ ions
as carbonates or it is passed through cation exchangers. This makes water soft.

ii) Aeration : In this process, soft water is exposed to air by forcing air through it to add
oxygen to water. This encourages bacterial decomposition of organic matter into harmless
products such as carbon dioxide and water. The addition of oxygen reduces carbon
dioxide. Sulphide etc.. The water is as yet not fit for drinking purposes. The pathogenic
and other microorganisms need to be killed. This is done in the next treatment.

Tertiary Treatment : The tertiary treatment is actually disinfecting water. Chlorine is the
most commonly used disinfectant used for killing bacteria. However, chlorine also reacts
with traces of organic matter present in water and forms undesirable chlorinated hydrocarbons
(toxic and potentially carcinogenic). It is therefore desirable to reduce the organic matter in
water before passing chlorine gas. Other method of disinfection such as ultraviolet radiation,

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ozone gas treatment or reverse osmosis are preferred over chlorine treatment. But these
methods are more expensive. Fig. 34.3 gives a clear picture of the process of sewage treatment
in total.

In a treatment plant, the waste is passed through a series of screens, chambers and chemical
processes to reduce its bulk and toxicity. During primay treatment a large percentage of
suspended solids and inorganic material is removed from sewage. The secondary stage reduces
organic material by accelerating natural biological processes. Tertiary treatment is done when
water is to be reused. Here 99% of solids are removed and various chemical processes are
used to ensure that water is free from infecting materials.
(a) Primary (a) Secondary
Primary Sludge
Grate Grit chamber sedimentation tank Acration tank setting tank

Sludge Air pump

return
Sludge is incinerated.
composted, Sludge line
or used as
soil ammendment
Sludge drying bed

Chlorination
tank
Trickling bed
Lagoon or evaporation
marsh

Fig. 34.3 : Treatment process of sewage

Intext Questions 34.2

1. Define eutrophication.
...................................................................................................................................
2. Why does aquatic life get killed in an eutrophied pond?
...................................................................................................................................
3. What is the significance of BOD ?
...................................................................................................................................
4. What is biomagnification?
...................................................................................................................................

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 34.7 Legislative Measures for Preventing Water Pollution
It is important to utilise a good quality and unpolluted water. The quality criteria may vary
depending on the use. Individual efforts do pay in this regard, however, a common policy in
the form of legislation is always more effective. The enactment of 'Prevention and Control of
Water Polluion Act' in 1974 has helped in the prevention of water pollution. The standards
have been prescribed for water pollution under Environment (Protection) Act. 1986. These
are given as follows.
• General standards for water pollutants for discharge of effluents in water bodies on land
(inland surface water, public sewers, irrigated land and coastal areas)
• Standards specific for each type of industry
• Standards defined for the amount of waste water to be discharged for different industries.
• Standards limiting the amount of a particular pollutan on the basis of production capacity
of an industrial unit
The state pollution control boards have also been empowered to grant/renew consent to new/
existing water polluting industries under water 'Prevention and Control of Pollution Act-
1974.' They have been empowered to shut down any industrial unit which fails to meet the
prescribed standards under this Act. The state governments have also been authorized to take
punitive measures against defaulting industries.
It becomes imperative to act upon the above mentioned rules and regulations and also follow
measures at individual end to improve the quality of water used for various purposes.

Intext Questions 34.3

1. How is sludge utilized ?
...................................................................................................................................
2. Mention the steps by which polluted water is made fit for drinking purpose ?
...................................................................................................................................
3. Why is chlorination not the most desirable method of disinfecting polluted water ?
...................................................................................................................................

What You Have Learnt

• Water pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change that has an
undesirable affect on living organisms.
• Sewage, industrial, agricultural pollution and physical pollutants are the various sources
of water pollution. These sources may be limited to a point sources or spread over large
areas (non-point sources).
• Sewage, fertilizers, detergents, toxic wasters released by industries are some of the
sources of groundwater pollution.

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• Phosphatic, and nitrogenous fertilizers cause algal bloom and severe oxygen depletion
in water body. The water body is said to be eutrophied.
• The quantity of oxygen needed by micro-organisms in degrading organic wastes in a
water body is defined in terms of its biological oxygen demand (BOD).
• Biological magnifaction of toxic materials released into water bodies poses a serious
threat to aquatic life and eventually to human life.
• Polluted water may be made useful for human consumption by subjecting it to various
treatment.
• Legislative measures have been enacted in our country to restrict the pollution of various
water bodies.

Terminal Exercise
1. What are the various types of water pollutants? State their consequences.
2. What are the effects of detergents on fresh water bodies ?
3. What are the various sources of groundwater pollution ?
4. How is the disease 'methaemoglobinaemia' caused ?
5. Suggest steps to stop eutrophication of water body.
6. What was Minamata Bay tragedy ?
7. Which precaution is necessary before purifying the drinking water through chlorination?

Answers to Intext Questions

34.1
1. Nitrate ions are converted by intestinal bacteria into nitrities. These ions combine with
haemoglobin to form methaemoglobin thus inhibting the supply of oxygen. This causes
& disease known as methaemoglobinaemia.
2. Refer to section 34.4
3. Refer to section 34.3.1
4. Refer to section 34.1
5. Mercury
34.2
1. Refer to section 34.5.1
2. Refer to section 34.5.1
3. Refer to section 34.5.2
4. Refer to section 34.5.3
34.3
1. As fertilizer.
2. Primary treatment including sedimentation, coagulation, filtration Secondary trearment
including softening and aeration and Tertiary trearment involving disinfection of water.
3. Because chlorine reacts with organic matter to produce highly toxic chlorinated
hydrocarbons which can cause cancer.

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 35
HEAVY METAL
CONTAMINATION

Many metals occur in traces in the earth's crust. Metals like Pb, Hg, Zn, Cd are heavy metals.
Some of the heavy metals are beneficial to organisms in traces. But if excessive levels of
heavy metals enter environment through human activities, they endanger health and survival
of humans and other organisms. You shall learn about toxic effects of a few heavy metals in
this lesson.

Objectives
After reading this lesson you will be able to :
• deifne heavy metal;
• lift the soruces of contamination of the environment by heavy metals;
• explain the effects of Pb, Hg, Cd contamination on living organisms and
• list the preventive measures and measures for reduction of heavy metal contamination.

35.1 What is a Heavy Metal ?

A heavy metal is one whose density is more than 5g cm-3. Some heavy metals are lead,
cadmium, mercury, arsenic selenium, as also iron, copper, manganese, selenium, zinc, etc.
All these metals have atomic number greater than 20. Low concentrations of metal like iron,
copper, zinc and some others are essential for organisms. They are called 'trace metals'. On
the other hand metals like lead, mercury, cadmium and some others ar toxic to organisms
above a cetain concentration.
A trace metal is difined as one which occurs in 1000 ppm (parts per million or mg/litre) or less
in the earth's crust.

35.2 Sources of Contamination of Enviornment by Heavy Metals

Heavy metals are introduced into the environment either by natural means or by human
activities.

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Natural Sources : In nature excessive levels of trace metals may occur by geographical
phenomena like volcanic eruptions, weathering of rocks, leaching into rivers, lakes and oceans
due to action of water.
Anthropogenic Sources : Small amounts of heavy metals are released while mining and
uncontrolled smelting of large quantities of metal, ores in open fires. With the indutrial
revolution, metlas were extracted from natural resources and processed in the industries from
where heavy metals passed on into the atmosphere. Similarly traces of heavy metals get into
the environment through discharge of waste - both domestic, agricultural and from auto
exhausts. Following list shows the various human activities through which heavy metals get
into the environment.
i) Smelting or processing of ores of metals.
ii) Mining.
iii) Burning of fossil fuels such as coal, petrol, kerosene oil.
iv) Discharging agricultural waste.
v) Discharging industrial waste.
vi) Discharging domestic waste.
vii) Discharging from auto exhausts.
viii) Using pesticides containing compounds (salts) of heavy metals.

35.3 How do Heavy Metals Reach the Ecosystem?

Many toxic inorganic and organic compounds and heavy metals from sources mentioned
above, are deposited and buried in the soil by water. They reach the water bodies when
washed off from soil by water. Humus, the organic material present in the soil (which also
makes the soil look green) has high affinity for heavy metal cations and extract them from
water that passes through the soil. Roots of crops and other plants pick up these compounds
along with water and pass on to plants and then plants to animals.
Heavy metals are also retained in the soil by adsorption on mineral particles present in the soil
and precipitation reactions.
In water, particles with adsorbed heavy metals settle to the bottom and then sediments may
accumulate over them. But if organisms consume these, then heavy metals enter the food
web.

35.4 Heavy Metal Toxicity

Extraction and trading of metals have been in practice since early days. Heavy metals like
iron, copper and lead have been useful in so many ways. With growth of human population,

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industrialisation, enormous increase in vehicular traffic and use of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides, our environment has been contaminated with heavy metals. Heavy metals may
also be present in water bodies, under ground water in some areas which are close to the
minerals which occur in nature. In our country, several villagers in West Bengal are suffering
from sores and ulcers due to arsenic poisoning from drinking water. In Minamata, a fishing
village in Japan, mercury poisoning hit many villagers.
Heavy metals cannot be removed rapidly from the environment. These are not detoxified
(made harmless) by organisms through metablic activity (biochemical reactions within the
body). Heavy metals are also not broken down into simpler products by microorganisms. In
other words, they are non-biodegradable. Thus heavy metals accumulate in the environment
and have harmful effects on organisms causing heavy metal pollution.
Toxicity depends on the type of heavy metal. Those metlas which are insoluble pass through
the body without causing much harm. Some metals cause immediate sickness and they are the
most dangerous as they do not leave time for treatment. However the worst are those metals
which bioaccumlate* and biomagnify** in the food chain, for example, mercury.
* bioaccumulate organisms have a capacity to neutralise some toxins while others are
retained in their tissues known as bioaccumulation.
** biomagnify concetration of some toxic metals gradually increase in successive trophic
level through food chain. Such biomagnification may make food unsuitable for
consumption and thus causes sickness.

Intext Questions 35.1

1. Name any two toxic heavy metals.
...................................................................................................................................

2. Define a heavy metal.

...................................................................................................................................

3. Mention an anthropogenic source of heavy metal pollution.

...................................................................................................................................

35.5 Molecular Basis of Heavy Metal Toxicity

Toxicity in organism is caused by three general mechanisms although the toxic effects on
physiology of different organisms. Some of the common mechanisms are :

i) Metals have strong affinity for sulphur. Sulphydryl (S-H) group is present in some
enzymes in the organisms. The metal attaches to S-H group and blocks the active site of
the enzyme. The normal functioning of the enzyme gets impaired.

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ii) A heavy metal may displace an essential ion during synthesis of biomolecule. The
biomolecule loses its activity e.g. Pb replaces Ca of the bone, making it fragile.

ii) Metal ions may cause conformational changes in enzymes rendering them inactive.
Toxicity is also caused when the metal blocks the defence proteins of the body which fight
infections of organism. Also certain forms of heavy metals can pass through cell membrance
protecting vital organs like the brain or foetal membranes in a pregnant mother and cause
harm.

35.6 Effects of Pb, Hg and Cd Contamination

All trade elements have some toxic effects if ingested for a long enough period or at sufficiently
high concentrations. We shall now study the sources of contamination and toxic effects of
three heavy metals- lead, mercury and cadmium.
Lead : Lead is a very severe pollutant.
Occurance: 0.1% by weight of Pb occurs in the earth's crust in rocks and soil. It occurs
naturally in some plants.
Anthropogenic Sources : Human activities have increased the quantity of lead in the
environment. Some such anthropogenic sources are:
(i) Soil forms a dumping ground for Pb from mining, smelting, sewage and agricultural
sludge;
(ii) From vehicle exhausts: Tetraethyl lead is mixed with petrol for improving efficiency of
intemal combustion engines of vehicles. Fuel evaporating from fuel tank and carburetters
and unburnt fuel from mopeds and motor bikes release compounds of Pb through
automobile exhausts and it accumulates as dust.
(iii) Lead is also released from industries and reaches the soil from accumulating as dust. Pb
goes into potable (fit for human consumption) water from lead pipes and lead storage
tanks. Pipe joints also have Pb in soldering which may be carried alongwith waterflow.
(iv) It is released from lead acid batteries.
(v) Paints like the yellow lead chromate used for marking roads deteriorate and enter the
environment.
(vi) Pottery glazers use lead compounds for glazing. This forms a source of Pb contamination.
Properties : Some of the characteristics of lead pollutants are discussed below :
i) Lead and its compounds accumulate in the soil. They also bio-accumulate but do not
biomagnify.
ii) They are non-biodegradable.

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iii) They remain in the soil and enter food chain when crops take them up.
Entry into human body : Lead has damaging effects on the human system. It can enter the
body in the following ways:
i) Lead enters human body from canned food and beverages.
ii) Pb leaches from glazed pottery in acidic media or at high temperatures.
iii) Surma used in the eyes also has lead.
iv) Compounds of lead coming out of automobile exhausts enter human through inhalation
and skin contact. Children in busy streets show a high lead level in blood. Even breast
milk of women living on footpaths have a high lead content.
v) Lead oxides settle in the soil, in water, on fruits and leafy vegetables from where these
easily enter the food chain and reach human body.
Toxic effects of Lead : Lead is a severe toxicant. Some of the toxic effects of lead are discussed
bellow:
i) After getting into human body lead reaches blood and through circulation gets into soft
tissues. Lead however ultimately desposits in the bones replacing calcium,
ii) Absorption of lead is higher children and in people suffering from calcium deficiency.
It can bioccumulate and remain inthe human body for many years. During old age and
illness lead moves back from bone to blood to increase level of lead in blood and becomes
toxic: It may reach the brain and cause brain damage, convulsion and behavioural
disorders.
iii) Lead interferes with haemoglobin formation and causes anaemia due to deficiency of
haemoglobin. Lack of haemoglobin may futher cause kidney and brain damage.
iv) Acute toxicity of lead may be fatal.
Mercury
Metallic mercury is relatively inert and nontoxic. On inhalation it reaches blood and them to
central nervous system and causes severe damage.
Occurance : Mercury is present inthe earth's crust. It also reaches the environment from
volcanic gases and evaporation from oceans. Mercury exists as metallic mercury, inorganic
salt and organic methyl mercury. Soil bound mercury is converted into dimethyl mercury by
the action of anaerobic bacteria. Mercury is also present in traces in fossil fuel and minerals.
Plants take up mercury from soil and release it as mercury vapour during thranspiration as
mercury is volatile.
Anthropogenic Sources : Mercury has been in the environment for long even earlier than
the 20th century. It reaches the environment in the following ways :

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i) While extracting gold and mercury from the ores.
ii) Burning of fossil fuels releases mercury vapours into the environment. Coal in India
has a high mercury content. If low grade coal is used in thermal power plants, mercury
which has a high vapour pressure and high combustion temperature escapes into the
atmosphere and condenses as dust particles.
iii) Wastes from paper, plastic, caustic soda and chlorine industries release mercury into the
environment.
iv) Mercury compounds are used as fungicides or pesticides because of their toxicity and
thus finds ways to environment.
v) Electrical appliances : Mercury is excellent conductor of electricity, so it is used in
electric switches, lamps and batteries. Such applicances are potential source for the
release of mercury vapours.
Entry of Hg into plants, animals and humans : Hg reaches plants from soil when it is taken
up by roots. Plants may also take up mercury vapour from air through the stomata (pores) on
the leaves. In animals mercury reaches the tissues as it is soluable in fatty acids which form
the components of cell membraches of all cells of a tissue. Mercury bio-accumulates and
biomagnifies. In humans it enters through the food chain, mainly through the consumption of
fish. In fish it is present in the form of methyl mercury.
Toxic effects of Mercury : People in Japan suffered from a disease called Minamata disease
due to consumption of mercury poisoned fish.
Minamata disease : In Japan in 1953 mercury poisoning occurred due to consumption of
fish which had died of Hg poisoning. Mercury had contaminated the water where it had
reached as effluent of a vinyl chloride (ingredient of plastic) factory. Fishermen living in
coastal areas of Minamata Bay had eaten the dead fish. They suffered from Minamata disease,
whose symptoms were weakened muscles, impaired vision, mental retardation, paralysis and
death.
Mercury is non toxic when swallowed but if inhaled in its volatile form it enters brain through
blood stream, causing damage to nervous system. Hence mercury should be handles in a well
ventilated room and cleaned up if spilt. Hg ions have affinity for sulphur and cause harm by
attaching to sulphur containing amino acid of proteins. Hg ions also bond with haemoglobin
and other blood proteins especially those containing sulphydryl groups.
Most toxic to humans are the organo-mercury compounds especially methyl mercury as it
disolves in fatty tissues and bio-accumulates and bio-magnifies. Microorganisms convert high
levels of inorganic mercury into the organic derivatives like dimethyl mercury. Methyl mercury
compounds are very toxic because of the following reasons :
i) These compounds can reach brain and interfere with transmission of nerve impulses.
ii) These compounds can cause permanent damage to the central nervous system of foetus
of pregnant mothers.

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iii) These compounds also cause increased loss of water from kidney and ultimately causes
to death.
Cadmium : Cadmium is highly toxic metal
Occurance : The natural sources of cadmium are volcanic activity, spray from oceans and
forest fires.
Anthropogenic Sources : Humans activity add more cadmium to atmosphere than natural
sources. Coal mining, non-ferrous metal mining, refineries, coal combustion, burning of refuse
(water matter) iron and steel industries and phosphate fertilizers are main sources of cadmium.
Tabacco containing cadmium is finely dispersed in air when released with cigarette smoke.
Cadmium is chemically very similar to zinc. It also occures with zinc minerals.
Entry of Cadmium into Plants, Animals and Humans
Plants requiring zinc pick up cadmium along with zinc as cadmium occurs alongwith Cadmium,
thus enters the food chain. Cadmium in present in from potatoes, wheat, rice and other grains.
Sea food also have a high level of cadmium.
Humans get cadmium in their system from tobacco smoking and from tobacco chewing
Tobacco leaves absorb cadmium from irrigation water.
Individuals living near and working for mines and smelters processing zinc and electroplating
face a heavy risk of cadmium toxicity. Cadmium is soluble in water and reaches the humans
working in zinc mines.
Toxic Effects of Cadmium : Cadmium is a cumulative poison. It is retained in the body for
a long time and causes.
i) hypertension (high blood pressure),
ii) heart ailments
iii) kidney damage
iv) destruction of red blood cells
v) damaged mitochondrial function of cell.s
Cadmium resembles zinc chemically Ca2+ and Cd2+ share the same charge and have similar
sizer. It may therefore replace zinc in enzymes and thus destory their catalytic activity. In
Japan, people got a bone disease "itai itai" where Ca++ of bones were replaced by Cd++.

35.7 How to Prevent Heavy Metal Toxicity

To save human lives and other organisms from disasters due to toxic effects of heavy metals,
preventive measures need to be enforced. Government of India has set up in January 1985, a
separate Ministry of Environment and Forests which looks into the issues of environment.

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 Several non-governmnet agencies are also busy educating people about the ill effects of metal
3
F and other pollution and the ways to prevent it.
Industries have been asked to take steps for proper disposal of industrial waste. Special devices
have been designed for removal of effluents. The government has decided to take penal action
against industries which do not install proper devices and dump waste in the rivers or on soil.
Efforts are underway to gradually phase out the use of leaded petrol. Newly manufactured
cars have been designed to use lead-free petrol. Catalytic converters have been designed for
using lead free petrol in the old cars.

35.8 How to Remove Metal Pollution

It is very difficult to remove metal pollutants as metals are present in a very low concentration,
There are however, two ways of designing systems for removal of metal pollution.
i) design process for removal of one metal or
ii) design one process which removes several metals
For rivers and sediments contaminated by heavy metals; the following have been suggested.
i) Place layers of uncontaminated clean soil over contaminated sediment so that the metal
containing sediment may not get washed away by rivers.
ii) Treating with CaCO3 which increases pH of the sediment and immobilises heavy metals.
iii) Limestone, gypsum, iron sulphate and activated charcoal can be used as detoxifying.
iv) Using water plants such as pistia and hydrilla which pick up mercury from water bodies
and help in reducing mercury-pollution.

Intext Questions 35.2

1. What causes Minamata disease?
...................................................................................................................................
2. List three sources of lead pollution.
...................................................................................................................................
3. Name the mercury derivative which is very toxic to human.
...................................................................................................................................
4. Mention two water plants by which mercury pollution can be reduced ?
...................................................................................................................................

What You Have Learnt

• Heavy metals occur in earth's crust in traces. Their excess in the environment harm
living organisms.

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• Heavy metal is one whose density exceeds 5g cm-3.
• A trace metal occurs in 1000 ppm or less in the earth's crust.
• In nature, heavy metals accumulate in soil by natural phenomena like volcanic activity,
weathering of rocks, action of wind, water etc.
• The anthropogenic sources for metal pollution are mining, smelting, fossil fuel burning,
discharging agricultural, industrial and domestic wastes, auto exhausts etc.
• Heavy metals reach ecosystem from soil and water and enter humans and other organisms
through food chain.
• Heavy metals cannot be removed rapidly from environment as they are neither detoxified
nor biodegraded. Instead some of them bioaccumulate and biomagnify.
• At the molecular level, metals become toxic as they impair the proper functioning of
enzymes by attaching to S-H group of the enzyme or causing conformational changes
in them. A heavy metal may displace an essential ion.
• Pb is released from industries or from Pb pipes or leaded petrol. It causes nervous
disorders.
• Hg comes into environment from plastic, paper, chlorine industries. Methyl mercury: is
especially dangerous to humans which they might get through food chains. It causes
nerve damage and kidney disorders. In Japan Hg toxicity caused Minamata disease.
• Cadmium is toxic. It enters the environment through coal mining, coal combustion,
burning of refuse, fertilisers etc. Cd causes hypertension. In Japan Cd caused a diseased
itai-itail.
• Heavy metal toxicity can be prevented by proper disposal of industrial effluents, use of
unleaded petrol and educating masses about toxicity of metals. Metals already
accumulated can be removed by using aquatic plants which take them up or by covering
contaminated sediments which clean soil.

Terminal Exercise
1. List five human activities which release heavy metals into the environment.
2. How do heavy metals reach the ecosystem ?
3. Relate a molecular, mechanism by which a heavy metal becomes toxic.
4. How does cadmium accumulate in the environment ? What kind of effect does it have
on human body ?
5. List five sources of lead pollution. Mention two of its adverse effects.
6. Mention two toxic effects of mercury contamination.
7. Write a note on Minamata disease.

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 Answers to Intext Questions

35.1
1. Any two from Cd, Hg and Pb
2. A heavy meral is one whose density is greater than 5g cm-3.
3. Anyone from, mining, auto exhaust, paper, plastic, paint factories.
35.2
1. Hg 2. Refer to section 35.2
3. Methyl mercury 4. Pistia, Hydrilla

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 36
RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION

In the previous lesson we have discussed the harmful effects of some heavy metals and how
to reduce these effects. In this lesson we will discuss about the radiations which are the cause
of radioactive pollution. These radiations are emitted by radioactive decay of unstable heavy
atoms nuclei. Exposure of these radiations can cause damage to living cells and environment.
Concer for radioactive pollution increased after the discovery of artificial radioactivity,
development of nuclear weapons and installation of nuclear reactors for generating electricity.
In this lesson, we shall discuss the possible threats to human health and environment due to
nuclear radiations both from natural and anthropogenic (man-made) sources. Methods for the
safe disposal of nuclear waste materials will also be discussed.

Objectives
After reading this lesson you will be able to :
• list various radioactive sources;
• account for the release of radioactive products resulting from nuclear waste and nuclear
accidents;
• enumerate the ill-effects of radioactive radiation on human body;
• list the various preventive measures of radioactive pollution and
• list the various regulations regarding safety measures for radiation exposure.

36.1 Radiations and Radioactivity decay

Radiation is energy travelling through space. Energy can be transported either in form of
electromagnetic waves (radiations) or a stream of energetic particles, which can be electrically
charged or neutral.
There radiations are of two types :
1) Non-ionizing radiations 2) Ionizing radiations

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Non-ionizing radiations are the electromagnetic waves of longer wavelength from near
ultraviolet rays to radiowaves. These waves have energies enough to excite the atoms and
molecules of the medium through which they are moving, causing them to vibrate faster.
These do not have enough energy to ionize them.
Ionizing radiations are the electromagnetic radiations having high energy, such as short
wavelength ultra violet radiations, x-rays and gamma rays. The energetic rays like (α, β and
γ etc.) produced in radiocative decay can cause ionization of atoms and molecules of the
medium through which they pass and convert them into charged ions.
For example in water molecure, it can induce reaction that can break bonds in proteins, DNA
and or other importants molecules.
Alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ) radiations are produced by the process called radioactive
decay. The unstable nuclei decay spontaneously and emit these radiations. These rays
(radiations) can affect some other non-radioactive atoms to become radioactive (unstable)
and give out radioactive radiations.

36.2 Radioactive Pollution and their Sources

Living organisms are continuously exposed to a variety of radiations called background
radiations. If the level of the radioactive radiations increases above a certain limit it causes
harmful effects to living beings. This harmful level of radiations emitted by radioactive elements
is called radioactive pollution.
There are two sources of radiation pollution, namely natural sources and arthropogenic sources.

36.2.1 Natural Sources of Radiation

i) Atomic radioactive minerals are one of natural sources of radioactive pollution. During
mining of uranium, radon gas is constantly released into the air. The parent of radon-
222 (t 1/2 = 3.82 days) is radium 226 which has a half-life of 1602 years. Radium-226 is
widely distributed in rocks, sediments and soils along with isotops of uranium.
Radioactive radiations from these natural sources are known as natural or background
radiation.
ii) Cosmic rays are high energy ionizing electromagnetic radiation. The cosmic rays
originate from the stars in our galaxy by virtue of nuclear reactions primaily in their
cores. The cosmic rays are constantly reaching the earth from outer space.
iii) Naturally occurring radioisotopes such as radon-222 found in soil in small quantity is
another source of radioactive radiations.
iv) Radioactive elements which like uranium, thorium, radium, isotopes of potassium (K-
40) and carbon (C-40) occur in the lithosphere. Potassium-40 contributes radioactivity
to all potassium containing systems in the soil. Crops grown on such soil contain
radioactive elements like carbon-14 and potassium-40. Water gets contaminated with

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 various radionuclides when it runs through soils and rocks containing radioactive
minerals.
We live in an environment of natural radiations there is a certain amount of radioactive radiations
almost everywhere on the earth. These are only rarely harmful as the radiation level is generally
quite low. This small level of radioactive radiation which is present everywhere is called the
background radiation.

36.2.2 Anthropogenic Sources of Radiation

The following human activities add to the source of radioactive pollution:
i) Diagnostic medical applications : Radiations are employed for diagnostic and
therapeutic applications. X-rays are used in general radiology and CT scan. Gamma
rays are used in treatment of cancer. In all these procedures we are exposed to varying
doses of radiations.
ii) Nuclear Tests : Nuclear explosion tests especially when carried out in the atmosphere
are a major cause of radiation pollution. It is responsible for increasing the background
level of radiation throughout the world. During atmospheric nuclear explosion tests, a
number of long-lived radionuclides are released into the atmosphere. This radioactive
dust (also known as radioactive fall out) gets suspended in air at a height of 6 to 7km
above the earth's surface and is dispersed over long distances by winds from the test
site. These radionuclides often settle down by rain and get mixed with soil and water.
From there they can easily enter the food chain and finally get deposited in the human
body where they cause serious health hazards. Some of the radioactive isotopes given
off during nuclear test affect the human body.
India exploded its nuclear device (equivalent to 12kilotons of Tri Nitro Toluene) in an
underground tunnel at a depth of 107 meters in the Thar desert near Pokharan in 1974.
No radioactivity is said to have been released into the surroundings. Again in May,
1998 India conducted nuclear tests without any fall out of radioactivity into the
surroundings.
iii) Nuclear Reactors : Radiations may leak from nuclear reactors and other nuclear facilities
even when they are operating normally. It is often feared that even with the best design,
proper handling and techniques, some radioactivity is routinely released into the air and
water.
However, dangers of radiation leakage are from possibility of accidents that could result in
the release of radioactive material which raises the level of radioactive (ionizing) radiations.
Such accidents took place at the "Chernobyl nuclear power plant" in USSR in 1986 and at
the "Three Mile Island Power Plant" in USA in 1979.
The accidents of 'Three Mile Island" plant in Middletown (U.S.A) in 1979 and at chernobyl
nuclear power plant (U.S.S.R) in 1986 were the worst disasters in the history of nuclear
power industry. In both incidents, a series of mishaps and errors resulted in the overheating of

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the nuclear core. In both cases radiation was released in the atmosphere. The leakage from
the 'Three Mile Island' nuclear reactor has been claimed to be very low with no immediate
injuries to workers or people. But the leakage at Chernobyl was very heavy causing death to
many workers and radiation was spread over large areas spread all over Europe.
Nuclear fission converts some radiaoactive fuel in the reactors to some other radioactive
fragments. These reactions produce a lot of heat and therefore the core of the reactor containing
fuel rods cooled by water circulation to avoid a meltdown of the fuel rods. If a meltdown
happens by accident, it will release a large quantities of highly dangerous radioactive materials
into the environment. In order to avoid this type of very serious mishap nuclear reactors are
designed to have a number of safety features and it is very unlikely that a reactor would blow
up.
Although a core meltdwon is highly unlikely, but it is possible. For example, the loss of
coolant due to some material failure, would allow the reactor core to overheat and eventually
meltdown the fuel rods. Another possibility is the build up of some gas or steam inside the
reactor vessel which would blow off the top and release large clouds of radioactive materials
in the atmosphere resulting in death and injury to thousands of people.
iv) Nuclear explosions : Nuclear explosions are a serious source of radiations hazard. The
effects of atomic explosions in Nagasaki and Hiroshima are still not forgotten.
v) Nuclear Wastes
When uranium-235 nuclei split in a nuclear reactor, they break into fission products
235
92 U + 01 n → 141
56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0 + Energy
92 1

which are also highly radioactive. Since one uranium atom splits into two radioactive
products, there is a doubling of the number of radioactive atoms on the earth. Furthermore.
Uranium-235 has a half-life of more than 700 million years. Some of its fission products
have shorter half-lives and decompose much faster than uranium and emit higher levels
of radiations. There is no method by which we can increase or decrease the rate of
decay of these products. The wastes of nuclear reactor emit dangerous radiations for
thousands and thousands of years. Since it is not possible to destroy these radionuclides,
they must be stored somewhere on this earth in order to ensure least harm to humans.
Plutonium-239 is another nuclear waste. The plutonium-239 isotope is produced as by-
product during uranium fission. it is an alpha particle emitter and has a long half-life of
24000 years. After about 1000 years or more, the main radioactivity from fuel rods of
the nuclear reactors will be from plutonium and other such heavy elements, since by
then most of the other nuclides produces in fission and having much shorter half-life
will have decayed to a large extent. Plutonium is one of the deadliest poisons known.
Plutonium does not occur naturally on earth. This element is produced either in nuclear
reactors or in nuclear weapons programme. The plutonium produced today will have to
be taken care of for thousands of years by future generations. The general approach in

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 dealing with radioactive wastes is to concentrate and contain as much radioactivity as
possible. Effluents containing only very low level of radioactivity are allowed to be
discharged into the environment.
Radon can diffuse through rocks and sils into the atmosphere. Once the radon reaches
the atmosphere it can be breathed in. The transformation into lead is very significant
because the solid radioactive particles are trapped in the lungs and are acutely harmful.
iv) Nuclear material processing. Many radioactive minerals are processed to extract
radioactive metals. Several compounds of radioactive elements are also produced and
processed, for various uses. All those who handle these materials are at a greater risk of
man-made radioactive pollution.

Intext Questions 36.1

1. What are ionizing radiations?
...................................................................................................................................
2. Name any of the two sources of radioactive pollution in nature.
...................................................................................................................................
3. Name three man-made or anthropogenic sources of radioactive pollution ?
...................................................................................................................................
4. What were the two accidents in the past which led to high radioactive leakage.
...................................................................................................................................
5. What happens when a neutron strikes uranium-235?
...................................................................................................................................

36.3 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation on the Human Body

In the last few decades, number of people being exposed to ionizing radiation has increased
tremendously, especially people involved in the mining of uranium ores, patients treated with
γ-radiations and technical people using X-rays and other radioactive isotopes. Before the
dangers of radiation on human body were known, workers dealing with radioactive materials
were careless and suffered from various types of cancer. Early workers who used
phosphorescent radium paint on the dials of watches suffered from bone tumors in 1920s.
Exposure to any type of ionzing radiation (α and β particles, γ-rays and X-rays) can prove
harmful and even lethal. The two types of effects are:
i) genetic and
ii) nongenetic or body damage.

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In genetic damage, genes and chromosomes get altered. Its effect may become visible as
deformations in the offsprings (children or grandchildren). Alterations or breaks in the genetic
material, that is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)- the molecule containing genetic information,
is called mutation. In nongenetic effects, the harm is visible immediately in the form of birth
defects, burns, some type of leukemia, miscarriages, tumors, cancer of one or more organs
and fertility problems.
Table 36.1 : Effects of radioactive radiation on living beings
Type of radiation Effect on the body
α-particles Generally they cannot penetrate the skin. But if their
sources is inside the body, they can cause damage to
bones or lungs.
β-particles Can penetrate the skin but cannot damage the tisses.
They can cause damage to skin and eyes (cataract)
γ-radiation Can easily penetrate the body and pass throught it.
They cause damage to cell structure.
X-rays Can travel very far and pass though the body tissues
except bones. They can cause damage to the cells.

36.4 Radiation Doses and Radiation Effects

The biological damage caused by the radiation depends upon the following factors :
i) the time of exposure
ii) the internsity of radiation
iii) the type of ionizing radiation (i.e. its penetration power)
iv) whether the radiation is emanating from outside or inside the human body.
On account of these factors the absorbed (or simply doses dose) designated as D, of the
radiation to be the amount of energy deposited into a region of the body divided by the mass
of the portion of the body that absorbed the radiation.

The MKS unit of absorbed dose is 'gray' (Gy), thus one gray is one joule of energy deposited
per kg of mass. More traditional unit of absorbed doses is radiation absorbed dose (rad).
One rad is equivalent to 0.01 Gy. Biological damage caused by a particle depends not only
on the total energy deposited but also on the rate of energy loss per unit distance traversed
bythe particle. For example, alpha particles do much more damage per unit energy deposited
than do electron (β-particles). This effect is represented by the quality factor Q taken 0 for
electron and 20 for alpha particle.

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The biological impact is specified by the human equivalent dose H, which is the product of
the absorbed dose D and the quality factor Q : H=QD. The MKS unit of the human equivalent
dose is called the sievert, Sv.

A traditional unit of human equivalent dose is the rem, which stands for radiation equivalent
in man, 1 rem = 0.01 Sv.
At low doses such as what we receive every day from background radiation (< 1m rem), the
cells repairs the damage rapidly, At higher doses (upto 100 rem), the cell might not be able to
repair the damage, the cell may either be changed permanently or die. Cells changed
permanently may go on produce abnormal cells when they divide and may become canerous.
Table 36.1 shows the effects of different radiations on the body. These radiations reach human
system from natural and anthropogenic sources.
Alpha (α) and beta (β) particles can cause burns to skin on high level of exposure from
outside but they cannot penetrate the skin to cause internal damage. However, if a radioactive
isotope which can emit alpha or beta particles is inhaled or ingested in the body the particles
can then cause serious damage to nearby tissues. They may affect the replication of cells and
induce tumor formation. The damage inside the body from beta particles is lower than that
from the alpha particles of the same energy. Gamma (γ) rays and high energy neutrons are so
much penetrating that they pass through the body easily and can cause cellular damage both
from outside or inside the body.
Rapidly growing tissues of embryo are very sensitive and therefore pregnant women should
avoid exposure to radioactivity and X-rays unless they are very essential. Although the medical
use of X-rays may involve very low levels of radiation but even such exposures if carried out
frequently can result in a significant increases in the dose of ionizing radiation and involves
definite risks. The use of radio-isotopes and gamma ray irradiation for cancer treatment can
lead to fairly high dosages of radioactivity.
An increase in the altitude, where an individual lives determines the dose received from cosmic
radiation. For example, an increase in an altitude of 2000 meters doubles the doese of radiation
due to cosmic rays from outer space. The effect of radiation may be immediate or delayed.

Intext Questions 36.2

1. What is radiation absorbed dose (rad) ?
...................................................................................................................................
2. What as the effect of radiations on human body?
...................................................................................................................................
3. What are the factors or which the biological damage by radioactive radiations depends ?
...................................................................................................................................

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 36.5 Preventive Measures from Nuclear Radiation
The following preventive measures may be adopted to reduce the effects due to both natural
and artificial radiations :
i) Atomic explosions should not be carried out inthe atmosphere.
ii) In nuclear reactors, closed cycle coolant system may be employed, so that no radiation
leakage through coolant can take place.
iii) Radioactive wastes generated by neclear reactors or from nuclear weapons programme
must be disposed in a manner that they will do the least harm. First, the wastes may be
stored at some place temporarily to allow for the initial, very intense, radioactivity to die
down by natural decay. Nuclear wastes should always be sealed in double-walled tanks
so that no leaks may take place. In the second stage, some useful isotops generated
uring fission in the reasctors may be recycled in reprocessing plants. Finally, a permanent
storage space for the wastes in geologically stable underground deep mines should be
established it has been suggested that these wastes may be stored till the wastes are
reduced to the same radioactivity level as that of a natural uranium mine.
iv) Production and use of radioisotops should be minimum and only for every essential use
because radioisotops once produced cannot be destroyed by any means except by the
passage of time.
v) The number of nuclear installations should be minimised so as to limit the emission of
radio-pollutants.
vi) Fission reactions should be minimized
vii) In nuclear mines, wet drilling may be used and tailings properly sealed and protected
for radiation leakege.
viii) Industrial wastes contaminated with radionuclides be disposed off carefully in specially
build tanks.
ix) Working places where radioactive emissions are possible should have high chimneys
and good ventillation system.
x) In areas where there is a risk of radon leakage from underground. radon concentrations
be monitored and protection measures be installed in buildings and homes.

36.6 Regulations Regarding Safety Measures

The executive agency for all activities related to atomic anergy is Department of Atomic
Energy (DAE) which was established in 1954. The sites for nuclear installations are chosen
with safety parameters in view. A number of physical barriers are designed which checks any
significant escape of radiation from the reactor. The rediation dosage received by workers are
monitored on a monthly basis. The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) has fixed the

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dose limit to 30 millisievert (mSv) for workers. This is in agreement with the limit set up by
International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP).
The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board, an autonomous body of Atomic Energy Commision,
carries out all regularoty and safety functions as envisaged under the Atomic Energy Act,
1962 covering all establishments of Department of Atomic Energy. It is also empowered to
take decision with regard to site selection, design, construction and commissioning, operation,
etc. of all nuclear installations.

Intext Questions 36.3

1. How do radioactive waste management should be done ?
...................................................................................................................................
2. How can we safeguard ourselves from radiation originating from tailings?
...................................................................................................................................
3. What the dose limit is fixed for the workers of nuclear installations ?
...................................................................................................................................

What You Have Learnt

• Nuclear radiations are emitted in the atmosphere through natural sources and man made
sources.
• Radiations due to natural sources are due to uranium and other radioactive elements
which occur in nature and on distintegration may yield other radioactive istotopes. The
prominent amongst them is radon-222 gas.
• Man-made sources of radiation include:
i) medical diagnostic tests using radioisotopes
ii) nuclear test conducted in the atmosphere
iii) nuclear reactors for research and power
iv) nuclear accidents
v) nuclear explosion
vi) nuclear waste
vii) production and handling of nuclear material.
• Inosing radiations can cause mild to very serious effects on the health of human on
exposure and may even lead to death. Some ill effects continue to pass on to future
generations.
• Various steps have been suggested by which radiation leakage can be minimized.

Terminal Exercise
1. Do the cosmic rays act as radioactive pollutant ?
2. Which type of radiations are damaging for human health ?
3. Define the term 'Background Radiation' ?
4. What are the different man-made sources of radiation pollution ?

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5. What are the effects of ionizing radiation on human health ?
6. What are the preventive measures for radiations ?

Answers to Intext Questions

36.1
1. These are the electromagnetic radiations of short wavelength or charged particles (like
α and β-particles) which can cause ionization of atoms or molecules.
2. Weathering of minerals, cosmic rays from outer space, radioactive elements occuring in
nature. (Any two)
3. Nuclear waste, nuclear reactors, nuclear accidents.
4. The accident of 'three mile Island' in Middle Town (U.S.A) in 1979 and at Chernobyl
nuclear power plant (U.S.S.R) in 1986.
5. Uramium-235 splits into two fission products with the production of three neutrons and
lot of energy. The slipt products are also radioactive. The reaction in known as a nuclear
fission reaction.
235
92 U + 01 n → 141
56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0 + Energy
92 1

36.2
1. Radiation absorbed does (rad) is the unit of absorbed dose. It is defined as the amount
of energy deposited into a region of the body divided by the mass by the mass of the
portion of the body that absorbed the radiations.
2. Both the effects are observed on human body : i) gentic and ii) non-genetic (body
damgage). In genetic effects are observed in offsprings. In non-genetic effects harms
are visible as burns, miscarriages, leukemia, cancer, etc.
3. Biological damage by radiations depends upon :
i) the time of expose;
ii) the intensity of radiation;
iii) the type of ionizing radiations and
iv) radiations emanting from outside or inside of body.

36.3
1. Radioactive waste should be disposed of properly and storing should be done carefully
in double walled tanks, storing of these waste should be done till it comes to its natural
level of radioactivity.
2. Refer to section 36.5
3. Dose limit fixed for workers is 30 m Sv.

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 MODULE VIIIB
CHEMISTRY AND INDUSTRY
32. Petrochemicals
33. Polymers
34. Dyes, Paints and Pigments
35. Drugs and Medicines
36. Building Materials

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 32
PETROCHEMICALS

In the first five modules of this course in chemistry you have learnt about the conceptual
framework of this vast subject. In the first two modules you studies the chemistry of the
elements of s,p,d and f blocks and of organic compounds respectively. In this optional module
you would learn about some important industrial chemicals.
The first lesson of this module deals with petrochemicals, the chemicals derived from
petroleum. Petrochemicals include a very vast range of chemicals. You would learn about
their meaning, classification, production and application. This lesson also deals with soaps
and detergents and rockets fuels. Many of them are important byproducts obtained from
petrochemicals. In the next lesson you would learn about polymers another vast class of
molecules which are integral part of our day to day life.

Objectives
After reading this lesson you will be able to :
• define petrochemicals;
• explain different generations of petrochemicals with flow sheet diagram:
• cite various examples of petrochemicals;
• list uses of various petrochemicals,
• write about the status of petrochemicals in India.
• distinguish between soaps and detergents;
• explain types of detergents;
• list advantages and disadvantages of detergents over soaps;
• explain cleaning action of soaps and detergents;
• classify rocket propellants;
• give examples of chemicals used in various classes of rocket propellants and
• write about the status of propellants with reference to Indian Space programs.

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 32.1 What are Petrochemicals ?
You are aware, petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons formed by the decomposition
of fossil remains. If exists as a liquid (crude oil), gas (natural gas) or as solids (oil shales) and
is found deep underground or below seabed.
You have also studied that petroleum is refined to several useful fractions, which are used as
fuel (LPG, petrol, diesel, etc.) or lubricants. About 10% of the petroleum is used to prepare a
range of chemicals called petrochemicals, we may define, petrochemicals as a group of chemical
produced directly or indirectly from the hydrocarbons of petroleum or natural gas.
Some gaseous hydrocarbons are also obtained as a by product during petroleum refining.
These hydrocarbons may contain one to five carbon atoms, for example, methane, ethane,
propane, butane, iso-butane, pentane, etc. Methane (CH 4) is also a major hydrocarbon
component of natural gas, which occurs in association with petroleum.
At one time these gaseous hydrocarbons were of almost no use and the only way to dispose
them was to burn them. With passege of time these gaseous hydrocarbons have found important
use as starting material to produce a large variety of petrochemicals. To day, the demand of
petrochemicals and the materials derived from petrochemicals is so great that we need to
deliberately convert higher hydrocarbons to smaller gaseous hydrocarbons by the process of
craking.
The list of petrochemicals is endless. Some important petrochemicals are methyl alcohol,
ethyl alcohol, acetaldehyde, acetic acid, acetic anhydride, acetone, benzene, toluene, xylenes,
phenol, vinyl chloride, etc. some of these can be used directly or as raw materials for the
manufacture of other useful products. These are used to manufacture a vast variety of useful
materials like solvents, adhesives, antifreezes, synthetic rubbers, synthetic detergents, rocket
fuels, etc.
Since every area of human activity makes use of petrochemicals or the materials made from
petrochemicals, our life without petrochemicals would be very different and less comfortable.

32.2 Classification of Petrochemicals

The nature of petrochemical industry is very complex. The journey from petroleum to useful
end products is long and there are many steps in the process. Let us try to understand feed-
stock, primary and itnermediate petrochemicals and the end products in the context of
petrochemicals.
Feed Stock
The starting material used for the production of petrochemicals is called feed stock. There are
two common feed stocks for the manufacture of petrochemicals; these are :
1. Natural Gas 2. Naphtha and reformed naphtha

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You would recall that natural gas occurs in nature in association with petroleum. The najor
hydrocarbon component of natural gas is methane. Naphtha is a fraction obtained during
refining of petroleum.
Some countries or industries prefer to use natural gas while some other use naphtha as a
starting material (feed stock) for the production of petrochemicals. The choise for the use of
natural gas or naphtha as feed stock by a particular country or industry depends upon the
availability of a particular feed stock or the availability of technology for the manufactur of
petrochemicals.

32.2.1 Primary Petrochemicals

Primary petrochemicals are the molecules obtained from the feed stock and are used to
manufacture petrochemical intermediates. Since the feedstock consists of natural gas, naphtha
and reformed naphtha, these give different primary petrochemicals. The primary petrochemical
obtained from these are compiled in Table 32.1
Table 32.1 : Important Primary Petrochemicals from different feed stocks

S.No. Feed Stock Primary Formulae

petrochemicals
1. Natural Ethene CH2 = CH2
Prepone CH3 _ CH = CH2
Ethyne CH ≡ CH
2. Naphtha Ethene CH2 = CH2
Propene CH3 _ CH2 = CH2
Butadiene CH3 = CH 2 _ CH = CH2

3. Refomed Benzene
Naphtha

CH 3

Toluene

CH 3
CH 3
o - xylene

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 CH 3

m - xylene
CH 3

CH 3

p - xylene
CH 3

32.2.2 Intermediate Petrochemicals and Derivatives

The petrochemicals obtained from primary petrochemicals by chemical reaction are called
(secondary) intermediate petrochemicals Petrochemicals are also referred to as first generation
petrochemicals and second generation petrochemicals, First generation petrochemicals are
converted to second generation petrochemicals. These intermediate petrochemicals may be
put to some use of these may be further processed to get derivatives of petrochemicals by a
chemical reaction or series of reactions to get products for other end uses.

Petroleum

↓
Feed Stock

↓
Primary Petrochemicals

↓
Secondary Petrochemicals

↓
Useful End Products

Fig. 32.1 : Relationship between petroleum, feedstock, primary petrochemicals,

secondary (intermediate) petrochemicals and useful end products.

32.2.3 Down Stream Petrochemicals

The petrochemicals obtained from a given feedstock by a series of reaction are called down
stream petrochemicals. Down stream means that a particular petrochemical comes at a later
stage in the sequence of chemicals produced. For example in the following reactions.

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 CH4 → CH3Cl → CH3OH

Methyl alcohol is reffered to as a down stream petrochemical.

It is not possible to list here all the petrochemicals and the chemical processes used for their
manufacture. uses of the petrochemicals are very diverse and it is impossible to give a complete
lift. Therefore, we are giving methods of manufacture of some of the petrochemicals and their
derivatives along with their uses. We will discuss in detail the petrochemicals obtained from
methane and ethene as two typical examples. While for some other starting materials we will
give, only the names of the petrochemicals which can be obtained from them you can learn
more details in higher classes or in more advanced books. Here you will have some idea
about the vastness and importance of the petrochemicals.

Intext Questions 32.1

1. Define petrochemicals
...................................................................................................................................
2. What do you understand by the term feed stock with reference to petrochemicals ?
...................................................................................................................................
3. Write names of two feed stocks used in petrochemicals in industry.
...................................................................................................................................
4. What do you understand by the term down stream petrochemical? Explain with an
example.
...................................................................................................................................
5. Methane is converted into methyl chloride then methyl chloride is converted to methyl
alcohol. In this case identify the first generation and second generation petrochemical.
...................................................................................................................................

32.2.4 Petrochemicals from Methane

Methane is the major hydrocarbon component of natural gas. CNG is the compressed natural
gas and LNG is the liquified natural gas. Moreover, methane is also obtained in large quantities
as a by product of petroleum refining.
The major petrochemicals produced from methane are:
1. Chlorinated products.
2. Unsaturated hydrocarbons
3. Carbon black
4. Hydrogen
5. Methyl alcohol

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1. Chlorinated products of methane
Methane is chlorinated to get methyl chloride (CH3CI), methylene chloride (CH 2CI 2),
chloroform (CHCI3) and carbon tetrachloride (CCI4). Most of the chlorinated products of
methane are used as a solvent.
CH4 + CI2 → CH3CI + CH 2CI2 + CHCI3 + CCI4
2. Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Methane is craked (by pyrolysis) with the help of suitable catalysts to get ethylene, propylene
and acetylene. These are used to get other products, which will be discussed later.
3. Carbon black
Methane is converted into carbon black (a form of carbon) by pyrolysis (cracking) and
hydrogen is obtained as a by product. Carbon black is used a black pigment in manufacture of
black printing ink and in rubber tyre industry.

< CH 4 ⎯Δ⎯
→ C + 2H 2 >

4. Hydrogen
Hydrogen obtained by pyrolysis of methane is used for the manufacture of ammonia gas.
Ammonia is used as a raw material for manufacture of urea (a fertilizer), ammonium nitrate
and several other products.
5. Methyl alcohol
Methane is converted into methanol (methyl alcohol, CH3OH) by catalytic oxidation.

< CH 4 + O 2 ⎯Catelyst
⎯⎯→ CH 3OH >

Methyl alcohol (methanol is further oxidized to get formaldehyde. Formaldehyde is an

important raw material for number of useful products, for example phenol-formaldehyde resins
(bakelite). Methyl alcohol is an important industrial solvent.
<CH3OH → HCHO>
(formaldehyde)

32.5 Petrochemicals from Ethylene

Ethlyne is obtained by pyrolysis of natural gas or from naphtha by cracking. Ethylene is an
unsaturated hydrocarbon and has a carbon-carbon double bond. Therefore, ethylene is very
reactive and can be converted to a variety of petrochemicals and useful end products.
The major petrochemicals produced from ethylene are :
1. Ethyl alcohol

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2. Ethylene oxide
3. Ethylene glycol
4. Dichloroethane
5. Vinyl chloride
6. Polyethylene
7. Ethyl benzene
1. Ethyl alcohol
Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) is made by hydration of ethylene. Ethyl alcohol is used as a
solvent and a raw material for the manufacture of acetic acid, ethyl acetate and a large
number of other useful products.
H2O / H2SO4
<H2C = CH2 CH3CH2OH>
(ethanol)
2. Ethylene oxide
Ethylene is oxidized to ethylene oxide with air or oxygen in the presence of a catalyst.
It is a raw material for the manufacture of ethylene glycol, which is a starting material
for the manufacture of polyester.

Catalyst
H2C = CH2 H 2C CH2
O2

O
(ethylene oxide)

3. Ethylene glycol
Ethyle glycol (1,2-dihydroxyethane) is manufactured by starting with ethylene. There
are several methods by which ethylene is converted to ethylene glycol.
Glycol is used as an anti freeze in automobiles. Ethylene glycol is an important starting
material for the manufacture of polyester.
H2C = CH2 → HO _ CH2 _ CH2 _ OH
(ethylene glycol)
4. Dichloroethane
Dichloroethane (1,2-dichloroethane) is made from ethylene by the reaction of chlorine.
It is used as a starting material for several other raw materials like ethylene glycol, vinyl
chloride, etc.
H2C = CH2 + Cl2 → Cl _ CH2 _ CH2 _ CI
(1, 2 - dichloroethane)

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5. Vinyl chloride
Vinyl chloride is made directly from ethylene or is made from ethylene dichloride.
H2C = CH2 + Cl2 → CH2 = CH _ Cl + HCI
(vinyl chloride)
Cl _ CH2 _ CH2 _ Cl2 → CH2 = CH _ Cl + HCI
(vinyl chloride)
6. Polyethylene
On polymerization ethylene gives polyethylene (polyethene), which is an important
plastic material.
n H2C = CH2 → _ CH2 _ CH2 [ _ CH2 _ CH2_]n CH2 _ CH2 _
(ethylene) (polyethylene)

7. Ethyl benzene
Ethylene reacts with benzene in the presence of a suitable catalyst to give ethyl benzene.
Ethyl benzene is converted to styrene. Styrene is a raw material for the manufacture of
an important plastic material polystryrene.
CH3 _ CH3
+ H2C = CH2 ⎯Catalyst
⎯⎯→

Ethylbenzene

32.2.6 Petrochemicals from Propylene

Propylene is obtained pyrolysis of natural gas or by cracking of naphtha. Propylene is an
unsaturated hydrocarbon.
The main petrochemcials produced from propylene are:
1. Iso-propyl alcohol
2. Polypropylene
3. Cumene (isopropyl benzene)
4. Glycerol

32.2.7 Petrochemicals from Acetylene

Acetylene (ethyne) is obtained by pyrolysis of natural gas. It is an unsaturated hydrocarbon.
It has a carbon-carbon triple bond. It is hughly reactive in nature.
The major petrochemicals produced from acetylene are:

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1. Vinyl chloride, vinyl acetate and acrylonitrile
2. Acetaldehyde

32.2.8 Petrochemicals from Butadiene

1, 3-Butadiene is obtained from naphta by cracking. It is a diene, that is, it has two carbon-
carbon double bonds.
It is a monomer for polybutadine which is used as a substitue for natural rubber. Butadiene
and styrene on polymerization give a copolymer called BUNA-S.

32.2.9 Petrochemicals from Benzene

benzene is obtained from reformed naphtha. Naphtha is subjected to catalytic reforming (also
called aromatization). In the process aliphatic hydrocarbons present in naphtha are converted
to aromatic hydrocarbons.
Important petrochemical obtained from benzene are:
1. Ethyl benzene and cumene
2. Chlorobenzene
3. Nitrobenzene
4. Cyclohexane
5. Linear alkyl benzenes (LAB)
6. Branched alkyl benzens (BAB)

Intext Questions 32.2

1. Define primary petrochemicals.
...................................................................................................................................
2. Mentain three petrochemicals obtained from natural gas.
...................................................................................................................................
3. What are the important petrochemicals obtained from propene ?
...................................................................................................................................
4. What are the important petrochemicals obtained from ethyne (acetylene)?
...................................................................................................................................
5. What are the petrochemicals obtained form benzene ?
...................................................................................................................................

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 32.3 Status of Indian Petrochemical Industry
The Indian petrochemical industry is very small by international standards. For example,
India accounts for less than three percent of the world's ethylene capacity. Ethylene capacity
of India is 24 lakh tones per annum, while that of USA is 288 lakh tones per annum (2002
figures)
The common polymers manufactured in India are Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE), High
Density Poly Ethylene (HDPE), Poly Propylene (PP), Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) and Poly
Styrene (PS).
The main producers of polyethylene and polypropylene in India are the Reliance Industries
Limited (RIL), Indian Petrochemicals Corporation Limited (IPCL), Haldia Petrochemicals
Limited (HPL) and the Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL). These industries have an
advantage of having integrated petrochemical complexes. The integrated complexes have a
petroleum refinery and plants producing petrochemicals at the same location. It saves on the
cost of production and transportation etc. The Indian share in the production of petrochemicals
has increased significantly since the commissioning of refinery based polypropylene facilities
at Jamnagar by the RIL.
Till recently India could not produce enough purified terphthalic acid (PTA) and dimethyl
terephthalate (DMT) to fulfill the demand of the India polyster industry. The production capacity
was lower than the local demand. Therefore, India had to import PTA and DMT. The increase
inthe production of polyester in India has led to the building up of world scale plants for the
manufacture of key intermediates like PTA and DMT. In India, the production of raw materials
for polyester received a big boost with the commissioning of the petrochemical complexes at
Patalganga and Hazira by the RIL.
The RIL, along with IPCL has a share of over 60% of the Indian polymer market for LDPE,
HDPE, PP and PVC. RIL have large petrochemical complexes. The RIL also has the largest
naphtha cracker in Asia. IPCL has three small to medium-sized petrochemical complexes
based largely on natural gas (two medium-sized crackers using natural gas and one small-
sized cracker using naphtha).
The RIL has a large of the Indian polyster market. It has a significant position in the global
market for PTA and paraxylene (a raw material for PTA). The RIL's facilities are world
scale, while the plants of other companies are much smaller.
IPCL produces mono ethylene glycol (MEG) at two locations. One plant is natural gas based
on the other is naphtha based. The RIL has a large naphtha based MEG facility at Hazira
petrochemical complex.

32.4 Soaps and Detergents

Soaps and detergents are widely used as cleaning agents. Chemically soaps and detergents
are quite different from each other. The common feature of soaps and detergents is that when

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dissolved in water the molecules of soap and detergent tend to concentrate at the surface of
the solution or at interface. Therefore, the surface tension of the solution in reduced, it causes
foaming of the solution.
Soaps and detergents lower the surface tension of the solution. Such substances are called
surface-active agents of surfactants.
The sum up, soaps and detergents:
1. are used as cleaning agents
2. cause foaming of the solution
3. lower surface tension
4. molecules tend to concentrate near the surface of the solution
5. are the surface active agents
6. are the surfactants
7. can emulsify grease
8. can remove dirt, etc.

Hydrophilic and Lipophilic Parts

Both soap and detergent molecules have two parts. One part of the molecule _is polar (ionic)
in nature.
_
Polar nature is due to the presence of groups like carboxylate (-COO ) or sulphonate
(-SO3 ). The polar group is a hydrophilic group. The hydrophilic group makes soaps and
detergents soluble in water. The other part of the soap or detergent molecule is non polar
(nonionic) that is lipophilic. The lipophilic (a long chain alkyl or a long chain substituted aryl
group) makes the molecule oil soluble.
Depending on the nature of the hydrophilic (polar) part in the soap or detergent molecule
these are classified as anionic, cationic or non-ionic type. For example, soap has a carboxylate
anion therefore soap is anionic type (table 8.5.1) Synthetic detergents have sulphonate anion
thus they are also classified as anionic type. Anionic types are the most common. However,
cationic and non-ionic detergents are also known.
Soaps
Soaps are the sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids. These fatty acids are present
in oils and fats in the form of glycerides. The glycerides present in oils and fats are the esters
of glycerol and long chain carboxylic acids for example palmitic acid and stearic acid.
Saponification
Saponification is the process of making soap. Saponification is done by hydrolysis of oils or
fats (of vegetable or animal origin) with the help of alkali like sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or
potassium hydroxide (KOH)

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 CH2 _ O _ COR CH2 _ OH
| |
CH _ O _ COR + 3NaOH → CH2 _ OH + 3 RCOONa
| | Soap
CH2 _ O _ COR CH2 _ OH
Oil or fat glycerol

(where R = long chain alkyl group containing 11 to_17 carbon atoms)

Synthetic Detergents
Synthetic detergents are used as cleaning agents much like soaps. Chemically, detergents are
sodium salts of long-chain alkyl hydrogen sulphate or sodium salts of long-chain alkyl benzene
sulphonic acids. (Remember that soap is a sodium or potassium salt of long-chain fatty acid.)
O
_ || _
R _ C _ O Na+ R _ O _ S _ O Na +
|| ||
O O
(Soap) (Detergent)
Detergent molecules are similar to that of soap molecules, that is they have an oil-soluble
(lipophilic) long chain of carbon atoms and a polar (hydrophilic) water-soluble part. For
example, sodium lauryl sulphate (C12H25_O_SO3Na) has a 12 carbon atom hydrocarbon like
alkyl chain. The long carbon chain is oil-soluble (lipophilic) part and the sulphate is polar
(hydrophilic) part that makes the molecule water-soluble. The water-soluble part is reffered
to as water-soluble head and the long chain of carbon atoms is referred to as oil-soluble tail.
O
||
O _ S _ O _ Na+
||
Non polar part O
Oil soluble (tail) Polar part
water souble (head)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Synthetic Detergents

The sysnthetic detergents are better than soaps in cetain respects. Synthetic detergents can be
used for washing of clothes even if the water is hard. Calcium and magnesium ions present in
hard water make corresponding salts with detergent molecules. The calcium and magnesium
salts of detergent molecules are soluble in water (unlike that formed by soap molecules).
However, detergent containing branched alkyl benzene sulphonate is not completely
biodegradable (Table 32.2). Soap is completely biodegradable. Therefore, excessive use of
synthetic detergents is a cause of worry. The problem has been partly solved by using linear

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alkyl benzene sulphonate, which has beeter bio-degradability then the branched alkyl benzene
sulphonate (Table 32.2)
Table 32.2 : Bio-degradability and class of soaps and some synthetic detergents

Detergent Class Polar Group Bio-degradable

Soaps anionic Carboxylate 100%

Branched alkyl anionic Sulphonate 50-60%
benzene sulphonate
Linear alkyl anionic Sulphonate 90%
benzene sulphonate
Lauryl alcohol anionic Sulphate 100%

Intext Questions 32.3

1. What is the active component in soaps ?
..................................................................................................................................
2. What are the raw materials used for the manufacture of soaps ?
..................................................................................................................................
3. What is the polar part in a soap molecule ?
..................................................................................................................................
4. What is the polar part (hydrophilic) in a synthetic detergent molecule ?
..................................................................................................................................
5. What is the oil-soluble (lipophilic) part in the soap molecule ?
..................................................................................................................................
6. Bracnhed alkyl benzene sulphonate is more bio-degradable than linear alkyl benzene
sulphonate. Is it ture of false ?

..................................................................................................................................
Development in rocket technology and use of better rocket propellants has enabled American
astronauts to land on moon and successful spacewalk by the Russain astronauts. Launching
of satellites and development of missiles has also been possible due to the adavances in the
rocket propellants.
India aslo has made considerable advances in the use and development of space technology.
Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) is the main organization for the development of
space technology in India.

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India has developed missiles, which can be used for the defense of our country. Moreover,
India is one of those few countries that are capable of launching satellites.
Rocket Fuels
Space rockets are used for launching satellites and for propelling missiles. These rockets
work on the same principle as that of fire-work rocket the Newton's third law of motion.
However, their design and fuels are more complicated.
Rocket Fuels are different
Fuels used in the rockets are very different from the fuels used in cars, trucks or aeroplanes.
Following are the main differences between the rocket fuels and other conventional fuels.
1. A rocket fuel must occupy small space in the rocket.
If the fuel occupy a large space then the rocket will become very big and heavy. It may not be
able to attain high velocity to go out high in the space.
2. A rocket must carry enough supply of oxygen (or oxidizing agents) to burn the fuel.
A space rocket has to pass through areas in space where there is little or no oxygen (air
become rarer as we go out in space - away from earth).
Classification of Rocket Propellants
Rocket propellants are classified on the basis of their physical state. The major classes of
rocket propellants are :
1. Solid propellants
2. Liquid propellants
3. Hybrid propellants
1. Solid Propellants
Solid propellants are the most commonly used rocket propellants. These are also known as
solid composite propellants. It is a mixture of a solid fuel and a solid oxidizer.
Polymeric solid substances like polyurethane or polybutadiene are used as fuel. Solid
ammonium per chlorate is used as an oxidizer. Finely divided aluminum or magnesium is also
added to improve the performance of th propellant.
Double Base propellants
Another type of solid propellant is a double base propellant. It consists of nitroglycerine and
nitrocellulose. Nitrocellulose gels in nitroglycerine to set as a solid mass. Both nitrocellulose
and nitroglycerine have enough oxygen in their nitro groups to support the combustion of
fuel. This do not need any separate oxidizer.
Solid propellants on ignition can be made to burn at a predetermined rate. The problem with

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solid propellants is that once ignited they will continue to burn and it is not possible to stop
ignition or to change the rate of ignition.
2. Liquid Propellants
Liquid propellants use a combination of a liquid fuel and a liquid oxidizer.
Liquid propellants, in general, give a higher thrust than solid propellants. Switching on and
off the flow of the propellant can control thrust. Controlling the rate of flow of the fuel can
also control the thrust.
Liquid propellants are of two types. These are:
a) Bi-liquid propellants
b) Mono-propellants
(a) Bi-Liquid Propellants
Bi-liquid propellants contain a liquid fuel and a liquid oxidizer. The liquid fuel and liquid
oxidizer are kept in separate tanks. These are taken to the ignition chamber through separate
pipeline.
If liquid oxygen is used as an oxidizer and liquid hydrogen is used as a fuel then the very low
temperatures are to be maintained. Therefore, special engines are used to pump them through
the pipes. The engines, which can work at extremely low temperatures, are known as cryogenic
engines. Very few countries have the capability to manufacture cryogenic engines.
The most commonly used liquid fules are kerosene, alcohol, hydrazines, liquid hydrogen,
etc. The commonly used oxidizers are liquid oxygen, nitric acid, nitrogen tetraoxide (N2O4).
(b) Mono-Propellants
Mono-propellants contain a single chemical compound. On decomposition or ignition these
produce a large volume of gases.
Hydrazine (N2H4) can be used as a mono-propellant. Hydrazine on catalytic decomposition
produces nitrogen and hydrogen gas. Some other examples of monopropellant are nitro
methane, methylene nitrate, hydrogen peroxide, etc.
3. Hybrid Propellants
Hybird propellants are those, which have a solid fuel and a liquid oxidizer. For example, a
mixture of acrylic rubber is used as fuel and liquid nitrogen tetraoxide (N2O4) as an oxidizer.
Propellants used in Various Rockets
Different fuels have been used in different space programs. Some rockets may use different
fuels in the different stages of ignition.
In India SLV-3 (Space Launch Vehicle) and ASLV (Augmented Space Launch Vehicle)

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rockets have used composite solid propellants.
The PSVL (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle) used solid propellants in the first nad the third
stages. In the second stage liquid propellant nitrogen tetraoxide (N 2O4) as oxidizer and
unsymmetrical dimethyl hydrazine (UDMH) as a fuel is used. In the fourth stage N2O4 and
monomethyl hydrazine (MMH) is used as a fuel. India is one of the six nations, which have
PSLV capability. The other five nations are the US, Russia, China, France and Japan.

H CH 3
N=N H CH3
H CH 3 N=N
H H
Unsymmetrical
dimethyl hydrazine mono methyl hydrazine
UDMH MMH

You often read in newpapers or watch news on TV about the development of missiles by
India. India has developed various missiles and you are familiar with their names. Some of
them are Bhramos, Dhanush, Prithivi-I, Prithivi-II, Prithivi-III, Agni-I, Agni-II, Akash, Trishul,
Nag, Astra, etc. All these missiles need a rocket to fire them.
The titan ballistic missles use hydrazine as a fuel and nitrogen tetraoxide as an oxidizer. The
space-shuttle uses liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen combination along with solid boosters
in the lower stages of the rockets. The Saturn booster rocket (used in American Space Program)
derives its thrust from a bi-liquid propellant. It uses a combination of kerosene as a fuel and
liquid oxygen as an oxidizer for the initial stages. Liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen is used
for the higher stages of the rocket. Russian rockets usch as Proton use a bi-liquid propellant,
which is a combination of kerosene and liquid oxygen. Continous efforts are being made to
find better and better rocket propellants.

Intext Questions 32.4

1. Which of the Newton's laws of motion governs the motion of rockets ?

..................................................................................................................................
2. Why are rocket fuels different from the fuels used in automobiles ?
..................................................................................................................................
3. What are the main classes of rocket propellants ?
..................................................................................................................................
4. Name one oxidiser used in ballistic missiles.
..................................................................................................................................

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• Definition of petrochemicals
• Different generations of petrochemicals with flow sheet diagram
• Different examples of petrochemicals
• Learnt the uses of various petrochemicals
• Known the status of petrochemicals in India
• Difference between soaps and detergents
• Lipophilic and hydrophilic parts of soap and detergent molecules
• Advantages and disadvantages of detergents over soaps
• Classification of rocket propellants
• Chemical composition of various classes of rocket propellants
• Different propellants used in India Space programs.

Terminal Exercise
1. What is the major hydrocarbon component present in the natural gas ?
2. What are the common feed stocks used in the manufacture of various petrochemicals ?
3. "Alkenes (olefins), benzene, toluene and xylenes are the primary petrochemicals." Is
this statement true of false ?
4. What are the major uses of the carbon black ?
5. What are the major chemicals manufactured from methyl alcohol ?
6. How is ethyl alcohol manufactured from ethylene ?
7. How is vinyl chloride manufactured from ethylene ?
8. What is the name of the polymer obtained from polymerization of styrene ?
9. Write the name fo the dicarboxylic acid obtained by oxidationof para-xylene ?
10. Name a primary petrochemical obtained from reformed naphtha, which is used for the
manufacture of synthetic detergents ?
11. Why are the fuels used in rockets different from the fuels used in homes ?
12. What is a double-base rocket propellent ?
13. What are cryogenic engines ?

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 Answers to Intext Questions
32.1
1. Petrochemicals are the chemicals obtained directly or indirectly from petroleum or its
fraction.
2. Starting material used for the production of petrochemicals is called feedstock.
3. Natural gas and naphtha
4. Down stream petrochemical means a petrochemical which is formed at a later stage in
the sequence (order) of the chemicals produced.
5. Methyl chloride is the first generation petrochemical and methyl alcohol in the second
generation petrochemical.

32.2
1. Primary petrochemicals are the petrochemicals which are directly obtained from the
feedstock.
2. Methyl alcohol, methyl chloride, carbon black.
3. Isopropyl alcohol, polypropylene, cumene and glycerol.
4. Vinyl chloride, vinyl acetate, acrylonitrile and acetaldehyde.
5. Ethyl benzene, chlorobenzene, nitrobenzene, cyclohexane, linear alkyl benzene (LAB)
and branched alkyl benzene (BAB)

32.3
1. Sodium or potassium salt of higher fatty acid.
2. Sodium or potassium hydroxide and oils and fats.
3. Carboxylate anion
4. Sulphonate anion.
5. Long normal alkyl chain.
6. False.

32.4
1. The third law of motion.
2. Rockets need to carry their own supply of oxygen and should be light and occupy less
volume.
3. Solid, liquid and hybrid propellent.
4. Nitrogen tetraoxide

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4
F 33
POLYMERS

In the previous lesson you have studied about petrochemicals, and their importance. You also
studied about the uses of petrochemicals. In this lesson we continue with a detailed study of
another vast area i.e. polymers. Today polymers have influenced our life style to the extent
that it would not be wrong to say that we are in polymer age. Now-a-days polymers find wide
range of uses starting fron common household utensils, automobiles, clothes, furniture, etc.,
to space-aircraft and biomedical and surgical components.
Polymeric materials are light weight but can possess excellent mechanical properties and can
be easily processed by different methods. In this lesson you would learn more about polymers,
their types and some important-synthetic and natural polymers. In the next lesson you would
learn about the colouring materials like dyes, paints and pigments.

Objectives
After reading this lesson you will be able to :
• define the terms like monomers, polymer, homopolymer, copolymer and polymerization;
• classify polymers on the basis of their source, molecular forces and method of preparation;
• list the monomers of the polymers like natural and synthetic rubber;
• list the monomer of the polymer like polythene, polystyrene, Buna-S, PMMA, PVC,
teflon, polyester, Nylon 66 and Nylon 6;
• define biodegradable polymers and
• cite examples of some biopolymers.

33.1 What are Polymers

A Polymer is a gaint molecule formed by inter molecular linkage between same or different
types of smaller molecules called monomers. If a large number of monomers (A) are linked
together then the polymer is represented as (_An_) _ ( _ A _ A _ A _ A _ A)_n is a polymer
of the monomer of (A). For example, polyethene.

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_(_ CH _ CH ) is a polymer of the monomer ethylene (CH = CH ).
2 2 n 2 2

Polymer is a high molecular mass molecule formed by linking up of two or more small
molecules called monomers.
Monomers are the small molecule which are capable of linking amongst themselves to form
big molecules called polymers.
In some polymers more than one type of monomers combine with each other to give the
polymer. For example, a polymer may be obtained from two monomers (A) and (B) viz,
_A_B_A_B_ or _(_ A _ B _)_
n

33.1.1 Types of Polymers

Depending upon the nature of the repeating sturctural units (monomers), polymers are divided
into two broad categories viz., homopolymers and copolymers.
(a) Homopolymer
A polymer formed from only kind of monomers is called homopolymer. Polyethene
_(_ CH _ CH _)_ is an example of homopolymer.
2 2 n

(b) Copolymer
A polymer formed from more than one kind of monomer units is called copolymer or mixed
polymer. For example, Buna-S rubber which is formed from 1, 3-butadiene
(CH2 = CH _ CH = CH2) and styrene (C6 H5 CH = CH2) is an example of copolymer.

33.2 Polymerization
The process by which the monomers get linked up is called polymerization.
Polymerization is represented as :
+M +M*
M+M M_M M_M_M M _ (M)n _ M
Dimmer Timer Polymer
where M stands for the monomer

33.2.1 Types of Polymerization

Depending upon the mode of reaction, polymerisation is classified as :
a) addition polymerization and
b) condensation polymerization
a) Addition Polymerization : This process involves the addition of monomer units to
themselves to form a growing chain by reaction mechanism. It is for this reasion that the
process is also known as chain growth polymerization.

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Addition polymerization is achieved by adding a catalyst (known as initiator), which provides
some reactive species like free radicals.
For example benzoyl peroxide provides free radical 'benzyl' to initiate the chain polymerization
reaction.
H5C 6 _ C _ O _ O _ C _ C 6H5 → 2C6 H5 + 2CO2
|| ||
O O (or R)

• •
Initiation R + CH 2 = CH 2 → R − CH 2 − C H 2
( Monomer )

These free radicals (R ) then attack the unsaturated monomer and form a new free radical
which goes on successively adding monomers and thus grows the chain, this is called Chain
propagation :

R _ CH2 _ CH2 + CH2 = CH2 R _ CH2 _ CH2 _ CH2 = CH2

ÖË^or• M _ M_M_M_M_M_M_M_M*
The final termination of the two growing chains leads to a polymer. This is called chain
termination :
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
M M M M M M M M + M_M_M_M_M_M_M_M_M

M M_M_M_M_M_M_M_M_M_M_M_M_M_M_M_M_M_M
Polymer

Condensation Polymerization : In this, the monomers combine with the elimination of a small
molecule like H2O, ROH or NH3, etc. The reaction is called (step growth) condensation
polymerization and the product formed is called condesation polymer.
The process involves the elimination of by product molecules, therefore, the molecular mass
of the polymer is not the integral multiple of the monomer units.
For example polyester or Terylene is a condensation polymer of ethylene glycol and terphthallic
acid.
HO _ CH2 _ CH2 _ OH + HOOC _ _ COOH

terphythallicacid
Ethelene glycol _H O
2

O
|| _ __
[
__ O _ CH _ CH _ OOC _ __
2 2
_C
]
n
Poly (ethylene terphthalate) or (Terylene)

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These two process of making polymers have several characteristics which distinguish them
from each other. These are shown in (Table 33.1).
Table 33.1 : Some differences between addition polymerization and
condensation polymerization

Addition Polymerization Condensation polymerization

(Polycondensation)

1. Involves unsaturated 1. Involves substances with at least

monomere like ethylene, 2 functional groups like ethylene
vinyl chloride, styrene etc. glycol (2-OH groups), adipic
acid (2-COOH groups).
2. Fast addition of monomers 2. Step-wise slow addition.
3. At any instant, only monomer 3. No monomer Mixtures of dimers,
and polymers are present. trimers and tetramers etc.
are present
4. Initiator is necessary to 4. Catalyst is not necessary.
catalyse the polymerization.
5. No small molecules are 5. Small molecules like H2O, HCl
eliminated. CO2, CH3OH are often eliminated
6. Polymers made are, for 6. Polymer made are, for example,
example, polyethene, terylene, nylon, Formaldehyde-resins,
polypropylene, polybutadiene, silicones.
polyvinylchloride.

Intext Questions 33.1

1. Define the terms :
i) Polymer ii) Monomer
..................................................................................................................................
2. Write one example of each of :
i) Addition polymerization ii) Condensation polymerization
..................................................................................................................................
3. Differentiate between homopolymers and copolymers.
..................................................................................................................................
4. Write monomers of Terylene and Nylon-66.
..................................................................................................................................
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 33.3 Classification of Polymers
The polymers can be classified in a number of ways. Some of these are discussed below for a
systematic investigation of their properties and uses.
(a) Classification of Polymers on the Basis of Origin.
On the basis of origin, polymers are classified as :
1. Natural Polymer
2. Synthetic Polymers
1. Natural Polymers : The polymers obtained from nature (plants and animals) are called
natural polymers. Starch, cellylose, natural rubber, proteins, etc. are some examples.
2. Synthetic Polymers : The polymers which are prepared in the laboratories are called
synthetic polymers. These are also called man-made polymers. Polyethene, PVC nylon,
Teflon, bakelite, terylene, synthetic rubber, etc. are common examples.
(b) Classification of Polymers on the Basis of structure
On the basis of structure of polymers, these can be classified as :
1. Linear polymers
2. Branched chain polymers
3. Cross-linked polymers.
1. Linear polymers : These are polymers in which monomeric units are linked together to
from linear chains. These linear polymers are well packed (Fig. 33.1) and therefore,
have high densities, high tensile (pulling) strength and high melting points. For example,
polyethelene, nylons and polyesters and examples of linear polymers.
2. Branched chain polymers : These are polymers in which the monomers are joined to
form long chain with side chains or branches of different lengths (Fig. 33.2). These
branched chains polymers are irregularly packed and therefore, they have lower tensile
strength and metling points than linear polymers. For example, low density polythene,
glycogen, starch, etc.
3. Cross-linked polymers : These are polymers in which long polymer chain are cross-
linked together to from a three dimensional network. These polymers are hard, rigid
and brittle because of the network structure. (Fig. 33.3) backlite, melamine and
formaldehyde resin are some examples of this type.

Fig. 33.1 : Linear Polymers Fig. 33.2 : Branched Chain Polymers

Fig. 33.3 : Cross Linked Polymers

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c) Classification of Polymers on the Basis of Method of Polymerisation
On the basis of method of polymerisation the polymers are classified as :
1. Addition polymer : A polymer formed by direct addition of repeated monomer's without
the elimination of any small molecule is called additionl polymer. In this type, the
monomers are unsaturated compounds and are generally derivatives of ethene. The
addition polymers have the same empirical formula as their monomers. Examples are
polythene, polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride, etc.
2. Condensation polymer : A polymer formed by the condensation of two or more than
two monomers with the elimination of simple molecules like water, ammonia, hydrogen
chloride, alcohol, etc. is called condensation polymer. In this type, each monomer
generally contains two funtional groups. For example, nylon-66 is obtained by the
condensation of two monomers; hexa methylenediamine and adipic acid with the loss
of molecules.

nH 2 N − (CH 2 )6 − NH 2 + nHOOC − (CH 2 ) 4 − COOH − ⎯−⎯⎯

nH 2 O
→

O
||
_ (NH _ (CH ) _ NH _ C _ (CH ) _ C _ O _)_n
2 6 2 4

nylon - 66

In this polymerization reaction - NH2 group of hexamethylenediamine reacts with - COOH

group of adipic acid forming - NH - CO - linkage with the elimination of H2O.

H O H O
_ N| _ H + HO _ C|| _ -H2O _ N| _ C
|| _
linkage

Examples of condesation polymers are Nylon 66, terylene, bakelite, alkylresines, etc.
d) Classification of Polymers on the Basis of Molecular Forces
Depending upon the intermolecular forces between monomer molecules, the polymers have
been classified into four types.
1. Elastomer 2. Fibers 3. Thermoplastics 4. Thermosetting
1. Elastomers : In case of elastomers the polymer chains are held together by weak
vander waals forces. Due to weak forces, the polymers can be easily stretched on
applying small stress and they regain their original shape when the stress is removed.
This is due to the presence of few- 'cross links' between the chains, which help the
polymer to retract to its original position after the force is removed, as in vulcanized
rubber.
The most important example of elastomer is natural rubber.

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2. Fibres : These are the polymers which have strong intermolecular forces between the
chains. These forces are either hydrogen bonds or dipole-dipole interactions. Because
of the strong forces, the chains are closely packed, giving them high tensile strength and
less elasticity. These polymers can be drawn into long, thin and thread like fibres and
therefore can be woven into fabrics. The common examples are nylon-66, dacron, silk,
etc.
3. Thermoplastics: These are linear polymers with very few cross linkages or no cross
linkages at all. The polymeric chains are held by weak VANDER WAAL forces and
slide over one another. Due to lack of cross linkages these polymers soften on heating
and harden or become rigid on cooling. Thus they can be moulded to any shape.
Polythene, PVC, polystryrene are addition type thermoplastics and Terylene, nylon are
condensation type thermoplastics.
Plasticizers : Certain plastics do not soften much on heating. These can be easily softned
by the addition of some organic compounds which are called plasticizers. For example,
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is very stiff and hard but is made soft by adding
di-n-butylphthalate (a plasticizer). Some other common plasticizers are dialkyl phthalates
and cresyl phthalate.
4. Thermosetting polymers : Usually thermosetting polymer can be heated only once
when it permanently sets into a solid which can not be remelted and remoulded.
Thermosetting polymers are produced from relatively low molecular mass semi fluid
polymers (called polymers) which on heating develop extensive cross-linking by
themselves or by adding some cross-linking agents and become infusible and insoluble
hard mass. The cros links hold the molecules in place so that heating does not allow
them to move freely. Therefore, a thermosetting plastic is cross linked and is permanently
rigid. The common example are bakelite, melamine, formaldehyde resin, etc.
Some important differences in the properties of thermosetting and thermoplastic polymers
are summerized in Table 32.2
Table 33.2 : Distinction between Thermoplastic and Thermosetting polymers

Thermoplastic Thermosetting polymers

1. Linear polymers. 1. Cross-linked polymers.
2. Weak vander Waals intermolecular 2. Chemical cross-linking make
forces and thus soften/melt them infusible materials.
on heating. Do not melt on heating.
3. Molten polymer can be moulded 3. Cross-linking is usually
in desired shape. it can be developed at the time of
remoulded by heating again harden irreversibly.
4. Examples are polystyrene, PVC, 4. Examples are Glyptals, epoxy
SBR, Teflon, PMMA terylene. polymers, formaldehyde resins.

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 Intext Questions 33.2
1. Define natural and synthetic polymers with examples ?
..................................................................................................................................
2. What are cross linked polymers ? Give on example of this type.
..................................................................................................................................
3. How do thermoplastic differ from thermosetting polymers?
..................................................................................................................................
4. Arrange the following polymers in the increasing order of the intermolecular forces.
Also classify them as addition and condensation polymers.
Nylon-66, Buna-S, Polyethene.
..................................................................................................................................

33.4 Some Commercially Important Polymers

33.4.1 Polydiens
These polymers are obtained when an unsaturated hydrocarbon with two double bonds or
when a diene (2 double bond compound) is polymerized with a substituted alkene (you have
studied in lesson 32 that these alkenes and diens are petrochemicals). The polymers belonging
to this class are rubbers or elastomer. They can be natural or artificial. Consequently we have
natural rubber and synthetic rubber.

1) Natural Rubber : It is a polymer of unsaturated hydocarbon, 2-methyl-1, 3-butadiene also

called isoprene. It is obtained from the latex of rubber trees found in tropical and semi-tropical
countries such as India (southern part), Indonesia, Malaysia, Ceylon, South America, etc.
The latex contains about 25-40% of ruuber hydrocarbons dispersed in water alongwith stabilizer
proteins and some fattyacids. It is a natural polymer and possess remarkable elasticity. It
undergoes long range reversible extension under relatively small applied force. This elasticity
makes it valuable for a variety of uses.

n CH2 = C _ CH = CH2
|
Polymerisation
[
__ CH _ C = CH _ CH __
2
| 2
n
]
CH 3 CH 3
Isoprene Polyisoprene
2-methyl-1, 3-butadiene (natural rubber)

In natural rubber 10,000 to 20,000 isoprene units are linked together.

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Drawbacks of raw rubber.

Raw natural rubber has a number of drawbacks. For example :

1. Rubber is brittle at low temperature and becomes very soft at high temperatures. Thus it
can be used only in the limited temperature range of 10-60oC.
2. It is too soft to be used for heavy duty operation. Its tensile strength is only 200kg/cm2.
3. On stretching, it undergoes permanent deformation.
4. Not resistant to mineral oils, organic solvents and even action of water. It has large
water absorption capacity.
5. On exposure to air, it undergoes peroxidation. As a result, its durability is considerably
decreased.
The desired valuable properties of plasticity, elasticity, toughness, hardness, softness, abrasion,
resistance, impermeability, etc. are achieved by the process of Vulcanization.
Vulcanization of Rubber :
The wide applications of rubber are due to its property called elasticity and that is why rubber
is said to be an elastoplastic or elastomer. Accidentally, in 1893, Charles Goodyears
discovered that addition of sulphur to hot rubber cause changes that improve its physical
properties in a spectacular manner. This process is called vulcanization. It is carried out by
heating crude rubber in presence of sulphur or dipping it in solution of S2Cl2 in CS2.
Vulcanisation depends upon :
i) The amount of sulphur used : by increasing the amount of sulphur rubber can be hardened
ii) Temperature
iii) Duration of heating.
Crude rubber is intimately mixed with about 3% ground sulphur, an accelerator and
activator and then heated to about 150oC (for tyres it is 150C). Vulcanisation is a progressive
reaction and is allowed to a definite stage. The detailed mode of vulcanization process may
be difficult to visualize, but probale structure of vulcanized rubber is depicted below
(Fig. 33.4)

Sulpher

Heat

Natural rubber Vulcanized rubber

Fig. 33.4 : Process of vulcanization of rubber

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 Table 33.3 : Comparison of some properties of natural rubber and vucanized rubber :

Natural Rubber Vulcanised rubber

1. Natural rubber is soft and sticky 1. Vulcanized rubber is hard and
non-sticky.
2. It has low tensile strength. 2. It has high tensile strength.
3. It has low elasticity. 3. It has high elasticity.
4. It can be used over a narrow range 4. It can of be used over a wide
of temperature (from 100 to 600C) range of temperatue
(-400 to 1000C)
5. It has low wear and tear resistance 5. It has high wear and tear
resistance.
6. It is soluble in solvents like ether, 6. It is insoluble in most of the
carbon tetrachloride, petrol, etc. common solvents.

2) Synthetic Rubbers :
Synthetic high polymers possesing similar physical properties as that of natural rubber are
called synthetic rubber. Usually synthetic rubber is an improvement over natural rubber,
specially with respect to its resistance to oils, gas, solvents, etc. Attempts to find a synthetic
substitute for natural rubber began very early. Faraday, in 1826 concluded that natural rubber
was a hydrocarbon (C5H8 or C 10 H16). Greville William (1860), obtained isoprene, a liquid
from rubber. He considered rubber as a polymer of isoprene. Fritz Hofmann (1909),
synthesized rubber first of all by the polymerization of 2, 3-dimethyl butadiene. Synthetic
rubber has been produced by the polymerization of large number of conjugated dienes
resembling to isoprene. The Buna Rubber (polymers of butadiene) was prepared by Germans
by the action of sodium on butadiene and that is why such synthetic rubber is known as
"Buna" rubber ("Bu" from butadiene and "na" from the symbol of sodium Na). Similarly
Americans made S.B.R. (styrene butadiene rubber) usually known as G.R.S. Since then the
synthetic rubber industry has survived alongwith the natural rubber production.
Some synthetic rubbers are made by polymerization of only one monomer, for example
Neoprene is made by polymerization of chloroprene, while synthetic rubbers like Buna-S,
Buna N and Butyl rubber etc. are copolymers as these have more then one monomer.
Neoprene : This synthetic rubber resembles natural rubber in its properties. It is obtained by
polymerization of chloroprene.
n CH2 = C _ CH = CH2
|
(
__ CH _ C = CH _ CH __
2
|
2
n
)
CH 3 Cl
Chloroprene neoprene

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Chloroprene is obtained by the reaction of HCl with vinylacetylene

CH2 = CH _ C ≡ CH + HCl CH2 = CH _ C = CH2

Vinyl acetylene
|
Cl
Chloroprene

Neoprene is superior to natural rubber in its stability to aerial oxidation and its resistance to
oils, gasoline and other solvents
Neoprene is used for
i) making belts, hoses, shoe heals, stoppers, etc. and
ii) manufacture of containers for storing petrol, oil and other solvents.
Buna-S:
It is obtained by polymerization of butadiene and styrene in presence of sodium metal.

n CH2 = CH _ CH = CH2 + n CH = CH2 Na

Heat
butadiene
|
C6H 5
Styrene

_(_ CH _ CH = CH _ CH _ CH _ CH )_
2 2 2 n
|
Buna-S C6H 5

In Buna-S, Bu stand for butadiene, Na for sodium and S stands for styrene. It is also called
S.B.R. (Styrene Butadiene Rubber). It has slightly less tensile strength than natural rubber.
Buna-S is used for
i) making automobile tyres.
ii) rubber soles, belts and hoses etc.
Buna - N : It is obtained by copolymerization of two parts of butadiene and one part of
acrylonitrile in presence of sodium metal.
Buna - N is hard and extremely resistant to the swelling action by oils (petrol), solvents and
is resistant to heat, etc.
Uses :
i) It is used for the manufacture of storage tanks for solvents and
ii) For making oil seals.
Butyl Rubber : This is obtained as a result of co-polymerization of butadiene and isobutylene.
It is generally carried out in the presence of small quantity of isoprene. The function of isoprene
is not exactly known.

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 nCH2 = CH _ CH = CH2 + (CH3)2 _ C = CH2 →
butadiene iso-butylene

_(_ CH _ CH = CH _ CH _ C _ CH _)_
2 2 2 n
|
(CH3)2
butyl rubber

Butyl rubbers are inert towards acids and alkalies, but have poor resistance towards petroleum
products.
Uses :
i) It is used for making inner tubes of tyres and
ii) For making conveyor belts, tank linings and insulation of high voltage wires and cables
etc.

Intext Questions 33.3

1. Write the IUPAC names and structures of monomers of the following polymers :
(i) Natural rubber ii) Neoprene
..................................................................................................................................
2. What is the function of sulphur in the vulcanization of rubber ?
..................................................................................................................................
3. What is Buna-S ? How is it synthesized ?
..................................................................................................................................
4. Compare the properties (at least three) of natural rubber and vulcanized rubber ?
..................................................................................................................................
After the detailed discussion of rubbers, we shall now dicuss some other commercially
important polymers.

34.4.2 Polyolefins
Polyolefins is a major class of synthetic polymers made by the polymerization of an olefin
(alkene) or its suitable derivative. Most of these are obtained from petro chemical industry.
Polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC, Teflon, etc. belong to the class of polyolefins. Some
important members of this class are discussed here with.
1) Polyethylene or polyethene is formed by polymerization of ethylene (CH2 = CH2). It
is manufactured in large quantities and is the most common polymer which you find almost
every where.

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Polyethene is of two types Low Density Polyethene (LDPE) and High Density Polyethene
(HDPE) depedning upon the nature of has branching in polymer chain and is not compact in
polymer molecules. Low density polyethene has branching in polymer chains and is not
compact in packing. While high density polyethene has linear chain of molecules which are
packed in a more compact fashion (Fig. 33.1 and Fig. 33.2).
n CH2 = CH2 → _(CH6 _ CH2)_n
ethylene polyethylene

Polyethylene is used for making pipes, insulators, packing films, carry-bags, etc.
2) Polypropylene : The monomer units are propylene molecules. It is generally
manufactured by passing propylene through n-hexane (inert solvent) containing Ziegler-Natta
catalyst (a mixture of triethyl aluminium and titanium chloride)

CH 3 CH 3
| Al (C2H5)3 |
_(_CH _ CH _)_
n CH = CH2 TiCl2 2 2 n
Propylene Polypropylene

Polypropylene is harder, stronger and lighter than polyethene. Polypropylene is used for
packing of textile material and food, lining of bags, gramophone records, ropes, carpet fibres,
etc.
3) Teflon or Polytetrafluoro ethylene (PTFE) : The monomer unit is teraflouroethylene
molecule. Teflon is prepared by heating tetra fluoroethylene under pressure in the presence of
ammonium peroxosulphate. [(NH4)2S2O8].

n CF 2 = CF2
(NH 4)2S2O8 _(_CF _ CF _)_
Heat, pressure 2 2 n

Tetrafluoroethylene Teflon

Teflon is a very tough material and is resistant towards heat, action of acids or bases. It is bad
conductor of electricity. Teflon is used for coating utensils to make them non-sticking, making
seals and gaskets which can with stand high pressures, insulation for high frequency electrical
installations.
4) Polyvinylchloride (PVC) : The monomer units are vinyl chloride molecules. PVC is
prepared by heating vinyl chloride in an inert solvent in the presence of dibenzoyl peroxide.

n CH = CH2
Dibenzoyl _(CH _ CH)
Peroxide 2
| | n
Cl Cl
Vinyl chloride PVC
PVC is a a hard horny material. However, it can be made to acquire any degree of
pliability by the addition of a plasticizer. It is resistant to chemicals as well as heat. It is
used for making rain coats, hand bags, toys, housepipes, gramophone records, electrical
insulation and floor covering.

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5) Polymethyl Metha Acrylate (PMMA) : Its monomer unit is methyl methacrylate

Polymethyl metha acrylate (PMMA)

PMMA is a hard and transparent polymer and quite resistant to the effect of heat, light and
ageing. It has high optical clarity. It is used in the manufacture of lenses, transparent domes
and skylights, dentures, aircraft windows and protactive coatings. Its commerical names are
Lucite, Plexiglass, Acrylite and Perspex.

33.4.3 Polyster
Some synthetic polymers have ester group in them. These are condensation

polymers. The important members of this class are polyster and glyptal resins.

Terelene : it is a polymer obtained by the condensation reaction between ethylene glycol and
terephthalic acid.

Terephthalicacid

Terelene is resistant to the action of most of the common chemicals and biological substances
and also to abrasion. It has a low moisture absorbing power. As such it is widely used in
making wash and wear fabrics. The polyester textile fibres made from the polymer are marketed
under the trade name terelene or dacron. It is also blended with cotton and wool in clothing.
It is also used in seat belt and sails. The polymer is also used in the preparation of films. It is
also used in the preparation of films, magnetic recording tapes andfor packing food. Dacron
(and Teflon) tubes are good substitutes for human blood vessels in heart by pass operation.
Glyptal or Alkyl resin : Glyptal is a general name of all polymers obtained by condensation
of di-basic acids, and polyhydroxy alcohols. The simplest glyptal is (poly ethelene glycol
phthalate) which is obtained by a condensation reaction between ethylene glycol and
ortho-phthalic acid.

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 H2C

Glyptal resins are three dimensional cross-linked polymers. Poly (ethylene glycol phthalate)
dissolves in suitable solvents and the solution on evaporation leaves a tough and non-flexible
film. Thus, it is used in adherent paints and lacquers.

33.4.4 Polyamide
Polyamides are the polymers having amide group in them. the important
polyamide is Nylon-66 which is a synthetic polymer. In nature also the plymer have amide
linkages in their molecules.
Nylon - 66 : It is a polymer of adipic acid (tetra methelene dicarboxylic acid) and hexamethelene
diamine.

Nylon - 66 (read as nylon - six - six) can be cast into a sheet or fibres by spining devices.
Nylon fibres have high tensile strength. They are tough and resistant to abrasion. They are

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also somewhat elastic in nature.

Nylon finds use in making bristles and brushes, carpets, and fabrics in textile industry, elastic
hosiery in the form of crinkled nylon.

33.4.4.a Molecular weight of polymers

The molecular mass of a polymer does not remain constant.
The molecular weight of a polymer is expressed in terms of average value. The molecular
weight of polymer is expressed in terms of number – average molecular weight (Mn) and
weight – average molecular weight (Mw).
Number – average molecular weight (Mn):
The ratio between total mass of the particles to the number of particles present in it is called
the number-average molecular weight.
The number-average molecular weight depends on the number of molecules present in it.
Let the number of particles in a polymer with mass M1 each be N1 and mass M2 each be N2
and with mass Mi each be Ni. Then the total mass of the polymer sample =
∞

[N1M1 + N2 M2 + ..... + Ni Mi] = ∑ NiMi

n=1

Total no. of particles in the polymer are [N1+N2+….. Ni] = ∑ Ni

n=1

Total of the particles

Number average molecular weight (Mn) of the polymer = __________________
Number of particles
∞

∑N M i i
N M + N 2 M 2 + .............. + N1M1 n1 =1
= 1 1 = ∞
N1 + N 2 + ................ + N1 ) ∑N
n1 =1
i

The number – average molecular weight can be determined chemically by end-group analysis
method or physically by the use of any colligative property.
Weight average molecular weight (Mw):
Molecular weight of each particle is multiplied by the contribution of the species to the total
weight of the sample. The sum of the products of each species present in sample is known as
weight – average molecular weight of the polymer.
Let the number of particles with mass M1 each be N1, Mass M2 each be N2 and with mass
Mi each be Ni. Then

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 ∞

Total weight of all the particles in the polymer = ∑ NiMi

ni=1

Weight of N1 particles with M1 Mass = N1M1

N1M1
∞
The fraction of the total mass = ∑ NiMi
n =1

Multiplying the molecular weight of the species (M1) with this fraction we get

⎡ ⎤
⎢ NM ⎥
(M1 ) ⎢ ∞ 1 1 ⎥
⎢ N M ⎥ Similarly for other species it can be worked out sum of the products of
⎢⎣ ∑
n =1
i i
⎥⎦

∑ (N M
ni =1
i i
2
)
∞
molecular weight and the fraction of the total weight =
∑ (N M )
ni =1
i i

∑ (N M i i
2
)
(Mw ) = ni =1
∞
The weight average molecular weight of the polymer
∑ (N M )
ni =1
i i

There are no units for molecular weights and Ni is merely a number.

The ratio of weight-average molecular weight (Mw) and the number-average molecular weight
(Mn) is called poly dispersity index (PDI).
Problem :
Calculate the average molecular mass of a polymer sample in which 20% molecules have a
molecular mass of 20,000; 50% have 30,000 and the rest have 50,000.

N1M1 + N 2 M 2 + N 3M 3
(M n ) =
N1 + N 2 + N 3

20 x 20, 000 + 50 x 30, 000 + 30 x50, 000 34 x105

= = = 34 x103
20 + 50 + 30 100

20x 20, 000 + 50x30, 000 + 30x50, 000 34x105

= = = 34x103
20 + 50 + 30 100

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 20 x (20, 000) 2 + 50 x (30, 000) 2 + 30 x (50, 000) 2
=
20 x 20, 000 + 50 x 30, 000 + 30 x 50, 000

8x109 + 45x109 + 75x109 128x109

= = = 37, 647.0
4 x105 + 10 x105 + 15x105 34 x105

Intext Questions 33.4

1. What does PMMA represent ?
..................................................................................................................................
2. Write the names of monomers of terylene ?
..................................................................................................................................
3. How is nylon - 66 synthesised ?
..................................................................................................................................
4. Write questions for the synthesis of the following polymers :
i) Glyptal ii) Teflon

..................................................................................................................................
5. When poly dispersity index (PDI) value of polymer is equal to one?
..................................................................................................................................
In this section we shall discuss about Biopolymers. (Natural Polymers)

33.5 Biopolymers
Many polymers which are present in plants and animals such as polysacchrides (starch,
cellulose), proteins and nucleic acids etc. which control various life processes in plants and
animals are called biopolymers.
i) Starch : It is polymer of glucose. It is a chief food reserve of plants.
ii) Cellulose : It is also a polymer of glucose. It is a chief structural material of the plants.
Both starch and cellulose are made by plants from glucose produces during photosynthesis.
iii) Proteins : These are polymers of amino acids. They have generally 20 to 1000 amino
acids joined together in a highly organized arrangement. These are building blocks of animals
and constitute an essential part of our food.
iv) Nucleic acids : These are plymers of various nucleotides. For example, RNA and DNA
are common nucleotides. These biopolymers are very essential for our life.

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 33.6 Environmental Problems and Biodegradable Polymers
In this section we shall discuss those polymers which will not cause any environmental
pollution.
With the increasing use of polymers, the problem of disposal of waste of these products is
posing alarming curse. Since most of the synthetic polymers are in the form of plastics, it is
frequently used in abundance in the form of packing material and throw away bags. Since
ordinary polymers do not degrade naturally by light, oxygen, water or microorganisms, there
is a serious problem of their disposal. The environmental problems caused by careless use of
non-biodegradable polymers can be reduced by proper disposal of these materials and reusing
them and remoulding them for other uses. Another way is to collect them and depolymerise
them back to monomers. Though it has a limited application.
Another option is to produce biodegradable polymers which can be broken into small segments
by enzyme-catalysed reactions. The required enzymes are produced by micro-organims. It is
a known fact that the carbon-carbon bonds of chain growth polymers are inert to enzyme
catalysed reactions, and hence they are non-biodegradable. To make such polymers
biodegradable we have to insert certain bonds in the chains so that these can be easily broken
bythe enzymes. When such polymers are buried as waste, micro organisms present in the soil
can degrade the polymer, so that they do not cause any serious affects on the environment.
One of the best method of making a polymer biodegradable is by inserting hydrolysable ester
group into the polymer.
33.6.1 Some Biodegradable Polymers
A large number of bio degradable polymers are now available and more being added to the
list. However, these are expensive, therefore, these find use in special situations where cost
factor can be ignored. In future, as their cost reduces these will find greater use in daily life
and will replace non-bio-degradable polymers.
Some important biodegradable polymers are PHBV, PGA, PLA and PCL.
(PHBV) Poly-Hydroxybutyrate - co - β - Hydroxyvalerte
PHBV is a copolymer of 3 - hydroxy butanoic acid, and (3-hydroxypentanoic acid), in which,
the monomer units are connected by ester linkages.

H H

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The properties of PHBV vary according to the ratio of both the acids. 3-Hydroxybutanoic
acid provides stiffness and 3-hydroxypentanoic acid imparts flexibility to the copolymer.
i) PHBV is used in orthopaedic devices and
ii) In controlled drug release. The drug put in PHBV capsule is released after this polymer is
degraded by enzymatic action. It can also be degraded by bacterial action.
PGA Polyglycolic acid is obtained by the chain polymerization of dimer of glycolic acid,
HO - CH2COOH.

PLA Polyactic acid is obtained by polymerization of the dinner of lactic acid (HO-CH(CH3)
COOH) or by micro biological synthesis of lactic acid followed by the polycondensation and
removal of water by evaporation.

PCL Poly (E-caprolactone) is obtained by chain polymerization of the lactone of 6-hydroxy

hexanoic acid.

Most of the biodegradable polymers find use in stiching wounds and cuts.
1. In medical goods such as surgical sutures.
2. In agriculture materials such as films, seed coatings.
3. In food wrappers, personal hygiene products, etc.

Intext Questions 33.4

1. What is PHBV ?
..................................................................................................................................
2. Give two examples of biopolymers ?
..................................................................................................................................
3. Define biodegradable polymers ? Give three examples ?
..................................................................................................................................
4. Which polymer is used for post-operative stitches ?
..................................................................................................................................

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_______________________________________________________________________________
In the following Table 33.4 we shall now give a brief account of the various commercially
important polymers alongwith their structures and uses.
Table 33.4

S. Name of Structure Uses

No. Polymer

1. Polythene As Insulator,
anticorrosive, packing
material, household and
laboratory wares.

2. Polystyrene As Insulator, wrapping

material, manufacture of
toys and household articles

3. Polyvinylchloride In manufacture of
(PVC) raincots, hand bags, vinyl
flooring and leather clothes

4. Polytetrafluoro As lubricant, insulator

ethylene and making cooking
(PTFE) or Teflon wares.

5. Polymethyl metha As substitute of glass

acrylate (PMMA) and making decorative
or Flexi glass materials.

6. Polyacrylonitrile In making synthetic fibres

(Orlon) and synthetic wool.

7. Styrene butadiene In making automobile

rubber (SBR or tyres and footwear.
(BuNa-S)

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8. Nitrile rubber In making oil seals
(BuNa-N) manufacture of hoses
and tank linings.
9. Neoprene As insulator, making
conveyor belts and
printing rollers
10. Poly ethyl In making films, hose
acrylate pipes and furnishing fabrics

11. Terylene For making fibres, safety

(Dacron) belts, tyre cords, tents, etc.

12. Glyptal As binding material in

preparation of mixed
plastics and paints.

13. Nylon-6 In making fibres, plastics,

tyre cords and ropes.

14. Nylon-66 In making brushes

synthetic fibres, parachutes,
ropes and carpets

15. Bakelite For making gears,

protective coating and
electrical fittings.
16. Urea For making unbreakable
formaldehyde cups and laminated
resin sheets.

17. Melamine Formaking plastic

formaldehyde crockery un breakable
resin cups and plates

18. Poly-β-hydroxy As packging, orthopaedic

butyrate-co- βhydroxy devices and in controlled
valerate (PHBV) R=CH 3, _ C2H5 durg release.

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 What You Have Learnt
• Polymers, the high molecular mass macrosized molecules consisting of repeating units
of monomers of synthetic or natural origin.
• Synthetic polymers are classified with respect to their composition, mode of poly
merization and nature of molecular forces.
• Polymerization is classified into two categories (i) addition polymerization (ii)
condensation polymerization.
• Addition polymers are formed by addition of large number of monomers without the
elimination of any smaller molecules.
• Condesation polymers are formed by elimination of smaller molecules such as H2O,
NH3 etc.
• Natural rubber is a linear polymer of isoprene, and is vulcanized by heating with sulphur,
which forms cross link between different chains.
• Vulcanized rubber has much improved physical properties.
• Synthetic rubbers are usually obtained by copolymerization of alkene and 1,3-butadiene
derivatives.
• Synthetic polymers due to their inertness to degradation have created environmental
problems
• Since biopolymers degrade enzymatically, synthetic biodegradable polymers having
functional groups such as ester, amide etc. have potential use as sutures, implants, drug
release materials, are developed as alternatives. For example, PHBV, PLA, etc. constitute
such materials.

Terminal Exercise
1. Explain the difference between chain growth and step growth polymerization.
2. Define the terms thermosetting and thermo-plastics. Give one example of each.
3. What is a copolymer. Give one example.
4. Differentiate between addition polymer and condensation polymer with the help of one
exaple each ?
5. What are elastomers? Give the chemical equation for the preparation of Buna-S.
6. Write the information asked for the following polymers :
i) Neoprene : Materials required for preparation

-111-
 ii) PVC : monomer units.
iii) Synthetic rubber : monomer units
7. What is vulcanization of rubber? What are the advantages of vulcanized rubber?
8. Give examples of two plasticizers.
9. How are polymers classified into different categories on the basis of intermolecular
forces? Give on example of a polymer of each of these categories.
10. What are biodegradable polymers ? Give three examples.
11. Write the names and structures of monomers of the following polymers :
a) Polystyrene
b) Teflon
c) PMMA
d) PVC
e) PHBV
f) Polypropylene
12. How will you prepare the following ? Give chemical reaction only :
a) PVC
b) Nylon-66
c) PMMA

Answers to Intext Questions

33.1
1. i) Polymer is a gaint chain like molecule obtained by inter-molecular combinations of
similar or different types of smaller molecules.
ii) Monomers are the low molecular mass simple molecules capable of forming inter-
molecular linkage to give gaint molecules called polymers.
2. i) Polyethene ii) Terelene
3. i) Hompolymers are polymers made of single monomer units, for example, polythene,
polystyrene, or polybuta diene.
ii) A copolymer is one which is formed by the co-polymerisation of two monomers. For
example, Buna (or SBR, styrene - butadiene rubber)
4. i) Ethelene glycol and terephthallic acid
ii) Hexamethelene diamine and adipic acid.

-112-
33.2
1. i) Natural polymers are found in nature, (in animals and plants) e.g. proteins and nucleic
acids.
ii) Synthetic polymers are man-made. e.g. Nylon, polyesters and rubbers.
2. The polymers in which the linear polymer chains are cross linked to form a three-
dimensional network structure are called cross-linked polymers. The common example
of this type of polymer is bakelite.
3. Thermoplastics differ from thermosetting plastics in terms of mode of linkage and
intermolecular forces. Thermoplastic polymer can be moulded in desired shape but
thermosetting polymers set to shape on heating and can not be moulded.
4. Polyethene < Buna-S <Nylon-66
Nylon-66 : Condnesation Polymer
Buna-S : Addition Polymer
Polyethene : Addition polymer

33.3
1. i) Monomer of natural rubber is
CH3

ii) Monomer of Neoprene is

2. Suplhur makes the rubber more elastic, more ductile, less plastic and non-sticky.
3. Buna-S is obtained by co-polymerization fo butadiene and styrene in presence of sodium
metal. Bu stand for butadiene, na for sodium and s stand for styrene, It is also called
S.B.R.
4. i) Natural rubber is soft and sticky, but vulcanised rubber is hard and non-sticky.
ii) Natural rubber has less tensile strength while vulcanised rubber has high tensile
strength.
iii) Natural rubber is soluable in solvents like ether, carbon tetracloride, petrol etc. whereas
vulcanised rubber is insoluble in all comoon solvents.

-113-
33.4
1. Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)
2. Ethelene glycol and terphthalic acid.
3. Nylon-6,6 is synthesised by the polymerisation of two monomer units adipic acid and
hexamethelene diamine.

nH2N ( CH2 )6 NH2 + n HOOC ( CH 2 )4 COOH

525K

CO CO + 2nH2O

4. i) Glyptal

(NH4) 2S 2O8
ii) Teflon , pressure

5. The PDI Value of a polymer is one. When it built by one type of monomer

N1M1
M N1
= w = =1
PDI = M N N1M 2 2
N1M1

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33.5
1. PHBV is copolymer of 3-Hydroxy butanoic acid and 3-hydroxypentanoic acid. It is
used in marking capsules. It is biodegradable in nature.
2. Nucleic Acids, proteins.
3. Polymers, which are degraded by microorganisations are called biodegradable polymers.
For example, PHBV, Polyglycolic acid, Polylactic acid, etc.
4. Polyglycolic acid (PGA) and poly Lactic Acid (PLA).

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 34
DYES, PAINTS AND PIGMENTS

In the previous lesson you have learnt about polymers which are important industrial products.
In this lesson we shall take-up another broad area of chemical industry viz; dyes, paints and
pigments. These are organic or inorganic substances which find applications in imparting
color fabrics, leather, buildings, furniture and other objects. Psychologists attach special
significance to the choice of colours by a person and to his/her state of mind.

Objectives
After reading this lesson you will be able to :
• define dyes, paints and pigments;
• write formula or composition of dyes, paints and pigments;
• explain the process of dyeing and classify various dyes;
• differentiate among dyes, paints and pigments;
• classify paints and pigments;
• list varioys examples of dyes : Indigo, methyl orange, aniline yellow, alizarin and
malachite green and etc. and
• list uses of various dyes, paints and pigments

34.1 Dyes
In the early times the colouring materials were extracted from natural sources like plants and
insects. Now a days thousand of such substances are synthesised in factories on a large scale.
Dyes are the organic compounds that are used to impart colour to textiles, foodstuffs, silk,
wool and other objects. Dyes are capable of getting fixed to the the fabrics/objects permanently
and are resistant to the action of water, soap, light, acid, and alkalies.
Every coloured compound cannot be used a dye. A good dye must have most of the following
properities.

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1. It must have a suitable colour.
2. It must be able to fix itself or capable of being fixed to the fabric from the solution.
3. When fixed, it must be fast resistant to the action of light, water, soap, detergents, etc.
during washing or to the organic solvents during dry cleaning.

34.1.1 Why do dyes or dyed articles appear to have a

characteristic colour ?
If a molecule absorb light in the visible region (400 nm to 730 nm) corresponding to green
colour, then it will appear violet, which is the complementary colour of green. Similarly, if a
dye absorbs blue colour, it will appear yellow which is the complementary colour of blue.
Thus, the dyes impart colour to fabric by aborbing the complementary colour.

34.1.2 Constitution of Dyes

The colour of a compound is due to the presence of certain groups containing multiple bonds.
These groups which impart colour to a compound are called chromophores. Some examples
of chromophores are :
_NO (nitro), _ N = O (nitroso), _N = N _ (azo), quinonoid structures, etc.
2

At the same time, there are cetain groups which they are not chromophores themselves but
they deepen the colour when present with coloured compounds. The groups which deepen
the colour of a coloured compound are called auxochromes. Some examples of common
auxochromes are :
_OH , _NH , _NHR,_NR , _Cl _CO H, etc.
2 2 2 2

34.1.3 Classification of Dyes

A large number of dyes are used for various purposes. These are classified on the basis of
their

i) constitution

ii) application

Classification based on constitution :

Depending upon the characteristic structural units, the dyes, are classified as given in
Table 34.1 :

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 Table : 34.1 : Classification of some dyes on the basis of their constitution
Dye type Characteristic Typical examples
structural unit

1) Nitro dyes _ NO
2

(2,4-dinitro-1-naphthol

2) Azo dyes _ N=N_

3) Phthalein dyes

4) Triphenyl methane

5) Anthraquinone

6) Indigoid

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 Intext Questions 34.1
1. Which is the structural unit of Methyl orange ?
..................................................................................................................................
2. What is the wavelength range of visible region of spectrum ?
..................................................................................................................................
3. What are complementary colours ?
..................................................................................................................................
4. How is the sturcture of dye related to its colour ?
..................................................................................................................................
Classification of Dyes on the basis of their applications.
Dyes are classified in to the following types on the basis of their application.
i) Acid dyes ii) Basic dyes
iii) Direct dyes iv) Disperse dyes
v) Fibre reactive dyes vi) Vat dyes
vii) Insoluble azo dyes viii) Mordant dyes
i) Acid Dyes
These are azodyes used in the form of their sodium salt of sulphonic acid (-SO3H)3 carboxylic
acid (-COOH) or phenol. The dye can be applied to wool, silk and nylon. These do not have
much affinity for cotton and therefore, cannot be used to dye OH
cotton.
The common examples of an acid dye are orange - I and congo red.

OH

Congo red

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ii) Basic Dyes
These dyes contain basic groups like (-NH2) group of (-NR 2) group therefore these are called
basic dyes. These dyes attack the anionic sites present on the fabrics and get attached to them.
These are used to dye modified nylons, polyester, wool, cotton, leather, paper, etc.
Aniline yellow, malachite green and crystal violet are the basic dyes.
iii) Direct Dyes
As the name suggest these dyes can be directly applied to the fabrics from their aqueous
solution. The direct dyes attach to the fibre by means of hydrogen bonding. These are very
effective for dying cotton, woll and rayon.
Martius yellow (Table 34.1) and congo red are the common examples of direct dyes.
vi) Ingrain dyes
These dyes are very important because over 60% of the dyes used are azodyes or ingrain
dyes. The fabric to be dyed is soaked in an alkaline solution of phenol or napthol and is then
treated with a solution of diazotised amine. These are used for cotton, silk, polyster and nylon.
The colour is not very fast because the interaction is only on the surface. For example, para-
red is an ingrain dye.

v) Disperse Dyes
These dyes are usually applied in the from of a dispersion of finely divided dye. The dyes are
dispersed in a soap solution in the presence of phenol, cresol ot benzoic acid. These are used
for nylon, polyster and polyacrylonitrile.
Some common examples of disperse dyes are celliton fast pink B and celliton fast blue B
(vi) Reactive dyes
These dyes attach to the fibre themselves by irreversible chemical reactions. These dyes induce
fast colour on the fibres which is retained for a longer time. These dyes are used to dye fibres
like cotton, wool or silk. Dyes which are drivatives of 2,4 dichloro - 1,3,5 - triazine are
important examples of fibre reactive dyes.
(vii) Vat dyes
Vat dyes are the well-known dyes they are insoluble in water and hence cannot be used

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 directly for dying. Therefore, they are reduced to a colourless soluble form (leuco) in large
wooden vats with a reducing agent such as an alkaline solution of sodium hydrogensulphite.
Under these conditions, the leuco form develops affinity for the cellulose fibre. Then the
fabric is exposed to air which oxidises the leuco (colourless) form to coloured form. Therefore,
5 these dyes are mainly used to dye cotton fibres. Indigo is an important example of this type
F (Table 34.1).
viii) Mordant Dyes
These dyes require an additional substance (generally a metal ion) for fixing to the fibre.
These are used mainly for dyeing wool. The method involves the precipitation of certain
mordant material (binding agent) on the fabrics which then combines with the dye to form an
insoluble coloured complex called lake. For acid dyes, metal ions are used as mordants but
for basic dyes, tannic acid is used as the mordant. For example, alizarin is a mordant dye
(Table 34.1). It gives a rose red colour with Al3+ and a blue colour with Ba2+, a brownish
red colour with chromium (Cr3+) and a black voilet with iron mordant.

Intext Questions 34.2

1. How are mordant dyes applied to fabrics ?
..................................................................................................................................
2. Give an example of a Vat dye.
..................................................................................................................................
3. Distinguish between acidic and basic dyes ?
..................................................................................................................................
4. Why do azo dyes not impart fast colours to fabrics ?
..................................................................................................................................
Now we shall discuss about pigments.

34.2 Pigments
Pigments are various organic and inorganic insoluble substances, which are widely used as
surface coatings. They are also employed in the ink, plastic, rubber, ceramic, paper and
linoleum industries to impart colour. The pigment industry is usually regarded as associated
with paints, but in fact it is a separate industry. A large number of pigments are mined or
manufactured for the commerical preparation of paints. About 45 year back, white lead
[2Pb CO3 + Pb (OH)2], Zinc oxide (ZnO) and lithopone (Zns + BaSO4) were the principal
white pigments in use while the coloured pigments consisted of Prussian blue, lead chromates,
various iron oxides and a few lake colours. Composition, properties and uses of various
pigments will be discussed in the next section.

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34.2.1 Classification of Pigments
Pigments are broadly classified into two types :
1. White Pigments 2. Coloured Pigments
White pigments are of various types. Their composition, properties and applications are
summerised in Table 34.2 :
Table 34.2 : Composition, properties and uses of some white pigments
S.No. Name of Composition Characteristic Application
pigment Properties or Uses
1. White lead Pb CO3 = 68.9% 1. Easily applied In manufacture
2PbCO3. Pb(OH)2 Pb (OH)2 = 31.1% 2. high covering of paints.
power
3. Toxic in nature
4. Yellow badly on
exposure to atmosphere
5. Soluble in alkali and paints

2. Sublimed Pb SO4 = 75% 1. High specific gravity In manufacture

white Lead Pb O = 20% and refractive index. of paints
(Basic sulphate) ZnO = 5% 2. Slow chalking out of
the film producing a
rouch surface.

3. Zince oxide ZnO = 100% 1. Brilliantly white 1. It is opaque to

(ZnO) having excellent texture UV light and
thus
protects from uv
2. Causes no 2. Chalking can
discoloration even in be prevented.
contact with CO2 gas.
3. More durable in
combination with white
lead.

4. Lithopone ZnS = 28-30% 1. Extremely fine and 1. Widely used

(ZnS+BaSO4) BaSO4 = 72-70% cheap pigment. for cold water
paints.
2. Good hiding power 2. Traffic paints.
3. Not as durable as 3. In floor
white lead and zinc covering and oil
oxide cloth industry

5. Titanium Ti FeO3 and 1. High opacity and 1. In paints

dioxide TiO2 hiding power
(TiO2) iliminite + rutile 2. High Oil absobing 2. In Paper
capacity and textiles.
3. Spreading power is 3. In other
almost double than that industries.
of white lead.
4. No tendency of chalking

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Blue Pigments
The most widely used blue pigment is ultramarine blue. There are three varieties of ultramarine
namely blue, white and green. The comparative study of blue pigments in given in Table 34.3:
Table 34.3 : Composition, Properties and uses of some blue pigments
S. Name of Composition Characteristic Application /
No. Pigment Properties Uses
1. Ultramarine White-Na5Al3Si 3SO 12 1. Silicate skeleton 1. Bluring in
Blue have a potential laundering to
Green-Na 5Al3Si2S2O12 influence on the colour neutralize the
Blue-Na 5Al3Si2S3O12 2. Colour in due to yellowish tone in
the fact that S present cotton and linen
is in the form of fabrics.
polysulphide.
2. Cobalt Blues Co3O4-30-35% 1. Very expensive and 1. In manufacture
Al 2O3-65-70 are not used in paints of blue paints.
for ordinary purposes 2. In making inks
3. In marking
Carbon papers
and carbon ribbons

Red Pigments
Red pigments are one of the oldest-pigments. These are primarily used for inhibiting rusting
of iron and steel structures. Different types of red pigments are summerised in Table 34.4
Table 34.4 : Composition, properties and uses of Red Pigments.

S. Name of Composition Characteristic Application /

No. Pigment Properties Uses

1. Red Lead Pb3O4 + PbO 1. Bright-red powder 1. For primary

(Pb3O4) with high specific coat on
gravity structural steel.
2. Excellent covering 2. In imparting
power. red colour to the
glass for making
3. Inhibits corrosion bangles.

2. Synthetic Iron Fe 3O4 1. Has dark brilliant 1. Widely used in

colour domestic paints,
2. High covering power enamels, floors
and tinting strength and paints.

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Green Pigments
There are of two types of commonly used green pigments. Their properties, composition and
uses are given in Table 34.5 :
Table 34.5 : Composition, propeties and uses of Some Green Pigments
S. Name of Composition Properties Application /
No. Pigment Uses
1. Chrome Green Cr 2 O 3 1. High Power of oil As green
absorption pigments
2. It has disadvantages
such as lack of
brilliancy and opacity
2. Chromium oxide [Cr 2 O(OH) 4 ] 1. have high covering 1. As Paint
or Guignet's Green power for metal
surface.
2. High corrosion 2. As fast
inhibition capacity. non-fading
green for
washable
distempers.

Black Pigments
Black pigments have good tinting strength as well as high hiding power. The common varieties
are discussed in Table 34.6 :
Table 34.6 : Some Black Pigments
S. Name of Composition Properties Application /
No. Pigment Uses
1. Natural Fe 2 O 3 -94-50% 1. Oil absorption In making paints
Black Oxide power is 10-15kg of for priming metal
linseed oil per 100kg
of pigment
2. Precipitated 1. High hiding In cement
Black Power emulsions and
Iron Oxide water paints

3. Carbon Black/ 1. Increases life of paints Used in making

Furnace Black 2. Good tinting strength. water proof paints.
3. Not affected by light
acids and alkalies.
4. Lamps Black 1. Good tinting strength In making black
2. Resistant to high pigments
temperature

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Yellow Pigments
The common yellow pigments are summerised in Table 34.7 :
Table 34.7 : Some Black Pigments

1. Ochre Naturally occurring Fast to light and In paint

yellow Fe2O3 inert to chemical industry
action

2. Chrome 1. Great opacity In making

yellow 2. High brilliance yellow paints
3. High hiding power
4. High tinting strength

Toners
Insoluble organic dyes are known as toners and can be used as pigments. They are quite
durable and can have high colouring power. For example, para red, Hansa Yellow G (lemon
yellow), Hansa yellow 10G (Primrose yellow), toluidine toner, etc. are the various dyes that
have been used as toners in pigment industry.
Metallic Powders as Pigments
The powdered form of some metals as well as some alloys are used as pigments. For example,
finely powdered aluminium and bronze have been used as pigments in lacquers. Pigments
containing finely powdered zinc have been used for protective coatings on iron and steel to
protect them from atmospheric corrosion.

Intext Questions 34.3

1. List the green pigments, their composition and uses.
..................................................................................................................................
2. Write names of some blue pigments.
..................................................................................................................................
3. Which pigment is used to inhibit corrosion of iron and steel objects ?
..................................................................................................................................
4. Write the composition of white lead.
..................................................................................................................................
5. Which porperty of zinc oxide protects the vehicles ?
..................................................................................................................................

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 34.3 What are Paints ?
Paints are table mechanical mixtures of one or more pigments. The main function of the
pigments is to impart the desired colour and to protect the paint film from penetrating radiation,
such as U.V. rays. The pigments and the extenders are suspended in drying oils called vehicle.
The vehicle or drying oil is a film forming material, to which other ingredients are added in
varying amounts. The paint is applied on a metal or wood surface to give it a protective
coating. Driers promote the process of film formation and hardening. Thinners maintain the
uniformity of the film by reducing viscosity of the blend.
The important varieties of paints are emulsion paints, latex paints, metallic paints, epoxide
resin paints, oil paints, water paints or distempers, etc.
34.3.1 Constituents of Paints
The main constituents of paints are pigments, oil (vehicle) and some other materials to impart
various desirable properties.
1) Pigments
Pigments are the organic or inorganic insoluble substances which are widely used in surface
coatings. They protect the film by reflecting the destructive ultra violet light, to strengthen the
film.
The important pigments used for making paints are :
i) White : White lead, Titanium dioxide, Zinc oxide
ii) Red : Red lead, Iron oxides, Cadmium reds
iii) Blue : Cobalt blue, Iron blues, etc.
iv) Green : Chromium oxide, chrome green
v) Black : Carbon black, Lamp black, Furnace black, etc.
vi) Metallics : Copper power, Zinc dust, Aluminium, etc.
vii) Metal Protective pigments : Red lead, blue lead, zinc and basic lead, etc.

2) Extenders or fillers
The extenders or fillers are the low cost materials. These are added to the paints in order to
decrease the cost of the paint. These supplement the pigment in increasing the covering and
weathering power of the film. Talc, china clay, gypsum, silica, barite, glass flakes, asbestos
and anhydrite, etc. are used as fillers in paints.
3) Film forming materials
The vehicle or film forming materials serve dual purpose in the surface coating formulations.

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These are usually called drying and semi-drying oils, depending on the degree of unsaturation.
Linseed oil, soyabean oil, tung oil, castor oil, varnishes, casein, fish oil, etc. are used as
vehicles or drying oils.
4) Driers
Certain driers (which are oxygen carriers) have also been used in the paints, in order to
accelerate the drying of the film through oxidation and polymerization. Earlier, PbO was
used as a drier, but the Modern driers are Co, Mn, Pb, Zn, resinoleate, linoleate and
naphthenates, etc.
5) Thinners or Diluents
Another ingredient, of paint is thinner. It is added to the paints to dissolve film forming
materials and to dilute concentrated paints for better handling. After adding thinner, the paitns
may be applied more easily on the surface by brushing, spraying or dipping. Mineral spirits
and solvents namely turpentine, maintains the fluidity of the freshly applied film for reasonable
period of time.
6) Antiskinning Agent
Certain antiskinning agents are also added to the paints in order to prevent gelling and
skinning of the finished product before application of the paints by brushing, spraying or
dipping. Polyhydroxy phenols are usually employed as antiskinning agents.
7) Plasticizers
Plasticizers are added to the paints to provide elasticity to the film and thus prevent cracking
of the paint. Chemically, plasticizers are mostly esters. Triphenyl Phosphate, dibutyl phthalate
and castor oil etc. are used as Plasticizers.
8) Resins :
Varnishes are used as natural or synthetic resins. Examples of natural resins are copal or
resin, while that of synthetic resins are Urea formaldehyde, acrylate, vinyl or silicone resins.
9) Binders
Binders act to fix the paint on the coated surface and provide tough, tenacious and glossy
film on the painted surface.
10) Other Compounds
Water based paints also require dispersing agents (e.g. Casein), antifoam agents, (e.g. pine
oil) and preservative (e.g. chlorophenol).

34.3.2 Paint Removers

The substances or materials which are used to remove various surface coatings or paints are
called paint removers. Paint removers are either flammable or non-flammable.
Flammable paint removers may be liquid removers, semipaste remover and paste removers.

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The common solvents used for the purpose are alcohols such as methanol, ethanol or propanol.
Hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene or xylene), acetone and ethyl acetate are also used as paint
removers.

34.3.3 Special Applications of Paints

In addition to provide a thin protective layer, paints are also used for other applications some
of the special uses are discussed below :
a) Paints are extensively used as acid resisting coats.
b) Oil bound water paints or distempers are widely used for interior decoration of walls.
c) Coaltar products dissolved in mineral spirits have been used as protective coatings of pipes
under the name bituminous paints.
d) Bottom of ships are protected by antifouling paints which are prepared by mixing iron
oxide, mercuric oxide and copper resinate dispersed in tung oil.
e) A paint with damp resisting properties is prepared by mixing paraffin wax, rosin, bitumen
and gutta parcha dispersed in tung oil.

Intext Questions 34.4

1. Which constituent of paint is used to decrease the cost of the paint ?
..................................................................................................................................
2. List antifouling agents used to prepare marine paints ?
..................................................................................................................................
3. Write three properties of emulsion paints.
..................................................................................................................................
4. How can we apply paints on the surfaces ?
..................................................................................................................................

What You Have Learnt

• Dyes are coloured compounds used in imparting colour to the textiles, food stuffs, slik,
wool and other objects.
• A dye is a coloured organic compound which can absorb light in the visible region of
the electromagnetic spectrum (400nm to 700 nm). The part of the light which is reflected
back gives the colour of the dye i.e. complementary to the colour absorbed.
• Dyes are classified on the basis of their structures and on the method of applications.

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• Pigments are various organic and inoraganic insoluble substances, which are widely
used in surface coatings.
• Titanium dioxide in one of the most important white pigment. Carbon black, graphite
and lamp back are the chief black pigments, chromium oxide (Cr 2O3) and Guignet's
green are green pigments, Chrome yellow, strontium chromate and barium chromate
are yellow pigments.
• Insoluble organic dyes are known as toners and can be used as pigments. They are
quite durable and have high colouring power.
• Some powdered form of metals as well as alloys have also been used as pigments.
Finely powdered zinc has been used for protective coating on iron and steel.
• Paints are stable mechanical mixtures of one or more pigments, extenders fillers, driers,
thinners or diluents, lacquers, plasticizers, resins and binders.
• A good quality paint should have good colour, high hiding power and also have proper
pigment volume concentration range (PVC). For exterior house paint the PVC range
should be 28-36%.
• Varnishes differ from paints in that they have no pigments and in varnishes a part or
whole of the oil is substituted by resin.

Terminal Exercise
1. Give structure and name of a direct dye.
2. Classify dyes on the basis of their structural units.
3. Give a scheme or preparation of phenolphthalein. How does it behave under (a) acidic
(b) alkaline conditions ?
4. What are mordant dyes? What type of binding forces exist between the dye and the
mordant ?
5. Write preparation, properties and uses of the following pigments.
i) Zinc oxdie
ii) Lithopone
6. Describe various components of paints and their significane.
7. List requirements of good paints.

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 Answers to Intext Questions
34.1
1. _ N = N _ group

2. the range of visible region of specturem is [400 nm to 750 nm]

3. A dye is an organic compound which can absorb light in the visible region of the
electromagnetic spectrum (400nm to 750 nm). The part of the light which is reflected
back gives the colour of the dye i.e. complementary to the colour absorbed.
4. The structure of a dye is related to its colour due to the presence of certain unsaturated
groups (the groups with multiple bonds)

Nitro Azoxy

Carbonyl Azo _ N = N _

_
Polyene - (HC = CH) n

34.2
1. Mordant dyes are used mainly for dyeing of wool. The method involves the precipitation
of certian substances (mordant material) on the farbics which then combine with the
dye to from an insoluble coloured compled called lake depending on the kind of mordant
used (material designed to bind dye).
2. Indigo
3. Difference between Acid dyes and Basic dyes
Acid dyes Basic dyes
1. There are azodyes 1. These dyes contain ( _ NH2) groups
usually sodium salt of or ( _ NR2) group as oxochromes
_ SO H, _ COOH and
3
Phenolic group.
2. The dye can be applied 2. These are used to dye modified
to wool, silk and nylon. nylons, polyester, wool, leather etc.
3. Do not have any affinity 3. Have affinity for cotton.
for cotton.
4. Because the interaction is only on the surface. The colour goes out on washing.

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34.3
1. Green pigments are :
a) Chrome green
b) Chromium oxide
a) Chrome green - It is chromium oxide (Cr 2O3) and has high power of oil absorption. It is
used as green pigment, known as chrome green.
b) Chromium oxide - It is also called as Guignet's Green. It is a hydrated chromium oxide
[Cr2O(OH)4]. It is used as paint for metal surfaces and as a fast non-fading green for
washable distempers.
2. i) Ultramarine Blue
ii) Cobalt Blue and Iron Blue
3. Red Lead
4. Lead carbonate, 60.2 - 68.9% and lead oxide, 31-39.9%
5. It is opaque to white light.

34.4
1. Extenders or fillers.
2. Zinc oxide, resin (Shellac), driers (Mn lineolate), vehicle (Coal-tar), diluent (pine-oil)
3. i) Highly durable
ii) Impermeable to dirt
iii) resistant to washing
4. i) Hand-painting or brushing
ii) Spraying
iii) dipping
iv) Roller coating
v) Tumbling

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 35
DRUGS AND MEDICINES

The association of manking with pain and disease is probably as old as man himself. Humans
have always been looking for remedies to overcome their pain and suffering. The earliest
attempts at this, involved use of various plants. The knowledge was based on experience and
was handed on from generation to generation. It is being used even today.
In an attempt to conquer pain and disease, a large number of synthetic chemicals have been
discovered. The chemicals used as medicines are known as pharmaceuticals. Today
pharmaceutical industry has grown to be one of the biggesst industries in the world.
In this lesson we will try to introduce you to the area of drugs and medicines. In the process
we would attempt to differentiate between drugs and medicines (though commonly used
interchangeably). You will also learn about classification of medicines and other important
aspects of durgs and medicines.

Objectives
After reading this lesson you will be able to :
• define drugs and medicines;
• differentiate between drugs and medicines;
• classify medicines on the basis of their action (use);
• cite examples and effects of analgesics, antipyretic, antiseptics, disinfectants, antacids,
antimalarials, anaesthetics, antimicrobials (sulpha drugs and antibiotics), anti-fertility
drugs, etc.
• differentiate between analgesics and antipyretics;
• differentiate between antiseptics and disinfectants;
• explain habit forming and non-habit forming durgs;
• differentiate between broad spectrum and narrow specturem antibiotic;
• differentiate between local and general anaesthetics;

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• describe self-medication and
• alternate systems of medicine.

35.1 What are Drugs and Medicines ?

When we fall ill we take some tablets, pills, injections or apply some ointments to get well.
All these are collectively known as medicines. Some time we may use some parts of plants or
some preparations made from herbs, minerals, animals, etc. All these substances used for the
treatment or prevention of diseases, can also be called medicines. Medicines contain a single
chemical or a number of chemicals in different amounts to have the desired effect.
The mode of action of the chemicals of medicine is quite varied and complicated. In many a
cases mode of action may not be fully known to us, but we continue to use them as they are
useful to us.
Early man used several plants or parts of plants to cure diseases, without knowing of the
chemical components, responsible for it. For example bark of willow tree was used for relieving
pain (as analgesic). Later, it was found that its bark contained 2-hydroxy benzoic acid, which
is closely related to acetyl salicylic acid (also known as aspirin). Parts of a plant Rauwolfia
serpentina (Hindi name, sarpagandha) have been used in Ayurvedic drugs for the treatment
of hypertension (high blood pressure). Later on it was discovered that a compound called
reserpine was responsible for reducing blood pressure. Thus reserpine became the first modern
medicine to control blood pressure.
In most of the cases nature led to the discovery of modern medicine. Thousands of chemists
all over the world are constanly searching for better, efficient, cheaper and safer medicines.
As mentioned earlier the term drugs and medicines are used interchangeably, but there is a
difference between the two. Let us try to understand the difference between drugs and
medicines. The term drug is often used for preparations or formulation whose chemical
components and their quantities are not known fully. These may be extracts of certain plants,
herbs, animal parts or may be mineral.s
The term medicine is used when the chemical composition and the quantities of various chemical
components are known. Further, the effects of the chemical compounds present in a medicine
and their side effects have been properly and extensively studied. The medicines are approved
by the relevant governmental authorities like Durg Controller of India.
The term drug is also used for subtances, which are habit forming and are often abused, for
example, narcotics like cocaine, morphine, heroine, marijuana, etc.
As you read in newspapers terms like illegal drug trade, drug trafficking, drug mafic, drug
peddler are used to refer to illegal dealing with habit forming substances, referred to as drugs.
However the difference between drug and medicine is far from clear.

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 Intext Questions 35.1
1. Write a definition of medicines.
..................................................................................................................................
2. Most of the chemicals used in medicines are poisonous. Is this statement true or false ?
..................................................................................................................................
3. What are pharmaceuticals ?
..................................................................................................................................
4. Name the compound which is present in the plant sarpagandha and is responsible for
reducing blood pressure.
..................................................................................................................................

35.2 Classification of Medicines

You may be familiar with some fo the common medicines used for relieving pain, reducing
fever or for treating common cold, etc. The number of medicines is very large therefore
medicines are classified according to their action or use. Table 35.1 provides a list of some
important classes of medicines. The terms like analgesics, antibiotics, antiseptics, etc. are
common household words. Let us try to understand the meaning of this classification in a
little more details.
Table 35.1 : Some Important Classes of Medicines and their Action

S.No. Class Action or Usage

1. Antipyretics Reduce body temperature
2. Analgesics Reduce pain
3. Antimalarials Used for treatment of malaria
4. Germicides Kill germs
5. Antiseptics Kill germs (can be safely used on living tissue)
6. Disinfectant Kill germs (cannot be used on living tissue
7. Antacids Reduce acidity in stomach
8. Anaesthetics Loss of sensation
9. Antimicrobials, Kill microorganisms
Salpha durgs and Antibiotics
10. Transquilizers and hypnotics Reduce anxiety and bring calmness
11. Birth Control Medicines Birth control
(Contraceptives)

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1. Antupyretics
Antipyretics are the subsrances which are used to reduce body temperature or to control
fever.

The word antipyetic is derived from pyro which means fire (means hot) anti means against.
Thus antipyretic means it counteracts heat (high body temperature).
Aspirin, paracetamol and phenacetin ate commonly used antipyretics. You get them in the
marked with different trade names like crocin, anacin, disprin, etc.

Aspirin is the most popular antipyretic in use. It gets hydrolyzed in stomach and salicylic acid
is released. Overdose and using it over a long time may cause side effects. It may cause
bleeding in the stomach wall and even ulcers. Therefore, overdose and prolonged use should
be avoided. However, calcium and sodium salts of aspirin are more soluble in water and are
less harmful than aspirin.
2. Analgesics
Analgesics are the substances, that reduce pain which may be due to swelling of tissues,
injury, inflammation or some other disorders. Analgesics are of two types, namely narcotic &
non-narcotic.
Narcotic analgesics are the ones which induce sleep and thus help to reduce the feeling of
pain alkaloids present in opium, viz, morphine, codeine, etc. are common examples of
narcotics. In higher doses these may cause unconsciousness. These are habit-forming and
cause addiction. Due to addiction a person wants to have it regularly and in larger amounts.
Such a person feels upset and uncomfortable if he doesnot get it. Narcotic analygesies do not
induce sleep and are not habit forming. A common example of this type of narcotics is
morphine.

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3. Antimalarials
Antimalarials medicines are used to treat malaria. Quinine and chloroquine are widely used
antimalarials. Quinine is one of the earliest druges, which was first obtained from the bark of
a plant (cinchona) and later on synthesized in laboratories.

35.2.a Antihistamines
The drugs that interfere with the natural action of histamine by binding sites of receptor are
called antihistamines.
Generally histamine stimulates the secretion of acid in the stomach and it is also responsible
for the nasal Congestion and allergy related to house dust, pollen etc. Ranitidine (Zintac) is
used to prevent the interaction of histamine in the stomach wall.
Antihistamines do not effect the secretion of acid in the stomach.
Eg:- Dimetap and terfenadine (Sardane) are the antihistamines.
1) (Cl) Br
_ _
C (CH2)2 N(CH3)2
I
H
N

Bromo or chloro pheniramine

2)

N
OH
Ph
HO Ph

Terfenadine (sardane)

Antihistamines have side effects like drowsiness, impaired alertness, relarded ability to perform
work etc.

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Food Preservatives:
The chemicals added to food for preservation are called food preservatives. They may be
sweeteners, antioxidants, emulsifies, dyes etc. they do not have nutritive value.
Now-a-days antioxidants are preferably used. They retard the action of oxygen on food and
preserve it. Two important antioxidants generally used are (BHT) butylated hydroxyl tolerance
and (BHA) butylated hydroxyl anisole.
OH OH
(CH3)3C
C (CH3)3 C (CH3)3

CH3 OCH3
(BHT) (BHA)

Sometimes they are mixed with citric acid or ascorbic acid to have more synergetic effect.
SO2 and SO32- are used as preservatives for sugar, syrup, wine, beer etc.
The most important food preservative is sodium benzoate. It is metabolized by conversion to
hippuric acid and is finally exerted in the urine. Generally dyes are used to color the food.
Carotene is safe food color. Some are harmful particularly for children and patients etc. some
dyes act as nutritional supplements such as minerals, vitamins, amino acids etc. Except these
all others have no nutritional value.
Artificial sweetening agents:
Sweeteners instead of sucrose which are added to calorie intake are called artificial sweeteners.
1) Sachhario is 550 times sweeter to cane sugar and is excreted in the urine. It is used for
diabetic patients also.
CO
NH
SO2

2) Aspartane is 100 times sweeter to sugar. It is mostly used for cold foods and soft drinks
because it is unstable at cooking temperature.
O O O
HO - C - CH2 - CH - C - NH - CH - C - O C2 H5

NH2 CH2

3) Alitame is 200 times sweeter to sucrose and more stable than aspartane. It is stable at
cooking temperature.

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 H3C CH3
O O O C

HO - C - CH2 - CH - C - NH - CH - C - NH - CH S
C
NH2 H3C
H3C CH3

Aspirin (Acetyl Salicylic acid):

Preparation:
Acetylation of salicylic acid with acetic anhydride gives aspirin.
OH OCOCH 3
COOH COOH
CH3COOH
+ (CH3CO)2O

Salicylic acid Aspirin

Aspirin is used as anti inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic.

It is recommended for heart patients to reduce heart attacks.
Over usage of aspirin causes vomiting, Abdominal pain, rashes on the skin etc.
Ibuprofen:
Preparation:
Iso butyl benzene on acetylation gives P-iso butylaceto – phenone which on treatment with
HCN gives cyanohydrins. Cyanohydrins on treatment with HI and Red Phosphorus undergoes
reduction which on further hydrolysis gives Ibuprofen.

H3C H3C

CH _CH2 + (CH3CO)2O CH _ CH2 COCH3

H3C H3C
HCN

H3C H3C OH
1) Hi, P
CH _ CH2 CH _ COOH CH - CH2 C _ CH3
2) hydrolysis
H3C CH3 H3C CN
Ibuprofen

Ibuprofen in small doses is used as an anti-inflammatory, anti-pyretic and analgesic drug.

On long term usage of this drug results in ulcers, liver damage

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Paracetamol (N-acetyl P-amino phenol)
Preparation:
OH OH OH

Reduction (CH3 CO)2O

glacial
aceticacid
NO 2 NH2 NHCOCH3
Paracetamol

P-nitro phenol is first reduced to P-aminophenol. P-aminophenol is acetylated with glacial

acetic acid and acetic anhydride and paracetamol is formed.
It is used as anti pyretic and anti inflammatory drug. On long term usage of this drug causes
dermatitis and anemia.

Intext Questions 35.2

1. Give two examples of antipyretics.
..................................................................................................................................
2. Give one example of narcotic type analgesic.
..................................................................................................................................
3. What is the difference between an antiseptic and disinfectant ?
..................................................................................................................................
4. What are antacids ? Name two chemicals commonly used as antacids.
..................................................................................................................................
5. What is the difference between local anaesthetic and general anaesthatic.
..................................................................................................................................
6. Define antibiotics. Give one example of an antibiotic.
..................................................................................................................................
7. Write down the chemical names of Aspirin and paracetamol
..................................................................................................................................
4. Germicides, Disinfectant and Antiseptic

Germicides are the chemicals, which prevent growth of germs (microorganisms). Germicides
are classified as antiseptic and disinfectant. Both kill microorganisms but the difference lies in
the way we use them.

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Antiseptics kill microorganisms and are safe to be used on living beings (tissues). Antiseptics
are used on wounds, cuts or skin abrations. These are used to dress wounds, etc. For example,
iodoform (CHI3), tincture of iodine, ethyl alcohol, a 0.2 percent aqueous solution of phenol
and boric acid (H3BO3) are common antiseptics.
Some dyes have the ability to kill microorganisms. These days were the earliest compounds
to be used as antiseptics. Examples are acriflavine (a yellow coloured dye), mercurochrome
(a red coloured dye), methylene blue (a blue coloured dye). These dyes are still in use as
antiseptics.
Iodine is a powerful antiseptic. it is used a tincture of iodine. Tincture of iodine is 2 to 3
percent solution of iodine dissolved in ethyl alcohol. Iodoform is a yellow coloured solid,
which is used an antiseptic.
Disinfectants kill germs (microorganisms) but are used on non-living substances like surgical
instruments, floors, bathrooms, lavatories, etc. Disinfectants are harsh and are not safe to be
used on living beings as disinfectants can damage living tissues.
Chlorine is a powerul oxidizing agent. It is used for disinfecting water. A concentration of 0.2
to 0.4 ppm (parts per million) is enough to kill microorganisms present in water.
Low concentration of sulphur dioxide is used to kill microorganisms in jams, jellies and
squashes. Thus it acts as a food preservative. Sulphur dioxide is used ofr fumigation in rooms,
operation theaters, etc. to sterilize them. Bleaching powder (CaOCl2), Chlorine (Cl2), Mercuric
Chloride (HgCl 2), Sodium Hypochlorite (NaClO), Sulphur Dioxide (SO 2) etc. are other
examples of disinfectants.
Is Phenol Antiseptic or Disinfectant ?
It is interesting to note that 0.2 percent aqueous solution of phenol is used as antiseptic by
making. It is safe to be used on living tissues in low concentrations (less than 0.2 percent). If
concentration of phenol is high then it can damage tissues. Therefore, at higher concentration
(1 percent or more) phenol is used as disinfectant.

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Most antiseptics and disinfectaints are powerful poisons (Table 35.2) They are able to kill
microorganisms as they interfere with their metabolism. While some others are able to kill
microorganisms because of their powerful oxidizing or reducing nature (Table 35.2)
Table 35.2 : Nature of some important Antiseptics and Disinfectants
Poisons Oxidising agents Reducsing agents
Dyes
Acriflavine (a yellow dye) Bleaching powder Sulphur dioxdie
Gentian Violet Chlorine
Mercurochrome Hydrogen peroxide
Methylene blue Iodine
Tincture of Iodine
Phenols Iodoform
Pottasium permanganate
Phenol Sodium hypochlorite
Cresols
Resorcinol
Chloroxylenol
Others
Formaldehyde
Boric acid
Mercuric chloride
Silver nitrate

5. Antacids
Antacides are the medicines which neutralize the excess acid present in the stomach.
Stomach juice contains hydrochloric acid (HCl). This acid helps the process of digestion of
food. Due to illness or anxiety or some other reasons more acid is produced in the stomach.
The stomach juice becomes more acidic than necessary. This causes problems in digestion,
bleeding in the lining of stomach or even ulcers. Some medicines are used to neutrialise the
excess acid and correct the pH of the stomach fluid.
For example, sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO 3) or a suspension of magnesium hydroxide is
used to neutralize excess of acid present in the stomach. Milk of magnesia contaisn magnesium
hydroxide "ENO fruit salt' contains sodium bicarbonate which helps to neutralise excess
acidity in the stomach juice. Medicine like digene, gelusil, used as an antacid antacid contain
magnesium hydroxide.
E) Anaesthetics
Anaesthetics are substances, which cause loss of sensation over a small area (local) or loss of
sensation of the whole body. There are two types of anaethetics namely, local and general.
Local Anaesthetics
Local anaesthetics produce numbness or loss of sensation of pain, over a small area. Cocaine,
procaine and xylocaine are used as local anaesthetic. These are useful for minor operations.

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General Anaesthetics
General anaesthetics cause unconsciousness nd hence loss sensation of pain in the whole
body.
General anaesthetics are used for carrying out major surgical operations. Some of the general
anaesthetics are gases like nitrous oxide (also known as laughing gas). Some are low boiling
ethers like diethyl ether, divinyl ether, etc. These are given to the patient by inhalation. On
inhaling, these are absorbed through the lungs and make the person unconscious. Anaesthetics
have made surgical operations less risky and less painful.
Some anaesthetics are given orally (by mouth), or by injections. Morphine and pathedine
(these are the alkaloids obtained from opium) are given injections or through oral route.
7. Antimicrobials
Many diseases are cuased due to infection in the body by certain microorganisms (bacteria,
fungus or viruses). Some examples of diseases caused by microbes are dysentry, pneumonia,
typhoid, urinary tract infection, etc.
Antimicrobials are the chemicals, which are used to kill microorganisms (which has infected
to body) without causing much damage to the body of the patient.
Thus an antimicrobial is a chemical, which is capable of curing diseases caused by various
microbes.
An ideal antimicrobial should kill disease-causing microbe and should not have any harmful
effect on the patient. In fact may not be any such antimicrobial which is totally safe and
without any side effect.
The most common antimicrobials available are the sulhpa drugs and antibiotics.
Sulpha Drugs
Sulpha drugs are a group of durgs, derived from sulphanilamide. All the sulpha drugs are
synthesized in laboratories. Some of them have been very useful in treaing diseases caused by
a variety of bacteria. Some of the important sulpha drugs are sulphacetamide, sulphadiazine
and sulphaguanidine, etc.

NH 2 NH 2

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Sulpha drugs have been used for the treatment of pneumonia, sore throat, etc. These are less
powerful than antibiotics. Therefore, now a days these have become less popular.
Antibiotics
Antibiotics are the metabolic products produced by some microorganisms (mould or fungi).
They inhibit growth and even kill disease causing microorganisms (like bacteria, fungi, etc)
by inhibiting their life processes. Therefore they are referred to as antibiotics (anti means
against and biotic means life).
Penicillin was the first antibiotic to be discovered. Alexander Fleming isolated penicillin in
1929 from a mould Pencillium notatum. Penicillin has been used for the treating diseases
caused by several bacteria. It has been eeffectively used from treatment of pneumonia,
bronchitis, sore throat, abscesses, etc.
Later on attempts have been made to improve the quality of penicillin. It has led to the discovery
of different varieties of penicillin. For example, Penicillin G (also known as benzyl pencillin),
penicillin F, penicillin K are the more common varieties of penicillin.

Ampicillin and amoxicillin are the semi-synthetic modifications of penicillin. In this case the
metabolic product of mould is obtained and then some reactions are carried out to bring the
desired changes in the antibiotic molecule to get ampicillion or amoxicillin.
Attempts are being made to discover better and better antibiotics. This search for finding
better antibiotics is a never-ending process. Now a large number of antibiotics are available.
Some examples are streptomycin and chloromycetin (chloroamphenicol) and tetracycline.

Streptomycin is used for the treatment of tuberculosis (TB). Chloromycetin is used for the
treatment of typhoid. Tetracycline is used for the treatment of several diseases.
Broad-spectrum antibiotics are those antibiotics, which kill a wide range of disease-causing
microorganisms.

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Broad-spectrum antibiotics can be used for treatment of several diseases. For example,
streptomycin, tetracycline and chloroamphenicol are broad-spectrum antibiotics. Narrow
spectrum antibiotics are effective in the treatment of a few diseases.
Allergic Reactions of Antibiotics
Some people may show allergic reactions to some antibiotics. These reactions may be mild
like rashes appearing on the skin or may be very serious and can even be fatal. You might
have observed that a doctor gives a small dose of antibiotic by injection and then waits for
some time to watch if there is any unwanted reaction. If there is no adverse (bad) reaction,
then only the doctor gives the full dose of the antibiotic.
8. Tranquilizers and Hypnotics
Tranquilizers and hypnotics are used to reduce anxiety, and they also make a person calm.
Sleeping pills are made up of these compounds. Most of them are habit-forming. Their
indiscriminate and over use should be avoided. Otherwise it may lead to addiction and many
other complications.

Luminal, seconal and equanil are the most commonly used transquilizers. Barbituric acid and
some other compounds related to barbituric acid are used in making sleeping pills.

9. Fertility Control Medicines

It is a concern of everyone to control human population. Medicines are available which help
prevent pregnancy. The medicines, which help prevent pregnancy, are known as
contraceptives. These are generally in the form of tablets and are to be taken regularly by
females. Chemicals like norethindrone and mestranol are used as contraceptives (birth control
pills). Chemically these are similar to female sex hormones.

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The birth control pills may have some side effects in some cases. Therefore, the birth control
its should be used under the guidance of some expert.

35.3 Hazards of Self Medication

Then medicines are taken by a patient without the advice of a qualified doctor, it is called
self-mediation.

Self-medication is very harmful and dangerous practice. One should never try self-medication.
Some of the harmful effects are :

1. A medicine, which has worked well for some one, may not be good for you and can
even cause some serious harm.

2. You may take a medicine in quantity more than necessary. It may be harmful for you.

3. You may take quantity less than necessary. The disease-causing microorganisms may
gain resistance to the medicine and the medicine may become ineffective.

You should avoid self-medication. Without advice of a doctor avoid use of common medicines
over prolong periods. Improper use of even most common medicines, which are readily
available without a prescription of a doctor, can have harmful effect.

The medicines, which you can buy without a prescription of a doctor, are called over-the-
counter medicines. For example cough syrups, crocin, aspirin, etc are over the counter
medicines.

The medicines, which you can buy after showing a prescription of a qaualified doctor, are
known as scheduled drugs. Imporper use of scheduled drugs is likely to cause more serious
problems. Therefore, their sale is controlled and regulated by the government.

Most of good chemists do not sell scheduled medicines without a proper prescription. Some
Irresponsible chemists may sell such medicines without a prescription. It is not a good practice
you should not encourage it.

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 35.4 Alternative Systems of Medicines
Allopathic system of medicine mostly make use of chemicals as medicines. It takes several
years of testing and trails on animals and humans, before an allopathic medicine is made
available in the market. It's effects, side-effects, efficiency, fixing recommended dose, etc.
are extensively studied on scientific lines before it is sold in a market. Governments all over
the world create several laws, rules and regulations regarding production, quality control,
sale, etc. in the interest of public safety. The allopathic system is popularly known as the
western system or the Enligh system of medicine.
In addition to the allopathic system of medicine there are a large number of other systems of
medicine which are used in different parts of the world. Some of them are Ayurvedic, Unani,
Homeopathic, Chinese, Tibetan, conventional, tribal, traditional, etc. Some of these systems
are more popular in a particular part of world. Some are localised to a small area or used by a
small group of people. In some cases there may not be any written record about the system of
treatment and the knowledge is passed on by word of mouth from generation to generation.
Many of these systems are not popular over a large population. It may be due to lack of
proper knowledge of the system or due to lack of adequate study of the alternative systems of
medicine. There is an urgent need to extensively study all types of systems so as to make best
use of knowledge for the benefit of manking.

Intext Questions 35.3

1. What is the use of transquilizers and hypnotics ?
..................................................................................................................................
2. Give one example of transquilizer.
..................................................................................................................................
3. What are contraceptives ?
..................................................................................................................................
4. What are over the counter medicines ?
..................................................................................................................................

What You Have Learnt

• Medicines are the chemicals or mixture of chemicals used for the prevention, cure,
treatment, management of diseases and disorders or recovery of patients.
• Medicines are obtained from plants or parts of plants or synthesized in laboratories.

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• Medicines may contain only one chemical compound or it may be mixture of several
compounds.
• Drugs may be the crude mixtures and the identity of all the chemical components and
their amount present in them may not be accurately known.
• Antipyretics are used to reduce body temperature for example aspirin and paracetamol.
• Analgesics reduce body pain for example aspirin and morphine.
• Antiseptics kill microorganisms and are safe to be used on a living tissue while
disinfectants are used on inanimate objects.
• Aqueous solution (less than 0.2 percent) of phenol is used as an antiseptic. In higher
concentrations phenol is used as a disinfectant.
• Antibiotics are the metabolic products produces by certain microorganisms which can
kill some microorganisms. For example penicillin, streptomycin, tetracycline, etc.
• Broad spectrum antibiotics can kill several different microorganisms, therefore, can cure
several diseases.
• Local anaesthetics cause numbness, loss of sensation of pain over a small area. General
anaesthetics cause loss of sensation of the whole body.
• Self-medication is the use of medicines by patients without proper advice of a qualified
doctor. It can be very harmful to the patient.
• In addition to the allopathic system of medicine there are several other alternative systems
of medicine in use. Ayurvedic, Unani, Homeopathic, Chinese, Tibetan, conventional,
tribal, traditional are some of the examples.

Terminal Exercise
1. How are medicines classified ?
2. Who isolated the first antibiotic ?
3. Name a medicine, which is used as analgesic as well as antipyretic.
4. What is a non-narcotic analgesic ?
5. Why is 2.0 percent aqueous solution of phenol used as a disinfectant ?
6. What do you understand by allergic reactions of antibiotics ?
7. What are scheduled drugs ?
8. Which medicines can you purchase without the prescription from a doctor ?
9. What is self-medication? Describe some of its ill effects.

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10. What are the alternate systems of medicine ?

Answers to Intext Questions

35.1
1. Medicines are all those substances or formulations which are used for cure, treatment,
prevention of diseases or disorders and recovery of a patient.
2. True
3. Pharmaceuticals are the chemicals which are used as medicines.
4. Reserpine

35.2
1. Aspirin and Paracetamol.
2. Morphine.
3. Disinfectants kill germs but can damage living tissues Anticeptics are safe for living
tissues and yet kill germs.
4. Medicines used to neutralise excess acid in the stomach. Magnesium hydroxides and
sodium carbonate.
5. Local anesthetics cause loss of sensation of pain over a small area while general
anesthetics cause loss of concsiousness.
6. Metabolic products of certain microorganisms and can kill some other microorganisms.
Pencillin is an example of antibiotic.
7. Acetyl salicylic acid, N-acetyl P-amino phenol.

35.3
1. Tranquilizers and hypnotics are used to reduce anxiety and these also make a person
calm.
2. luminal
3. Contraceptives are the medicines used for prevention of pregnancy.
4. Over-the-counter medicines are those which can be purchased without a prescription
from a doctor.

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 36
BUILDING MATERIALS

In the first four lessons of this module you have learnt about petrochemicals and the synthetic
organic chemicals that are derived from petroleum feedstock. In this lesson you will learn
about materials produced in industry that are primarily inorganic in nature and are building
materials.
Every creature needs a safe place to live in - be it a cave, a burrow or nest and so on. The
prehistoric man took shelter in caves to save himself from the beasts and the fury of nature.
Since then different natural resources have been exploited, in native as well as in the modified
forms, along with the synthetic materials to make living more comfortable. Today a large
number of materials like, cement, steel, glass, ceramics, stone, timber, paints and varnishes
etc. are used for making buildings and other structures that are strong, durable and safe.
Chemistry has an important role in the development of these materials, their mode of action
and newer applications. In this lesson you will learn about some of the building (or construction)
materials in terms of their composition, preparation and applications.

Objectives
After reading this lesson you will be able to :
• define cement;
• list the raw materials used for the manufacture of Portland cement;
• discuss the process of setting of cement;
• describe different types of special cements and their applications;
• describe and differentiate between mortar, concrete and R.C.C;
• define glass;
• list the raw materials used for the manufacture of glass and outline their importance;
• describe the process of manufacture of glass;
• discuss general properties of glass;

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• describe different types of glass and their uses;
• define the term, 'Ceramics';
• list different types of clay products and
• describe and distinguish between different types of clay products.

36.1 Cement
The word cement means 'to cohere on unite'. Cement can be identified as an inorganic material
which when mixed with water gradually sets to give a hard mass. This is used to join (or
cement) to gether bricks, stones, etc. to create different structures. Cement is in use since
antiquity. The Egyptian pyramids and many of the ancient Greek structures were constructed
by using some kind of cementing materials.
There are different types of cements like, natural cement, Puzzolana cement, slag cement and
Portland cement, etc. These differ in their composition, mode of preparation and applications.
We shall discuss about the Portland cement which is currently the most commonly used cement
in the construction works. In India manufacture of Portland cement started about a hundred
years ago (1904) by South India Industries Ltd.. Today, Indian cement industry manufactures
over100 million tonnes of cement per year.

36.1.1 Manufacture of Portland Cement

Portland cement was invented in 1824 by calcinating (or burning) argillaceous limestone
(limestone containing 20-40% of clay). it was called as Portland cement because the concrete
(a mixture of cement and gravel or sand) obtained from it resembled the building stone from
Isle of Portand in Englad. Today many types of Portland cement with different compositions
are available for different applications.
a) Raw Materials : a number of raw materials are required for the manufacture of Portland
cement. These can be broadly put into two categories :
i) Calcareous (rich in calcium) material : like lime stone (CaCO3), chalk etc. are the
principal constituent of cement and need to be used in appropriate amounts. The excess
of lime or its deficiency, both reduce the strength of the cement.
ii) Argillaceous material : These are rich in silica and alumina for example, clay (a mixture
of Al2O3, and SiO2), shale, slate or volcanic material etc. These impart strength to the
cement and affect the setting properties of the cement.
In addition to the above, powdered coal or fuel oil and gypsum(CaSO4.2H 2O) are also
used in the manufacture of cement. Addition of gypsum controls the setting time of the
cement. The amount of gypsum has to be carefully controlled because if it is present in
more than required amounts it causes cracks.

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b) Manufacturing process : To prepare cement the raw materials are mixed in appropriate
amounts, crushed to powder and then calcinated (burned or fired) There are two types
of manufacturing processes wet process and dry process depending on whether the
mixing and grinding of raw materials is done in wet or in dry conditions.
i) Wet process : In this method the raw materials are treated with water (about 35-40% by
mass) and then powdered in ball mills. These raw materials can be treated individually
or in the form of a mixture. The paste like material so obtained is then sieved and
powdered further if necessary. This is then passed through a rotary kiln (Fig. 36.1) for
calcination.

Chimney
Raw Material
Hopper
Rotary kiln
Gas

Clinker
Cold Clinker
discharge Cooler

Fig. 36.1 : Rotary kiln used in the manufacture of cement.

The furnace consists of a slightly inclined long pipe that revolves slowly around its own
aixs. The mixture paste is fed into the long pipe through a hopper installed at the top of
the pipe. As it moves down it meets the hot gases going upwards. In the high temperature
of the kiln, the raw materials undergo a number of chemical reactions to form many
new compounds. The mixture comes out of the kiln in the form of small greenish black
or grey coloured hard balls known as clinkers which falls into a second pipe called
cooler. These clinkers are then allowed to cool and powdered. To this powder a small
amount (2-3%) of gypsum is added and powdered again to obtain cement.

ii) Dry method : in this method the raw materials are mixed and powdered in ball mills.
This is then palces into rotating panniers whose walls are fitted with water sprays. In
the panniers the centrifugal force keeps the material in contact with the wall where it
gets somewhat wet and takes the shape of small spheres. These are then passed through
the rotary kiln as described above.
c) Composition of cement
The Portland cement contains calcium aluminium silicates. It contains more than one
compounds. The approximate percentage of different elements present in Portland cement
are expressed as their oxides (Table 36.1).

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 Table 36.1 : Approximate percentage composition of Portland cement

Oxide Approximate Average

percentage percentage

CaO 60-67 64
SiO 2 17-25 22.5
Al 2O 3 3-8 6.5
Fe 2O 3 0.5-6.0 2.0
MgO 0.1-4.0 2.0
SO 3 1.0-3.0 1.5
K2O, Na 2O 0.4-1.3 -

The first four of the oxides listed above, provide the basic compounds while the rest are
referred to as secondary compounds. The oxides listed above do not exist as such. CaO and
MgO absorb moisture and CO2 from the atmosphere to give hydroxides and carbonates.
Chemistry of Portlant cement has been well understood. It contains different compounds
which are known as Bogue's compounds. They are so named because they were identified
by R.H. Bogue. The Bogue's compounds, their chemical formulae, and abbreviations and
typical percentages are given in Table 36.2
Table 36.2 : Bogue's compounds in Portland cement
Name of the compound Chemical formula* Abbreviation Typical percentage
Tricalcium Silicate 3CaOSiO 2 C 3S 54.1
Dicalcium Silicate 2CaOSiO 2 C 2S 16.6
Tricalcium Aluminate 3caOAl2O3 C3A 10.8
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrate 4CaO.Al 2O3Fe 2O3 C4AF 9.1

70.80% of cement is C2S and C3S.

In addition to the four compounds listed i Table 36.2, a number of some other compounds
have been discovered in Portland cement but these four compounds are the most important.
The amount of these compounds in a sample of cement can vary and determine the properties
of cement.

36.1.2 Setting and Hardening of Cement

In contact with water cement sets to a hard mass and this phenomenon is called setting of
cement. The setting and hardening of cement is a process that takes a long time. A number of
theories have been proposed for the setting of cement and there is a general agreement that it
involves two important processes. These are hydration and crystallisation. Hydration is the

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 initial stage when water is mixed with cement. It is followed by crystallization of different
compounds.
The mixture of cement and water forms a 'cement paste'. In this the constituents of cement
get hydrated and form gel and crystalline products. Since the solubility ofthese products in
water is low, they cause the paste to get stiffened. (harden) This initial stiffening of the paste
is called setting of the cement. The setting process is complete in about 25 hours. The paste
6
then continues to harden over a long period of time. This process is called hardening and
F
involves further gel information and gradual crystallisation of the products of hydration. The
process of hardening is almost complete in about a year, however this process continues for
over a decade. The two processes are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 36.2

Crystalline
hardmass

Fig 36.2 : Setting of Cement

Different compounds listed in Table 36.2 have different characteristic like rates of hydration,
setting time and strength. These 'set' in different time span and contribute to the development
of strength of the cement over a long period of time. In terms of chemistry, the first reaction of
cement with water is as follows
C3A + 6H2O → C3A. 6H2O
This reaction proceeds with the evolution of heat. After a few hours of contact with water, the
following reaction starts
C3 S + H 2 O → C2S + C.H2O
These processes cause the initial setting of the cement. In the second stage, i.e., hardening of
cement involves the following reactions.
C3A. 6H2O + C.H2O + 6H2O → C4A .13H2O
C3S + n H2O → C2S. n H2O

36.1.3 Special Cements

Portland cement also known as normal setting or ordinary cement is widely used for most of
the construction activity like construction of buildings, roads, bridges and dams, etc.. However,
it is unsuitable for application under corrosive conditions. Such applications require special

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characteristics in the cement. These have lead to the development of special cements. Some
of these are given below :
a) High alumina cement : This is prepared by fusing a mixture of lime stone and bauxite
(an ore of aluminium containing some impurities of iron oxide, magnesium silicate,
etc.) at high temperature. It has high rate of setting and hardening and can achieve full
strength in about 24h. It is also known as quick setting cement. It has superior chemical
resistance so that it can be used safely, with sea water and wate containing sulphates.
b) White Portland : It is an expensive variety of normal setting Portland cement
characterized by the absence of iron compounds. The absence of iron compounds gives
it the whiteness. The white cement is expensive because its manufacture requires high
purity of the raw materials viz. lime stone and clay. It finds applications in the
manufacture of tiels and repairing of marble structures. White Portland cement has an
added advantage that is can be mixed with different colouring materials (pigments) to
give aesthetic application. Chromium oxide gives it a green coloration, cobalt oxide
imparts blue coloration.
c) Sorel cement (magnesium oxychloride cement) : This cement was discovered by a
French Chemist Sorel and is obtained by the addition of 20% solutio of MgCl2 to a
finely ground mixture of calcinated magnesite and caustic (NaOH). The main constituent
is magnesium oxychloride (3MgO. MgCl2. 12H2O). Sorel cement is used primarily for
flooring and is also used in dental fillings.
d) Water proof cement : This is obtained by mixing water proof substance like, calcium
or aluminium stearate during grinding while making Portland cement. Sometimes
substances like soaps, waxes and bitumen etc. are also used to achieve water repelling
properties.

36.1.4 Applications of Cement

Cement is generally not used as such, it is normally mixed with certain fillers or additive like
sand, crushes stone, gravel, slag, etc. Depending on the nature of the filler or additive and the
composition there are three broad types of mixtures. These are
i) Mortar
ii) Concrete and
iii) Reinforced Concrete Construction (RCC)
i) Mortar : It is obtained by adding water to a mixture of cement and sand. The resulting
paste is called cement-mortar. Mortar finds applications in binding bricks and stones, etc.
and also in plastering the walls.
ii) Concrete : It is formed by making a mixture of cement and fine and coarse inert mineral
aggregates like sand, coarse rock, stone, gravel or slag etc. The concrete can be put into any
desired shape. Concrete finds applications in making roads, roofs, columns in the building,
foundation works etc.

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iii) Reinforced Concrete Construction (R.C.C.) : Sometimes the constructed structure, say
a bridge, has to take a lot of load. A plain concrete construction is not appropriate for such an
application because concrete has low ability to withstand tension. In such cases, the structure
is strengthened (or reinforced) by incorporating a net work of iron or steel rods which helps to
take up load. This type of construction is called Reinforced Concrete Construction (R.C.C)
and is used in the construction of bridges, arches, roofs, girders, floor beams, etc.

Intext Questions 36.1

1. What is Portland Cement ?
..................................................................................................................................
2. What are its main raw materials of Portland cement ?
..................................................................................................................................
3. What do you understand by setting of cement ?
..................................................................................................................................
4. List the names of different types of special cements.
..................................................................................................................................

36.2 Glass
Your are familiar with glass and its common applications. Glass is defined as 'a rigid,
amorphous transparent or translucent supercooled liquid'. It means that glass is not a solid but
a rigid material that may allow light to pass through. Further, it is amorphous which means
that it lacks regular three dimensional internal structure characteristic of crystalline solids.
Glass has extremely high viscosity and normally does not set over a reasonably long period of
time.

Glass is obtained bythe fusion of sand, alkali metal carbonates alkaline earth carbonates and
some other additives. We can not give it a particular chemical formula, however, glass can be
roughly represented as x MI2O . y MIIO . 6SiO2 where MI = refers to an alkali metal like Na, K,
etc. while MII, indicates a bivalent metal like Ca, Pb, etc. Glass is a mixture of silicates of
alkali and alkaline earth metals with excess of silica. Some verities of glasses may contain
small amount of Al2O3, Fe2O3, etc. Some common variety of glasses are given in Table 36.3
Table 36.3 : Types of Glass

Types of glass MI MII Approximate formula

Soda lime galss or Na Ca Na 2O.CaO.6SiO 2
Soda glass
Potash lead glass K Pb K2O.PbO.6SiO 2

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Nowdays several formulations of glass are known. Silica, soda and lime are main constituents
of all glasses. Let us learn about the various raw materials used in manufacture of glass and
their roles.

36.2.1 Manufacture of Glass

A large variety of glasses are known today and these are prepared by varying the composition
of the raw materials. The basic raw materials and their role in determing the properties of a
glass are briefly outlined below :

a) Raw materials

i) Sand It is the source of silica. - the major component of glass. The sand used for
manufacture of glass. must be almost pure quartz containing about 99.1-99.7% SiO2.
The sand particles should be uniform and of moderate size. Larger particles are slow to
react while very fine particles cause violent reaction.

ii) Alkali metal compounds : (Na2CO3, K2CO3, NaNO3, KNO3, Na2SO4). These are the
sources of Na2O (in soda glass) and K2O (in hard glass).

iii) Alkaline earth compounds : (CaO, CaCO3 and BaCO3). These are provided by lime
stone and burnt lime from dolomite (CaCO3, MgCO3). Dolomite also provides MgO
which helps in controlling the physical properties of glass. Alkaline Earth compounds
contribute towards the high refractive index of glass.

iv) Heavy metal oxides (ZnO, PbO, Pb2O4 and Pb3O4) Litharge (PbO) or red lead (Pb 3O4)
are used as a source of lead in flint glass or crystal glass. It provides lusture and high
refractive index to the glass.

v) Feldspar is a cheap source of Al2O3. Feldspars have a general formula M12O.Al 2O3
6SiO2 where MI represents Na or K or both. Therefore, feldspar has an added advantage
as it provides Na2O, K2O and silica also. Alumina (Al2O3) makes glass resistant to
sudden changes in temperature.

vi) Borax is a minor component and is a source of boron oxide (B2O3) and Na2O. Borax
reduces the coefficient of expansion of glass and increases its fusibility, chemical
durability and refinement.

vii) Cullets or pieces of broken glass are generally added to the raw mateial to increase the
fusibility of the glass produced from it. In other words it lowers the temperature of
fusion so that we can manufacture glass at a lower temperature. The cullets may contribute
from 10% to 80% of the raw material and thus provide a good way of utilising the waste
glass.

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viii) Besides the above mentioned raw materials certain metallic oxides are also added to
impart a colour (if desired) to the glass. Some of the principal glass colorants are given
in Table 36.4.

Table 36.4 : Some common glass colorants

Colorant Formula Colour imparted

Oxides of iron FeO, Fe2O3 Light green or bottle green
Chromium compounds Cr 2O3, K2CrO4 Green tending to yellow
Cobalt oxide CoO Blue
Cadmium sulphate CdSO4 Yellow
Gold powder Colloidal Au Shades of ruby

b) Manufacturing Process : The raw materials including the cullets are powdered in a
grinding mill and mixed in proper proportion. This powder is then fused in an open or covered
furnace. Certain decolorants like MnO, etc., are added and the heating is continued till the
evolution of gases stops. The coloring material is added at this stage and the heating is continued
till a homogenous mass is obtained. It is then gradually cooled to a certain degree of plasticity
so that it can be handled easily. The glass so obtained is called mother glass. It is then blown
or moulded to get the desired shape. The articles are then cooled slowly. This process is
called annealing. The finished glass product is then obtained after processes like cleaning,
cutting, grinding and polishing, etc.

36.2.2 Properties of Glass

• It is amorphous in nature, having low range of internal order.
• It does not have a sharp melting point. On heating glass gradually becomes softer and
softer and eventually starts flowing.
• On cooling, the hot liquid gradullay cools to a viscous liquid which can then be
transformed into articles of desired shape.
• It may be transparent or translucent.
• It is quite inert and is not readily affected by ordinary chemicals except hydrogen fluoride
and some alkalis.
• It has high compressor strength It lacks ordered internal structure.
• It is an insulator of heat and electricity.

36.2.3 Types of Glasses

Commercialy glasses are available in a wide variety. These are used for diverse applications

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from simple window pane to bullet proof glass. Some types of glasses and their uses are
discussed below.
i) Soda glass or soft glass : This is commonly used, low quality, cheap glass.It constitutes
about 95% of all the glass manufactured and is prepared by fusing sand (silica), calcium
carbonate (lime stone) and soda ash (Na 2CO 3). The approximate composition in
Na2O.CaO.6SiO2. It contain 70-74% SiO2, 8 to 13% CaO and 13-18% Na2O. About
2% of Al2O3 may be present as impurity. It is called soft glass because it soften at a
relatively lower temperature. The soda glass also finds application in making eletric
bulbs, window panes, bottles, jars, etc.
ii) Lead Glass or flint glass : Is prepared by fusing litharge (PbO), potassium carbonate,
soda ash, lime stone and silica in proper proportions. The approximate comsition is
K2O.PbO.6SiO2. It contains about 45% silica and variable amounts of lead oxide, Na2O,
K2O and CaO. High lead-content glasses are used as shields against x-rays and γ-rays.
These are used in the buildings in which x-ray and γ-ray scintillation units are installed.
These may even be used in nuclear installations to protect from nuclear radiations.
Besides, these applications, lead glass finds extensive use in making optical components
like lenses, quality table ware (crystal ware), ornamental or artificial jewellery imitating
artificial precious stones and eletrical insulations, etc.,
iii) Toughened (or tempered) glass : This is not exactly a type of glass but a kind of
treatment done to the glass article before annealing. the hot article is dipped in an hot oil
both. The outer layer of the article shrinks and hardens whereas the internal layer is in a
state of stress or tension. If the surface is broken, it shatters into many pieces. This
procedure is called tempering of glass. Such a glass is very strong and tough and can
withstand higher mechanical and thermal shock. Such glasses are used in making
automatic doors, large showcase. Toughened glass also finds application as wind shields
of cars, trucks and aeroplanes.
iv) Laminated safety glass : It is obtained by pressing or bonding together two or three
flat glass sheets having a thin layer of polyvinyl butyral plastic or vinyl acute resin and
a bonding material (adhesive) between them. These may be cemented with the help of
heat and pressure. The glass becomes tough on cooling and can withstand sudden changes
in temperature and process. On breaking, the glass pieces do not fly off i.e. it is shatter
proof. Such a glass is an idea material to be used for entrance doors, sliding doors, sky
lights, sloped looking windows of tall buildings, etc. These also find application as the
wind screens of cars and automobiles. If several layers of glass are condensed together
with alternating layer of vinyl resin we can get bullet proof glass.
v) Insulated Glass : It is prepared by entrapping insulting materials like anhydrous (or
dry) air between two panes of glass thermally sealed along the perimeter. Such glass
modules are used in places where inside of the building is to be protected from the
drastic climatic conditions outside. In extreme weather conditions a module containing
three panes and two layers of insulation may be used. These modules keep the room
cool during summer and warm in winters.

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In addition to the above mentioned, a number of other types of glass are known that find
applications in making tableware, chemical containers and apparatus, optical lenses, goggles,
neon sings, cathode ray tubes and many more.

Intext Questions 36.2

1. List different raw materials used in the manufacture of glass.
..................................................................................................................................
2. What is the chemical composition of soda glass ?
..................................................................................................................................
3. What do you understand by tampering of glass ?
..................................................................................................................................
4. Give two examples of substances used as colourants for glass.
..................................................................................................................................

36.3 Ceramics
The term ceramics originated from the Greek word, keramos meaning 'burnt stuff'. It refers
to a broad class of chemically inorganic materials that are prepared by high temperature
processes or are used at high temperatures. These are broadly grouped into following classes:
• Clay products
• Refractories
In this section we shall discuss about clay products.
Clay Products
The clay products are sub divided into the following types.
i) Structural clay products : These contain iron oxide as one of the important constituents
and are used for making bricks, terra cotta, sewer pipes and tiles, etc.
ii) White wares or white pottery : These are prepared from china clay (or Kaoline) mixed
with some fusible silicates. These include products like chinaware, porcelain stoneware
and vitreous ware.
iii) Chemical stoneware : These are prepared from refractory clays mixed with crushed
stones and pottery, etc. which are then glazed. These are generally quite strong and
non-porous products. These find applications in making sanitary fixtures like bath tubs,
wash basins, sinks and drainage pipes, etc.
Before proceeding with the details of these clay products let us learn about clay.

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36.3.1 What is Clay ?
Geographically, clays are the products obtained by the disintegration of rocks over long periods
of time due to the effects of weather. These consist mainly of aluminium silicates along with
other substances like, mica, quartz and sand, etc. some of the common clays and their chemical
formulae are :

i) Beidellite Al 2O3 2SiO2.H 2O

ii) Kaolinite Al 2O3 2SiO2.2H2O

iii) Halloysite Al2O3 2SiO2.3H2O

These differ only in terms of the number of water molecules of hydration. Clays have an
important property called plasticity because of which on mixing with water these form a
plastic like mass which can be easily moulded into desired shape. You would have observed
pottery makers turning clays into various shapes. The wet clay has sufficient rigidity so that it
does not get deformed on standing.

36.3.2 Structural Clay Products

The structural clay products like bricks and tiles are prepared from common clay containing
iron oxide and other impurities.

i) Bricks : These are one of the oldest and extensively used construction material. These are
cheap, locally available (other than on hilly areas) and have good strength. The main raw
materials used for preparing bricks are clay (alumina) and sand (silica). Small amounts of
lime (to reduce shrinkage and give strength) and iron oxide (to help in the fusion of the brick
particles and for giving colour to the bricks) are also added. Manufacture of bricks involves
the following steps:
• Kneading of clay with water till homogenous
• Moulding and drying of bricks
• Baking of dry bricks

Now a days bricks are being prepared from fly ash-the waste product of thermal power stations.

ii) Tiles : These are prepared from better quality clay (free from pebbles, grit and other
impurities) and are used in flooring, making pavements and roofs, etc.. Superior quality tiles
are used for decorative purposes. Finely ground mixture of glass and pottery are also added to
the clay while preparing tiles, this provides strength to the tiles.

36.3.3 Whitewares and White Pottery

These are clay products having white or pale-cream colour. Whitewares are prepared from

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china clay, feldspar (K2O. Al2O3 SiO2.) and sand or flint (SiO2). These are used in varying
amounts to get different products. The raw materials contain none or negligible amounts of
iron oxides.

To prepare whitewares the raw materials are ground to a fine powder and mixed with water.
The wet clay is moulded into desired shape, dried, baked and glazed. During glazing the
pores of the clay are plugged (closed) so as to make it water proof and shining. Glazing is
done in a number of ways depending on requirement. Glazing materials used are glass forming
materials like quartz, feldspar, lead and boro-silicates, etc. along with some coloring
components. These are mixed with water to form a colloidal solution (called slip-glaze). The
ware to be glazed is removed from the furnace and dipped into glaze-slip and continued to
bake at high temperature. The glaze material fuses and fills the pores and provides a glossy
surface to the ware.

36.3.4 Chemical Stoneware

As the name suggests, the stonewares are quite strong like stone. These are obtained by
heating the raw materials at high temperature. A typical stoneware can be prepared by grinding
a mixture of clay, kaoline, feldspar and sand. The plastic like mass so obtained is moulded
into the desired shape. The shaped articles are dried and heated at about 1273 K. These are
then salt glazed at 1373 K. In salt glazing the hot article is sprinkled with sodium chloride and
heated a high temperature. Sodium chloride vapourises and reacts with the ware producing
sodium aluminium silicate. This is highly fusible and fills the pores on the surface of the
article. This glazing treatment makes the article impermeable to liquids.
The chemical stonewares have low absorption power, high density and chemical resistance.
These differ from the whitewares in terms of their colour. The stonewares are used in making
sanitary fixtures like bath tubs, wash basins, sinks and drainage pipes, etc.

Intext Questions 36.3

1. What are ceramics ?
..................................................................................................................................
2. What are clay products ? How are these classified ?
..................................................................................................................................
3. List the raw materials used to prepare white wares.
..................................................................................................................................
4. List different uses of chemical stone wares.
..................................................................................................................................

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 What You Have Learnt
• Cement is an inorganic material which when mixed with water gradually sets to give a
hard mass and can be used to join together bricks, stones, etc.
• There are different types of cement that differ in their composition, mode of preparation
and applications. Of these, Portland cement is currently the most commonly used cement.
• Portland cement contains a number of oxides which exist as complex compounds like,
tricalcium silicate, dicalcium silicate, tricalcium aluminate, tetracalcium aluminoferrate,
etc. These are called Bogue's compounds.
• Setting of cement involves two important processes hydration and crystallisation. These
processes take long period of time.
• Cement is used in combination with a number of additives like sand, coarse rock, stone,
gravel or slag, etc. depending on the application. These combinations are called mortar
or concrete depending on the additive. A concrete reinforced with steel is called R.C.C.
• Glass is 'a rigid amorphous transparent or translucent supercooled liquid' which lacks
regular three dimensional internal sturcture and has extremly high viscosity.
• Glass can be roughly represented as x MI2O . y MIIO . 6SiO2 where MI and MII are alkali
metal and bivalent metals respectively.
• For manufacturing glass, the raw materials like sand, feldspar, alkali metal and alkaline
earth compounds, heavy metal oxides, etc. are mixed in proper proportion, powered,
and fused in a furnace.
• Commercial glasses are available in a wide variety. There are used for diverse
applications from simple window panes to bullet proof glass etc.
• Ceramics refer to a broad class of chemically inorganic materials that are prepared by
high temperature processes or are used at high temperatures and are classified as clay
products and refractories.
• Clay consists of a mixture of aluminosilicates differing in number of water of
crystallisation.
• Clay products are classified into structural clay products (like bricks and tiles etc),
Whitewares and stonewares.

Terminal Exercise
1. Match the following
i) Mixing of water and cement leads to Crystallisation
ii) Second stage of hardening of cement Sorel cement
iii) Cement with good chemical resistance Mortar
iv) Cement used in repairing marble High alumnina Cement
v) Cement used in dental fillings White cement
2. Describe the process of manufacture of cement.
3. What are Bogue's compounds and what is their importance.

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4. Discuss different applications of cement.
5. What is the composition of white cement ? Give some of its applications.
6. Differentiate between
i) Mortar and concrete
ii) Concrete and R.C.C.
7. Describe the process of manufacture of glass.
8. List different raw materials used for the manufacture of bricks and indicate their role.
9. What do you understand by the term, 'glazing'? Why are certain clay products glazed ?

Answers to Intext Questions

36.1
1. The Portland cement is the most commonly used cement. It contains a number of sliticates
like calcium aluminio silicates.
2. Calcareous materials like limestone and chalk and argillaceous materials like, clay, shale
or slate, etc. are the principal constituent of cement. In addition to these, powdered coal
or fuel oil and gypsum (CaSO 4.2H2O) are also used.
3. Setting of cement involves two important processes called hydration and crystallisation.
These processes take a long time. On mixing water and cement the constituents of the
cement get hydrated and form gel and crystalline products. These cause the paste to
stiffen and it is called setting of cement.
4. There are different types of cement with special properties. Some of the special cement
are : high alumina cement, while Portland, sorel cement and water proof cement.

36.2
1. Sand, Alkali metal compounds, alkaline earth compounds, heavy metal oxides, borax
& cullets.
2. Please refer to section 36.2.3
3. Please refer to 36.2.3.
4. oxides of iron and gold powder

36.3
1. Please refer to section 36.3
2. Pleae refer to section 36.3.1
3. China clay, feldspar and sand
4. Bath tubs, wash basins, sinks & drainage pipes.

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 SENIOR SECONDARY COURSE
CHEMISTRY
Student's Assignment - 7
Maximum Marks : 50 Time : 2.30 Hrs.

INSTRUCTIONS :
• Answer all the questions on a separate sheet of paper.
• Give the following information on your answer sheet.
- Name
- Enrolment Number
- Subject
- Assignmnet Number
- Address
• Get your assignment checked by the subject teacher at your study centre so that you get
positive feedback about your performance.

Do not send your assignment to APOSS

1. a) List two biotic components of environment.

b) What are secondary (anthropogenic) pollutants ?
c) Name one harmful effect of CO as a pollutant.
d) Define surface water.
e) List two sources of ground water pollution.
f) Name the element that causes Minamata disease
g) What is a heavy metal ?
h) List two ways by which lead enters the human body.
i) List two ways (anthropogenic) by which ionizing radiations are exposed in the
atmosphere.
j) Write names of monomers of terylene. (1x10=10)
2. a) Define pollution. List two sources of natural pollutans.
b) Write the sources and the effects of the following pollutants i) So2 ii) Lead.
c) Define water pollution. What are the two basic factors responsible for water pollution
d) What eutrophication. How is it causes ?
e) What are the four man-made sources of water pollution ?
f) What are the three stages of water treatment. Explain any one stage.
g) List six sources by which environement is contaminated by heavy metal.
h) Why is it impossible for a nuclar reactor to blow up like a bomb? Explain.

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 i) Differentiate acid dyes from basic dyes.
j) Give two examples of bipplymers. (2x10=20)
3. a) How can heavy metal be removed from rivers and sediments ?
b) List three properties of emulsion paints.
c) Draw a diagram to show the sequence of steps leading to eutrophication of water
bodty ?
d) Define green house effect. Name any four greeenhouse gases and their sources.
(3x4=12)
4. a) Suggest four measures by which exposure of nuclear radiation can be reduced.
b) What are the effects of ozone depletion ? (4x2=8)

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TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW

Abiotic : Non living (physical components of environment

such as soil, water.

Acid precipitation : Pollutant gases such as SO2, NOx are washed out of
atomophere and produce acid precipitation as rain of
snow.

Acid rain : Rain with a pH below 5, containing pollutants such

as SO 2 , NO x, hydrocarbons, O 3 and amonium
sulphate. This rain changes the ecosystem and
damages building.

Aerodic pathway : Chemical reactions occuring in an organism in the

presence of oxygen.

Afforestation : Planation of many trees on a barren land.

Anaerobic bacteria : Bacteria capable of living in the absence of free

oxygen.

Anaerobic pathway : Man made.

Autotrophs : Organisms manufacturing own food such as plants.

α -Particles : Postively charged particles emitted by radioactive

substances equivalent to helium atoms which have
lost their electrons.

Aquatic life : Organisms living water.

Atmoshpheric pollutants : Unfavourable substances in air.

ATP : Adenosine triphoshate, biological energy.

Bioaccumulation : Accumulation of toxic substances (such as DDT) in

the body of organisms.

Biogeochemical cycle : Cyclic transformation of certain essential chemical

elements as they pass from soil and atomsphere
through living components of ecosystem & eventually
returned back to soil and atmosphere.

Biomagnification : Increased accumulation of toxicsubstances along the

food pyramid.

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Biosphere : Part of globe containing living organisms.

Biosynthesis : Living components of the environment e.g. plants,

animals etc.

BOD : Biological (or Biochemical) Oxygen Demand. The

amount in milligrams per litre of dissolved oxygen
required by aerobic bacteria or decompose organic
matter in water solution.

β-particles : A charged particle equivalent to an electron if negatie

or positive emitted from the nucleus in radioactive
decay of fission.

Bronchitis : Inflammation of the membrance lining the bronchial

tubes.

Carbomino haemoglobin : A compound fromed by the combination of CO2 and

haemoglobin in blood.

Carcinogenic : Cacer causing

Coagulation : Clotting or clumping

Compaction : Fertile soil packed closely and firmly to form it a

dense solid mass leaving no air space reducing to a
barren piece of land.

Consumers : Animals which eat plants.

Coronary : Pertaining to heart.

Corrosion : Gradual eating away (degradation) through chemical

action

Crust : Outer layers of the earth.

Decibel : Unit of loudness or measure of physical pressure

extended by sound waves at a given point.

Defense proteins : Antibodies which are responsible for immunity and

resistance against foreign substances entering body.

Deforstation : Cutting down trees in a forest.

Dry deposition : Acid gases are SO2, NOX have effects as dry gases.

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Ecosystem : A biological community and the physical environment
associated with it.

Effluent : Refuse discharged from factories.

Emphy sema : Abnormal distention of an organ or part of the body

especially lungs with air or any other gas.

Environment : Sum total of external influences acting on an

organism.

Eutrophication : Process of aging of abody of water due to growth of

algae. Algae flourish and die and their decay depletes
water of its dissolved oxygen content.

Food chain : Sequence of organisms in which each is food of a

later member of the sequence.

Fossil fuel : Coal, petroleumand gases or liquids derived therefrom.

Flocculants : Chemical agents that cause clumping of undesirable

solids in suspension and then precipitation of these
solids.

Fragile : Delicate, easily broken

Geological time : Chronoligical age of earth

Global warning : Rise in the normal temperature of earth.

Green house effect : Warming of lower layers of atmosphere due to

aborption of short wave length solar radiations.

Ground water : Water below the earth's surface.

Half life : Time required for and unstable element or nuclide to

lose one half of its radioactive intensity in the form
of a α, β and γ radiation.

Halons : Halo carbons - CXFX, CXBX used as antifire agents.

Urbanisation : City living.

Incubation : Keeping at a particular temperature.

Ionision radiation : Radiation having enough energy to cause ionisation

and produce ions in a system.

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Leaching : Process by which organic matter and mineral salts
are washed out of a layer of soil by percolating rain
water.

Marshes : A soft and wet area which suffers from poor drainage
and frequent water logging.

Membrane transport : Movement of molecules acrosscell membranes.

Metabolism : Constructive and destructive chemical changes

occuring in the living organism.

Methaehaemoglobinemia : Presence of methaemoglobin whichis more stable

thanoxyhaemoglobin. Excessive levels of nitrates in
water cause it. Babies suffering from methaemo-
globinemia are called blue babies.

Microbe : A microorganism such as bacterium.

Mitochondria : Cell organelles responsible cellular respiration.

Methanogenic (methanotrophs) : Bacteria which produce CH4 throught their biological

activity.

Nitrifers : Bacteria which convert ammonia into nitrites and

nitrites into nitrates.

Non-biodegradable : Which cannot be broken down by micro organism.

Nuclear reactor : An assembly in which chain reaction is caused to

take place in controlled manner.

Nuclear fusion : A thermonuclear reaction in which positively charged

hydrogen nuclei (protons) unit of fuse to from heliun
with evolution of energy.

Oxygen depletion : Reduction in the oxygen content.

Oil slik : A phenomenon cuased by activities of ships of

eefluents from shore installations. Less volatil
components of oil combine with sea water and form
dark viscous slik which to sea bed or floats of as tar.

Organic Matter : Substance belonging to organisms.

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Ozone hole : A gap in the ozone layer in the atmosphere lying
between 10 to 50km. above the surface of the earth
Ozone hole develops overt antartica each spring and
size of hole corresponds to the concentration of CFC
in polar atmosphere.

PAN : Peroxyacyl nitrates found in photochemical smog.

Particulate matter : Composed of distinct particles

Pesticide : Chemicals used for killing pests such as DDT.

Photochemical oxidants : Ozone, PAN, aldehydes etc. produced by chemical

reaction in the presence of light between usaturated
hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides.

Photochemical smog : A complex mixture of undesirable substances formed

by the action of sunlight on urabn atmosphere
polluted with automobile emission.

Photosynthesis : Sysnthesis of starch from CO 2 and H 2O in the

presence of light and chlorophyll.

Phytotoxic : Harmful to Plants

Plankton : Organisms floating in water.

Producers : Plants which manufacture food for themselves and

eaten by other organisms.

Radioactive fallout : Setting of air borne particles of radioactive dust and

other material resulting from nuclear explosion on
the ground.

Radionuclide : Unstable nuclide undergoing spontaneous

radioactive tranformation with emission of particle
or phton.

Respiration : Process of taking in oxygen laden air and removing

CO2 laden air.

Stratosphere : Region of fupper atmosphere extending from

troposhere to about 15km above earth.

Solar energy : Energy derived from sun.

Surface water : Wate flowing in streams and over the ground surface.

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Swamps : Wet muddy areas.

Tailing X-ray : Analysis of portionns of wahsed ore regarded as too

poor to be treated further. Also called debris.

Thermal : Pertaining to hear.

Fluorisis : Poisoning by excessive used of flurides.

Toxic : Poisonous.

Troposphere : Inner layer of the atmosphere where cloud formatic

occur.

Vehicular combustion : Burning of fuel in a vehicle such as petrol in order

drive it.

γ -ray : High frequency, highly penetrant electro-magnetic

radiation of short wave length emitted from the
nuclear of a radioactive atom.

*****

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 6HQLRU6HFRQGDU\&RXUVH
,17(50(',$7( $3266 &2856(

CHEMISTRY
LABORATORY MANUAL - 4

Co-Ordinator
Neeraj Pratap Singh

A.P. STATE OPEN SCHOOL, HYDERABAD

S.C.E.R.T. Campus, Opp. L.B. Stadium E-gate, Basheerbagh, Hyderabad - 500 001.
Ph : 040-23299568. Website : www.apopenschool.org; E-mail : [email protected]

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 ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Sh. D.S. Bist Dr. Anita Priyadarshini Mrs. Gopa Biswas

Chairman Director (Academic) Dy. Director (Academic)
NIOS, NOIDA NIOS, NOIDA NIOS, NOIDA

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE

Chairman
Prof. A.K. Sharma
Former Director
NCERT, New Delhi

Members
Prof. N.K. Jha Prof. B.S. Saraswat Dr. Vijay Sarda
(Retd. From IIT Delhi (School of Sciences) Reader, Chemistry
4192, Sector-B, Pocket 5 & 6 IGNOU, Maidan Garhi Zakir Hussain College
Vasant Kunj, New Delhi - 110067 New Delhi - 110002
New Delhi-110070
Prof. Sunita Malhotra Ms. Vinita Sharma Sh. K.V. Saxena
School of Sciences PGT, Chemistry Vice Principal
IGNOU, Maidan Garhi Kendriya Vidyalaya No. 3 Govt. Sarvodaya Vidyalaya
New Delhi - 110067 Railway Colony, Mathura. New Delhi - 110048
Dr. Vinod Kumar Dr. K.C. Trikha Dr. V.P. Singh
Associate Professor Reader, Chemistry Principal, DIET (SCERT)
Dept. of Chemistry ARSD College, Delhi
Hanj Raj College, Dhaula Kuan, New Delhi.
Malka Ganj, New Delhi-110007

WRITERS COMMITTEE
Dr. Sulekh Chandra Dr. Rizwa Ahmed Dr. Vinod Kumar
Associate Professor Associate Professor Associate Professor
Department of Chemistry Department of Chemistry Department of Chemistry
Zakhir Husain College Zakhir Husain College Zakhir Husain College
(Univ. of Delhi) (Univ. of Delhi) (Univ. of Delhi)
J.L.N. Marg, J.L.N. Marg, J.L.N. Marg,
New Delhi-110002 New Delhi-110002 New Delhi-110002
Dr. Brajesh Kumar Ms. Ruchi Srivastava Neeraj Pratap Singh
Associate Professor Ex-PGT Course Co-ordinator
Dept. of Chemistry A-246, Kendriya Vihar NIOS, A-24-25
Deshbandhu College Sector-I Institutional Area, Sec-62
New Delhi-110002 Nioda, U.P. Noida, U.P.

GRAPHICS ARTIST
Mr. Mahesh Sharma
Graphic Artist
National Institute of Open Schooling
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 FOREWARD
Dear Lerner,
I welcome you to the Chemistry Course of NIOS at the Senior Secondary
level. It is through experiments only that you can understand the cause and
effect relationship which is the essence of science. Therefore,
experimentation is an important aspect of any curriculum of science subject.
Experiments help in better understanding of the theoretical concepts involved
in the subject.
The academic Depart of National Institute of Open Schooling has been very
consciously active in updating the curriculum of various subjects. Hence,
the curriculum of Chemistry has also been revised. Consequently, the
Laboratory Manual of Chemistry has been revised and updated to match with
the theoretical contents of the revised couse.
This Laboratory Manual will guide you to prepare certain gases, dilute
concentrated acids, compare the reactivity of metals and do many more such
items practically in the laboratory by using the lab equipments.
I hope, the chemistry laboratory manual, in its revised form, will be more
easy and useful to our learners and will make the learning joyful. We welcome
suggestions for further improvement in the Manual.
I wish you a very bright future.

(D.S. Bist)
Chairman

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A Note From the Director

Dear Lerner,
The Academic Department at the National Institute of Open Schooling tries
to bring you new programmes in accordance with your needs and
requirements. After making comprehensive study, we found that our
curriculum is more functional, related to life situations and simple. However,
the task before us was to make it more effective and useful for you. We
invited leading educationists of the country and under their guidance, we have
been able to revise and update the curriculum in the subject of Chemistry in
the light of the National Curriculum Framework, 2005.
While updating the curriculum, we have also removed obsolete, outdated
information and added new, relevant things and tried to make the learning
material attractive and appealing for you.
I hope, you will find the new material interesting and exciting with lots of
activities to do. Any suggestions for further improvement are welcome.

Let me wish you all a happy and successful future.

(Anita Priyadarshini)
Director (Academic)

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 A word with you
Dear Learner,
I welcme you to the Chemistry laboratory course. I hope that you will enter into the laboratory
with lot of enthusiasm to learn and understand many chemical aspects.
The laboratory manual contains introduction, basic laboratory techniques, laboratory safety
measures, 15 experiments and finally the apprendices.
After doing experiments 1 to 7, you will learn how to prepare certain gases, dilute the
concentrated acid, or concentrated solutions, compare the reactivity of metals, predict the
pH value of the solutions and determine melting point of the substances. Experiment 8 will
help you to find out effect of concentration and temperature on reaction rate. I am sure that
you will really enjoy while doing separation of pigment ofink or grass juice in the experiment
no. 9. Experiment 10 deals with detection of extra elements in organic compounds whereas
the experiment no. 11 deals with reactions of carbohydrates which are really interesting to
perform. After doing experiments no. 12, you can compare soaps which are available in the
market by comparing their foaming capacity and cleaning effect.
Experiment No. 13 deals with following three major aspects:
i) Proper use of analytical balance.
ii) Preparation of standard solution by using primary standards, and
iii) Estimation of chemical substances by volumetric method.
Experiemnt no. 14 gives you an idea to identify unknown chemicals i.e. salt (inorganic qualitative
analysis) whereas experiment no. 15 deals with detection of functional groups of organic
compounds( organic qualitative analysis).
I believe that after completing the experiments described in this manual, you will gain
confidence to perform chemical reactions safely and efficiently.
The laboratory is a place to learn about the behavior of matter. You are suggested to forget
preconceived notions about what is supposed to happen, follow instructions carefully, and
see what actually happens. Be meticulous in recording the true observations even though you
"know" something else should happen. Don't hesitate to seek advice from your teacher.
Recall the ancient dictum "He who ask a question may appear ignorant for the moment, he
who does not, remains ignorant forever".
I hope, you will find all the experiments described in the manual interesting and informative.
In case, you face any problem while doing the experiments, you are suggested to consult
your teacher all the success.
(Neeraj Pratap Singh)
COURSE CO-ORDINATOR

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 CONTENTS
S. No. Name of the Experiment Page No.

A) Introduction 179
B) General Safety Measures and Acquaintances with Basic Laboratory Technique 184
C) List of Experiments
1. Preparation, collection and study of some important physical and chemical 197
properties of atleast three gases, one each from the following groups :
a) Hydrogen and oxygen
b) Carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide
c) Chlorine, hydrogen chloride, and sulphur dioxide
2. Preparation of dilute solution of given concentration of sulphuric acid, 213
hydrocloric acid and nitric acid.
3. Study of interaction of metals (any four) with salt solution and arranging 216
them according to their activity (to form activity series). Metals and salts
may be selected from the following.
Mg, Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb, Cu and Al and their salts. (checking the order of metals
in series
4. a) Determination of pH of following substances by using a universal 220
indicator solution or pH papers.
i) Salt solution
ii) Acids and bases of different dilutions.
iii) Vegetable and fruit juices
b) Study of pH change by common-ion effect in case of weak acids and
weak bases by above method (specific examples of CH3COOH and
CH3COONa and NH4OH and NH4Cl may be taken).
5. Determination of melting point of a solid substance of low melting point. 225
(below 1000C) by glass capillary tube method (Paraffin oil may be used
as bath.)
6. To study the solubility of solid substances in water at different temperatures 229
and to plot the solubility curve.
7. Study of the shift in equilibrium between ferric ions and thiocyanate ions 234
by increasing / decreasing the concentration of their ions.

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8. Study of : 239
a) the effect of concentration on the rate of reaction between sodium
thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid.
b) the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction between sodium
thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid.
9. Separation of coloured substances by paper chromatography and comparison 245
of their Rf values.
a) a mixture of red and blue ink or a black ink.
b) juice of a flower or grass.
10. Detection of nitrogen, sulphur and halogens in an organic compound 251
(combinations of halogens to be avoided). Not more than two of the above
elements should be present in the given organic compound.
11. Study of simple reactions of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in pure form 258
and detection of their presence in given food stuffs.
12. Preparation of soap by using different oils and its comparison with the market 269
soap by determining the foaming capacity and cleaning effect.
13. a) Preparation of solution of oxalic acid and ferrous ammonium sulphate of 274
known molarity by weighing (non-evaluative).
b) A study of i) acid-base and ii) redox titrations (single titration only). Both
the solutions to be provided.
14. Elementary qualitative analysis of a salt involving detection of one cationic 286
and one anionic species from the following groups. (Salts insoluble in
hydrochloric acid excluded).
Cations :
Pb2, Cu2+, Fe3+, Ni2+, Zn2+, Mn2+, Ca2+, NH4+
Anions :
CO32-, S2-, Cl-, Br-, I-, NO2- , NO3-, SO42-, PO43-.
15. Functional groups in organic compounds 317
i) test of unsaturation
ii) Test for Carboxylic, phenolic, aldehydic and ketonic groups.
APPENDIX
i) Common Laboratory reagents and their preparation. 333

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 INTRODUCTION
Chemical Science is developed on the basis of observations of natural events (happenings).
These observations have given us bridge to new discoveries. These discoveries were realised
by experimentation. Hence, experiments are essential, in chemical science. As we know, the
objectives of practical chemistry are as follows :
1. to develop and inclucate laboratory skills and techniques.
2. to enable the students to understand the basic chemical concepts, and
3. to develop basic competence of analysing and synthesising chemical compounds and
mixtures.
To meet these objectives three different types of laboratory experimetns are provided in the
present practical course.
1) Experiments for developing laboratory skills / techniques.
2) Concept based experiments
3) Experiments based on preparation of compounds.

1. THE FORMAT OF THE MANUAL

One of the important feature of this manual is that it is a self instructional material. Experiments
are given in a standard format consisting of the following headings:
1.1 Objectives
1.2 What you should know
1.3 Materials required: (a) Apparatus, and (b) Chemicals
1.4 How to perform the experiment
1.5 Precautions
1.6 Observations
1.7 Conclusion
1.8 Check your understanding
1.9 Note for the teacher
1.10 Check your answers

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Let us understand these one by one
1.1 Objectives : The objectives of an experiment give you an idea about the skills or the
knowledge that you are expected to develop while performing the experiment. Certain
objectives can be achieved even after going through the procedure.
1.2 What you should know : Brief discussion of theory of the experiment is given
under this heading.
1.3 Materials required : It gives the essential list of appatatus and chemicals.
1.4 How to perform the experiment : The procedure to perform the experiment is
described in this section.
1.5 Precautions : The precautions to be followed while peforming the experiment are
given. The learners are advised to follow these precautions to avoid accidents in the
laboratory.
1.6 Observations : The observations should be recorded properly under this heading.
1.7 Conclusion : This section contains the conclusion drawn on the basis of observations
made in the experiment.
1.8 Check your understanding : At the end of each experiment, a few questions have
been incorporated to consolidate what has been done and to check your own
understanding about it.
1.9 Note for the teacher : A note is given for the teacher where ever felt necessary. it
gives important points about the experiment, the compounds/salts to be selected or
special precautions to be taken by the students while performing the experiment.
1.10 Check your answers : In this section, the answers are given to those questions
which are asked in the section to check your understanding. The students are advised
to compare their answers. The corrections should be made wherever required.

2. CLEANING OF GLASS APPARATUS

It is essential to use clean glassware for performing an experiment.
i) The dirt sticking to glass apparatus can be removed by rubbing it with a bottle brush
(specially designed for it) or rubber tip attached to a glass rod.
ii) Washing soda or any good detergent can be used for washing or a dilute solution of
soap may be used.
iii) For innovative purposes very clean glassware is to be used. For this, the glasswares are
kept for some time inside the chromic acid bath and then washed with water.
(Chromic acid is prepared by dissolving potassium dichromate in concentrated sulphuric
acid.

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iv) After completing your experiment, clean all glass-ware, dry it and keep it in right place.

3. HANDLING OF GLASS APPARATUS

Glass apparatus is brittle in nature, therefore, proper precautions should be taken to avoid the
breakage while handling the apparatus. It is also advised not to heat reagent bottles and any
other bottle.

4. HANDLING REAGENT BOTTLES

While adding liquids directly from bottles, you should observe certain elementary precautions.
First, double-check the label to make sure that you have the right reagent. Second, never
put the stopper of the reagent bottle on the working table so as to contaminate its inner surface.

5. PERFORMING AN EXPERIMENT
1. Read the experiment carefully and understand the procedure to be followed.
2. Note down the instructions and precautions given by your teacher (and mentioned in
the Manual).
3. Collect all the necessary apparatus and plan the work so as not to waste time.
4. Make sure that all the glass apparatus are clean.
5. Arrange the apparatus as instructed.
6. Carry out the experiment as said in the procedure carefully. Be observant and
unprejudiced while making observations.
7. At the end of work and before leaving the laboratory:
i) Wash your apparatus and place in right place.
ii) Note down the instructions and precautions given by your teacher.
iii) Check that the reagent bottles are placed at their proper places with proper lid.
iv) Put off the gas and water.
v) Close the locker-drawer after putting every thing in it.
8. While coming for doing experiments in the laboratory, every student must bring the
following items with her/him
i) The laboratory manual for consultation
ii) A note-book for recording observations.
iii) A towel or limp-cloth for drying the glass apparatus and your wet hands.

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 6. PRACTICAL NOTE BOOK
the practical note book would be a complete original written record of data and the observations
collected during practical work. This record is examined and evaluated by the examiner at the
time of your final examination. Each student must have one's own hard cover bound Note
book, according to the teacher's recommendation. Following points should be remembered
while writing the laboratory record.
1. Through out the practical note book you should follow the same style, and use the same
writing ink, preferably a good fountain pen and a sharp black pencil. It is recommended
that the right hand page should be written in blue ink and the left hand page with black
pencil.
The recommended style of writing is shown below.
Left hand page Right hand page
Title of the experiment
Figures Date
Experiment No.
Objective or Aim
Apparatus
Observations and Calculations Theory
Procedure
Precautions
Results

ii) Each experiment shoud start from a new page.

iii) A neat, proportionate and well labelled line diagram of the apparatus used should be
drawn.
iv) Write chemical equations on the left hand page of the record note book, if any.
v) Record what was actually done and observed. Don't copy down the recommended
procedure.
vi) Under the heading procedure, write a detailed account of the procedure of doing the
experiment in the past tense.
vii) Write experiment, observations and inference in the tabular form, for qualitative analysis
and functional group identification experiment.
viii) If a mistake has been done, cross out the erroneous matter with a sinlge line so that it
can still be read. Rewrite the correct statement in its place.

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ix) Do not tear off a page from the note-book.
x) Before leaving the laboratory, get the record signed by your teacher.

7. DISTRIBUTION OF MARKS FOR PRACTICAL

EXAMINATION
You must be knowing that there will be practical examination of 20 marks and 3 hours duration.
The distribution of marks is as given below.
Experiment Marks
1. Salt 4
(One cation + one anion)
2. Volumetric Analysis 6
i) Write-up in which student may
be asked to write brief method
indicator, equations and end point 2
ii) Set-up of experiment 2
iii) Results 2
3. i) Detection of extra elements in an organic compound
ii) Detection of functional group
OR
Setting up of one experiment from experiments at
Serial number 2 to 10,12 and 13 4
4. Viva-voce 3
5. Record Book 3
Total 20

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 GENERAL SAFETY MEASURES
AND ACQUAINTANCE WITH BASIC
LABORATORY TECHNIQUES

1. OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to :
• Cut and bend glass rods / tubes;
• Bore rubber cork;
• Seal the glass apparatus for leakage;
• Measure the volume, mass and density of a given substance;
• Perform simple laboratory operations such as filtration, crystallisation and distillation;
• Use burner properly in the laboratory.

2. WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

You can drive a car smoothly if you have proper training. Similarly, if you have to carry out
any work, you need to have proper knowledge of the work in advance to do it successfully.
Similary, if you have to start work in chemistry laboratory, you should know how to use
chemicals and handle apparatus, cleaning of used appratus, disposing off used chemicals, use
filter paper and broken glassware etc.
While performing experiments, the techniques such as cutting and bending of glass tube/rod,
drawing out a glass tube, boring of a rubber cork, sealing of apparatus, calibration of certain
instruments such as balance are frequently involved. Certain laboratory techniques, namely
filtration, crystallisation and distillation are also involved in various experiments. In this unit,
you will learn how to perform the required laboratory techniques.
In chemistry laboratory, we deal with different chemicals, glass apparatus, LPG gas and
some instruments, etc. Many a times, in the laboratory, a number of accidents occur due to
negligence and inadequate knowledge about the chemicals and apparatus being used. We can
make chemistry laboratory a safer place by following certain general safety measures with
special reference to safe handling of chemicals.
To avoid accidents, observe the following Do's and Don'ts in the chemistry laboratory.
2.1 The Do's
• Wear the lab coat / apron before starting the work.
• Light the burner with a match stick. Never use a piece of paper to light the burner.

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 • While heating a liquid in a test tube, always keep the mouth of test tube away from you
and your neighbours.
• Pipette out harmful/corrosive liquids by using adaptor (used for sucking liquid by
creating vaccum)
• Always use minimum quantity of chemicals.
• To avoid contamination, use droppers for adding reagents.
• Carry out the reactions involving pungent or obnoxious fumes either in the open or in a
7
fuming cup board.
F
• Wash your hands thoroughly with soap after the laboratory work.
• Keep the reagent bottles & apparatus in their proper place. Always close the water and
gas taps when not in use.
2.2 The Don'ts
• Don't wear loose and / or synthetic clothes while working in the laboratory.
• As a general rule, never taste any chemical in the laboratory not even sucrose or sodium
chloride. They may be contaminated.
• Do not try to smell unknown chemicals.
• Don't pipette out harmful / corrosive liquids by sucking with mouth.
• Don't insert a thermometer or a glass tube forcibly through a cork.
• Don't inhale any gas deeply and directly. It may cause suffocation. Keep the test tube a
little away from your nose and smell the gas by directing the gas away from you.
• Don't keep inflammable sustances like organic solvents near the flame.
• Don't keep sodium in open (i.e. exposed to the atmosphere).
• Don't interchange droppers of different reagents and never keep the dropper on the
table.
• Do not throw any solid material or corrosive liquids in the sink. The acids should be
well diluted with water before discharging them.
• Don't add pumice stone to the boiling liquid.
• Don't touch electric switched with wet hands
• Don't perform an unknown experiment in the laboratory without the supervision of
your teacher.
Inspite of taking all the precautions, accidents do happen. For such an eventuality, one must
be fully equipped with the necessary first aids to remedy the injury. Apply following remedial
measures in case of an accident.

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a) Chemicals causing burn
Chemicals responsbile for burn Neutralizing wash
Acids like HCl, HNO, or H 2SO. Wash with 1 percent sodium bicarbonate
solution or with 2M ammonium carbonate.
Then, wash with enough water. Apply any
soothing cream.
Alkalies like, KOH, NaOH etc. Wash with 1M acetic acid, followed by
enough water. Then apply vaseline or a
soothing cream.
Sodium Remove the solid piece immediately and
wash with dilute acetic acid and enough
water.

b) Hazardous chemicals and their effects

You should also know various hazardous chemicals and their effects. Do not expose yourself
excessively to these chemicals. These chemicals and their effects are given below.

Hazardous Chemicals Effects

H 2S Almost as poisonous as HCN.
Exposure dulls the sense of smell.
H2SO4, HF, SO2, NO2, Cl 2, Br2, All are dangerous. When concentrated
I2, HNO3 they cause skin burns
Salts of Ag, Ba, Hg, Ni, Pb These are harmful only when swallowed
CrO2-4 and MnO-4
AgNO 3 Causes caustic burns.
Chlorinated alkanes e.g., CHCl 3, Most of these are narcotics, and suspected
CC1 4 , Benzene carcinogens, Carcinogen, may cause
cancer

c) Common Accidents in Chemistry Laboratory

i) Cuts : In chemistry laboratory, the common accidents are cuts from glasswares,
which are broken while being used. Wash the cut with cold water. If bleeding
does not stop, then apply pressure on the cut. Then apply antiseptic cream
and a proper dressing. Consult the doctor, if necessary.
ii) Burns: These are caused by touching hot equipments. Wash the burns with cold
water for about 10 min. (till burning sensation stops), then apply burnol.

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iii) Fire: A fire in beaker is extinguished by covering the glass beaker with a watch
glass or a metal plate. If clothes catch fire, then lie down on the floor and
roll or cover the body with a blanket.
iv) Poisoning: If accidentally someone swallows a poisonous chemicals, then make him
drink lot of fresh water. If the person is still unconscious seek medical help.

3. ACQUAINTANCE WITH BASIC LABORATORY

TECHNIQUES
Experimentation is an integral part of any study of science including chemistry. It enables us
to gain an insight into what we learn in theory. In this section of this course, we intend to
aquaint you with the laboratory and some bsic techniques like :
• Cuttnig and bending of glass tube, and Boring a cork
• Filtration, crystallization and distillation
• Measurement of volume, mass and density
• Using a burner and Cleaning of apparatus

While performing various experiments, we require glass tubes of different lengths for setting
up of apparatus. It involves the cutting of glass tubes which are usually 4-6 min in diameter.
In assembling an apparatus, bent glass tubes are required e.g. appratus for preparing and
collecting a gas. The corks available are without holes / bores. To use the corks in an apparatus
such as preparing a gas, a glass tube is passed through the cork, which is fitted to a glass
vessel. This fitting of glass tube in cork requires the hole of proper diameter. After the
experiment, the glass apparatus should be cleaned throughly.

The basic laboratory techniques are given in the form of experiments.

3.1 To cut a glass tube of desired length

Materials Required : Glass tube / rod, ruler, small trinagular file, gas burner / spirit lamp.

3.1.1 How to perform the experiment ?

Take the given glass tube and measure the required length with help of ruler/measuring tape
and put a mark on it with an ink pen or glass marking pencil. Hold it with one hand near the
point where the cutting is to be done. Make a sinlge straight scratch with the help of a triangular
file. see Fig (i). Do not apply too much pressure on the tube otherwise the glass tube will
break. Hold with a piece of cloth and press the tube gently outward. The tube will break into
two pieces. Fig. (ii).

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 Fig. (i) Making a scratch on the glass tube Fig ii) : Holding a Breaking a glass tube

If the tube does not break, put the scratch again at the same point and try to break it by the
same method.
Normally, the freshly cut ends are sharp and may cause injury to the hands. Therefore, round
of the ends by rotating the rubs in the blue zone of the flame for a short time as shown in the
Fig. (iii). Keep your fingers at the safe distance from the flame.
3.1.2 Precuations
1. The file should be moved always in backward down direction.
2. If difficulty is experienced in breaking the glass tube or rod, put another scratch on the
point.

Fig (iii) : Rouding off the edges of the broken

Note : To a cut glass rod same procedure should be used as done for the glass.
3.2 Bending of a glass tube
Materials Required : Glass tube, burner, file and asbestos sheet.
3.2.1 How to perform the experiment ?
Hold the glass tube horizontally with the portion of the glass tube to be bent on the blue flame
of the burner. Heat this portion of the glass tube with simultaneous rotation, in the blue flame
of the burner, as shown in the Fig. (iv). Allow the tube to bend under its own weight (Fig. V).

Fig. (iv) : Heating the glass tube

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When the tube becomes soft, bend the glass tube from its ends to the desired angle. Do not
bend the tube abruptly. Maintain the desired angle by holding the glass tube ends with both
hands. Press the bent limbs to make them coplanar by putting it on the asbestos sheet shown
in Fig. (iv).

Fig (v) : Bending of glass tube under Fig (iv) : Making the bent limbs of

3.2.2 Precautions
Do not touch the bent portion of the tube with fingers until it is cooled.

3.3 To bore a cork and fit a glass tube in it

Materials Required : A cork, cork borer set, glass tube.
3.3.1 How to perform the experiment ?
The a cork free from cracks. Checks that it fits tighly in the mouth of apparatus for which it is
needed. Wet the cork with water and soften it with the help of cork press. If it is not available,
you may do it by rolling under your shoe as shown in Fig. (vii). Select a cork borer, whose
diameter is slightly less than that of glass tube or rod, for which the hole is needed. Place the
cork on the table with its narrow ends upwards and hold it with one hand, make around hole
in its centre by pressing the borer gently inward with the other hands as shown in the
Fig. (viii).

Right hand

Left hand

Cork

Fig. (vii) : Pressing the cork with shoe Fig. (viii) : Boring of cark

3.3.2 Precautions
1. While boring the cork, make sure that the hole is made in straight line.
2. While inserting the glass tube into the hole, the tube should be pushed gently with a
rotatory motion.
3. The tube should be lubricated with water or soap solution to avoid accidental breakage.

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3.4 Filtration
In filtration, insoluble small solid particles/dust/impurities etc. are separated from liquids by
passing the mixture through filter paper which is affixed inside the funnel. The filter papers
have small pores through which only the liquid (only particular particle size) can pass through.
Materials Required : Funnel, glass rod, beaker, filter paper, sugar solution with small amount
of sand.
3.4.1 How to perform the experiment ?
Filtration involves two steps. In first step, the filter paper
is folded and fitted into the funnel. For this, take a clean
filter paper (fix ix a) and cut it in a circle of required
diameter with scissors. Fold it in half semi circle and
then in quarters. Open one section. Place the filter paper
into a clean funnel as shown in Fig. (ix). Wet the filter
paper with distilled water/liquid which is part of the
mixture. Place clean beaker/conical flask below the
funnel to collect filtrate. Transfer the mixture to the
funnel slowly by using a glass rod as shown in the Fig. Fig. (ix) : Filtration
(ix b).
Hold the glass rod at an angle over the funnel, the lower end of the glass rod should not touch
the filter paper but should be just above it. Pour the mixture down the rod. The level of the
mixture to be filtered should be not more than 3/4th the height the filter paper. Collect the
filtrate in a beaker or test-tube or conical flask. For easy and quick filtration, first transfer the
clear supernatent liquid of the mixture on the filter paper and then the remaining portion.
3.4.2 Precautions
i) Do not transfer all the mixture to the filter funnel at one time.
ii) The filter paper should be smaller in size than funnel.
iii) The mixture level should never be above 3/4th of the height of the filter paper
iv) The lower end of the funnel should just touch the inside wall of the beaker.

3.5 Distillation
Distillation is used to purify liquids such as water and organic solvents, and/or recycling used
solvents. Distillation is the process in which the impure liquid is heated to its boiling point in
a closed vessel. The vapour thus formed are cooled by passing through a air or water condenser.
As a result, the pure liquid is obtained.
Materials Required :
a) Apparatus : Conical flask/round bottomed flask, condenser, thermometer, beaker,
heating mantle and oil bath.

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b) Chemicals : Impure solvents and tap water.
3.5.1 How to perform the experiment ?
Take the impure solvent in the round bottomed (RB) flask. Fill the flask to about half of its
capacity. Add a few piece of pumice stone. Fit a cork with a hole in the mouth of the round
bottom flask. In the hole, fit a thermometer as shown in Fig. (x). Fit a liebig condenser as
shown in Fig. (x). Place the round bottom flask on the heating bath.
Heat the contents of the flask. At the boiling point of the liquid, it starts boiling and the
emanating vapour pass through the condenser and get condensed into liquid. Collect the
liquid at the end of the condenser. Collect the pure liquid at constant boiling point. Always
leave some liquid in the round bottom flask.

Fig. (x) : Distillation

3.5.2 Precautions
i) Slowly increase heating rate.
ii) Do not open the round bottom flask during heating.
iii) Stop distillation when a small amount of liquid is still left in the flask. Do not evaporate
to dryness.
iv) Pumice stones should be added in the beginning itself.
v) In case of organic solvents, you have to watch the thermometer's temperature throught
the experiment to avoid overheating.

3.6 Crystallization
Crystallization is a process of obtaining crystals of a pure substance from a solution which
may contain some impurities.
A hot saturated solution of impure substance is prepared in a suitable solvent. This is filtered
to remove insoluble impurities and then allowed to cool slowly to room temperature. During
the cooling period, the solution should not be disturbed. Crystals of pure substance are gradually
formed. Then filter the crystals.

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3.7. Measurement of volume, mass and density
The volume of liquids can be measured with the help of measuring cylinders, graduated
beaker, pipette, burette and syringe. These measuring vessels can be chosen according to the
need of accuracy of the experiment. Except syringe, measuring vessels are directly calibrated
in cubic centimeter c.c. (or milliliters i.e. mL). These measuring vessels sometime may be
wrongly graduated. Therefore, it is desirable to check the measuring vessel before using it.
Before you actually perform measurements for any liquid, you should take following
precautions:
• Clean the measuring vessels with soap and water and dry them in air.
• Check the nature of the liquid. If it is an acid or some poisonous liquid, take care that
your fingers do not get wet with it while handling the liquid.
• If the liquid is hot, then allow it to cool to room temperature.
i) Now, find out the least count (i.e. the least measurable volume) of each given measuring
vessel. This is the value of the volume between two successive marks on the measuring
vessel.
ii) Take the small measuring vessel and transfer the given liquid into it slowly. The rim of
vessel containing liquid should be slightly inside the rim of the measuring vessel. Keep
the measuring vessel slightly tilted from vertical as shown in Fig (xi), so tha the liquid
falls down the wall smoothly. If it is not tilted, then the liquid falling from a height
strikes the surface with splash and some of the liquid drops may sprinkle out of the
measuring vessel.

Fig. (xi) : Transferring liquid into the measuring vessel

iii) If the given liquid is less in volume than the total capacity of the measuring vessel, then
after transferring the whole liquid, put the measuring vessel on the table. Allow its level
to become steady. Now take the reading of the level of the liquid in the vessel which
gives the volume of the given liquid.
iv) If the quantity of the given liquid is more than the capacity of the measuring vessel, then
fill the vessel to its capacity. Method to fill the vessel to capacity is as follows :

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 As the measuring vessel is being filled, it should also be moved to make it vertical,
when it gets filled close to the uppermost mark corresponding to the capacity marked
on the vessel. Use the dropper for transferring liquid drop by drop to fill the vessel
exactly upto the uppermost mark. Transfer this liquid into an empty container. Again
fill the measuring vessel with the remaining liquid and repeat the procedure.

The total volume (V) of the given liquid is now given by

Number of times the capacity of Level reading in the

measuring vessel is X the vessel + last transfer
filled to its capacity

v) if, however, the liquid is highly viscous like glycerine, then it would stick to the walls
of the vessel. In such cases, in each transfer from the measuring vessel to the extra
container, you have to wait till whole of the viscous liquid is tranferred slowly to the
container and the measuring vessel becomes empty. But it may take too much time and
you may use only the measuring vessel of capacity larger than the given liquid.

Fig. (xii) : Taking reading of the (a) concave surface and (b) convex surface
of liquid in vessel

vi) The liquid meniscus in the measuring vessel is curved (concave or convex), therefore
take the reading of the mark tangential to the lowest point of the curved surface in case
of concave meniscus and uppermost point of the curved surface in case of convex
mensiscus, as shown in the Fig. (xii).

vii) If the liquid is tranparent, then it should be properly illuminated by side light while
taking the reading of its concave or convex surface.

viii) Take the readings of the level of liquid in the measuring vessel by keeping your eye in
horizontal plane with the level, keeping the vessel on the table only, otherwise it may
cause error due to parallax.

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In case the vessel containing the given liquid does
not have a rim like that of a beaker, then you can
take help of a glass rod to transfer the liquid. For
example, suppose the liquid is milk contained in a
glass. Hold the glass rod in your left hand and lower
it into the measuring vessel as shown in the Fig. (xii).
Now transfer the milk from the glass into the
measuring vessel by touching the rim of the glass to
rod. The milk easily flows down the glass rod to the
measuring vessel, without flowing down along the
surface of tilted glass outside the measuring vessel.
A given volume of a liquid can be measured using
either a graduated cyclinder, a pipette, or a syringe,
Fig. (xiii) : Transfering
depending upon the quantity and accuracy required.
liquid into a vessel
Burettes and volumetric flasks are also used to
measure liquid volumes accuratel.

3.8 Graduated Cylinders

Graduated cylinders are not highly accurate, but they are adequate for measuring specified
quantities of solvents and wash liquids as well as liquid reactants that are present in excess.
The level of the liquid should always be read from the bottom of the liquid meniscuc.

3.9 Pipettes
Graduated or volumetric pipettes can be used to measure accurately relatively small quantities
of a liquid. Suction is required to draw the liquid into a pipette. However, suction by mouth is
unwise because of the danger of drawing toxic or corrosive liquids into the mouth. An adaptor
should be used to pipette out harmful/corrosive liquids. It is used as follows:
1. Insert the adaptor into the top end of the pipette.
2. Dip the pipette tip in the liquid.
3. Press the adaptor to force the air out and then release to suck the liquid into the pipette.
4. Fill the pipette to just above the calibration mark.
5. Adjust the liquid upto the calibration mark and pipette out the liquid.
6. Remove the adaptor from the pipette.

Most volumetric pipettes are calibrated "to deliver" a given volume, meaning that the measured
liquid is allowed to drain out by gravity, leaving a small amount of liquid in the bottom of the
pipette. This liquid is not removed, since it is accounted for the calibration. Graduated pipettes
are generally filled to the top (zero) calibration mark and then drained into a separate container
until the calibration mark for the desired volume is reached. The remaining liquid is either
discarbed or returned to its original container. The maximum indicated capacity of some

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graduated pipettes is delivered by draining to a given calibration mark and of others by draining
completely. It is important not to confuse the two, since draining the first type completely will
deliver a greater volume than the indicated capacity of the pipette.

3.10 Syringes
Syringes are most often used for the precise measurment and delivery of very small volumes
of liquid, as in gas-chromatographic analysis. A syringe is filled by placing the needle in the
liquid and slowly pulling out the plunger until the barrel contains a little more than the required
volume of liquid. Then the syringe is held with the needle pointed up and the plunger is
pushed into eject the excess sample. Excess liquid is wiped off the needle with a tissue.
Syringes should be cleaned immediately after use by rinsing them several times with a volatile
solvent, then reused.

3.11 Mass
In chemical laboratory, mass of chemicals can be determined by single pan balance or rough
balance or a chemical balance. To make solutions for general purposes, one can use an ordinary
balance, but when chemicals are needed to perform reactions, one should weigh them by the
use of chemical balance. Therefore the mass of chemicals is very accurately needed. You can
use chemical balance to measure mass of chemicals. The details of using chemical balance
are given in experiment 13.

3.12 Density of a liquid

For determining the density of a liquid, the mas of the substances in divided its volme. The
densities of few liquids are shown in the table given below:
Table : Densities of some liquids
Liquid Volume in milliliters (ml) Mass (g) Density (g cm-3)
Water 100 100 1.00
Cooking oil 100 92 0.92
Glycerine 100 125 1.25
Whole milk 100 103 1.03
Precuations :
1. Don't use water to cool hot tube, beaker
2. Keep your hand dry and clean while performing the work.
3. Always follow precaution given in each section.

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 4. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
1. Why, while cutting a glass tube, one should not make multiple scratches ?
...................................................................................................................................
2. What is the right choise of a cork borer ?
...................................................................................................................................
3. Why is the crk moistened and softened before boring ?
...................................................................................................................................
4. How can you round off the edges of a freshly cut glass tube ?
...................................................................................................................................

5. NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

The Labolatory techniques such as cutting a glass tube, bending a glass tube are little difficult
for the students. The teacher should help the students and should watch them throughout their
practice.

6. CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Ans. 1. : Multiple scratches, if made on the glass tube will cause a rough and irregular cut.
Ans. 2. : The outer diameter of the borer should be equal to the inner diameter of the tube
to be inserted into the bore ?
Ans. 3. : To avoid cracking of the cork and to get a smoother bore, it is moistened with
water and pressed in a cork presser.
Ans. 4. : The edges should be heated gently by rotating on a flame.

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 EXPERIMENT-1
To prepare, collect and study some important physical and chemical properties
of three gases, at least one each from the following groups:
a) Hydrogen / Oxygen
b) Carbon dioxide / hydrogen sulphide
c) Chlorine, hydrogen chloride and sulphur dioxide

1.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to :
• Set up the appratus for preparation of gases, namely, H 2, O2, CO2, H2S, SO2, HCl and
Cl2;
• prepare and collect the gases mentioned above;
• observe physical properties (e.g. colour, odour) of gases, and
• identify various gases by their characteristic chemical tests.

1.2 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

Gases, like hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, chlorine,
hydrogen chloride and sulphur dioxide can be prepared in the school laboratory and it is
possible to identify (characterise) them by suitable tests. Identifcation of gases is an important
step in chemical analysis as most of the substances give off some gas when heated alone or
when treated with certain reagents such as acids, alkalies, etc.
In this experiment, you will learn to prepare some gases and study their important properties.

1.3 PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN (H2) GAS

Hydrogen gas can be prepared in the laboratory by adding dilute hydrochloric acid to zinc
granules. The reaction is
Zn(s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl 2 + H2(g) ↑

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Materials Required
(1) Apparatus (2) Chemicals
Woulf's bottle, Delivery tube, i) Zinc metal granules (Zn)
Gas jar, bark corks, ii) Dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Thistle funnel, Water trough iii) Distilled water

1.3.1 Procedure
Set up the apparatus as shown in the Fig. 1.1 Take 2-3 grams of zinc gramules in Woulf's
bottle. Fix a thistle funnel and delivery tube as shown in the diagram. Fix the two hole corks
tightly over the mouth of the Woulf's bottle and make the joints airtight by sealing them with
wax.
Now slowly add about 10mL of dilute hydrochloride acid from thistle funnel, so that Zinc
pieces are covered with acid. As soon as the acid comes in contact with zinc pieces, the gas
starts evolving.

Fig. 1.1 : Laboratory Preparation of Hydrogen gas

Since the solubility of hydrogen in water is very less, it can be collected by downward
displacement of water as shown in the Fig. 1.1
Fill a gas jar with H2 gas. Examine the properties and perform the tests. Note your observations
as follows :
i) Observe the colour of the gas; it is colourless.
ii) Carefully smell the gas; it is odourless.
iii) Collect the gas in a test tube, the way you did for collecting it in a jar. Bring a lighted
match stick near the mouth of the test-tube. There is a sudden pop sound and the gas
burns with a pale-blue flame.

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 1.4 PREPARATION OF OXYGEN (O2) GAS
Oxygen gas is prepared by heating a mixture of potassium chlorate and manganese dioxide.
Potassium chlorate is decomposed by heat while manganese dioxide acts as catalyst. If
potassium chlorate was to be heated alone, a higher temperature would be required to
decompose it. Since solubility of the gas in water is less, collect the gas by downward
displacement of water as shown in the Fig. 1.2.
MnO 2 k
2KClO3(s) 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

Materials Required
(1) Apparatus (2) Chemicals
Round bottom flask (100mL) (i) Potassium chlorate (KClO 3)
Gas jar, Delivery tube, Water trough (ii) Manganese dioxide (MnO2)

1.4.1 Procedure
Set up the apparatus as shown in the Fig. 1.2, Take approximately half a spatula of dry
potassium chlorate in a watch glass and add a pinch of manganese dioxide. Mix the reagent
and the catalyst. Take mixture in the boiling tube and fix the delivery tube in its mouth. Make
sure that the cork is fitted by in the mouth of the tube. Seal it with wax, Heat the mixture
gently and collect the gas in a jar kept inverted on a bee-hive shelf in a water trought as
shown in Fig. 1.2

Fig. 1.2 : Preparation of Oxygen gas

Care must be taken while heating the reagents, because potassium chlorate is a very powerful
oxidising agent. If it is allowed to mix with carbon or any similar substance or dust, it can
easily catch fire or even explode.
Fill two jars, examine the properties, perform tests that are listed and note your observations.
i) Observe the colour of the gas. It is colourless.

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ii) Carefully smell the gas. It is Odourless.
iii) Light a splinter, then blow it out, leaving the end glowing. Bring the glowing end of the
splinter near the mouth of the jar. The spliner bursts into a flame. This shows the presence
of oxygen inside the tube.

1.4.2 Physical Properties

• Oxygen is a colourless and odourless gas.
• It is heavier than air (Density 1.428g/cm3).
• It is sparingly soluble in water.

1.4.3 Chemical Properties

i) The electronic arrangement of oxygen atom is 2,6. To attain eight electrons in its outer
most shell, it has to gain two electrons. In doing so, it displays pronounced oxidising
properties.
ii) Reaction with metals : Noble metals such as gold, platinum etc. are resistant to oxygen.
But the reactive metlas (Na, K etc.) react spontaneously, giving their oxides.

Less reactive metals such as Mg, Cu react with oxygen on heating.

1.5 PREPARATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) GAS

Carbon dioxide gas is prepared in the laboratory by the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on
marble (calcium carbonate).
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (1) + CO2(g)

Materials Required
(1) Apparatus (2) Chemicals
Round-bottom flask, Thistle funnel, i) Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
Gas jar ii) Dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl)

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1.5.1 Procedure
Set up the apparatus as shown in the Fig. 1.3. Place a few small size marble pieces in a
Woulf's bottle. Fix at Katle funnel so that its lower end dips in water contained in round
bottom flask. Fix the two hole cork tightly in the mouth of the round bottom flask and make
the joints airtight by sealing them with wax.

Fig. 1.3: Preparation of Carbon-dioxide gas

Add 2 to 3 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid from the thistle funnel. Immediately reaction takes
place and carbon dioxide gas is produced. Allow some gas to escape as the initial release of
carbon dioxide gas would displace air contained in gas jar. Collect the gas in a dry gas jar by
the upward displacement of air.
To check, whether the gas is collected in the jar or not, bring a lighted match stick near the
mouth of the gas jar. If it gets extinguished, the jar contains carbon dioxide gas. Place another
jar at the delivery tube. Fill a few gas jars.
In order to examine the properties, perform the following tests and note your observations.
i) Note the colour of the gas; it is colourless,
ii) Carefully smell the gas; it is odourless.
iii) Bring a lighted match stick near the mouth of the test tube, it gets immediately
extinguished,
iv) Add 2-3 ml of lime water to the gas jar. The lime-water turns milky. This is due to the
formation of insoluble calcium carbonate.

Ca(OH)2 + CO 2 → CaCO3 ↓ + H2O

1.5.2 Physical Properties

• Carbon dioxide is a colourless and odourless gas.
• It is denser than air.

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• It is fairly soluble in water.

1.5.3 Chemical Properties

i) Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form carbonic acid, which turns blue litmus red.

H2O + CO2 → H2CO 3

Carbonic acid

ii) When carbon dioxide is passed through lime water, it turns milky due to the formation
of insoluble calcium carbonate.

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3↓ + H2O

On passing more CO2, the milkyness disappears due to the formation of soluble calcium
bicarbonate.

CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 → Ca(HCO3)2

1.6 PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN SULPHIDE (H2S)

GAS
Hydrogen sulphide is prepared in the laboratory by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on iron
sulphide.
FeS(s) + H2SO4 (Dil.) → FeSO 4 (aq) + H2S(g)

Materials Required
(1) Apparatus (2) Chemicals

Round-bottom flask, Thistle funnel, i) Ferrous sulphide

Gas jar, Delivery tube ii) Dilute Sulphuric acid

1.6.1 Procedure
Fix up the apparatus as shown in the Fig. 1.4 take a few small size pieces of iron sulphide
(ferrous sulphide) in a round bottomflask. Moisten them with water. Add 2-3ml. of dilute
sulphuric acid into the bottle through thistle runnel. The reactiontakes place immediately and
hydrogen sulphide evolves. The gas is collected by an upward displacement of air. Collect
the gas in gas jars and make the following observations.

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 Fig. 1.4 : Preparation of hydrogen sulphide gas

i) Note the colour of the gas. it is colourless.

ii) Carefully smell the gas. The smell is that of rotten eggs.
iii) Add 2-3 mL of lead acetate solution to the gas jar. A black precipitate of PbS(s) is
obtained.

H2S + Pb (CH3COO)2 → PbS(s) + 2CH 3COOH

Lead Sulphide

1.6.2 Physical Properties

• Hydrogen sulphide is a colourless gas.
• It has the smell of rotten eggs.
• It is heavier than air. The density is 1.538g/cm 3
• It is sparingly soluble in water.
• Hydrogen sulphide is combustible but does not support combustion.

1.6.3 Chemical Properties

i) Hydrogen sulphide burns in air with a blue flame leaving a deposit of sulphur.

H 2S + O 2 → 2H2O + 2S

ii) Hydrogen sulphide is soluble in water and gives a weakly acidic solution.
_
H2S(g) + H2O(I) → H 3O+ (aq) + HS (g)
Hydronium Hydrogen
Ion Sulphide Ion

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 _ _
HS + H 2O → H 3O + + S 2
Sulphide ion

iii) Hydrogen sulphide gives two types of salts - (hydrogen sulphides and sulphides). When
reacted with alkali like NaOH the following reactions take place. With excess of H2S,
Na2S is the main product.

H2S + NaOH → NaHS + H2O

Sodium
hydrogen sulphide

H2S + NaHS → Na2S + 2H2O

Sodium
sulphide

iv) Hydrogen sulphide reduces concentrated sulphuric acid to sulphur. The reaction takes
place is two steps.

H2SO4 + H2S → 2H2O + SO2

2H2S + SO2 → 2H2O + 3S

v) Hydrogen sulphide reacts with bromine to form hydrogen bromide

Br2 + H2S → 2HBr + S

Reddish coloulress
brown

1.7 PREPARATION OF CHLORINE (Cl2) GAS

Chlorine gas is prepared in the laboratory by heating concentrated hydrochloric acid with
manganese dioxide.

4HCl (conc.) + MnO 2 (s) MnCl2(aq) + 2H2O(1) + Cl2 (g)

Materials Required
(1) Apparatus (2) Chemicals

Round bottom flask (100 mL), i) Cone, hydrochloric acid (HCl)

Delivery tube, Gas jar, Burner ii) Manganese dioxide (MnO2)

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1.7.1 Procedure
Set up the apparatus as shown in the fig. 1.5. Place about 3 grams of powdered manganese
dioxide in a 100mL round bottom flask. Add to it sufficient concentrated hydrochloric acid
through thistle funnel so as to cover all manganese dioxide. Heat the flask gently over a low
flame with a Bunsen burner. When the reaction takes place, effervescences can be seen.
Collect the gas in a gas jar by the upward displacement of air. Cover the gas jar with the lid.
Fill up few gas jars with the gas and perform the following tests.

Fig. 1.5 : Preparation of Chlorine gas

i) Note the colour of the gas. It is pale green in colour.

ii) Carefully smell the gas. It has pungent smell.
iii) When chlorine is passed in cold dilute sodium hydroxide solution containing 1 drop
phenophthalein indicator, its pink colour disappears due to the formation of sodium
chloride and sodium hypochlorite.

2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) → NaCl (aq) + NaOCl(aq) + H 2O(1)

iv) It displaces bromine and iodine from their salt solutions.

a) 2KBr(aq) + Cl2(g) → 2KCl (aq) + Br2(g) (Brown)

b) 2Kl(aq) + Cl2(g) → 2KCl (aq) + I2(g) (Violet)

1.7.2 Physical Properties

• Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas with a strong pungent smell.
• It is soluble in water. Its water solution is known as chlorine water.
• It is heavier than air. Its density is 3.214 gm/cm 3.

1.7.3 Chemical Properties

i) Many metals react with chlorine gas and form respective metal chlorides.

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 Mg(s) + Cl2(g) → MgCl2(s)

ii) Chlorine water oxidises the vegetable colouring matter to colourless substances and is
called bleaching agent. This is due to the formation of nascent oxygen in water:

Cl 2 + H 2O → 2HCl + (O)
Nascent Oxygen

iii) Chlorine has a high affinity for hydrogen.

iv) Chlorine readily reacts with phosphorous and gives phosphorous pentachloride.

P4(s) + 10Cl2(g) → 4PCl5(s)

1.8 PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN CHLORIDE (HCl)

GAS
Hydrogen chloride gas can be prepared by the reaction of conc. sulphuric acid on common
salt (sodium chloride).
NaCl(s) + H 2SO4 → NaHSO 4 + HCl(g)
Colourless

Materials Required
(1) Apparatus (2) Chemicals

Round bottom flask, Thistle funnel, i) Sodium chloride

Gas jar, Delivery tube ii) Conc. sulphuric acid

1.8.1 Procedure
Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. 1.6. Take 2-3 grams of common salt in 250 mL round
bottom flask. Add 5 mL of concentrated sulphuric acid through the thistle funnel and heat the
mixture gently. Collect the gas by the upward displacement of air.
Fill few gas jars with HCl gas, perform the following tests and note your observations.
i) Note the colour of the gas. It is colourless.
ii) Carefully smell the gas. It has pungent suffocating smell.
iii) Bring a glass rod dipped in ammonium hydroxide solution near the mouth of test
tube.

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 Fig. 1.5 : Preparation of Hydrogen Chloride gas

Dense white fames of ammonium chloride are formed

HCl(g) + NH3 → NH4Cl(s)

Ammonium Chloride

1.8.2 Physical Properties

• Hydrogen chloride is a colourless gas.
• It has a pungent and chocking odour.
_
• It is heavier than air. The density is 1.639 g/cm 3
• It fumes in moist air due to the formation of small droplets.

1.8.3 Chemical Properties

i) Hydrogen chloride gas is acidic in water. It turns blue litmus red. It reacts with ammonia
and form ammonium chloride.
NH 3(g) + HCl(g) → NH4Cl

ii) It reacts with silver nitrate solution and forms, a white curdy precipitate of silver chloride
(AgCl).
Ag + + HCl → AgCl + H+

iii) Water solution of hydrogen chloride reacts with magnesium to librate hydrogen gas.
Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 + H2 ↑

1.9 PREPARATION OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE (SO2) GAS

Sulphur dioxide gas can be prepared in the laboratory by the action of dilute hydrochloric
acid on sodium sulphite.

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 Na 2SO3(s) + 2HCl(1) → 2NaCl(s) + H2O(1) + SO2(g)

Materials Required
(1) Apparatus (2) Chemicals

Round bottom flask (100 mL), i) Sodium Sulphite

Thistle tunnel, Gas jar, Delivery tube ii) Dilute hydrochloric acid

1.9.1 Procedure
Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. 1.7. Take 1-2 grams of sodium sulphite in a 100 mL
round bottom flask and add 5 mL hydrochloric acid from thistle funnel dropwise.
Na 2SO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + SO2 + H2O

Fill few gas jars with SO2 gas, perform the following tests and note your observations.

Sulphur Dioxide

Fig. 1.7 : Preparation of Sulphur dioxide gas

i) Note the colour of gas. It is colour less,

ii) Carefully smell the gas. It has smell of burning sulphur.
iii) Drop a piece of filter paper dipped in acidified potassium dichromate solution into jar.
The filter paper turns green from organe.
K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 +3SO2 → K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + H2O

1.9.2 Physical Properties

• Sulphur dioxide is a poisonous, colourless gas.
• It has a characteristic choking smell of burning sulphur.
• It is denser than air. Its vapour density is 32 compared with that of air which is 14.2
unit.

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• It is highly soluble in water and forms an acidic solution.

1.9.3 Chemical Properties

i) Sulphur dioxide is an acidic oxide. Its solution in water is highly acidic in nature.

SO2 + H2O → H 2SO3

Sulphurous acid

Sulphur dioxide acts as a reducing agent as well as an oxidising agent.

ii) Reducing Properties of Sulphur dioxide
a) Sulphur dioxide reduces bromine to bromide ion

Br2(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O → 2HBr + H2SO4 (aq)

Hydrogen bromide

b) Sulphur dioxide reduces iron (III) to iron (II) ions

2FeCl 3(aq) + SO2(aq) + 2H2O → 2FeCl2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) + 2HCl

Iron (III) Chloride Iron (II) Chloride

c) Sulphur dioxide decolourises purple potassium permanganate (VII)_

solution in
acidic medium, due to the reduction of permanganate ions, MnO
_ 4
, to manganese
(II) ions, Mn2+. Manganese is in +7 oxidation state in MnO 4 ion.
_ _
2MnO 4
+ 8H+ + 5e → Mn2+ + 4H2O] x 2 (i)
_ _
SO2 + 2H2O → SO42 + 2e + 4H+ ] x 5 (ii)

On adding equation (i) and (ii) and cancelling the common species on both the
sides. We get the overall equation as follows :
_ _
2MnO 4
+ 5SO2 + 2H2O → 2Mn2+ + 5 SO42 + 4H+
Purple Colourless

d) When sulphur dioxide is bubbled through an acidified solution of dichromate ions,

_
Cr2O72 , the colour of the solution changes from orange to green due to the
_
formation of chromium (III) ions, Cr3+. In Cr2O72 ion, chromium is in +6 oxidation
state
_ _
Cr2O72 + 14H + + 6e → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O (iii)
_ _
SO2 + 2H2O → SO42 + 4H + + 2e ] x 3 (iv)

On adding equation (iii) and (iv) and cancelling the common species, on both the

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 sides of arrow, the overall equation is
_ _
Cr2O72 + 2H + + 3SO2 → 2Cr3+ + H 2O + 3SO42
Orange Green

iii) Oxidising Properties of Sulphur Dioxide

a) Suphur dioxide oxidises those substances which are stronger reducing agents than
itself, e.g. magnesium is oxidised to magnesium oxide.

2Mg(s) + SO2(g) → 2MgO(s) + S(s)

b) When hydrogen sulphide is bubbled through a solution of sulphur dioxide, a pale

yellow precipitate of sulphur is formed due to the oxidation of the hydrogen
sulphide to sulphur.

2H2S(g) + SO2(aq) → 2H2O(1) + 3S(s) ↓

1.10 GENERAL PRECAUTIONS

i) Wherever required, chemicals should be dried properly.
ii) Wherever water is to be used, distilled water should be used.
iii) Some of the reactions are explosive in nature, care should be taken while carrying out
such reactions.
iv) Contamination of chemicals should be avoided.
v) All the reactions should be performed in a fume cupboard.
vi) In the preparation of hydrogen gas, there should be no flame near the apparatus because
when air and hydrogen come in contact, explosion takes place.
vii) Fix the corks tightly in the mouth of the Woulfe's bottle or round bottom flask and make
the joints airtight by sealing them with wax.
viii) Smell the gases by puffing with hand.
ix) Heat the reaction mixture gently, wherever required.

1.11 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Q.1 What happens when CO 2 is bubbled through lime water ?
...................................................................................................................................
Q.2 How would you show that carbon dioxide is acidic in nature ?
...................................................................................................................................

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Q.3 Name the physical property of chlorne gas which can help in its identification.
...................................................................................................................................
Q.4 What is the role of MnO 2 in the preparation of chlorine gas ?
...................................................................................................................................
Q.5 Describe any one method of laboratory preparation of hydrogen gas ?
...................................................................................................................................
Q.6 Compare the density of hydrogen gas with air and tell which one is heavier ?
...................................................................................................................................
Q.7 Name the type of compound formed by the reaction of metal and hydrogen gas ?
...................................................................................................................................
Q.8 What are the physical properties of oxygen gas ?
...................................................................................................................................
Q.9 How is carbon dioxide prepared in the laboratory? Write the reaction ?
...................................................................................................................................
Q.10 Can we use dilute H2SO4 in place of dil. HCl in the preparation of carbon dioxide ?
Give reason.
...................................................................................................................................

1.12 NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

When students perform these experiments, the teacher should ensure that the students are
using proper set up of the apparatus. They should also see that students are using chemicals of
required purity. While collecting gases, it should be properly collected as stated under
individiual gas preparation and the gas should not be allowed to leak in the laboratory

1.13 CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Ans. 1: The lime water, Ca(OH) turns milky due to the formation of insoluble calcium
carbonate, CaCO3.

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O

Ans. 2: To a jar containing CO2 gas, put a piece of moise blue litmus. A change of colour
from blue to red indicated acidic character of the gas.

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Ans. 3: i) Greenish - yellow colour
ii) Pungent-suffocating odour
Ans. 4: It acts as a catalyst.
Ans. 5: Hydrogen gas is prepared in the laboratory when granules of zinc reacts with cold
dilute sulphuric acid.

Zn+ H 2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H 2 ↑

Ans. 6: i) Air is denser than hydrogen gas and air is heavier too.
Ans. 7: The reaction of metal and hydrogen gas gives the metal hydride.
Ans. 8: i) Oxygen is a colourless and odourless gas
ii) It is heavier than air.
iii) It is fairly soluble in water.
Ans. 9: Carbon dioxide is prepared in the laboratory by the action of dilute hydrochloric
acid on marble chips.

CaCO3 + Dil. HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O(1)

Ans. 10: No, Sulphuric acid can not be used because the reaction remains incomplete as
the reaction between sulphuric acid and marble chips gives calcium sulphate which
being insoluble, deposits, on the marble chips and hence the reaction is left
incomplete.

CaCO3 + H 2SO4 → CaSO4 + H2O + CO2↑

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 EXPERIMENT-2
To prepare dilute solutions of given concentrations of hydrochloric acid,
sulphuric acid and nitric acid from their stock solution.

2.1 OBJECTIVES
After peforming this experiment, you should be able to:
• explain the meaning of the terms saturated solution, standard solution and dilution;
• use proper glassware to prepare solutions of different dilutions; and
• prepare solutions of given concentrations by dilution.

2.2 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

The most commonly used acids in laboratories are hydrochloric, sulphuric and nitric acids.
The concentration of these commercially available acids are 12M, 18M and 16M respectively.
But expect a few cases, we need these acids in lower concentrations. The acids in their lower
concentrations can be obtained by dilution of concentrated acids.
To make a solution of required concentration, we use the standard relation
M1 V1 = M2 V2
Where, M = molarity of concentrated acid, and V1 = Volume of concentrated acid. M1 =
Molarity of acid required, V2 = Volume of acid required.

2.3 MATERIALS REQUIRED

Materials Required
(1) Apparatus (2) Chemicals
Standard flask (100mL) Hydrochloric acid (12M)
Funnel, Glass rod, Wash bottle Sulphuric acid (18M), Nitric acid (16M)
Pipette and burette and Distilled water.

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 2.4 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT
You are required to prepare
1. 100 mL of 1 molar solution of hydrochloric acid.
2. 100 mL of 0.5 molar solution of sulphuric acid and
3. 100 mL of 2 molar solution of nitric acid from the commercially available acids.
For preparing 100mL of 1 molar hydrochloric acid we use the equation, M1 V1 = M2 V 2, We
first calculate the volume of concentrated acid and water required.
M1 = Molarity of concentrated acid = 12M
V1 = Volume of concentrated acid = ?
M2 = Molarity of acid required = 100mL
V2 = Voluem of acid required = 100mL

Take about 50mL of distilled water in a 100mL standard flask. Transfer 8.3 mL of concentrated
acid from a burette tot he standard flask. Shake the mixture gently. Add water to make up the
volume of acid in the standard flask upto the mark. Close the flask with glass-stopper. Mix
the solution by tilting the flask upside down.
For the preparation of dilute solution of sulphuric and nitric acids, follow the same procedure
as given above.

2.5 PRECAUTIONS
i) The acids should be used with utmost care.
ii) All the three acids are corrosive to skin.
iii) Add concentrated acids slowly to water with constant stirring.

2.6 OBSERVATIONS
i) Volume of 12M HCl taken for preparing 1 M HCl, (100mL solution = 8.3 mL)
ii) Volume of 18M H2SO, taken for preparing 0.5M, H2SO4 (100 mL solution) = ...................
iii) Volume of 16M HNO3 taken for preparing 2M HNO3 (100mL solution) = ...................

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 2.7 CONCLUSION
The solution of required concentrations may be prepared from their concentrated solution by
the dilution method.

2.8 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. What are the components of a solution ?
...................................................................................................................................
2. What do you understand by dilution ?
...................................................................................................................................
3. What is molarity ?
...................................................................................................................................
4. Calculate the volume of 8M HCl required to prepare 250ml of 2M hydrochloric acid.
...................................................................................................................................

2.9 NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

All the three concentrated acids are highly corrosive. One should be careful while handling
these acids.
The students need help in transferring acids from the conmmerical bottles into reagent bottles.
The students should not be allowed to take acids from the commercial bottles.

2.10 CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Ans. 1 There are two component in a solution (a) the solvent, and (b) solute.
Ans. 2 Dilution is a physical process involving addition of a solvent to the concentrated
solution.
Ans. 3 Molarity is the number of moles of solute present in 1 litre of the solution.
Ans. 4 M 1 V 1 = M 2 V2

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 EXPERIMENT-3
To study the interaction of metals with salt solutions of other metals and arrange
them according to their reactivity. Metals and salts may be selected from the
metals like Mg, Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb, Cu and Ag and their salts.

3.1 OBJECTIVES
After peforming this experiment, you should be able to:
• identify the change that is taking place during reaction (colour change, change in colour
intensity, etc.);
• interpret the observations in terms of the chemicals reactions taking place;
• write chemical equations of the reactions involved;
• differentiate between a less active metal from a more active metal;
• list the given metals in the order of their increasing activity; and
• predict the probable changes on reacting a known metal with a known salt solution.

3.2 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

Compounds are ionic or covalent in nature. Salts are ionic compounds which dissolve in
water to give cations (positively charged ions) and anions (negatively charged ions). When a
metal piece is dipped in an aqueous solution of salt of another metal, the cation of the salt may
be replaced by cation of the metal which is dipped in it if is more active. The displaced cation
would change to metal atom and deposit on the dipped metal.

3.3 MATERIALS REQUIRED

(1) Apparatus (2) Chemicals

Test tube stand, Test tubes, Burner Mg, Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb and Cu metals
Beaker, Tripod stand, Wire gauze, and their water soluble salts. MgCl2
Glass rod Mg (NO3)2, Zn(NO3)2, ZnCl2,
Pb(NO 3)2, CuSO4, Cu(NO3)2

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 3.4 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

Take four test tubes and mark them (1), (2), (3), (4). Fill them half with 10% solution of a
magnesium salt. Place them in the test tube stand as shown in Fig. 3.1

Add a small piece of magnesium ribbon to the first test tube, a small quantity of zinc granules
to the second, iron filings to the third and copper filings to the fourth test tube. Observe the
test tube carefully and record the observation in Table 3.1.

8
F

Fig. 3.1 : Study of activity of different metals

Repeat the same experiment using the solutions of pits of Cu, Fe (ferrous) and Zn respectively
with the four metals as done earlier. In each case, observe carefully and record your observations
in Table 3.1
Mark tick ( 9) for the reaction taking place between the metal and the salt solution and cross
( x ) for the reaction not taking place by observing change in any property of solution.

3.5 PRECAUTIONS
1. The pieces of the metals should be clean.
2. Do not use very active metals like sodium, potassium, lithium or calcium.
3. Aluminium may be avoided as it forms a protective layer which makes the metal passive,
whereas the metal is not passive.

3.6 OBSERVATIONS
Record your observations in the following table :

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 Table 3.1
Solid Metal Metal ions in solution Remarks if any
Mg2+ Cu2+ Fe2+ Zn2+
Mg -
Cu -
Fe -
Zn -

3.7 CONCLUSION
If the reaction takes place, it indicates that the metal added is more active than the metal in
solution. We show it by marking ( 9 ) sign. If the reaction does not take place, we conclude
that the metal added is less reactive than the metal in solution. We show this by marking ( x )
in the table.
A metal having maximum no. of ( 9 ) marks is the most active. Number of ( 9 ) marks shows
the extent of acitivity.
Thus a list of metals in order of their decreasing activity may be prepared.
The order of activity of the metals is ...........> ...........> ...........> ...........>

3.8 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. State a necessary condition for the reaction of a metal with the solution of salt of another
metal.
...................................................................................................................................
2. State the hazard involved in using a very reactive metal like potassium in a displacement
reaction.
...................................................................................................................................
3. List the probable observations from which you conclude that the reaction has taken
place.
...................................................................................................................................
4. Write the chemical equations for the reactions taking place when magnesium ribbon is
dipped in (i) zinc nitrate solution (ii) copper nitrate solution and (iii) iron sulphate solution.

1.................................................................................................................................

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 2.......................................................................................................................................
3.......................................................................................................................................

NOTE FOR THE TEACHERS

As far as possible the four metals and their salts should be carefully selected to show a
difference of activity. Metals having very close activity should not be given. Highly active
metals such as sodium should not be used in this experiment. Although the procedure mentions
Cu, Fe, Zn and Mg metals, you may select any four out of the given list and suitably modify
the procedure and observation table.
Students should be helped to draw conclusions on the basis of the recorded data. Projects can
be assigned to students to record observations of such reactivities in daily life. The importance
of such reactions in daily life should be highlighted.

3.10 CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Ans. 1. The dipped metal should be more reactive of the two.
Ans. 2. Very active metals, such as sodium and potassium, react with water vigorously
and may even catch fire with an explosion.
Ans. 3. a) Development of colour
b) Disappearance of colour
c) Change in colour intensity

Ans. 4. Mg(s) + Zn (NO 3)2 (aq) → Mg(NO3)2(aq) + Zn(s)

Mg(s) + Cu (NO 3)2 (aq) → Mg(NO3)2(aq) + Cu(s)
Mg(s) + FeSO4 (aq) → MgSO4(aq) + Fe(s)

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 EXPERIMENT-4
a) To determine the pH of the following substances by using a universal
indicator solution or pH paper.
i) Salt solution
ii) Acids and bases of different dilutions
iii) Vegetables and fruit juices
b) To study the pH change by common ion effect in case of weak acids and
weak bases using universal indicator solution or pH paper.

4.1 OBJECTIVES
After peforming this experiment, you should be able to:
• find the pH of solutions of diffrent substances by using universal indicator solution or
pH paper;
• classify various substances as neutral, acidic or alkaline;
• explain the nature of substances on the basis of their pH values;
• observe changes in pH of a weak acid when a compound containing common anion
with the weak acid is added to it;
• observe change in pH of weak base when a compound containing common cation with
the weak base is added to it; and
• explain the significance of buffer solution.

4.2 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

Solutions of weak acids and bases in water have hydronium ions [H3O+ ] and hydroxyl ions
[OH-] in different 'Concentrations. Acidic solutions have [H3O+] ions greater than 10-7 mol
L-1 and alkaline solutions have [OH-] ions than 10 -7 mol 1-1 at 250C. A neutral solution, or
pure water has [H3O+] = [OH-]. For expressing the concentration of H3O+ in a solution, the
negative powers of 10 are involved. This inconvenient use of figures involving negative
powers of 10 can be avoided by using a concept of pH scale. The pH of a solution is defined
as the negative logarithm to the base 10 of the hydronium ion concentration.

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 pH = _log10 [H3O +]
The pH acidic solutions is less than 7, that of basic solution, is greater than 7 and the neutral
solutions have pH = 7.
pH of a basic solution can be calculated by using the relation,
_
pH = 14 log 10 [OH ]
pH is accurately measured by a pH meter, but a reasonably good estimate can be made with
the help of universal indicator solution or pH paper. These have characteristic colours depending
upon the pH of the solution.
Now you would like to see the pH change of solution of weak acid or weak base, when their
salt is added to the solution. Weak acids and bases do not dissociate completely. An equilibrium
exists between the dissociated and undissociated molecules. For example, for a weak acid
HA, you can write the equilibrium as follows,

This equilibrium is characterised by a constant, Ka. Addition of a salt containing a common

ion, say NaA to its solutions causes the equilibrium to shift to the left (Le Chatterlier's principle).
As a consequence, the concentration of hydrogen ions gets reduced and the pH gets increased.
You would study this phenomenon (common ion effect) by using acetic acid as the weak acid
and sodium acetate as its salt. Similar arguments hold true for the ionization of weak base
(e.g. NH4OH). You can check this adding NH4Cl to NH4OH solution (a weak base and its
salt). Such mixtures of weak acid or weak bases with their respective salts are called as Buffer
Solution. pH of an acidic buffer can be calculated by using the following equation

Ka is the acid dissociation constant and pKa is the negative logarithm of Ka.
pH for a basic buffer (a weak base and its salt) can be calculated by using the following
equation.

Kb is the base dissociation constant and pKb is the negative logarithm of Kb.

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 pK a for acetic acid at 250C = 4.76
pK b for ammonium hydroxide at 250C = 4.75

4.3 MATERIALS REQUIRED

(1) Apparatus (2) Chemicals

Test tube - 6, Test tube stand Dilute acid and base solutions,
Spatula, Measuring cylinder Neutral solution (NaCl), Solution of
(25mL) and a Dropper. hydrolysable salts like CuSO 4, NH4Cl,
CH 3COONA, fruit and vegetable
juices, pH paper or universal indicator
solution with colour chart, Acetic acid
(0.1M), and soldium acetate.

4.4 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

a) For determining the pH of a given solution proceed as follows :
Take six test tubes and lable them 1 to 6. If you are using universal indicator solution, then
take 3-4 mL each of the test solution (about one fourth of test tube) into separate labelled test
tubes. To all the test tubes, add 4 to 5 drops of the universal indicator solution and observe the
appearance of colour, if any. If you are using pH paper, add 1-2 drop each of the test solution
with the help of a dropper on a pH paper strip. (Alternatively, you may dip the pH paper
strips into each of the test solution). Observe the colour. Compare the colour of the solution in
the test tubes or on the pH papers with the standard colour chart as provided to you to find the
pH. Record your observations in Table 4.1 given in section 4.6. Classify the solutions as
neutral, acidic or alkaline.
b) To study the pH change due to common ion effect proceed as follows :
Take 5 labelled test tubes and place them in a test tube stand. Take 5mL of given acetic acid
solution in each of the labelled test tubes. Add 0.5g. 1.0g. 1.5g and 2.0 g of sodium acetate to
test tube No. 2.3,4 and 5 respectively and dissolve to get clear solutions. Add 4-5 drops of the
universal indicator solution to each of the test tubes. In case of pH paper, add 1-2 drops of the
solutions to pH papers separately with the help of separate dropper. (Alternatively, you may
dip the pH paper strips into each of the test solution). Compare the colours in test solution or
on pH paper developed with the colour chart and record the corresponding pH values, in
Table 4.2 of section 4.6. Calculate the pH of each buffer solution you have prepared using
appropriate equation and list in the Table 4.2.
You may try the same procedure given above at (b) to study the pH in case of basic buffer
using ammonium hydroxide as a base and ammonium chloride as its salt.

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 4.5 PRECAUTIONS
1. Compare the colour which appears on pH paper with the standard colour chart carefully.
2. Don't add too much of the indicator solution. You may follow the instruction given on
the label of the indicator bottle.

4.6 OBSERVATIONS
Table 4.1 : pH Values of different test solutions
S.No. Solution pH Value
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Table 4.2 : pH Values of different combinations of CH3COOH

and CH3COONa
S.No. Vol. of acetic acid Amount of sodium pH Observed Calculated pH
(mL)
1. 5.0 0.0
2. 5.0 0.5
3. 5.0 1.0
4. 5.0 1.5
5. 5.0 2.0

4.7 CONCLUSIONS
a) pH of solution 1 is ................. and therefore, it is acidic/basic/neutral
pH of solution 2 is ................. and therefore, it is acidic/basic/neutral
pH of solution 3 is ................. and therefore, it is acidic/basic/neutral
pH of solution 4 is ................. and therefore, it is acidic/basic/neutral
pH of solution 5 is ................. and therefore, it is acidic/basic/neutral
pH of solution 6 is ................. and therefore, it is acidic/basic/neutral

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b) pH of acetic acid solution increase / decreases / remains unchanged on adding increasing
amounts of sodium acetate to it.

4.8 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Calculate the pH of 10 -2M HCl solution and 10-2 M NaOH solution ?
...................................................................................................................................
2. The pH of an aquecous sodium chloride solution is 7. Explain, what does it mean ?
...................................................................................................................................
3. Why does copper sulphate solution (a slat solution) has a pH other than 7 ?
...................................................................................................................................

4.9 NOTE FOR THE TEACHERS

For acetic acid-sodium acetate experiment, dilute 3 mL of glacial acetic acid with water to get
100 mL solution in measuring cylinder.

4.10 CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Ans. 1 pH = 2 for 10 -2 M HCl
pH = 2 for 10-2 M NaOH
Ans. 2 NaCl is a salt of strong acid (HCl) and a strong base (NaOH). In solution it
dissociates completely to give sodium and dichloride ions which do not hydrolyse.
In aqueous solutions the hydrogen ions come only from water and have a
concentration of 10-7M hence the pH=7.
Ans. 3 CuSO4 solution will have a pH which is less than 7, because in water solution,
CuSO4 will hydrolyse to give strong acid (H2SO4) which makes the solution acidic
in nature.

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 EXPERIMENT-5
To determine the melting point of a solid substance having low melting point

5.1 OBJECTIVES
After peforming this experiment, you should be able to:
• set up an apparatus to determine the melting point;
• determine the melting point of a given solid substance; and
• relate the melting point of a substance with its purity;

5.2 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

The melting point of a solid is that constant temperature at which the solid and liquid phases
of the substance are in equilibrium with eath other.
This is an important physical constant used for estabilishing of the identity and
determining the purity of a solid substance. A sharp melting point is usually indicative of high
purity of a substance. The presence of impurities lower down the melting point. Jhus, an
impure solid substance has a lower melting point than that of its pure form

5.3 MATERIALS REQUIRED

(1) Apparatus (2) Chemicals

Beaker (100 mL), Thermometer, Liquid paraffin (NmL)
Glass capillary tube (5-6 cm long) Naphthalene, Urea, Oxalic acid,
Burner, Iron stand, Clamp and boss, Benzoic acid.
Trpod-stand, Wire gauze, Stirrer Spatula
Glass tube (25-30cm), Watch glass,
Cork with one bore.

5.4 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

1) Take a glass capillary tube of about 5-6 cm in length and seal one end of it. This is done

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 by heating tip of tube with the side of the flame of the Bunsen burner. The end of the
capillary tube melts and seals itself. It is indicated by the formation of a small glass bead
at tip. Fig. 5.1

2) Take a small quantity of a solid (about 50mg) in watch glass, powder it by crushing it
with the help of a spatula.

3) Fill the powdered substance in the capillary tube upto about 1 cm height. This is done
by pushing the open-end of the capillary tube into the heap of powdered substance kept
in a watch glass. Now drop the capillary tube with the seated end down through a glass-
tube (25-30 cm length) kept vertically on a plane surface so that the powder reaches the
closed end of the capillary.

4) Take a beaker of 100mL capacity. Fill it nearly half with paraffin oil. Place this beaker
(paraffin bath) over a wire gauze kept on a tripod stand.

5) Take a thermometer and dip it in the paraffin bath so as to wet its lower end. Bring the
capillary tube near to the wet end and spread a thin film of paraffin oil on one side of
capillary tube. Bring the wet side of the capillary tube in contact with the thermometer.
The capillary tube sticks to the thermometer due to the surface tension of paraffin. (Fig.
5.2). Now hang it on a clamp such that its bulb dips completely in the liquid paraffin but
the open end of capillary is above it.

Fig. 5.1 : Sealing of Capillary tube Fig. 5.2 : Determination of melting point

6) Heat the paraffin bath slowly with a burner and keep the oil stirring so as to maintain a
uniform temperature.

7) Continue heating till the substance melts. Note down the temperature (t1) at which the
substance begins to melt. Observe carefully whether the substance melts at a fixed
temperature or it melts over a range of temperature. A melting point is said to be sharp
when the compound melts at a fixed temperature.

8) Remove the burner and allow the temperature to come down. Note the temperature (t2)

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 at which the solid just reappears.

9) The average of the readings (t1 + t2) is the correct melting point.

5.5 PRECAUTIONS
1. The substance whose melting point is to be determinsed should be completely dry.
2. The thermometer and the capillary should not touch the bottom or the sides of the
beaker.
3. The heating of bath should be very slow with the help of a low flame so that the change
in the state of the substance (solid to liquid) is clear.
4. The bath should be stirred gently to maintain a uniform temperature.

5.6 OBSERVATIONS
Temperature at which the substance begins to melt (t1) = ...................... 0C
Temperature at which the substance resolidities melts (t2) = ..................... 0C
Melting point (T1) = ........................ 0C
Note : In case of pure substance values t1 and t2 are almost the same or the difference between
t1 and t2 is very small. In case of impure substance, t1 and t2 are different and the difference
between t1 and t 2 depends upon the amount of impurity.

5.7 CONCLUSION
i) The melting point of the substance is ..................... 0C
ii) The melting point of the substance is sharp / not sharp. Hence the substance is of a pure
/ impure quality.

5.8 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Define the melting point of a substance.
...................................................................................................................................
2. What will be the effect of impurity on melting point of a substance ?
...................................................................................................................................
3. How can you keep the temperature of the bath uniform while heating ?

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 ...................................................................................................................................
4. What is the usefulness of determination of melting point ?
...................................................................................................................................
5. What is meant by sharp melting point ?
...................................................................................................................................
6. What will be the effect on melting point of the substance if the oil in the bath is not
stirred regularly.
...................................................................................................................................

5.9 NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

Following substances may be given to the students for determination of melting point :
Compound M.P. (0C)
1. Naphthalene 80
2. Citric Acid 100
3. Oxalic Acid 101
4. Benzoic Acid 121
5. Urea 132

5.10 CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Ans. 1 : Melting point of a substance is the temperature at which the solid and liquid phase
of the substance are in equilibrium.
Ans. 2 : The presence of impurity lowers the melting point of a substance.
Ans. 3 : By stirring the paraffin oil gently.
Ans. 4 : To establish the identity and determining the purity of a solid substance.
Ans. 5 : The temperature at which a solid melts almost completely.
Ans. 6 : The lower part of the oil will have higher temperature than upper part and thus
observed metling point will differ from the actual value.

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 EXPERIMENT-6
To study the solubility of solid substances in water at different temperatures
and to plot the solubility curve.

6.1 OBJECTIVES
After peforming this experiment, you should be able to:
• set up the apparatus for studying the solubility of different substances at different
temperatures;
• determine the solubility of substances at different temperatures
• draw a solubility curve;
• read solubility value from the curve at different temperatues;
• interpret the variation of the solubility curve of different substances at different
temperatures; and
• explain the basis of fractional crystallization

6.2 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

Solubity of a substance is defined as the amount of the substance dissolved in 100g of the
solvent so as to give a saturated solution at a given temperature. The variation of solubility
with temperature is quite different for different substances. For some, salts, for example for
NaCl, there is hardly any change in solubility with increase in temperature. For some, such as
potassium nitrate, the change in solubility with temperature is very rapid, while for others
such as potassium iodide, the change is very slow. This difference in solubilty behaviour
forms the basis for fractional crystallization of substances. This technique is used for the
separation of impurities present in any substance.
It is quite convenient to express the solubility of substances at different temperatures by plotting
a graph called solubility curve.
When a solid dissolves in a liquid, the process can be either endothermic or exothermic. For many
ionic compounds, this process is endothermic. According to Le Chatelier's principle, the solubility
of such salts will increase with increase in temperature. Ifthe process of dissolution is exothermic,
for example, for lithium sulphate (Li2SO4), the solubility decreases with increase in temperature.
The variation of solubility with temperature of a few salt is depicted in Fig. 6.1

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 Fig. 6.1 : Solubility Curves

6.3 MATERIALS REQUIRED

(1) Apparatus (2) Chemicals

Boiling tube, Glass rod, Glass water Potassium nitrate, Distilled water,
bath (glass beaker 250 mL). Sodium nitrate
Thermometer, wire gauze, Tripod
stand, Burner stand with clamp and
boss, Spatula, stirrer

6.4 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

1) Weigh 10.0 g of powdered sodium nitrate using a physical balance and pour it into the
boiling tube.

2) With the help of a burette, add 7-8 mL of water into boiling tube. Stir it well with the
help of stirrer. You will observe that a small amount of salt remains undissolved.

3) Now from burette, add water in very small volume say 0-1 mL, till all the salt dissolves.
Stir well after each addition of water.

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 Fig. 6.2 : Study of Solubility

Note down the volume of water required for just dissolving the given mass of the salt. Also
note down the temperature of solution. This is the solubility of salt at this particular temperature.
4) Now, add 1g of sodium nitrate to above boiling tube.
5) Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure (6.2). Note that the level of water in water bath
should be well above the level of solution in boiling tube.
6) Heat the water bath very slowly with constant stirring of solution. As soon as the salt
dissolves, note down the temperature. Let us say, it is temperature, t1.
7) Now remove the burner, and let the solution to cool down. As soon as some solid
reappears at the bottom of boiling tube, note down the temperature agains. Let us say it
is temperature, t2.

8) Find out average of temperature t 1 and t2 as . Add one more gram of sodium
nitrate to the boiling tube. And repeat step number 6 and 7 again.
9) In a similiar way find out solubility of sodium nitrate at 5 different temperatures.
10) Calculate the amount of NaNO 3 dissolved in 100mL of solvent at above recorded
temperatures.
11) Record all your readings in the table 6.1 given below.

6.5 PRECAUTIONS
1) Powder the substance before use.
2) Weigh the salt as accurately as possible.

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3) During heating and cooling, stir the solution gently.
4) Heat the water bath very slowly to control the rise in temperature.

6.6 OBSERVATIONS

Table 6.1 : Solubility of NaNO3 at Different Temperatures

S.No. I II III IV V VI
Quantity Volume of Amount of Temp. at Temp. at Mean
of NaNO3 water NaNO3 which salt which salt temp.
(mg) (mL) per 100 mL dissolves reappears
of water t1 ( 0C) t2 (0C)
= solubility = (0C)
(n/v) x 100g

1.

2.

3.

4.

Plot a graph of the amount of sodium nitrate dissolved per 100mL of water versus temperature
i.e. solubility as recorded in Column III and temperature as recorded in Column VI, taking
solubility along x-axis and temperature along x-axis.

6.7 CONCLUSION
Solubility of sodium nitrate in water changes rapidly / slowly / does not change with
temperature.

6.8 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Define the term solubility
...................................................................................................................................
2. What is the advantage of solubility curves for separation of substances ?
...................................................................................................................................
3. Why do you heat the water bath slowy
...................................................................................................................................

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 6.9 NOTE FOR THE TEACHER
1) You can ask the students to perform this experiment with Potassium nitrate (KNO 3).
They may compare the curve with that of Soidum nitrate or Ask some students to perform
the experiment. With NaNO3 and others with KNO3 and compare their graphs.
2) Ask the students to find out the solubility of the substances at a given temperature from
the graphs.

6.10 CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Ans. 1 : Solubility of a substance is its amount dissolved in 100g of solvent so as to give a
saturated solution at a specified temperature.
Ans. 2 : Solubility curves indicate the crystallization point at a particular temperature which
can be used for separating two substances by the process of crystallization.
Ans. 3 : Rapid increase in temperature will not allow to read the temperature on the
thermometer accurately.

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 EXPERIMENT-7
To study the shift in equilibrium between ferric ions and thiocyanate ions by
increasing / decreasing the concentration of these ions.

7.1 OBJECTIVES
After peforming this experiment, you should be able to:
• perform dilution of the solutions using measuring cylinder;
• compare the intensity of colours in two solutions visually;
• predict the direction in which the equilibrium will shift if the concentration of any reactant
is increased or decreased.
• predict the direction in which the equilibrium will shift, if the concentration of any
product is increased or decreased.

7.2 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

A reversible reaction never reaches the completion stage but results in an equilibrium state in
which concentrations of all the reactants and products become constant. This equilibrium is
dynamic in nature and it is the result of two opposite reactions occuring simultaneously and at
the same rate. However, no 'net' change occurs in the system.
According to Le Chatelier's Principle "when any system at equilibrium is disturbed by
changing concentrations, temperature or pressure, the equilibrium shifts either in forward or
backward direction and a 'net' change occurs in it so as to decrease the effect of the disturbing
factor".
Consider the following equilibrium

The equilibrium constant for it is given by

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When concentration of A or B is increased, the equilibrium will shift in forward direction, so
that some quantity of A and B is consumed and corresponding quantities of products C and D
are formed. When concentration of A or B is decreased, (the equilibrium will shift in backward
direction) Now same quantity of C and D is consumed and corresponding quantities of reactants
A and B are produced. Similarly when concentration of products C or D is increased, the
equilibrium will shift in the backward direction and when it is decreased it will shift in the
forward direction.

Ferric ions react with thiocynate ions to form a blood red coloured complex, [Fe(CNS]2+, and
the following equilibrium is established.
_
Fe(aq)3+ + CNS (aq) [Fe(CNS)] 2+(aq)
pale yellow colourless deep blood red

_
The effect of change in concentration of Fe(aq)3++ or CNS ions on this equilibrium can be
studied easily. If this equilibrium shifts in forward direction, more quantity of the complex
will be formed and the colour of the solution will become more intense. Similarly, when the
equilibrium shifts in backward direction, some quantity of the complex will break and the
colour of the solution will become light.

7.3 MATERIALS REQUIRED

(1) Apparatus (2) Chemicals

Test tube stand 0.02 M KCNS Solution
test tubes - 5 0.02 M Fe(NO 3)3 Solution
Measuring cylinder - 10mL
Measuring cylinder - 50 mL
Wash bottle
White glazed tile or a sheet of
plain white paper.

7.4 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

1. Take five clean and dry test tubes, number them from 1 to 5 and keep them in a test tube
stand. Mark the test tube number 3 as "Reference Tube".

2. Take 10mL Fe(NO3)3 solution (0.02 M) in a clean and dry 50mL measuring cylinder.
Fill it up with distilled water upto 40mL mark and stir to mix. Take 5 mL of this diluted
(0.005 M) Fe (NO3)3 solution in each of the five test tubes.

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3. In a clean and dry 10mL measuring cylinder take 10mL KCNS solution (0.02 M). Out
of it, add 5mL solution to test tube, number 1.

4. The measuring cylinder now contains 5mL) of 0.02M KCNS solution. Add distilled
water to make the volume upto 10mL mark in the measuring cylinder with a wash
bottle and stir to mix. You get KCNS solution of 0.01M concentration. Pour 5mL of
0.01 M KCNS solution into test tube number 2.

5. Add distilled water in the remaining solution to make the volume upto 10mL which will
give a solution 0.005 M and transfer 5 mL of this solution to test tube number 3.

6. Again add distilled water in the remaining solution in the test tube No. 1 to obtain a
solution of 0.0025 M and transfer 5 mL of solution to test tube number 4.

7. Similarly, in order to set a solution of 0.00125 M upto 10mL in the first test tube by
adding distilled water in it and transfer 5 mL of it to the fifth test tube.

8. Shake all the five test tubes to mix the solutions and keep them back on test tube stand.

9. Compare the intensity of red colour in test tube number 1 with that in 'Reference Tube'
(Number 3). For this purpose, hold the two tubes against white background of a glazed
tile or a plain white paper. Find out whether the colour intensity is more or less than the
Reference tube and record it in Table 7.1 given in sectin 7.6.

10. Similary, compare the intensity of red colour in the remaining test tubes numbered 2, 4
and 5 and record the observations in Table 7.1

11. Similarly, we can study the effect of (Fe3+) on the equilibrium by performing another
experiment where we vary the concentration of Fe+++ while keeping the concentration
_
of (CNS ) constant. For this, use KCNS solution in step 2 nad Fe(NO3)3 solution in
steps 3 to 8. Record your observations in Table 7.2 given in section 7.6

7.5 PRECAUTIONS

1. All glass apparatus (test tubes and measuring cylinders) should be thoroughly clean,
otherwise the solutions will stick to their sides and not mix properly.

2. Volumes of solutions and distilled water should be measured carefully so that the solution
of desired concentration can be obtained.

3. Mixing of solution and water or of two solutions should be done by gentle shaking and
avoiding their splashing.

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 7.6 OBSERVATIONS
_
Table 7.1 : Effect of concentrations of CNS ion on the equilibrium

Test tube Conc. of Conc. of Intensity of red Shift in

No. Fe (NO3)3 KCNS colour as compared equilibrium
soln. used used sol. to the reference (forward/
(mol-1) (mol-1) tube (more/less) backward)

1. 0.005 0.02 ................. .................

2. 0.005 0.01 ................. .................
3. 0.005 0.005 Reference .................
4. 0.005 0.0025 ................. .................
5. 0.005 0.00125 ................. .................

Table 7.2 : Effect of concentrations of Fe3+ ion on the equilibrium

Test tube Conc. of Conc. of Intensity of red Shift in

No. Fe (NO3)3 KCNS colour as compared equilibrium
soln. used used sol. to the reference (forward/
(mol-1) (mol-1) tube (more/less) backward)

1. 0.02 0.005 ................. .................

2. 0.01 0.005 ................. .................
3. 0.005 0.005 Reference .................
4. 0.0025 0.005 ................. .................
5. 0.00125 0.005 ................. .................

7.7 CONCLUSIONS

1. When any reactant concentration is increased, the equilibrium shifts in ___ direction.

2. When any reactant concentration is decreased, the eequilibrium shifts in ___ direction.

7.8 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. State Le Chalelier's Principle.
...................................................................................................................................
2. Why is the equilibrium reached by a reversible reaction called dynamic equilibrium ?
...................................................................................................................................

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3. What will happen to the equilibrium by mixing Fe(NO)3 and KCNS solutions, if a few
drops of FeCl3 solution are added to it.
...................................................................................................................................
4. What will happen if some [Fe(SCN)]2+ ions are removed from the above equilibrium ?
...................................................................................................................................
5. What will be the effect of addition of a few drops of dilute NH4OH solution to the
above equilibrium ? Give reasons.

7.9 NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

1. The teacher should help the students while doing the experiments.
2. Chemicals should be supplied in pure state.

7.10 CHECK YOUR ANSWER

Ans. 1: Le Chatelier's Principle states, when any system at equilibrium is disturbed by
changing concentrations, temperature or pressure, the equilibrium shifts in a
direction so as to nullify or reduce the effect of that change.
Ans. 2: It is because even after equilibrium is established, two opposite reactions continue
to occur but at the same rate.
Ans. 3: The equilibrium will shift in forward direction as the concentration of reactant
Fe3+ ion will increase on addition of FeCl3.
Ans. 4: As [Fe(SCN)]2+ ions (product) are removed the equilibrium will shift in forward
direction.
_
Ans. 5: The equilibrium will shift in back ward direction. It is because OH ions from NH
OH will combine with some Fe 3+ ions and form brown precipitate of Fe(OH)3.
Thus reactant (Fe3+ ions) concentration will decrease and the equilibrium will shift
in backward direction.

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 EXPERIMENT-8
a) To study the effect of concentration on the rate of reaction between sodium
thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid.
b) To study the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction between sodium
thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid.

8.1 OBJECTIVES
After peforming this experiment, you should be able to:

• observe the effect of concentration of reactants on rates of reactions;

• predict the effect of conentration of reactants on rates of reactions;

• observe the effect of temperature on rates of reactions;

• predict the effect of temperature on rates of reactions;

8.2 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

Concentration and temperature are two important factors which affect the rate of a reaction.
Effect of concentration on rate of a reaction is given by its rate law.
For a general reaction
aA + bB → Products
The rate law may be written as, rate = = k[A]a [B] b
Here,a and b are the orders of the reaction with respect to reactants A and B respectively. The
overall order, n, is given by
n=a+b
And k is the rate constant of the reaction
Generally, a and b are positive integers. However, in some cases they may be fractions or
zero, Thus generally speaking, on increasing the concentration of a reactant, the rate of reaction
increases. The rate of reaction also depends upon the temperature. Arrhenius equiation gives
the relationship between the two

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 k = A.e-Ea/RT
whwre, k is the rate constant of the reaction at temperature T. A and Ea are constants for a
given reaction. While A is known as Arrhenius factor and Ea as activation energy. Activation
energy is the minimum energy which the reactant molecules must possess over and above of
their average energy in order to undergo chemical change. On raising the temperatue, more
reactant molecules possess sufficient energy required for reaction. Hence, the rate of the reaction
increases.
The reaciton between sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid occurs according to the
following equation,
Na2S2O3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → 2 NaCl(aq) + H2O(1) + SO2(g) + S(s)

As the reaction proceeds, the amount of precipitated sulphur increase, the solution becomes
increasingly turbid and at a cetain stage it becomes opaque. This stage can be fairly judged
accurately by a simple method. The flask containing the reaction mixture is kept on a sheet of
white paper on which a cross is marked in ink and when the reaction mixture becomes opaque,
the corss is no longer visible. Rate of the reaction is inversely proportional to the time interval
between the start of the reaction and the disappearance of the cross mark.
Effect of concentration of each reactant can be studied by changing the concentration of one
reactant while keeping that of the other constant. The time of disappearance of cross mark
(X) is noted in each case. The inverse values of the time intervals are comapred. Effect of
temperature can be studied by starting the reaction with the same concentrations of both the
reactants at different temperatures. The inverse values of the time intervals for the cross mark
to disappear are compared.

8.3 MATERIALS REQUIRED

(1) Apparatus (2) Chemicals
Four 150mL conical flasks, Dilute HCl - 1M
50mL measuring cylinder, Sodium thiosulphate solution - 0.1M
Thermometer - 10 to 1100C
Stop watch
Bunsen burner
Tripod stand
Wire gauze
Sheet of plain white paper

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 8.4 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

a) Effect of Concetration

Take three clean and dry conical flasks and mark them 1, 2 and 3. If necessary, clean the
flasks with dilute nitric acid and then wash with water thoroughly before using them. With
the hlep of measuring cylinder, take 30 mL-distilled water in the conical flask 1 and 20mL-
each in flask 2 and flask 3. Rinse the measuring cylinder with the solution of sodium thiosulphate
and add 10 mL of it each in flask 1 and flask 2 and 20mL-in the flask 3. Using ball point pen,
mark a cross on a sheet of plain white paper, lay it on the table and keep the flask 1 on it, so
that it covers the cross-mark. Make sure that the flask is absolutely dry from outside and base,
before keeping it on paper. If necessary, wipe it dry with a piece of filter paper. Wash the
measuring cylinder with water and rinse it with hydrocloric acid. Now add 10mL of
hydrochloric acid to the flask 1, swirl it to mix the solutions and simultaneously start the stop
watch. Keep the flask back on the white paper. Observe the cross mark through the solution
and stop the watch as soon as it disappears. Record the time interval and its inverse in the
Table 8.1 (given in section 8.5) and reset the zero of the stop watch for next reading. Repeat
the procedure, first, using flask 2 and adding 20 mL hydrochloric acid to it and then with
flask 3 and adding 10mL hydrochloric acid. Record the readings in Table 8.1

b) Effect of Temperature

Take three clean and dry conical flasks and mark them 1, 2 and 3. If necessary, before using,
clean them with dilute nitric acid and wash with water thoroughly. Using a clean measuring
cylinder take 30mL distilled water in each flask. Rinse the measuring cylinder with sodium
thiosulphate solution and add 10mL of it in each of these three conical flasks. Using a ball-
point pen, make a crossmark on a plain white sheet of paper and lay it on table. Wash the
measuring cylinder with water and rinse with hydrocloric acid. Take another conical flask
(other than the three marked flasks) and take 10mL hydrochloric acid in it using the measuring
cylinder.

Heat both flasks (flask No. 1 containing Na2S2O3 and the other containing HCl) to a temperature
of about 400C separately on two tripod stands with wire gauze on them. Place the flask 1 on
the sheet of white paper covering the cross mark. Quickly pour the hot HCl solution into the
flask 1. Mix the solutions by swirlling and start the stop watch simultaneously. Keep it back
on the white sheet of paper. Measure the temperature of the mixture solution and record in
table 8.2 (given in section 8.5). Observe the cross mark through the solution and stop the
watch as soon as it disappears. Record the time interval and its inverse in Table 8.2. Reset the
zero of the stop watch for next reading. Repeat this procedure two more times. First time use
the flask 2, and heat the solutions to about 500C . Second time use flask 3 and heat the
solutions to about 600C. Record the observations in table 8.2.

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 8.5 PRECAUTIONS
1. All conical flasks should be of same capacity and total volume of reaction mixture
should be same for each observation.
2. Same sheet of white paper with cross marked on it should be used in all the observations.
3. Start the stop watch as soon as the solutions are mixed. Stop the stop watch as soon as
the cross-mark just disappears.
4. While placing on white paper, the base and outer surface of the conical flask should be
absolutely dry, else, the white paper or the cross marked on it would be spoiled.
5. Wash the conical flasks immediately after taking the reading with the help of dilute
HNO3 first and then with water. If not washed immediately, the sulphur starts depositing
on the walls of the flask and makes the cleaning more difficult.

8.6 OBSERVATIONS
Table 8.1 : Effect of concentration on rate of reaction between HCl and Na2S2O3
S.No. Volume of Initial Cone. of Time Time
Water0.1 MNa 2S 2 O 3 1MHCl Total Na 2 S 2 O 3 HCl Inverse
mL mL mL mL mol-1 mol -1 s s -1
1. 30 10 10 50 ....... ....... ....... .......
2. 20 10 20 50 ....... ....... ....... .......
3. 20 20 10 50 ....... ....... ....... .......

Table 8.1 : Effect of temperature on rate of reaction between HCl and Na2S2O3
S.No. Volume of Temperature Time Time
01.Na 2S 2O 3 Water 1MHCl Total inverse
0
mL mL mL mL C s s -1
1. 10 30 10 50 ....... ....... .......
2. 10 30 10 50 ....... ....... .......
3. 10 30 10 50 ....... ....... .......

8.7 CON CLVSION

1. The rate of reaction increase/decreases/remains unchanged when concentration of either
sodium thiosulphate or HCl is increased while keeping the other constant.
2. The rate the reaction increase/decrease/remains unchanged when it is carried out at
higher temperature while keeping all other factors like concentration constant.

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 8.8 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
1. What are the initial concentrations of sodium thiosulphate and HCl in a solution obtained
by mixing 10mL of 0.1 MNa2S2O 3, 20 mL of M HCl and 20 mL water. Assume that no
reaction has started as yet.

2. While studying the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction, same volumes of sodium
thiosulphate and HCl solutions are used in each experiment. Why it is so?

3. Why does increase in temperature generally increase the rate of a reaction ?

4. What will be the effect of decrease in temperature on rates of reactions which occur in
biological processes ? Give one example where it is used.

5. Sometimes the solution of sodium thiosulphate starts becoming turbid even before adding
HCl to it. What can be its reason ?

8.9 NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

Emphasize the importance of proper cleaning of conical flasks, specially after the flask has
been used once. The students may be told that sulphur precipitated in the reaction sticks to the
walls of the flask and is not easily removable. Therefore, washing should be done immediately
aftert taking the reading. If simple washing by water does not remove the sulphur coating,
washing may first be done with very dilute HNO, and then with water. Washing with water
must be thorough so that HCl (used in the experiment) or HNO3 (used of for washing) are
completely washed away. Otherwise, these will start the reaction in the next reading even
before HCl is added.

8.10 CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Ans. 1. Final concentrations can be calculated by using the relation M1 V1 = M2 V2 where
M1 and V 1 are the molarity and volume of the initial solution and M2 and V2 are
the molarity and volume of the final solution obtained after dilution.

a) Molarity of Na2S2O3
M 1 = 0.1 M V2 = 10 + 20 + 20 + 50 mL
V1 = 10mL M2 = ?

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 b) Molarity of HCl
M1 = 1 M V2 = 10 + 20 + 20 + 50 cm3
V1 = 20Cm 3 M2 = ?

20
V2

Ans. 2. If different volumes of sodium thiosulphate or HC1 solutions are used besides
temperature, their concentrations would also be different in different observations.
Now the rate of the reaction would be affected by both the factors, and not only
by temperature alone which is the aim of the study.
Ans.3. On raising the temperature, more reactant molecules possess the sufficiently high
energy to overcome the activation energy barrier of the reaction. This increases
the rate of the reaction.
Ans.4. It will decrease the rate of reactions occurring in biological proceses. It is used in
refrigeration or cold storage of food articles to increase their shelf life (or to keep
them fresh for longer period of time) by slowing down the bacterial decay which
occurs in them.
Ans. 5. It can be due to improper washing of conical flask with some HC1 (from the
previous reading) or HNO3 used for washing of flask) still remaining in it. The
acid left in conical flask reacts with sodium thiosulphate and the solution becomes
turbid due to the formation of sulphur.

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 EXPERIMENT-9
Separation of the coloured components of the following by paper chromatography
and comparison of their Rf values.
a) Black ink or a mixture of red and blue inks
b) Juice of a flower or grass

9.1 OBJECTIVES
After peforming this experiment, you should be able to:

• Separate the various constituents of inks, juice of a flower and / or grass, and

• caluclate the Rf value of the various components of mixture.

9.2 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

Chromatography is a technique by which a mixture of various substances can be (a) separated,
(b) purified, and (c) identified
The term chromatography is applied to separation process based on the principle of distribution
of a sample between two phases namely:
i) a stationary phase or a fixed phase; and
ii) a moving phase.
There are two variations in the types namely,
i) solid-liquid chromatography
ii) liquid-liquid chromatography
In solid-liquid chromatography, the solid surface absorbs the substance which is loaded
(charged) on the surface and the compounds are separated on the solid surface. It can also be
classified as (i) adsorption chromatography, (ii) partition chromatography, (iii) and ion-
exchange chromatography. Adsorption chromatography is based on selective adsorption of
substances on the surface of an adsorbent. Column chromatography, thin layer chromatography,
etc. are based on the adsorption phenomenon. In column chromatography, the stationary
phase is an adsorbent and the mobile phase is a solvent.

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Liquid-liquid chromatography involves the distribution of a substance between two immiscible
solvents to different extents. Paper chromatography is an example of liquid-liquid
chromatography. The stationary phase is supported by sheet of filter paper. The filter paper,
known as chromatography paper, holds water which acts as a stationary phase. The mobile
phase is another liquid which carries the substance on the paper along with it.
Every substance has a characteristic Rf value at a given temperature and for a given solvent.
Rf stands for 'Ratio of Fronts' or the retention factor. It is the ratio of the distance travelled by
the component to the distance travelled by the solvent, from the origin (Fig. 9.1).

Fig. 9.1 : Measurement of Rf values

Rf of component A = and Rf of component B = .

9.3 MATERIALS REQUIRED

(1) Apparatus (2) Chemicals

Gas jar, Gas jar cover, Glass rod, A mixture of red and blue inks,
Filter paper strip (whatmann No. 1), Alcohol,
Fine capillary tube, Hook or clip for
hanging the paper, Cork.

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 9.4 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

a) To separate the components of a mixture of red and blue inks and find out their
Rf values.
Take the Whatmann filter paper strip (25 x 2cm). Draw a line with a pencil about 4 cm
above the lower end as shown in Fig. 9.2

Fig. 9.2 : Spotting the chromatographic paper

Spotting : With the help of a fine capillary tube, put a drop of the mixture of red and blue inks
at 'point A (Fig. 9.2) on the filter paper strip. Let the spot dry in air. Put another drop on the
same spot and dry again. Repeat the process 2-3 times to make the spot rich in the mixture.
Suspend the filter paper vertically in the gas jar containing the solvent mixture (50% alcohol).
Hang the paper from the glass rod with the help of clips or hook in such a way that the spot
remains about 2 cm above the solvent level. Alternatively cork with hook may be used.
Cover the jar with a glass cover and keep it undisturbed. Notice the rise of the solvent as it
ascends the paper. After the solvent has risen about 20cm, you will see two different spots of
red and blue colours on the filter paper. Take the filter paper out of the jar and mark the level
of the solvent with a pencil. Dry the paper. Mark the centres of the blue and the red spots.
Measure the distance of the two spots and that of the solvent from the initial line. Fig 9.2
Record your observations in Table 9.1 and calculate the Rf values of the red and blue spots.
b) To separate the coloured components present in grass / flower juice by paper
chromatography and find the Rf values of the components separated out.

Material Required
(1) Apparatus (2) Chemicals
Same as in experiment 9 (a) Flower or grass juice as the
sample. Solvent mixture (17 mL of
petroleum ether + 3mL of acetone),

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Note : The flower or grass juice is extracted by crushing the flowers or grass in a mortar with
the help of a pastle and then extracting the juice by adding a little amount of acetone.
perform the experiment in the same way as in experiment 9 (a)

9.5 OBSERVATIONS
OBSERVATION FOR EXPERIMENT = 9 (B)
• Record your observations and R f in Table 9.1
Table 9.1
S.No. Colour of the spot Distance travelled by Distance travelled by Rf
the spot from the the solvent from the
initial line / cm initial line / cm
1. Red ............... ............... ...........
2. Blue ............... ............... ...........

9.6 PRECAUTIONS
1. Use very fine capillary tube for spotting. Otherwise the spot will become too big.
2. Allow the spot to dry before putting another drop. A good spot is small and does not
contain too much of the mixture.
3. Do not press the capillary tube very hard, otherwise it may pierce the paper or break. If
you make a hole in the paper then the compound will not rise.
4. Do not allow the paper to curl at the ends. It should hang straight, without touching the
sides of the jar.
5. Keep the jar covered. Do not disturb the jar after handing the filter paper till the solvent
has risen up to the desired level.
6. The spot should not dip in the solvent. Otherwise the compounds will dissolve in it.
7. Use distilled water for making the solvent mixture to be taken in the jar.

Precautions
Same as in experiment 9(a).
Observation for Experiment 9 (b)
Table 9.1
S.No. Colour of the spot Distance travelled by Distance travelled by Rf
the spot from the the solvent from the
initial line / cm initial line / cm
1. Green (Chlorophyll) ............... ............... ...........
2. Yellow (xanthophyll) ............... ............... ...........
3. Red (Carotene) ............... ............... ...........

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 The R f of red ink = ..............
The R f of blue ink = ..............

9.7 CONCLUSIONS
Rf of the green component (chlorophyll) = ..............
Rf of the yellow component (xanthophyll) = ..............
Rf of the red component (carotene) = ..............

9.8 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

9
F 1. What is chromatography ?
...................................................................................................................................
2. What is the basic principle of chromatography ?
...................................................................................................................................
3. What is paper chromotography ?
...................................................................................................................................
4. What is meant Rf value ?
...................................................................................................................................
5. What is a chromatogram ?
...................................................................................................................................
6. How are colouless compounds detected on a chromatogram ?
...................................................................................................................................
7. What will happen if the paper strip is not vertical or it touches the side of the jar ?
...................................................................................................................................
8. While spotting, if a hole is created on the paper, how will it affect the separation ?
...................................................................................................................................

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 9.9 NOTE FOR THE TEACHER
i) An exercise can be given to separate a mixture of Ni2+, CO2+ and Zn2+ by paper
chromatogra phy using the solvent mixture (85mL acetone + 5 mL water + 10mL cone.
HCl).
ii) When students extract fruit juice or grass juice, the teacher should explain the method
of extraction.
iii) Even high moisture content in the atmosphere will interfer in the solvent extraction.
Therefore the teacher should advice the students to perfrom in dry condition.
iv) The teacher should help students to use proper ratio of solvents, so that the required
polarity can be maintained.

9.10 CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Ans. 1. Chromatography is a technique by which mixtures of various substances can be
(a) separated (b) purified, and (c) identified.

Ans. 2. Chromatography is based on the principle of distribution of a sample between two

phases, namely a stationary phase and a moving phase.
Ans.3. Paper chromatography is a type of liquid - liquid chromatography. Here the water
held on the cellulose of the paper acts as the stationary phase and the moving
solvent acts as the moving phase.
Ans.4. R f value is the ratio of distance travelled by the component from the original spot
to the distance travelled by the solvent from the original spot. Rf is a constant for
a given substance at a particular temperature and for a given solvent.
Ans.5. The colour spots appear on the paper at different levels after the chromatographics
separation is over. This is called a chromatogram.
Ans.6. The colourless compounds can be made visible by spraying a reagent on the paper.
The separated component on the paper react with the reagent and produces a
coloured compounds which become visible.
Ans.7. If the paper strip is not vertical or it touches the sides of the jar then solvent flow
will not be uniform or separation will not be proper.
Ans.8. If a hole is created in the paper then the constituents of the mixture will not rise at
all, but spread near the original point.

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 EXPERIMENT-10
To detect the presence of extra elements (nitrogen, sulphur and halogens) in an
organic compound.

10.1 OBJECTIVES
After peforming this experiment, you should be able to:
• detect the presence of nitrogen, sulphur and halogens (extra elements) present in a given
organic compound;
• explain the reason for the necessity of fusing an organic compound with sodium metal
in the detection of extra elements; and
• write chemical equations of various reactions taking place in the experiment.

10.2 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

The determination of structure of an unknown organic compound requires the detection of
the elements present in it. Generally all organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen. In
addition to these elements, they may also contain oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and helium. The
elements nitrogen, sulphur and halogens are known as extra elements.
For detecting the presence of elements in a compound, these have to be converted into ionic
forms, This is done by fusing the compound with sodium metal. The elements, nitrogen,
sulphur and halogens present in the compound are convereted into soluble sodium salts
according to the following equations.

Na + C + N → NaCN

2Na + S → Na2S

Na + X → NaH

(where X is Cl, Br or I)
If a compound contains both nitrogen and sulphur, sodium thiocyanate is formed on fusing
with sodium. The soluble sodium salts are extracted with water. The extract is usually known
as sodium fusion extract.

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10.2.1 Test for Nitrogen
Nitrogen is present as sodium cyanide in sodium fusion extract. Sodium cyanide is converted
to sodium ferrocyanide on treating with ferrous sulphate. On further treating it with ferric
chloride, a Prussain blue complex, ferricferrocyanide is formed.

6NaCN +Fe SO 4 → Na [Fe(CN) 6] + Na2 SO 4

Na 4 [Fe(CN)6] + 4FeCl3 → Fe4 [Fe(CN) 6)]3 + 12NaCl
Ferricferrocyanide
(Prussain blue)

10.2.2 Test for Sulphur

i) Sulphur is present in sodium extract as sodium sulphide. It gives a purple colour with
sodium nitroprusside due to the formation of sodium thionitroprusside.

Na 2S + Na2[Fe(CN) 5NO] → Na4 [Fe(CN)5NOS

Sodium nitroprusside Sodium thionitroprusside
(Purple)

ii) A Sulphide reacts with lead acetate to yield lead sulphide as a black precipitate.

Na 2S + Pb (CH3OO)2 → PbS + 2CH3COONa

Lead sulphide
(black)

iii) A sulphide reacts with silver nitrate to yield silver sulphide which is black in colour.

Na 2S + 2AgNO3 → Ag 2S + 2NaNO3
Silver Sulphide (Black)

10.2.3 Test for Nitrogen and Sulphur when present together

When both nitrogen and sulphur are present to gether in an organic compound, sodium
thiocyanate is produced during sodium fusion. Sodium thiocyanate gives blood red colour
with ferric chloride.
_
NaCNS + FeCl3 → [Fe(CNS)2+ + Na+ + 3Cl
(Blood red)

10.2.4 Test for Halogens

Halogens, present as halides in sodium extract, are tested as follows :
i) Silver Nitrate test : Chloride given white precpitate of silver chloride with silver nitrate.
The precipitate is soluble in ammonium hydroxide.

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 Nacl + AgNO 3 → Agcl ↓ + NaNO3
AgCl + 2NH4OH → [Ag(NH3)2] Cl + 2H 2O

Bromides yield yellow precipate, sparingly soluble in ammonium hydroxide. Iodides

yield dark yellow precipitate, insoluble in ammonium hydroxide.
ii) When a solution containing bromide or iodide is treated with chlorine water, the bromide
and iodide are oxidised to the corresponding halogens. Being covalent, these halogens
get dissolved in carbon tetrachloride CCl4. Bromine imparts yellow to brown colour
and iodine imparts purple colour in CCl4 layer.

2NaBr + Cl2 → 2NaCl + Br2

2Nal + Cl2 → 2NaCl + l 2

Chlorine being more electronegative, displaces bromides and iodides from solution.

10.3 MATERIALS REQUIRED

(1) Apparatus (2) Chemicals

Test tubes - 6, test-tube stand, Sodium metal, Ferrous sulphate,

Test tube holder, Ferric chloride, Silver nitrate
Ignition tubes - 3, Spatula, Watch-glass, Ammonium hydroxide, Chlorine water
Filter paper, Pair of tongs, Porcelain dish, Carbon tetrachloride,
Funnel, Glass rod, Dropper, Wite gauze. Nitric acid

10.4 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

The experiment consists of two stages, (i) preparation of sodium fusion extract and (ii) to test
for individial elements.
1) Preparation of Sodium Fusion Extract
Take out a small piece of sodium metal from a petri dish with the help of pair of forceps. Dry
the sodium piece between the folds of filter papers. Put a small piece of sodium metal into a
clean and dry ignition tube. Hold the tube with a pair of tongs and heat it gently over the
flame so that sodium melts and makes a stirring ball. Remove the ignition tube away from the
flame and immediately add a small amount of solid organic compound into it. Heat the tube to
red hot. Again add a little of the compound into the tube and heat it again to red hot. Plunge
the red hot ignition tube in about 10mL of distilled water taken in a porcelain dish. Immediately
cover the porcelain dish with a wire gauze to avoid bumping of any unreacted sodium piece.
Repeat the process of sodium fusion two more ignition tubes. Break the tubes into small
pieces with a clean glass rod. Boil the mixture for about 2-3 minutes and filter.

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(In case of liquid compounds, cover the molten sodium with solid sodium carbonate and then
add the compound with a dropper).
Now procees systematically and perform the following tests with the given sample (s), of
organic compounds and identify the extra elements present in them. Record your observations
and inferences in the table 10.1 in the following manner.
Table 10.1
S. No. Experiment Observations Inference
1. Test for nitrogen
Take about 1 mL of sodium fusion Prussain blue Nitrogen
extract in a test tube and add a or green present
pinch of ferrous sulphate. Shake precipitate
the contents and acidity with dilute or colour
hydrochloric acid, Boil the contents
add a few drops of ferric chloride
solution.
2. Test for sulphur
i) Take 1 mL of sodium fusion Purple colour Sulphur present
extract in a test tube and add a
few drops of sodium nitroprusside
to it and shake.
ii) Take 1 mL of sodium fusion Black precipitate Sulphur present
extract in a test tube and acidify it
with acetic acid. Add a few drops
(4-5) of lead acetate solution to it
3. Nitrogen and Sulphur present together
Take about 1 mL of sodium fusion Blood red Nitrogen and
extract in a test tube and acidify Colour Sulphur
it with dilute hydrochloric acid. present
Add a few drops of ferric
chloride solution.
4. Test for Halogens
i) Take about 1 mL of sodium a) A curdy white Chlorine present
fusion extract in a test tube and precipitae soluble
acidify it with dilute nitric acid. in NH 4OH
Add to it about 2mL of silver
nitrate solution. Observe for the
appearance for any precipitate
and its colour.

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 Add 2-3 mL of ammonium hydroxide (b) A light yellow Bromine present
to the precipitate and shake the precipitate partially
content. Observe the solubility soluble in NH4OH
of precipitate
(c) A pale yellow Iodine present
precipitate insoluble
in NH 4OH
ii) If chloride is absent, perform a) Organce Colour Bromine
the following test of bromide and presence
iodide. Take 2 mL of sodium fusion
extract in a test tube and acidify it b) Violet Iodine presence
with dilute hydrochloric acid. Add
1 mL of carbon tetrachloride. being
denser, CCl 4 forms the lower layer.
Add excess of chlorine water and
shake the mixture vigrously. Observe
for appearance of any colour in
CCl 4 layer.

10.5 PRECAUTIONS
1. Solidum metal is highly reactive. When exposed to air, it reacts even with the moisture
present in the atmosphere. It also reacts with the sweat of hands. Hence, do not hold it
with hands. Always use forceps handling sodium.
2. Before using sodium metal, press it whithin the folds of filter paper to remove oil.
3. Use dry ignition tubes for sodium fusion. Sodium reacts with water violently.
4. Put the unused sodium piece back in bottle. Do not throw it in to the sink.
5. Repeat the process of sodium fusion with three ignition rubes. This is to ensure that the
fusion has taken place.
6. After immersing the red hot ignition tube in water, break it with a glass rod gently. Boil
the contents for 2-3 minutes so as to extract the soluble sodium salts in water.

10.6 OBSERVATIONS
Table 10.1
S.No. Experiment Observations Inference

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The given sample responded positively to __________________, _________________ and

_____________ tests. Therefore the extra elements present inthe sample is _____________.

10.7 CONCLUSION
The given organic compound contains _________________ as extra elements.

10.8 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Why is only freshly cut sodium metal used for fusion of an organic compound ?
...................................................................................................................................
2. Why is it necessary to carry out the fusion of an organic compound with sodium, more
then one using different ignition tubes?
...................................................................................................................................
3. While testing for nitrogen why is it necessary to neutralize the sodium extract completely
with an acid ?
...................................................................................................................................
4. Why is it necessary to fuse an organic compound with sodium for carrying out the tests
for extra elements present in it ?
...................................................................................................................................
5. Why are bromide and iodide displaced from their salts in solution by chlorine water ?
...................................................................................................................................
6. What will happen if sodium extract is not completely neutralized before performing
silver nitrate test for halogens ?
...................................................................................................................................
7. Why is it essential to use distilled water in the preparation of sodium extract ?
...................................................................................................................................

10.9 NOTE FOR TEACHER

Sodium metal is highly reactive. Ensure that students handle it carefully and take all precautions.
In preparing sodium fusion extract, the low concentrations of ions in solution give only a faint
colour or precipitate. It is advisable to use 2-3 ignition tubes during sodium fusion. In case of

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liquid compounds, the molten sodium metal is first covered with sodium carbonate. The liquid
compound is added over it so that it is absorbed in sodium carbonate. The low boiling liquids
tend to escape without undergoing reaction with sodium.
After the students have performed the tests of all the extra elements, they may be asked to
identify the extra elements in given compounds and write full details in the experiments sheet.

10.10 CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Ans. 1. Sodium is a highly reactive metal. Its surface gets a coating of its oxide due to its
reaction with atmospheric oxygen. By taking a freshly cut sodium, the exposed
surface is free from Oxide.
Ans. 2. A majority of organic compounds are low boiling and volatile. They tend to escape
out of the ignition tube during heating. To ensure an adequate concentration of
ions containing extra elements in test solution, it is preferable to carry out the
sodium fusion 2-3 times.
Ans. 3. On adding ferrous sulphate to sodium extract, ferrous hydroxide forms a dirty
green precipitate. To avoid this, the test solution is neutralized completely.
Ans. 4. The extra elements are present as covalently bonded atoms in organic compounds.
To test them in solution, these are converted into ionic form by fusing the
compound with sodium.
Ans. 5. Chlorine, being more electronegative displaces bromide and iodide in solution.
Ans. 6. A grey black precipitate of silver oxide is formed. It becomes difficult to identify
the colour of silver halides.
Ans. 7. Ordinary water contains chloride ions. These interefere with the halide ions formed
from halogen of the organic compound.

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 EXPERIMENT-11
Study of simple reactions of carbohydrates, fats and proteins and detenction of
their presence in given foodstuffs.

11.1 OBJECTIVES
After peforming this experiment, you should be able to:
• test the presence of carbohydrates, proteins and fats in the given food sample;
• establish whether given carbohydrate is reducing or non reducing.
• distinguish between saturated and unsaturatedfats.

11.2 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

11.2.1 Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones and the substances which yield these
on hydrolysis. Carbohydrates are classified as :
i) Monosaccharides - glucose, fructose-(C6H12O6)
ii) Disaccharides - sucrose, maltose-(C12H22O11)
iii) Polysaccharides - starch, cellulose, glycogen.
All the carbohydrates, except cellulose, are hydrolysed in out body to glucose which on slow
oxidation, in presence of oxygen, liberates large amount of energy. The oxidation of glucose
can be represented as :

Respiration
C 6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Glucose

Thus carbohydrates (sugars and starch) are the main source of energy in our body. The cellulose
acts as a roughage. The carbohydrates which reduce Fehling's solution and Tollen's reagent
are called reducing sugars. All the Monosaccharides and most of the disaccharides are reducing
sugars. Sucrose (cane-sugar) is a non-reducing sugar and hence does not reduce Fehling's
solution.

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Test for Carbohydrates
1. Molisch's Test (for all carbohydrates): When an aqueous solution or suspension of a
sample containing a carbohydrates is treated with α-naphthol (Molish's reagent), followed
by the addition of few drops of cone, sulphuric acid along the sides of the test tube a
red-voilet ring appears at the junction of two layers. This happens because concentrated
sulphuric acid converts carbohydrates to furfural or its derivatives which reacts with
α-naphthol to give a coloured (red-violet) product.

2. Tollen's Test (for reducing sugars); Any aldose or ketose having a free carbonyl groups
reduces Tollen's reagent to metallic silver. This test is commonly known as silver mirror
test as a kind of mirror is obtained on the walls of the test tube.

The reactions involved in this test are as follows:

3. Fehling's Test (for reducing sugars): When equal quantities of Fehling's solution A
and B are mixed with an aqueous solution of a reducing sugar and the mixture is heated
on boiling water bath, a reddish precipitate of cuprous oxide is formed. The following
reactions are involved in the test.

4. Iodine test for Starch : Starch gives a purple-blue colour when treated with iodine. It
is due to the adsorption of iodine one the surface of starch. The colour gets discharged
on heating and reappears on cooling.

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11.2.2 Fats
Fats are triesters of long chain fatty acids and glycerol. One of the function of fats in the body
is to provide energy. Fats provide twice as much energy as that provided by the same amount
of carbohydrates. Fats are insoluble in water. During the process of digest, fats are hydrolysed
into simple substances, like fatty acids and glycerol which further break down into still simple
substances. Sources of fats in our food are butter, ghee, cheese, milk, egg-yolk, meat, nuts,
groundnut and soyabean etc.

Test for Fats

1. Spot test : When a sample containing is pressed or rubbed on a clean white sheet of
paper, a greasy spot (translucent spot) appears.

2. Solubility Test : This test is based on the fact that fats are soluble in organic solvents
like chloroform, alcohol etc but are insoluble in water. A small amount of the sample is
mixed with a few drops of water, chloroform and alcohol in different test tubes and
inferences are drawn on the basis of the miscibility and immiscibility of the sample with
the water or organic solvents.

3. Acrolein Test : When a sample containing fat is heated with solid potassium bisulphate
(KHSO4) in a test tube, a pungent irritating odour of acrolein is produced according to
the following chemical reaction;

4. Huble's Test (for determination of unsaturation in fats) : This test is based on the fact
that greater the amount of unsaturation in a fat or an oil, greater is the amount of Huble's
solution required to produce a permanent violet colour.

For this equal amount of saturated fat (cotton seed oil) and unsaturated fat or oil (linseed oil)
are taken in two different test tubes and Huble's solution is added to each test tube dropwise.
The number of drops of Huble's solution required for getting a permanent colour are counted
in each Case. More the number of drops of Huble's solution, greater is the unsaturation in an
organic compound. Iodine from Huble's solution adds up across the unsaturation sites of oil
or fat giving a colourless product and a little more of iodine gives a permanent violet colout to
the solution.

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11.2.3 Proteins
Proteins are complex nitrogenous organic compounds of high molecular mass. These help in
the growth and maintenance of living body and in transmission of genetic information. Proteins
are made up of-amino acids as the basic building blocks. In all, there are 20 different amino
acids required by the body. Some of these are called essential amino acids as they cannot be
synthesized by the organisms. These must form a part of our food.

Tests for Proteins

1. Biuret Test : When a sample of protein is treated with a solution of copper sulphate in
alkaline medium, a violet colour appears. The intensity of the colour also indicates the
relative amount of protein present in different samples.
2. Ninhydrin Test : When a few drops of a 0.1% alcoholic solution of ninhydrin, are
added to a very dilute solution / suspension of protein and the contents are boiled for 1-
2 minute, a red-purple colour appears.
3. Xanthoprotein Test : When an aqueous solution of protein is treated with a few drops
of nitric acid and contents are allowed to stand; a deep yellow colour appears.
4. Million's Test : A few drops of milk are warmed with mercuric nitrate in presence of
dil. Sulphuric acid and cooled. One drop of sodium nitrate solution is added and the
mixture is again warmed. A red colour appears showing the presence of proteins in
milk.

11.3 MATERIAL REQUIRED

(1) Apparatus (2) Chemicals

Test tubes with stand, Fehling's solutions - A and B, Molish reagent (α-Naphthol,
Burner Silver nitrate, Ammonium hydroxide, Iodine solution, Ethyl
alcohol, Huble's solution, Potassium bisulphate, dilute
sulphuric acid, Mercuric nitrate, Sodium nitrate, Nitric acid,
Ninhydrin solution (0.1% in alcohol), Sodium hydroxide,
Copper sulphate, and some food samples like: milk,
surcrose, glucose, wheat flour, vegetable oil, ghee, butter,
cheese potato pieces, lemon, grapes, banana, eggs etc. 5%
solution of egg white protein.

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 11.4 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT
11.4.1 Worksheet No. 1 : Test for Carbohydrates

Experiment Observation Inferences

For Carbohydrates
(i) Molish's Test :
Take 2-3 mL of aqueous solution or
suspension of the sample. Add a few
drops of Molisch's reagent and shake
it. Then add 5-6 drops of conc. H2SO4
slowly along the side of the test tube.

(ii) Tollen's Test :

Take a test tube and clean it thoroughly
with NaOH solution. Then wash the
tube with excess of water to remove
NaOH. Take 2-3 mL of aqueous
solution of carbohydrate in the test
tube and add 2-3 mL of freshly
prepared Tollen's reagent to it. Keep
the test tube in a boiling water bath
for about 10 minutes.

(iii) Fehling Test :

Take a small amount of crushed food
items (Ig) or 2-3 mL of aqueous
solution of the sample (nearly 5%).
Add 2 mL each of Fehling's solution
A and Fehling's solution B. Keep the
test tube in a boiling water bath.

(iv) Iodine Test for Starch :

Take a small amount (1-2g) of the
food sample in a test tube and add a
few drops of dilute iodine solution.

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11.4.2 Worksheet No. 2 : Test for Fats

Experiment Observation Inferences

For Fats
(i) Spot Test :
Take a food item to be tested and press
or rub it on a clean white sheet of
paper and hold it against light.

(ii) Solubility Test :

Take a small amount (50mg) of the
given sample in a test tube. Add 2-3 mL
water in and shake. Observe if it has
dissolved in it. Similarly check the
solubility of the compound in alcohol,
and CCl4 separately.

(iii) Acrolein Test :

Heat a small amount (2-3g) of sample
with same amount (2-3g) of solid
KHSO4 in a test tube. Bring the mouth
of the test tube near the nose and
smell the gas evolved, if any, only
superficially.

(iv) Iodine Test for Starch :

Take two test tubes labelled as 'A' and
'B'. Add about 3-4 mL of chloroform
to each test tube. Put some sample (2-
3g) of unsaturated fat (linseed oil) in
test tube 'A' and saturated fat
(cottonseed) in test tube 'B'. Add
Ruble's solution to each test tube
dropwise and keep on adding while
counting the drops, until a permanent
violet colour appears in each test tube.

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11.4.3 Worksheet No. 3 : Test for Proteins

Experiment Observation Inferences

For Proteins
(i) Biuret Test :
Take one mL of milk or any other
protein containing sample in a test
tube. Make it alkaline by adding a few
drops (4-5) of NaOH solution Then
add 4-5 drops of dil solution of
CuSO4.

(ii) Ninhydrin Test :

Take about 1mL of 5% solution of egg
white in a test tube. Add to it 4-5 drops
of 0.1% ninhydrin solution. Boil the
contents for about one minute and cool
it.

(iii) Xanthoprotein Test :

Take 2-3 grams of gjutenin of wheat
in a test tube. Add 2-3 mL of cone.
HNO3, to it. Shake the contents and
keep aside.

(iv) Milton's Test :

Take about 1mL of milk in a test tube.
Add 1-2 drops of mercuric nitrate
solution and one drop of dil HSO4.
Boil and cool the contents and then
add 1 drop of NaNO3 solution. Warm
the mixture again and cool it.

11.5 PRECAUTIONS
1. Smell the gases coming out of reactions carefully.
2. Some compounds are highly corrosive. For example, phenol can cause blisters and
burn your skin when it falls on it. Immediately resort to first aid.

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3. Use a water bath for warning the contents. Do not heat organic the compounds on a
direct flame, these can catch fire easily.
4. Neutral ferric chloride must be prepared fresh (procedure is given in appendix.)
5. Tollen's reagent must be freshly prepared (Procedure is given in the appendix)
6. Fehling's solution should be prepared by mixing equal amounts for Fehling's solution A
and Fehling's solution B required for the test.

11.6 OBSERVATION
Record your observations in the blank worksheet in the following manner:
1. ..................................... ...................................... ................................... are found in
the given food stuffs.
Table 11.1
Test Glucose Sucrose Starch
1. Solubility in water
2. Fehling's test
3. Tollen's test
4. Molisch's test
5. Benedict's test
6. Iodine test

Table 11.2
S.No. Test Fat (Saturated) Fat (unsaturated)
Animal Vegetable
1. Spot test
2. Solubility test
(in org. solvent)
3. Acrolein test
4. Ruble's test

11.7 CONCLUSIONS
Following conclusions are drawn based on test for carbohydrate:
i) The given sample / does not / contain carbohydrates.

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ii) The given sample contains reducing / non-reducing sugar.
For Fats :
i) The sample does not contain fat.
ii) The sample contains saturated / unsaturated fat.
For Proteins :
i) The given sample contains proteins.
ii) The given sample does not contain proteins.
Common :
i) The given sample contains fat and protein body.
ii) The given sample contains carbohydrats and protein.
iii) The given sample contains carbohydrates, fat and protein.

11.8 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Why are carbohydrates known as 'hydrates of carbon' ?

...................................................................................................................................
2. Define carbohydrates.
...................................................................................................................................
3. What is the general formula of polysaccharides ?
...................................................................................................................................
4. What is meant by the term reducing sugar ?
...................................................................................................................................
5. Name the compound formed as red precipitate when a carbohydrate is treated with
Fehling's solution.
...................................................................................................................................
6. Name the carbohydrate which is not digested in our body.
...................................................................................................................................
7. Which carbohydrate blue colour product when treated with iodine ?
...................................................................................................................................
8. What are fats ?
...................................................................................................................................

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9. What products are obtained on hydrolysis of fats ?
...................................................................................................................................
10. Write down the structural formula of Acrolein.
...................................................................................................................................
11. Name for sources of fats ?
...................................................................................................................................
12. What is the difference in the physical state of saturated and unsaturated fats at room
temperature ?
...................................................................................................................................
13. A fat required more of Hubl'es solution of giving a permanent violet colour in the
mixture? What inference will you draw from this observation ?
...................................................................................................................................
14. Define proteins.
...................................................................................................................................
15. What is the main role of proteins in our body ?
...................................................................................................................................
16. Name the bonding which unite amino acis to from a protein.
...................................................................................................................................

11.9 NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

1. Ensure that students work themselves with at least one sample of each kind of
carbohydrates, (Glucose, Sucrose and starch), saturated and unsaturated fats.
2. After the students have performed the tests of all the samples, they may be asked to
identify the unknown substance and write full details in the experiments sheet.
3. The reactions in all the experiments occur very easily. The students may be asked to
performe slow addition and pay keen observation.

11.10 CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Ans. 1. Carbohydrates are called as hydrates of carbon because proportion of hydrogen
and oxygen in carbohydrates is similar to that in water.
Ans. 2. Carbohydrates are polyhydroxyaldehydes or ketones.
Ans. 3. (C 6H 14O5) n

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Ans. 4. Sugars having free carbonyl group can reduce Tollen's reagent Fehling's solution
to give metallic silver and Cu2O respectively. Such sugars are called reducing
sugars.
Ans. 5. Cu2O (Cuprous oxide)
Ans. 6. Cellulose
Ans. 7. Starch
Ans. 8. Fats are triesters of long chain fatty acids and glycerol.
Ans. 9. Fatty acid and glycerol.

Ans. 10.

Ans. 11. Cotton seed oil, coconut, milk, ghee

Ans. 12. Saturated fats are solids and unsaturated fats are liquids at room temperature.
Ans.13. The given fat has more unsaturation.
Ans. 14. Proteins are complex nitrogenous organic compunds.
Ans. 15. Proteins are helpful in growth and maintenance of our body tissues and also
regularate various physiological activities.
Ans. 16. Amino acids join through peptide bonds making a polypeptide chain (protein).

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 EXPERIMENT-12
To prepare soap by using different oils and its comparison with the market soap
by determining the foaming capacity and cleaning effect.

12.1 OBJECTIVES
After peforming this experiment, you should be able to:
• prepare soap using different vegetable oils;
• compare the foaming capacity of different brands of soaps;
• compare the cleaning effect of different brands of soap.

12.2 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

Ordinary soaps are sodium salts of fatty acids. They are made by heating vegetable oils,
animal fats with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution. Vegetable oils are the esters of
glycerol with long chain largely, unsaturated carboxylic acid such as oleic acid (C17H33COOH)
or linoleic acids (C17H31COOH). Fats are the esters, of glycerol with long chain saturated
carboxylic acids such as stearic acid (C17H35COOH). The oils and fats undergo hydrolysis
(saponification) when treated with sodium hydroxide. Sodium salt of carboxylyic acid (soap)
and glycerol are obtained as the reaction products.

'

''

'''

Cleanising action of Soap : Soap functions as a cleansing agent in a variety of ways. The
_
soap molecule consists of two portions, the hydrocarbon portion (R ) and the ionic portion
_
( COONa+). The hydrocarbon portion is soluble in oils and the ionic portion is soluble in
water. When a soap solution is added to water, it forms a colloidal suspension and soap
molecules cluster together. These clusters are known as micelles. The micelles remain
suspended in water because the like charges are the end of the molecule.

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When a soap solutions is added to water containing grease or oils, the micelles break up. The
hydrocarbon portion becomes embedded in grease. Agitation now breaks grease into micelles
with surfaces covered by negatively charged carboxylate groups. With a coating of negative
charges enveloping the entire surface of each micelle, the grease droplets repel each other and
remain suspended in wash water. In the end, the suspended droplets go down and drain.
Thus, soap acts as an emulsifying agent to bring about the dispersion of oil or grease.

12.3 MATERIALS REQUIRED

(1) Apparatus (2) Chemicals

Beaker (250mL), Glass tubes-2, Vegetable oil or fat (castor, olive etc.),
Measuring cylinder (10mL), Sodium hydroxide, Common salt, Indigo
Glassrod, Boiling tubes - 2,
Scale (30cm), Funnel, Filter paper,
Spatula, Glass stirrer.

12.4 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

Take 50mL of water in a 250 mL beaker and dissolve about 10 grams of sodium hydroxide in
it. Use an ordinary balance for weighing sodium hydroxide. Take 10mL of castor oil (slightly
more than half of a test tube) in a test tube and transfer it slowly into sodium hydroxide
solution with continuous stirring.

Hea the mixture gently over the flame till it boils. Keep on stirring the mixture while heating.
Boil the mixture for 2-3 minutes and then allow it to cool to room temperature. Break large
pieces of solid, if any. Filter the mixture and wash the solid residue in the funnel with a little
water and allow it to dry.

Comparison of Foaming Capacity : Take a sample of laboratory made soap and 2-3 soaps
of different brands from market. Weigh one gram of each soap sample and dissolve it in 100g
of water. Take 10mL soap solution in a boiling tube and shake the solution with a stirrer
making twenty regular strokes, so that the foam increases uniformly. Measure the height of
foam so produced with a scale. Repeat this experiment with every brand of soap. Record
your observation in table 12.1

Dispersion Power : Take about 0.5 gm of indigo in a boiling tube and add to it 5 mL soap
solution prepared as above. Shake and add 20 mL of distilled water. Allow to stand for a
while and observe for any separation of indigo particles. Repeat the experiment using different
brands of soap. Compare the dispersion power of soaps and assign a grade to it. Record it in
Table 12.2

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 12.5 PRECAUTIONS
1. Stir the reaction mixture continuously so as to ensure thorough mixing of oil with sodium
hydroxide solution.
2. While shaking the soap solution in a boiling tube, the strokes should be uniform and
same in number for all the soap samples.
3. Compare the foaming capacity of all soap samples at room temperature as the foaming
capacity varies with temperature.
4. Sodium hydroxide is highly corrosive. Use it carefully

12.6 OBSERVATIONS
Table 12.1 : Comparison of foaming capacity of different soap samples

Sl.No. Name of Soap Brand Heigh of foam produced in cm

1. Lab made
2. Market Soap
a) Sample - 1
b) Sample - 2
c) Sample - 3

Table 12.1 : Comparison of foaming capacity of different soap samples

Sl.No. Name of Soap Brand Grading for dispersion power

1. Lab made
2. Market Soap
a) Sample - 1
b) Sample - 2
c) Sample - 3

12.7 CONCLUSION
The grading of foaming capacity of soaps is in the following order as given in the table 12.3.

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 Table 12.3

Soap make Grading (A/B/C/D)

1. Lab made .....................................................

2. Market soap
a) ............................................ .....................................................
b) ............................................ .....................................................
c) ............................................ .....................................................

The grading of dispersion power is indicated Table 12.3

Based on the dispersion power, the cleaning power of soap is in the following order as given
in the Table 12.3 :
Table 12.4

Decreasing order of Soap Make

grading of dispertion

A
B
C
D

12.8 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. While preparing soap, it is preferred to add the oil/fat to NaOH solution and not-vice-
versa. Explain giving reasons.
...................................................................................................................................
2. What is the chemical nature of soap ?
...................................................................................................................................
3. Why is it necessary to continuosly stir the reaction mixture while preparing soap ?
...................................................................................................................................
4. Why should the soap prepared in laboratory be washed with water ?
...................................................................................................................................

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 12.9 NOTE FOR THE TEACHER
In the 12.1 and 1 ? 2, the trade names of market soaps should not be given by students. They
should indicate only sample number - 1, 2, 3 etc.

12.10 CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Ans. 1. Sodium hydroxide breaks the oil/fat into glycerol and carboxylic acid. The reaction
is very fast. When oil/fat is added to sodium hydroxide a large amount of heat is
evolved and sodium hydroxide is in excess whereas when sodium hydroxide is
added to oil, oil is in excess.
Ans. 2. Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids.
Ans. 3. The two reactants required for preparing the soap (oil and aqueous solution of
sodium hydroxide) are immiscrible. It is necessary to bring the molecules of both
the reactants in contact with eath other.
Ans. 4. The reaction mixture obtained in soap preparation contains unreacted sodium
hydroxide. It is removed by washing the soap with water.

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 EXPERIMENT-13
a) Preparation of solution of oxalic acid and ferrous ammonium sulphate of
known molarity by weighing (non-evaluative). Use of chemical balance to
be demonstrated.
b) A study of (i) acid-base and (ii) redox titrations (single titration only). Both
the solutions to be provided.

13.1 OBJECTIVES
After peforming this experiment, you should be able to:
• handle chemical balance properly :
• weigh chemicals accurately using a chemical balance;
• handle burette and pipette properly;
• pipette out a given solution correctly with the help of a pipette,
• prepare standard solutions of oxalic acid and ferrous ammonium sulphate;
• detect the sharp end point;
• perform acid-base (oxalic acid and sodium hydroxide) and, redox, (ferrous ammonium
sulphate and potassium permanganate) titrations;
• calculate the strength of the given solution by using appropriate formula.

13.2 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

Volumetric analysis is quantitative analysis in which the results are expressed in a certain
definite volume. It involves the use of at least one solution of known strength. It may be
prepared by dissolving a definite amount of a solute in a solvent to get a known volume of
solution. The volume of this solution which reacts with a volume of the solution of unknown
strength of another substance is determined. The process is known as titration.

13.2.1 Handling the apparatus

In volumatric analysis, we deal with volumes of solutions. Therefore, these should be measured
correctly. The glass apparatus must be clean and free from grease etc. Errors due to parallax
in reading the level of a solution in burrette, pipette and volumetric flask should be avoided.

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To read the volume in the container shown in Figure (13.1) the point shown by the arrow is
the correct position.

Fig. 13.1 : Correct way to note down the burette readings

13.2.2 Pipette
Pipettes are available in various capacities (volumes) and a pipette of required volume is used
during titration for delivering a liquid out of pipette. It should be held vertically with its tip in
contact with the wall of vessel. After the flow of liquid has ceased, a very small solution of
the liquid remains in the lower portion of the pipette. It should not be blown out. For this,
hold the bulb of the pipette in left hand palm with its upper tip closed with a finger. Touch the
lower tip of pipette to the wall of the vessel. Handling of a pipette and correct way to drain
out the solutions are shown in set of figures 13.2a and 13.2b. Measuring of solution with
pipette is shown in Fig. 13.3.

Fig. 13.2 : (a) Pipette (b) Handling of a pipette (c) Correct way to drain out the solution

Fig. 13.3 : Correct way to note down the burette readings

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13.2.3 Chemical Balance Introduction
A chemical balance is commonly used in chemical laboratories to weigh an exact amount of
the substance. The chemical reactions go to completion when exact mass of the substance are
taken. Each molecule or atoms of the substance has its own importance. Hence it is necessary
to use exact mass of the substance in each experiment. Therefore, the trip balance is not
useful for reaction concerned. Chemical balance is used for weighing accurate mass of the
substance.

Fig. 13.4 : Single Pan Balance Fig. 13.5 : Rough Balance

Fig. 13.6 : Analytical Balance

The analytcal balance is an instrument for determining mass of body by equilibrium of weights
suspended from the opposite side of a bar having a fulcrum at its centre. It may be regarded as
a rigid beam having a fulcrum at its centre and two arms of equal length. The chemical balance
is shown in the Fig. (13.7).

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A chemical balance consists of a light-weight beam having a mounted knife edge at its centre.
It rests on a pure corrundum plate attached to the pillar. There are two knife edges mounted
on the two ends of the beam which are equidistant from the central knife-edge. The two ends
of the beam also have adjusting screws for Zero-adjustment. The center of the beam is attached
to a pointer which moves over the scale at the foot of the pollar. There are two levelling
screws at the loose and one pumb-line suspended from the column. The beam is divided into
100 divisions, i.e. 50 divisions on each side of the fulcrum.

Fig. 13.7 : A chemical Balance

Weight - Box
A weight box is a wooden box having grooves of various sizes into which are placed different
weights ranging from 1 to 100 as shown in Fig. 13, 8a. These weights are made up of brass
coated with nickel or chromium. Each weight is nearly cylindrical having a knob at its one
end with the help of which it can be lifted with forceps.

The following is the order of weights placed in a weight box.

100g, 50g, 20g, 20g

10g, 5g, 2g, 2g, 1g

The weights are places in the following sequence in a weight box.

Fractional weight box

Fractional weights are made up of aluminium or brass coated with chromium or nickel that
range from 1 milligrams to 500 milligrams as shown Fig. 13.8b. The fractional weights less
than 10 milligrams are not used, instead the use of rider is recommended.

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 Fig. 13.8 : (a) A weight box (b) Fractional weights

Primary Standard
The standard solution of some substances can be prepared directly by weighing. These
substances are available in their pure forms and do not undergo chemical change on storing.
These are known as primary standards.

The important properties of primary standards are as follows:

i) They are easily available in pure and dry conditions.
ii) They should not undergo any chemical change with air, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
iii) They do not posses hygroscopic, deliquecent and efflorecent properties.
iv) They are easily soluble when added to the solvent (normally water).
v) They normally possess high molecular mass so that weighing errors are negligible.
vi) The standard solution of these substances should react in a stoichiometric ratio with the
volumetric titrants.
vii) They don't react with impurities which are present in the solution to be titrated.
Examples of Primary Standard Substances

Oxalic acid

Mohr's salt [FeSO 4(NH4)2SO4 . 6H2O]

Secondary Standards
Many chemical substances do not posses the primary standard properties (properties given
above). Therefore, they cannot be used to prepare standard solutions. However, the solution

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of this type of substance are first prepared of approximate strength and then standardised by
titrating with a solution of a primary standard.

Example of Secondary Standard Substances

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium permanganate (KMnO4).

13.2.4 Preparation of solutions of oxalic acid and ferrous ammonium

sulphate of known molarity by weighing
Suppose you are asked to prepare 100 mL 1.0M solution of oxalic acid;

As a first step you have to calculate the mass of oxalic acid required for preparing 100 mL of
solution.

Molar mass = 126 g.

126 g. of oxalic acid is required to prepare 1 litre solution of molarity, 1 M.

To prepare 0.1 Molar 100 mL solution, you dissolve 1.26 of the oxalic acid in distilled water
and make it upto 100mL. Similarly, to prepare 0.1 M solution of ferrous ammonium sulphate,
3.92 grams of ferrous ammonium sulphate is dissolved is distilled water so as to get 100 mL
solution.

a) Titration of oxalic acid solution against sodium hydroxide

In this acid-base tiration, oxalic acid is completely neutralised by the base (NaOH)
according to the following reaction.

According to this reaction, two moles of sodium hydroxide neutralises one mole of acid
for complete neutralisation. The end point is indicated by phenophthalein indicator. It is
colourless in acid medium and pink in the basic medium.

Now using the empirical relation you can calculate the strength of sodium hydroxide

a1 M1 V1 = a 2 M2 V2

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where,
a1 = Acidity of sodium hydroxide = 1
M1 = Molarity of sodium hydroxide = ?
V1 = Volume of sodium hydroxide consumed (burette reading)
a2 = Basicity of oxalic acid = 2
M2 = Molarity of oxalic acid = 0.1. M(known)
V2 = Volume of oxalic acid taken for titration

Values of a1, V1, a 2, M2, V2 are known. By using the above relation you can calculate M1.

(b) Titration of Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate solution against Potassium

Permanganate solution
Potassium permangante is an oxidising agent, both in alkaline and acidic medium. Oxidation
is always accompanied by reduction. In this titration, the ferrous ion is oxidised to ferric ion
by permanganate ion, [Mn (VII)] and at the same time permanganate ion is reduced to
manganese (II [Mn (II)].
The following reactions take place.

The over all reactions is

According to the stiochiometric relation, one mole of the oxidising agent, potassium
permanganate, reduces 5 moles of reducing agent, ferrous ammonium sulphate.
Potassium permanganate is a self indicator, a pink colour appears and persists at the end
point. To calculate the strength, the following relation is used :
a 2 M1 V1 = = a1 M2 V2

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 Here a1 and a2 are the change in oxidation number in oxidant and reductant respectively. For
permanganate solution. a1 = 5, M, and V, are its molarity and volume respectively a2 = 1 for
ferrous ammonium sulphate, M 2 and V2 are its molarity and volume respectively.

13.3 MATERIALS REQUIRED

(1) Apparatus (2) Chemcials

Analytical balance, Oxalic acid, Sodium hydroxide,
Weight-box, Measuring flask Ferrous ammonium sulphate (Mohr's salt),
Beaker, Glass rod, Conical flask, Phenolphthalein, Distilled water,
Funnel, Burette stand, Wire gauze, Potassium permanganate,
Burette, Pipette Sulphuric acid (dilute).
10
F
13.4 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT
To prepare standard solutions of oxalic acid and ferrous ammonium sulphate, the following
steps are followed.

Weigh the required amount of substance (section 13.2) using an analytical balance. The
substance should be weighed in a weighing bottle.

Transfer the weighed substance into a standard flask (100mL) and dissolve in minimum amount
of distilled water. Make the volume of solution up the mark in the standard flask. Shake it by
tilting the flask upside down. In case of ferrous ammonium sulphate, before making the solution
upto the mark, dilute (sulphuric acid (-15mL) should be added to prevent the hydrolysis.

13.1.4 Acid - base titration

Take a, clean burette, rinse it with the given sodium hydroxide solution and clamp it vertically
in a burette stand. Fill the burette with sodium hydroxide solution. Ensure that no air bubbles
are there in the stop cock. Note the initial reading (V1). Rinse a clean 20 mL pipette with
standard oxalic acid solution and then pipette out 20mL of the given standard oxalic acid
solution into a clean conical flask. Add a few drops phenolphthalein indicator. Hold the
conical flask (as shown in figure 13.9) just below the nozzle of the burette and using your left
hand, release sodium hydroxide solution into the conical flask drop by drop. Continuously
swirl the contents of the conical flask smoothly and continue addition of NaOH solution
dropwise til the appearance of pink colour. Note down the reading of the lower meniscus of
NaOH solution. This is the final reading, (V). Repeat the titrations to get at least two concordant
readings.

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 Fig. 13.9 : Carrying out a titration

13.4.2 Titration of ferrous ammonium sulphate and potassium

permanganate
Take a clean and dry burette and rinse with the given potassium permanganate solution. Fit
the burette on stand. Fill with potassium permanganate solution and remove the air bubbles.
Rinse a clean, dry pipette with given Mohr's salt solution. Then pipette out 20mL of Mohr's
solution and transfer into a clean 250 mL conical flask. Add approximately 20 mL of dilute
sulphuric acid. Titrate it by gently swirling the conical flask. (Refer the figure 13.9) A
permanent pink colour appears at the end point. Repeat the titration to get at least two concordant
readings.

13.5 PRECAUTIONS
i) Handle the Chemical Balance carefully.
ii) While preparing standard solutions add distilled water into the flask slowly. (Otherwise
you will easily miss the mark.
iii) Chemicals should be pure (LR or AR).
iv) Apparatus used should be clean and dry.
v) Only 2 to 3 drops of indicator solution should be used.
vi) At least two concordant readings should be taken for calculations,
vii) While titrating, continous swirling of the solution is required, to avoid incomplete
reaction.

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 13.6 OBSERVATIONS
preparation of standard solutions
i) Oxalic acid
Mass of empty weighing tube =
Mass of weighing tube + substance =
Mass of weighing tube after transfer the
substance into volumetric flask =
Mass of substance =
ii) Ferrous ammonium sulphate
Mass of empty weighing tube =
Mass of weighing tube + substance =
Mass of weighing tube after transfer the
substance into volumetric flask =
Mass of substance =
TITRATION
i) Oxalic acid Vs. Sodium hydroxide. Burrette Solution, sodium hydroxide.
End point : colouless to pink colour.'
Burette reading :
Sl.No. Initial reading Final reading Volume of NaOH used
1.
2.
3.
4.

Volume of oxalic acid solution taken in each titration, V = 20 mL

Molarity of oxalic acid = M1 =
Volume of NaOH consumed (concurrent reading) = V2
Molarity of Sodium hydroxide = M2 = ?
The reaction
Acid base
a 2 M1 V1 = a1 M2 V 2
a1 = 2
a2 = 1

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 _
Molarity of the given sodium hydroxide is .............................. mol 1
ii) Ferrous ammonium sulphate Vs. potassium permanganate.
Burette solution : Potassium permanganate
End Point : Colourless to pink colour:
Burette readings :

S.No. Initial readings Final reading Volume of KMnO3

consumed (mL)
1.
2.
3.

Relation of volume and molarity

a 2 M1 V2 = a1 M2 V2

where a1 and a2 changes in oxdiation state (odixation number), with respective species
Volume of Mohr's salt soltion taken = V1 = 20 mL
(pipette readings)
Molarity of standard mohr's salt solution is M1 =
_
Change in oxidation state of Mn in MnO 4 is a2 =5
Volume of KMnO4 consumes = V2
Molarity of KMnO4 is M2 =?
By substituting a1, a2, M 1, V1 and V2, M2 can be calculated.
Concentration of the given potassium permanganate solution is = ......... mol 1-1.

13.7 CONCLUSION
i) Strength of sodium hydroxide and potassium permanganate are determined by titrating
them with oxalic acid and ferrous ammonium sulphate solutions respectively. Their
respective molarities are ..... and .......

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 13.8 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
1. State the need of rinsing the burette and pipette with respective solutions to be used in
the titration.
...................................................................................................................................
2. Why should pure chemicals be used for preparing a standard solution ?
...................................................................................................................................
3. Why should only the lower meniscus be taken into consideraiton while reading the
level of solution.
...................................................................................................................................
4. How do last (final) drop of solution in pipette can be taken out ?

11 ...................................................................................................................................
F 5. Why do the secondary standard cannot be used in the standard solution preparation ?
...................................................................................................................................

13.9 NOTE FOR THE TEACHERS

i) Teacher should demonstrate to the students the method to handle an Analytical Balance.
ii) Teacher should ensure that the chemicals are pure enough and that distilled water is
used in the titration. The appearance of the end point and the concept of concurrent
readings should be made clear.
iii) The reaction which is occuring in the titration should be explained to the students.

13.10 CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Ans. 1 To avoid error in the calculations
Ans. 2 The impurities may react and interfere in the reaction. Change in weights will lead
to errors in the calculations.
Ans. 3 The solution level in the burette is always in the curved manner (concave). Therefore
if we take the upper meniscus, there will always be a loss in the volume of the
solution.
Ans. 4 After releasing all the solution just touch the edge of pipette on the sides of the
conical flask.
Ans. 5 (a) Secondary standards are not available in the pure and dry forms.
(b) It may undergo reaction with solvents
(c) It may undergo hydration and alter its own weights during the process.
(d) It may react with air or oxygen an carbon dioxide.

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 EXPERIMENT-14
Qualitative analysis of a salt involving detection of one anion and one cation
from the following (salts insoluble in hydrochloric acid excluded)
Anions :
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
(CO32 ), S2 , NO2 , Cl , Br , I , NO3 , SO42 , PO43 )
Cations :
NH4+, Pb2+, Cu2+, Fe3+, Ni2+, Zn2+, Mn2+, Ca2+

14.1 OBJECTIVES
After peforming this experiment, you should be able to:
• explain the meaning of Qualitative Analysis;
• handle properly the chemicals and reagent bottles in the chemistry laboratory;
• perform simple experimental operations such as heating, testing of gas evolved, filtration
and 'washing of residue etc.;
• observe the appearance/disappearance of colour, precipitate, turbidity ect. in reaction
mixture;
• acquire an elementary idea of the presence of an anion or a cation in the salt by carrying
out dry test; and
• perform preliminary and confirmatory tests of anions and cations and analyse the given
salt.

14.2 MATERIALS REQUIRED

(1) Apparatus (2) Chemicals

Test tubes Hydrogen Sulphide gas

Test tube holder
Funnel Solution
Glass rod 1) Lime water
Tripod stand 2) Silver nitrate AgNO3 (aq)

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Chinadish 3) Lead acetate (aq)
Platinum wire/Nichrome wire 4) Sodium nitroprusside (aq)
Boiling tube 5) Potassium iodide (aq)
Brush 6) Starch solution
Breaker 7) Ammonium hydroxide
Wire gauze 8) Barium chloride (aq)
Spatula 9) Potassium chromate (aq)
Watch glass 10) Potassium ferrocyanide (aq)
11) Potassium sulphocyanide
12) Dimethyl glyoxime solution
13) Ammonium oxalate (aq)
14) Nesseler's reagent
15) Blue litmus solution.
16) Sodium hydroxide. (dilute and concentrated)
17) Hydrochloric acid (dilute and concentrated)
18) Sulphuric acid (dilute and concentrated)
19) Nitric acid (dilute and concentrated)
20) Acetic acid (dilute)

Solids
Ammonium chloride
Ammonium carbonate
Potassium dichromate
Ferrous sulphate
Ammonium Molybdate

14.3 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

Qualitative analysis of unknown salt consists of the detection and identification of the
constituent ions. The inorganic salts on dissolving in water dissociate completely into positively
and negatively charged ions. An positively charged ion is called cation or a basic radical and
the negatively charged ion is called an anion or an acid radical. A number of tests are carrieed
out to identify the ions.
Qualitative analysis is done by carrying out two kinds of tests (i) dry tests, and (ii) wet tests.

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The dry tests are performed on solid inorganic substances. These tests should be performed
before proceeding with wet tests.
I. During a dry test, we note
i) Physical examination of salt such as colour, smell and density of the salt gives valuable
clues regarding the nature of some of the basic and acidic radicals.
ii) action of heat on dry salt.
II. The wet tests are carried out in solution. In a wet test, we note
i) the colour and smell of the gas evolved.
ii) formation or disappearance of colour of solution,
iii) formation or disappearance of a precipitate.
A test my be positive or negative. A positive test is the one which gives the result indicated in
the theory and a negative test does not give the results as indicated in the theory.
For example, to test a carbonate ion, you add dilute sulphuric acid to the substance. The
colourless gas evolved is passed through lime water which turns milky (a positive test). If the
lime water does not turn milky it is a negative test.
To detect the anon and cation in a salt, certain chemicals are used. These chemicals are called
Reagents. When reagents react with salts, new compounds are formed with some observable
properties such as colour, smell and characteristic appearance of precipitate.
Before carrying out systematic analysis, it is necessary to know few important laboratory
techniques.

14.3.1 Laboratory Techniques

To identify an anion and a cation in a salt, some techniques have to be used. The techniques
are as follows :
1. Heating of salt or solution in a test tube
i) While heating a salt or a solution in a test tube, hold the test tube in such a manner that
the mouth of the test tube is away from yourself or any other person working in adjacent
place.
ii) Heat the test tube gently by placing its one side in the outermost zone of the flame.
While heating, shake the test tube occasionally to avoid any spurtting.
iii) Always heat the top layer of liquid in a test tube, so that it boils quickly. Never apply
flame on the bottom of test tube, otherwise bumping will start. You may use a piece of
procelein to avoid bumping.

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iv) While heating for a long time, use a test tube holder. Hold it between your thumb and
the fingers if the volume in the test tube is less then half and you have to only warm the
contents.
2. Use of a Reagent Bottle
Take out the desired reagent bottle from shelf. Remove the stopper and hold it in right hand.
Hold the test tube between the thumb and first two fingers of the left hand. Now pour the
required quantity of the reagent along the side of the test tube. Put the bottle back on the shelf
and stopper it immediately. Never put the stopper on the table.
3. Testing of a gas evolved : On adding a reagent to a salt if effervescene are given out in
cold or on heating it indicates the evolution of a gas.
The gas evolved can be tested in following manner:
i) Note the colour of gas evolved
ii) Smell the evolved gas by puff of hand. Never inhale a gas by placing the nose directly
into the vapour.
iii) By brining a filter paper strip or a glass rod with its end dipped into the testing reagent
near the mouth of the test tube.
iv) By passing the gas evolved for few seconds through a reagent taken in a test tube,
shake the test tube well and observe the change.
4. Precipitation : Insoluble compound formed by addition of a reagent to a solution under
the test or passing a gas through the solution under the test is called a precipitate and the
process is called precipitation. As soon as a clear solution turns turbid, it is an indication that
precipitate is formed.
In some cases the precipitate may dissolve in excess of precipitating reagent, in that case two
observations should be taken, one on addition of precipitating reagent dropwise and second
on adding excess of precipitating reagent.
5. Filtration : It is a process by which an insoluble compound is separated from a reaction
mixture. To carry out filtration, first the filter paper cone is made. It is then opened in such a
way that the three layers of paper are on one side, while the fourth layer is on the other side.
By doing so a hollow cone of filter paper is obtained. The cone is then places in funnel and by
wetting with water, it is fixed properly but gently in funnel. The liquid mixture is then poured
over the filter paper funnel along the side of a rod. Never fill the filter paper cone more than
2/3 rd of its capacity. Note that there should be no space between filter paper cone and glass
funnel. It reduces the rate of filtration. The liquid passes through the pores of filter paper and
collects in the vessel kept below the stem of the funnel. The clear liquid so collected is called
Filtrate. The insoluble compound or precipitate, which remains over the filter paper is called
residue.
6. Washing and collection of precipitable : It is essential to wash the precepitate before

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carrying out any test on it. The washing is done by slowly pouring distilled water over the
precipitate while it is still the runnel. After washing carefully remove the filter paper from
funnel open up and spread it on a dry filter paper and remove the precipitate carefully with the
help of a spatula and collect it on a watch glass. Use a small portion of it eachtime for carrying
out various tests.
7. Dry test : A number of tests can be carried out using the powdered salt. The information
thus obtained often provides a clue to the presence or absence of cetain radicals. With their
knowledge, the course of wet analysis may be shortened or modified. Some of the important
dry tests are given below :
i) Physical examination : Examine the colour, smell and the density of salt.

S.No. Observation Inferences

1. The colour of solid
i) Blue Copper salt may be present
ii) green (light or dark) Copper, nickel and ferrous salt may be
present
iii) Yellow Ferric salt may be present
iv) Pink Manganese salt may be present
v) Buff Manganese salt may be present
vi) White Salts of remaining cations may be present
(Ca2+, NH4+, Pb2+, Zn2+)
2. Smell : Rub a pinch
salt with the help of a
spatula on a watch glass
smell of ammonia, Ammonium salt may be present
smell of rotten eggs Sulphide salt may be present
3. Density
Salt is light Carbonates of zinc and calcium may be present

ii) Dry heating test : The salt is heated gently and then strongly in a clean and dry test tube.

S.No. Observation Inferences

1. Solid melts and resolidies Salts of calcium may be present
2. Solid swells up phosphate may be present
3. Solid decripitates (Craking sound) Lead nitrate may be present
4. Solid sublime and vapour are Ammonium chloride may be presents
white in colour

14.3.2 Precautions

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i) Use a perfectly dry test tube for performing this test.
ii) Keep the mouth of the test tube away from yourself as well as from your neighbouring
students.
iii) During heating, do not heat the tube at one point but keep it rotating otherwise the tube
may crack.
iv) Do not semll the gases evolved by placing the nose directly over the mouth of the tube.
Always smell the gas by puff of your hands.

14.4 DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF ANIONS

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
List of anions : CO32, S 2 , NO2 , Cl , Br , I , NO3 , SO42 & PO43

14.4.1 Preliminary tests

The method of detection of anions is not as systematic as that of basic radicals. It has not been
possible to include acidic radicals (anions) into distinct groups as in the case of cations (basic
radicals).
The process employed to detect an anion may be divided into two classes.
A) Those involving the identification of volatile products obtained on treatment with acids.
This test can be further divided into the following two groups.
I) Action of dilute sulphuric acid
II) Action of concentrated sulphuric acid.
B) Those dependent on reaction in solution.
Before carrying out a confirmatory test in solution it is necessary to prepare a water solution.
or sodium carbonate extract of the salt.
i) Preparation of water solution for anion analysis : Take a pinch of given salt in a test
tube. add 2-3 mL of water and shake well.
ii) Preparation of sodium carbonate of extract : If the salt is insoluble in water, preparation
of sodium carbonate extract in necessary.
This is prepared as follows :
Mix the salt with nearly twice its weight of sodium carbonate. Add sufficient distilled water
in a dish, boil and filter. The filtrate is known as sodium extract.
How to use sodium carbonate extract : Sodium carbonate extract always contains an excess
amount of unreacted sodium carbonate which may interfere in the usual tests of acid radicals.
It is absolutely necessary to destroy the excess of sodium carbonate. This is done by acidifying

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sodium carbonate extract with a suitable acid (choice depends upon the nature of the acid
radical to be tested).
A) Action of Acids
I) Test with dilute sulphuric acid : The anions which can be detected by treating a slat with
dilute H2SO4, are as follows :
_ _ _
CO32 , S2 and NO 2,

A gas in given out on adding dilute H2SO4 to salt. For observations and explanation follow
the given table.

Anions Observation Explanation Inferences

_ _
CO 23 Brisk effervescence MCO3 + H2SO4 CO 32
a colourless odourless → M SO4 + H2O + CO2
gas is given out carbon dioxide (colourless)
_ _
S2 Colourless gas with MS + H2SO4 S2
Suffocating smell of → M SO4 + H2S may be
rotton eggs is given out Hydrogen sulphide present
(colourless)
_ _
NO 2 A brown coloured gas 2 M NO 2 + H2SO4 NO 2 may be
is evolved → M2SO4 + 2HNO2 present
Nitrous acid
(colourless)
3MNO 2 → H2O + HNO3 + NO
NO + O 2 → 2NO2
Nitrogen dioxide
(Reddish brown)

Do not boil the contents of the test tube. Over heating decomposes H2SO4 and gives sulphur
dioxide.
_ _ _
II) Confirmatory tests of CO32 , S2 and NO2 ions
_
1) Carbonate ion CO32 : On passing the gas through lime water, it turns milky due to the
formation of calcium carbonate.

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 ↓ + H2O

Calcium carbonate

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 On passing excess of CO2+ the milkiness disappers and a clear solution is obtained.

CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O → Ca(HCO 3)2

_
2) Sulphide ion, S 2 :
a) Filter paper moistened with lead acetate turns black on exposure to gas.

Ph(CH3COO)2 + H2S → 2CH3COOH + PbS ↓

Black lead Sulphide
b) Sodium Nitroprusside test : A violet colouration is obtained on adding freshly prepared
solution of sodium nitroprusside to salt solution.

Na 2S + Na2 [Fe(NO)(CN)5] → Na 2 Na 2 [Fe(CN) 5NOS]

Sodium Nitroprusside Violet colouration
3) Nitrite ion, NO 2 : When a filter paper soaked in a mixture of KI + starch solution is
exposed to the gas, it turns blue or violet in colour.
12
F 2NO2 + 2KI → 2KNO2 + I2
I2 + Starch - Starch iodide complex, deep blue or violet.
III) test with concentrated sulphuric acid : This test is performed after performing the test
with dilute H2SO4. Anions which give positive test with dilute H2SO4 will also react
with concentrated H2SO4. On adding concentrated H2SO4 to a salt, if a gas is given out,
follow the given table for drawing an inference.

ION Observations Explanation Inferences

_ _
Cl A colourless gas MCI + H2SO4 Cl may be
withpungent smell MHSO4 + HCl present
is evolved Hydrogen Chloride
(colourless gas)
_ _
Br A brown gas MBr + H2SO4 Br may be
with pungent smell → MHSO4 + H Br present
is evolved, the
Contents of the test 2H Br + H2SO4
solution turns redish → H2O + SO4 + Br2
brown Bromine (reddish brown gas)
_
I Violet fumes with MI + H2SO4 → MHSO4 + Hl Iodide may be
with pungent smell HI + 2H2SO4 → 2H2O+SO2 + I2 be present

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 Black speacks appeared purple (violet)
on the sides of the test
tube
_ _
NO 3 Brown coloured gas 2MNO3 + H2SO4 → NO3 may be
with pungent smells M2SO4 + 2HNO3 present
is evolved, the gas
intensified on adding 4 HNO3 → 2H2O + O2 + 4NO2
copper turning Nitrogen dioxide
(light brown gas)
3Cu + 8HNO3 → 2Cu (NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O
Nitrogen oxide
(colourless)
2NO + O2 → 2NO2
(Brown gas)

Precautions
1. Do not boil the contents of test tube.
2. After the test is over, do not throw away the contents of test tube immediately into sink
The reaction of concentrated H2SO4 with water is highly exothermic and generate a lot
of heat.
3. Do not inhale the gas evolved during the test because they are corrossive in nature.
4. Concentrated H 2SO4 should be handled carefully.
_ _ _ _
IV) Confirmatory tests of Cl , Br , I and NO2
_
a) Chloride ion, (Cl )
i) Silver Nitrate test : A curdy while precipitate insoluble in conc. HNO3 is obtained on
adding silver nitrate to water solution Acidify with dil HNO3 before adding AgNO3 in
case sodium carbonate extract in used.
_
Ag + + Cl → AgCl ↓

Curdy white precipitate is soluble in ammonium hydroxide.

+
AgCl + 2NH 4OH → [Ag(NH3)2] + 2H2O
Diammine silver
chloride (Colourless)

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ii) Chromyl Chloride test
Yellow fumes of Chromyl Chlorides are obtained on heating a mixture of salt and solid
K2Cr2O7 and concentrated H2SO4 in a dry test tube

2MCl2 + K2Cr2O7 + 3H2SO4 → 2MSO4 + K2SO4 + 2CrO2Cl2 + 2H2O

Chromyl chloride (orangish red)

Chromyl chloride fumes turns dilute NaOH yellow

CrO2Cl2 + NaOH → Na2CrO4 + 2HCl

Sodium Chromate (yellow)

A yellow precipitate of lead chromate, PbCrO4 is formed on adding lead acetate to the yellow
solution acidified with CH3COOH

Na 2CrO4 + Pb(CH3COO)2 → PbCrO4↓ + CH3COONa 1

_ lead chromate (yellow precipitate)
(b) Bromide ion, Br
i) Silver nitrate test : A light yellow precipitate is obtained on adding silver nitrate to water
solution (after acidifying the sodium carbonate extract with dil HNO3). The precipitate is
partially soluble in ammonium hydroxide.
_ _
Ag + Br → AgBr↓
Silver bromide (light yellow)

AgBr + 2NH4OH → [Ag(NH3)2] Br + 2H2O in CCl 4

ii) Organic layet test : Teh addition of chlorine water to water solution containing bromide
liberates free bromine which imparts orange red colour to the test solution. On shaking with
carbon tetrachloride, a reddish brown colour is imparted in CCl4 layer. The organic layer of
CCl4 is obtained below the colourless aqueous layer.

2NaBr + Cl2 → 2NaCl + Br2

Bromine, reddish brown in CCl4
_
c) Iodide ion, I
_
i) Silver nitrate test : Iodide ion (I ) A yellow precipitate is obtained on adding AgNO3
solution to acidified (with dil HNO) water solution, which is insoluble in NH4OH.
_
Ag+ + I → Agl
Silver iodide, yellow precipitate

ii) Organic layers test : The addition of chlorine water to test solution liberates free iodine,
which colours the solution, violet, On shaking with carbon tetra chloride, a violet colour is

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imparted to the organic layer.

2NaI + Cl2 → 2NaCl + I2

Iodine (Violet Colour in CCl4)
_
d) Nitrate ion, (NO3 ) :
Ring test : On adding concentrated. H2SO4 gradually along the side of the test tube to a
mixture of salt solution in water or its sodium carbonate extract, acidified with dil. H2SO4,
and freshly prepared ferrous sulphate solution, abrown ring is obtained at the junction of two
layers.

M(NO3)2 + H 2SO4 → MSO 4 + 2HNO3

6FeSO4 + 2HNO 3 + 3H2SO4 → 3Fe2(SO4)3 + 4H2O + 2NO

X FeSO2 + Y NO → (FeSO4)x (NO)Y

Nitrosoferrous sulphate,
(brownring)

Fe2+ + 5H2O + NO → [Fe(H2O)5 + NO]2+

B) Individual tests
a) Sulphate ion, SO42- : On adding BaCl2 solution to acidified (dil. HCl) salt solution or its
sodium carbonate extract a white precipitate is obtained which is insoluble in concentrated
HCl or concentrated HNO3.
2+ 2_
Ba + SO4 → BaSO4
Barium chloride white precipitate

(b) Phosphate ion, (PO43-) : salt or its water solution or its sodium carbonate extract is heated
with concentrated, HNO3 till the fumes no longer evolve. Contents of the test tube are diluted
with water. A canary yellow precipitate of ammonium phosphomolybdate is formed on
warming the above test solution with ammonium molybedate.

Precautions
1. Some times on adding BaCl2 solution, a thin white precipitate is obtained, it may be due
to formation of barium phosphate which is soluble in concentrate HCl.
2. During the test of phosphate ion, use a small porcelain piece or pumice stones while

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 heating the salt or water solution with concentrated. HNO3, to avoid bumping of contents
of test tube.
3. Use cone HNO 3 carefully.

14.5 IDENTIFICATION OF CATIONS

For identification of cations (excluding NH4+ ion belonging to group zero) have been divided
into six groups depending upon the differences in solubility of chlorides, sulphides, hydroxides
and carbonates. Of these ions, the cations are precipitated by adding some reagents called,
group reagents.
The following table gives briefly the classification of basic radicals (cations) into groups.
Group reagents and form in which they precipitate.

Group Cations Group reagent Form in precipitate which

Cation precipitate
O NH + 4 Conc. NaOH No precipitate obtained. A
Colourless gas ammonia with
pungent smell is evolved on
worning
I Pb 2+ dil. HCl Chloride
II Cu 2+ H2S(g) in the presence Sulphide
of dil Hcl
III Fe 3+ excess of NH 4OH Hydroxide
in presence of
excess of NH4Cl(s)
IV Zn2+, Mn2+, Ni2+ H2S(g) in the presence Sulphide
of NH4Cl(s) and
NH4OH excess
V Ca 2+ (NH4)2CO3 soln. in the Carbonate
presence of NH4Cl
and NH4OH

Before proceeding to detect the cations the solution of the salt should be prepared.
Preparation of original solution : Take apinch of salt in a clean test tube. Add 2-3 mL of
distilled water, shake well. If the solid is not soluble in cold water then heat the contents. If
the salt is still not soluble in hot water add few drops of conc. HCl,
Precautions : Do not add excess of conc HCl. This might create a problem during cation

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analysis.
a) If on addition of conc. HCl a gas is evolved, wait till the effervescence ceases and then
add 2-3 drops more of conc. HCl.
b) Use only distilled water to prepare original solution.
General rules for the procedure involving the analysis of cations
1) The group reagent should be added in the systematic order.
2) Test for the higher group radicals are performed only when the radicals of a lower
group are found absent.
3) Slight excess of the group reagent should be added to ensure complete precipitation of
group radicals.
4) When a precipitate is obtained for a particular group, it is filtered and the residue is used
for the analysis of the radicals of that group. Before carrying out the analysis, wash the
residue two times with distilled water. Washing should be discarded.
5) To find out the presence of a cation in a particular group, a small portion of the solution
is used which is known as the test portion.

14.5.1 Cation Analysis

(a) Group Zero, (Ammonium ion) NH4+
Ammonium ion, (NH4+) : On warming with NaOH solution, a colourless gas with pungent
smell of ammonia is evolved.

Confirmatery test :
On passing the gas through Nessler reagent a reddish brown precipitate is obtained.

K 2HgI4 → 2KI + HgI2

Nessler's reagent

HgI2 + 2NH3 → Hg(NH2)I + NH4I

(Amino - mercuric iodide)

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(b) Group-I (Pb2+)
If a white precipitate is obtained on adding dilute HCl to salt solution in water or while
preparing original solution in dilute HCl, it indicates the presence of Pb2+ ions. White
precipitates dissolves again on warning and reprecipitates on cooling.
_
Pb2+ + Cl → PbCl2
Lead chloride (white precipitate)

Note : In case the original solution is prepared in dilute HCl, Group I is absent
1) KI test : On adding KI to hot solution of lead chloride, a yellow precipitate is obtained.
_
Pb2+ + 2I → PbI2 ↓
Lead iodide (Yellow precipitate)

2) Potassium chromate test : On adding K2 CrO4 solution to hot-solution of lead chloride,

a yellow precipitate is obtained.
_
Pb2+ + CrO2 4
→ PbCrO 4 ↓
Lead Chromate (Yellow precipitate)

(c) Group II : (Cu2+)

On passing hydrogen sulphide gas through acidified original solution obtained which indicates
the presence of Cu2+ ions
_
M2+ + S2 → MS ↓
Metal sulphide

1) If no precipitate is obtained even on dilution of test portion, in that case gp II is absent.

2) To obtain a granular precipitate pass H2S for 2-3 minutes through hot solution.
Confimatory test of Cu2+ ion : On heating black ppt of CuS with dilute HNO3, a blue colour
solution is obtained.

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 3CuS + 8HNO3 → 3Cu(NO3)2 + 3S + 2NO ↑ + 4H 2O
Copper nitrate,
(blue colour)

1) On adding ammonium hydroxide, precipitate is obtained which is soluble in excess

reagent to produce deep blue solution.
Cu 2+ + 2OH → Cu(OH)2
Copper hydroxide (Blue precipitate)

Cu(OH)2 + 4NH 3 → [Cu(NH3)4] SO4

Tetraammine cupric sulphate (deep blue colour)

2) On additing acetic acid followed by potassium ferrocyanide to blue solution, a chocolate

brown precipitate is obtained.

2Cu 2+ + K4[Fe(CN)6] → Cu2[Fe(CN) 6] + 4K

Copper ferrocyanide,
(chocolate brown precipitate)

d) Group III
(Fe3+ ions)
Preliminary test : To the origional solution add little concentrated HNO3, and boil to oxidise
Fe2+ to Fe3+ and then add excess of solid NH4Cl followed by excess of ammonium hydroxide.
White or reddish brown precipirate is obtained.
Reddish brown precipitate indicates the presence of Fe3+ ions.
Note : Addition of large excess of NH4OH may start dissolving group III precipirates. Hence
it should be avoided.
Confirmatory test of Fe3+ ion : Reddish brown precipitate of Fe(OH)3 on dissolving in
dilute HCl, produces yellow solution

Fe(OH) 3 + 3HCl → FeCl3 + 3H2O

Yellow solution

1) On adding K4[Fe(CN) 6] to yellow solution, a prussian blue precipitate is obtained.

4Fe3+ + 3K4[Fe(CN)6] → Fe4 [Fe(CN)6]3 + 12K +

Pressian Blue

2) On adding KCNS to yellow solution a red coluration is obtained

_
Fe3+ + 3SCN → [Fe(SCN)] 3
Ferric thiocyanate
(red colour)

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e) Group IV analysis (Zn 2+, Mn2+ & Ni2+ ions)
Preliminary test : Take the original solution and add NH4OH to make it alkaline pass hydrogen
sulphide gas (H2S) through the solution, a precipitate is obtained.
Formation of white precipitate indicates the presence of Zn2+
Formation of buff (flesh coloured) precipitate indicates the presence of Mn2+
Formation of black precipitate indicates the presence of Ni2+
_
M 2+ + S2 → MS
Metal sulphide

Note: Hydrogen sulphide gas should always be passed slowly, otherwise black residue of
FeS from kipps appratus enters the test solution and creates confusion.

2) Solution should smell of ammonia before passing H2S.

Confirmatory test; Zn2+ ion

On dissolving white precipitate of ZnS. in dilute HCl, a colourless solution is obtained Boil
off H2S.

ZnS + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2S ↑

1) On adding small amount of NaOH a white precipitate is obtained which is soluble in

excess of NaOH
_
Zn2+ + 2OH → Zn (OH)2
Zinc hydroxide, (white precipitate)
_ _
Zn(OH)2 + 2OH → [Zn(OH)4]2
Tetrahydroxozincate (II) ion

2) Gray white precipitates is obtained on adding potassium ferrocyanide to solution of

ZnS in dilute HCl.

2Zn 2+ + K 4[Fe(CN)6] → Zn2 [Fe(CN)6] + 4K

Grey white precipitate

Confirmatory test of Mn2+ Buff coloured precipitate of MnS dissolves in dilute HCI.

MnS + 2HCl → MnCl2 + H2S

Boil offhydrogen sulphide gas. To the solution obtained above, on adding NaOH, a white

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precipitate of Mn (OH)2 is obtained. The precipitate rapidly oxidises on exposure to air
turning brown.

MN 2- + 2OH- → Mn(OH) 2
Manganese hydroxide (white precipitate)

Mn(OH)2 + O2 → MnO2 H2O

Hydrated Manganese dioxide, (brown precipitate)

Confirmatory test : Ni2+ ion- Black precipitate of NiS is soluble in hot cone. HNO3 giving
light green solution. On adding NH.OH and dimethylglyoxime reagent to above solution, a
cherry red precipitate of nickel dimethylglyoxime is obtained.

3NiS + 2HNO3 + 6H+ → 3Ni2+ 2NO + 4H2O + 3S ↓

Nickel dimethylglyoxime Cherry red precipitate

b) Group V (Ca 2+ ion)
Preliminary test : A pinch of NH4Cl is added to original solution. On adding excess of
NH4OH to make the solution alkaline then add freshly prepared (NH4)2 CO3 solution, a white
precipitate is obtained.
+2
M 2- + CO3 → MCO3
Metal carbonate (white precipitate)

White precipitate is soluble in acetic acid

MCO3 + 2CH3COOH → M(CH3COO)2 + H2O

Metal acetate (Colourless)

A white precipitate of calcium oxalate is formed on adding ammonium oxalate to above

solution.

Ca(CH3COO)2 + (NH4)2C 2O4 → CaC2O4 + 2CH3COO NH4

(Clacium oxalate (white precipitate)

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 14.6 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

Tabular Presentation of qualitative test

14.6.1 Acid Radicals
_
i) Work sheet No. 1 Carbonate ion (CO32 )
_
Sulphide ion (S 2 ) and
_
Nitrite ion (NO 2 )
Experiment Observation Inference

1) Carbonate ion, _
Take a small in a clean test tube. Brisk effervescence Carbonate, (CO 32 )
Add 1/mL of dilute H2SO4. Colourless, odourless, may be present
_
Lime water test Pass the gas Lime water turns CO32 confirmed
evolved through 2-3mL of lime milky
water and shake well
_ _
2) Sulphide ion, (S2 ) Take a Colourless Sulphide, S2 may
small amount of given salt in a gas with suffocating smell be present
clean test tube. Add 1mL of of rotten egg is given out
dil H2SO4.
_
i) Confirmative test : Bring a Paper turns black Sulphide S 2
piece of filter paper moistend confirmed
with lead acetate solution near
the mouth of test tube
_
ii) Sodium nitroprusside test: A red colouration is Sulphide S2 ion,
To 2 mL of Water solutio of salt obtained confirmed
add 1 prepared sodium nitroprusside
solution shake well
_ _
3) Nitrite ion, NO2 A brown coloured gas Nitrite, (NO 2 ) may
Take a small amount of give salt with pungent smell is be present
in a clean test tube. Add 1 mL given out
of dilute H2SO4
_
Test the gas evolved in Blue black or violet Nitrite, (NO2 ) ion
priliminary test with a filter colour is obtained confirmed
paper soaked in mixture of
KI and starch solution

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 _ _ _
ii) Work sheet No. 2 : Chloride ion (Cl ), Bromide (Br ), Iodide ion (I ) and Nitrate ion NO3

Experiment Observation Inference

_ _
A) Chloride ion, (Cl ) A colourless gas with Chloride ion (Cl )
Take a small amount of given pungent smell is evolved may be present
salt in clean and dry test tube.
Add 2-3 drops of conc. H2SO4
carefully. Heat the test tube gently.

i) Chromyl Chloride test : Test Orange-yellow

a pinch of salt and solid potassium fumes are given
dichromate in a ratio of 1:3 in a dry are out
test tube. Add 3-4 drops of
concentrated H2SO4 and heat
strongly.

ii) Pass the gas evolved through A yellow solution

NaOH solution. Shake well. is obtained
_
iii) Acidify the soln. obtained A yellow precipitate Cl confirmed
above with acetic acid neutralize is obtained
with excess of NaOH and then
add lead acetate solution to it.
Shake well.
_
ii) Silver nitrate : (i) To 5mL Crudy white Cl may be present
of original solution add dil. precipitate is
HNO3 to acidify it and then obtained
add 1 mL of AgNO3 solution.
Shake well
_
ii) Filter the precipitate. After A colourless Cl confirmed
washing the precipitate add precipitate is soluble
2-3 mL of ammonium
hydroxide solution to it.
Shake well

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 _ _
(B) Bromide ion, (Br ) A brown gas with Bromide ion (Br )
Take a small amount of given with pungent smell is may be present
salt in a clean dry test tube evolved. The contents of
Add 2-3 drops of concentrated the test tube turns orange
H2SO4 . Heat the test tube red
carefully.
_
(i) AgNO3 test : Acidify 2 mL A light yellow precipitate Bromide ion (Br )
of original soln. with dilute is obtained which is comfirmed
HNO3 add silver nitrate partially soluble in excess
solution. of NH4OH.
_
(ii) Organic layer test : Reddish brown organic Bromide ion (Br )
To 2mL of water solution layer is obtained confirmed
add 1/2 mL of CCl4 and
add 3 mL of Chlorine
water. Shake well.
_ _
(C) Iodide ion, I Violet fumes with Iodide ion (I )
Take a small amount of given pungent smell evolved may be present
salt in a clean and dry test tube Black speacks appeared
Add 2-3 drops of concentrated on the side of the test
H2SO4 carefully. Heat the test tube
tube gently.

(i) AgNO3 test : To 2 mL of A yellow precipiate is obtained

water solution add dilute.
HNO3 to acidify it add 1mL
at AgNO3 solution.
Shake well.
_
(ii) Add NH4OH to the above precipitate is insolube Iodide ion (I )
solution ppt add 2-3 mL of confirmed
ammonium hydroxide solution
to it. Shake well

Take 2 mL of water solution A violet organic I confirmed

Add 1/2 mL of layer is obtained
CCl4. Then add 3-4 mL

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of chlorine water.
Shake well.
_ _
(D) Nitrate ion, NO3 Brown coloured gas Nitrate ion (NO3 )
Take a small amount of given coloured gas with may be present
salt in a clean and dry test tube pungent smell is evolved
add 2-3 drops of concentrated The gas intensified on
H2SO4 carefully. Heat the test adding copper turnings,
tube gently. solution turns blue

_
Take 2-3 mL of water solution A brown ring is obtained Nitrate ion, (NO 3 )
in a test tube and add 2mL of at the junction where the confirmed
freshly prepared solution of liquid surface meet
ferrous sulphate, shake well each other

To this solution add few drops

of concentrated H2SO4 gradually
along the sides of test tube
without disturbing the test tube.
_ _
iii) Work sheet No. 3 : Qualitative analysis of Sulphate ion (SO42 ) and Phosphate ion (PO43 )

Experiment Observation Inference

_ _
A) Sulphate ion, SO42 A white ppt insoluble SO42 ion is
i) Acidity the Na2CO 3 extract in conc. HCl is obtained confirmed
or the salt solution in water with
dil. HCl and then add
BaCl2 solution.
_
B) Prosphate ion, (PO 34 ) A canary yellow Phosphate ion
_
Acidify the Na2CO3 extract with precipitate or (PO34 )
dil. NHO3 and then add solid colour is obtained confirmed
ammonium molybdate
warm the test tube gently.

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14.6.2 Basic Radicals
i) Work sheet No. 1 : Ammonium ion (NH4+ )

Experiment Observation Inference

Take a pinch of salt in a test A colour less gas Ammonium ion

tube. Add 2-3 mL. of NaOH with pungent (NH4+) may be
solution. Heat the test tube smell is given out. present.
gently and then strongly
(if necessary) smell the
gas evolved.

Pass the gas evolved in the A reddish brown Animonhim ion,

above test through Nessler's precipitate is obtained. (NH4+) confirmed.
reagent for atleast 1 minute.
Shake well.

ii) Work sheet No. 2 : Group-1 : Lead (II) ion (Pb 2+)

Experiment Observation Inference

Solubility in water
Take a pinch of slat in clean A white precipitate is Lead (II) ion (Pb2+)
test tube. Add 2-3 mL of water obtained. may be present
and then few drops of dilute
HCl. Shake well.
Carryout following terts with
white precipitate obtained above.

Wash the precipitate and dissolve A clear solution is obtained

a small amount of precipitate in
5-6 mL of hot water. Divide
the soln. into two parts.

(a) Potassium iodide test : A yellow precipitate is Lead (II) ion (Pb2+)
To one part of hot soln. obtained (PbI2) confirmed
add 1mL Potassium iodide
solution. Shake well.

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(b) Potassium Chromate test : A yellow precipitate is Lead (II) ion (Pb2+ )
To the second part of hot solution obtained (PbCrO4) confirmed
add 1mL of K2CrO4 solution
and Shake well.

ii) Work sheet No. 3 : Group-II : Copper (II) ion (Cu2+)

Experiment Observation Inference

Take 2mL of original solution black precipitate (Cu2+) may be

in a test tube, add a few drops of present
dilute HCl. Pass H2S gas through
this solution.

Heat a small amount of A blue solution in (Cu2+) may be

precipitate in 1-2mL of dilute obtained present
HNO3 and divide it into two
parts.

i) To one part add NH4OH A blue precipitate is (Cu2+) confirmed

solution drop till it is in obtained which dissolved
excess. to produce deep blue
solution.

ii) Acidify another portion A chocolate brown (Cu2+) confirmed

with 2 mL acetic acid and then precipiated is obtained
add 1mL of potassium
ferrocynide

iv) Work sheet No. 4 : Group-III : Ferric Iron or Iron (III) ion (Fe3+)

Experiment Observation Inference

Take 2mL of original solution A reddish brown Fe 3+ ion may be

in a clean test tube. Add excess precipitate obtained present
of NH4Cl solid, shake well to
dissolve it. Heat if necessary.
To cold solution add NH4OH
drop by drop till it is in excess.

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 Iron (III) ion, (Fe3+) if a reddish
brown precipitate is obtained,
it indicates the presence of Fe3+ ion.
Dissolve the precipitate in A yellow solution is
2-3 mL of dilute HCl. and divide obtained
it into two parts.

i) To one parts of solution add A prussian blue colour Fe3+ confirmed

1 mL potassium ferrocyanide. is obtained
Shake well.

ii) To the second part of Blood red colour is Fe3+ confirmed

solution add 1 mL of potassium obtained
sulphocyanide

v) Work sheet No. 5 : Group-IV-Zinc (II) ion (ZN2+), Manganese (II) ion (MN2+) and
Nickel (II) ion (Ni2+)

Experiment Observation Inference

13
F
Take a 2-3 mL of original
solution in a tube, add excess
of NH4OH to make the
solution alkaline. Warm the
contents of the test tube.
Pass H,S gas through it
for 1/2 minute

(A) Zinc (II) ion, Zn2+ : Formation White precipitate is Zn2+ may be present
of white or dirty white ppt indicates obtained
the presence of Zn2+ ions.

Dissolve the washed white A clear soln. is obtained

precipitate in 1 mL of dilute HCl.
Dilute it with 2-3 mL of water.
Divide the solution into two parts.

To one part of the solution White precipitate is Zinc (II) ion

add dilute NaOH solution drop obtained which dissolves (Zn2+) confirmed
by drop till it is excess. in excess to produce
colourless soln.

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To another part of solution A grey white Zinc (II) ion
add 1mL of potassium precipitate is obtained (Zn 2+) confirmed
ferrocyanide. Shake well.

(B) Manganese (II) ion (Mn2+)

Formation of buff coloured Buff precipitate obtained Manganese (II) ion
preipitate indicates the presence (Mn2+) may be
of Mn2+ ions. present

Dissolve the buff coloured A clear solution is

precipitate into 1mL of obtained
dilute HCl. Dilute it with
2-3 mL of water.

To this solution add dilute NaOH A white precipitate is (Mn 2+) ion
solution drop by drop till it is in obtained which turns confirmed
excess. brown due to aerial
oxidation.

(C) Nickel (II) ion (Ni2+)

Formation of black precipitate Black precipitate is Ni 2+ ion may be
indicates the presence of Ni2+ ion. obtained present

Take a small amount of A yellowish green

washed precipitate in a china residue is obtained
dish. Add 1-2 mL of concentrated
HNO3 to it. Boil it. Evaporate the
contents of china dish to dryness.

Cool down the china dish A light green solution is

Add 2-3 mL of water. Shake well. obtained
Transfer this solution to a clean
test tube.

Add excess of NH4OH solution A cherry red precipitate Ni 2+ ion is

and then 1mL of dimethyl is obtained confirmed
glyoxime. Shake well.

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vi) Work sheet No. 6 : Group- V : Calcium (II) ion.

Experiment Observation Inference

Take 2mL of original solution in A white precipitate is Calcium (II) ion

a clean test tube. Add a pinch of obtained (Ca2+) may be
solid NH4Cl and excess of present
NH4OH. Solution and then
2mL of freshly prepared
NH4CO 3. solution, shake well.

Formation of white precipitate

indicates the presence of
Ca2+ ion.

Take a small amount of white A clear soln. is obtained

precipitate and add 1 mL of
acetic acid.

To the above solution add 2mL A white precipitate Calcium (II) ion
of ammonium oxalate solution. slowly appears (Ca2+) confirmed
Shake well.

An illustration of idenfitication of cation and anion in a given sample of salt.

AIM : To find out the presence of an anion and a cation in the given salt.

Experiment Observation Inference

1. Physical Examination
(i) Colour of salt White May contain salt
of NH4+, Pb 2+, Zn2+,
Ca2+

(ii) Heat small amount of salt salt sublimates May contain NH4+
in a clean dry test tube. ions
(a) Anion analysis
2. A pinch of salt was taken No observable changes CO32- S2- and
in a clean test tube 2mL of dilute took place NO2 absent
H2SO4 was added to it and heated
first gently and then strongly.

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 _
A pinch of salt was taken in a A brown gas with Nitrate ion (NO3 )
clean and dry test tube. Add pungent smell is given may be present
few drops of conc. H2SO4 to out and solution turns
it, heat gently, few copper brown
turnings were added and
contents were heated again.
_
4. Confirmation test of NO2
ion : 2mL original soln, were
taken in test tube. To this 2mL
of freshly prepared FeSO 4 (aq)
was added. Shake well, add a
few drops of concentrated
H 2SO4 along the side of test
tube without disturbing the
test tube.

5. Take a pinch of salt in a clean

test tube, add 2mL of concentrated
NaOH solution to it. Warmed gently
and then strongly.

(b) Cation Analysis

6. A pinch of salt was taken in a
test tube. 2-3 mL water was
added to it-followed by 3-4 drops
of dil. HCl. Shake well.

7. To the above solution pass H 2S gas

8. 2mL of original solution was

taken in a test tube. Solid NH 4Cl
was added in excess, followed by
addition of excess NH4OH
solution warm gently.

9. Passed H 2S gas through

group III solution

10. 2 mL of original soln. was

taken in a test tube. A pinch of
NH 4Cl solid was added.

Excess of NH4OH solution was

added followed by addition of 2mL
frshly prepared (NH 4)2CO3 solution. shake well.

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Confirmation test of Cation
11. Filtered and washed ppt is soluble Ca2+ may be
precipitate was dissolved in
2 mL of acetic acid.

12. 2mL of (NH4)2CO3 soln. White ppt is Ca2+ is confirmed

was added to above obtained
obtained solution.
Result : The given salt contains
_
Anion - NO 3
Cation - Ca 2+

Precautions
1. Use acids carefully.
2. Avoid using large quantities of acids and salt.
3. Keep the materials ready for testing the gas evolved.
4. Performed the test on the gas evolved immediately. If for any reason the testing is delayed,
then add a little amount of salt and test the gas immediately.
5. Addition of group reagents should be followed in correct order.
6. Analysis of anion should be carried out before cation analysis.
7. Pass H2S gas through hot solution.
8. Always use a pinch of NH4Cl in group V.

Observations
The students should record the observations and inference during the analysis of given salt
(s).

14.7 CONCLUSION
The given salt contains
i) Acid radical ..........................................................
ii) Basic radical .......................................................
The given salt is ......................................................

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 14.8 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
1. What is meant by qualitative analysis ?
...................................................................................................................................
2. What is meant by the terms positive test and negative test ?
...................................................................................................................................
3. What happens when carbon dioxide is passed through Ba(OH) 2 solution instead of
calcium hydroxide solution ?
...................................................................................................................................
4. What happens when an acid is over boiled ?
...................................................................................................................................
5. Why is it necessary to keep the test tube dry during chromyl chloride test ?
...................................................................................................................................
6. Why Bromine (Br 2) Iodine (I2) (g) is more soluble in organic solvent such as CCl4 than
in water ?
...................................................................................................................................
_ _
7. How will you distinguish between Br and NO3 in qualitative analysis ?
...................................................................................................................................
8. Why can HNO3 not be used to prepare original solution of salt ?
...................................................................................................................................
9. What is a group reagent ?
...................................................................................................................................
10. What chemicals are used in kipps apparatus to make hydrogen sulphide gas ?
...................................................................................................................................
11. What is the group V reagent ?
...................................................................................................................................
12. Why is it necessary to add concentrated H2SO4 along the sides of the test tube during
ring test of NO3 ion ?
...................................................................................................................................

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13. Can group V precipitate dissolve in dilute HCl instead of acetic acid ?

...................................................................................................................................
14.9 NOTE FOR THE TEACHER
1. Tacher should explain important terms used during experiment.
2. teacher should demonstrate all the techniques explained in the experiment.
3. In qualitative analysis, students use concentrated acids, alkali and other laboratory
reagents. The teacher should be cautious and ensure that all students follow proper
precautions.
4. Freshly prepared soln. of (a) FeSO4 (b) Sodium nitroprusside (c) (NH 4)2 CO 3 should be
used.
5. Following combination of anions and cations should not be given
i) Halide ions and Pb 2+
_
ii) SO42 ion and Pb2+, Ca2+
_
iii) PO43 and group III onwards
_
iv) NO32 and group II
_
v) S2 and group II and group IV cations
6. The teacher may ensure that the students carry out the analysis of given salts
systematically.
7. Follow all the precautions given in this experiments and general precautions of a
chemistry laboratory.
8. Get sufficient practice of analysis of salts. The students may use their notebooks to
records the practicals.

14.10 CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Ans. 1. Qualitative analysis is the scheme of the detection and idenfication of the constituent
ions of an unknown salt.
Ans. 2. A positive test is the one which gives the observations, needed for that radical. A
negative test does not give the required observations for a test.
Ans. 3. Ba(OH)2 + CO2 → BaCO3 + H2O
Ans. 4. 2H2SO4 → 2H 2O + 2SO2 + O 2
Ans. 5. If dry test tube is not taken. Concentrated H2SO4 gets diluted and chromyl chloride
test can not be performed properly.

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Ans. 6. Being covalent in nature Br2 or I2 are more soluble in non-polar solvent such as
CCl 4
_
Ans. 7. Bromide ions, (Br ) gives reddish brown vapour of Br2 and solution turns red in
_
colours on treatment with concentrated H2SO4 NO3 ion gives brown fumes of
NO2 which intensified on heating with copper turning.
Ans. 8. HNO3 is an oxidising agent. It oxidises H2S to S (sulphur).
Ans. 9. The cations in their respective group are precipitated by adding certain chemicals
under definite condition of acidic or alkanity. These chemicals are called group
reagents.
Ans. 10. FeS and dilute H2SO4.
Ans. 11. Group V reagent (NH4)2CO3 solution in the presence of NH 4Cl and NH4OH
Ans. 12. If the concentrated H2SO4 is added directly, then solution turn reddish brown.
Ans. 13. Ca2+ ion is precipitated as calcium oxalate, (CaC2O4) on adding ammonium oxlate
(NH4)2C2O4 This precipitate is highly soluble in dilute HCl. Hence calcium (II)
ion will not be precipitate out in presence of dilute HCl.

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 EXPERIMENT-15
To identify the Functional Groups present in the given organic compounds and
perfrom :
i) Test for unsaturation
ii) Test for carboxylic, phenolic, aldehydic and ketonic groups.

15.1 OBJECTIVES
After peforming this experiment, you should be able to:
• detect the presence of unsaturation in a given organic compound by simple tests;
• differentiate between saturated and unsaturated compounds;
• detect the presence of the following functional groups in the given organic compounds:
carboxylic, phenolic, aldehydic and ketonic groups;
• differentiate between the pairs of compounds containing (a) carboxylic and phenolic
groups and (b) aldehydic and ketonic groups;
• explain the acidic nature of carboxylic and phenolic groups;

• write the reactions involved in the various tests

15.2 WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

In an organic compound, unsaturation is due to the presence of double (>C = C<) or triple
(_C ≡ C_) bonds in the molecule. The presence of unsaturation is tested by the following two
methods.
i) Bromine water test
ii) Baeyer's tst (using 1% alkaline potassium permanganate solution)
i) Bromine water test : The organic compound is treated with bromine water dropwise.
The decolourisation of bromine water shows the presence of unsaturation in the organic
compound.

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ii) Baeyer's test : The organic compound is treated with an aqueous solution of alkaline
potassium permanganate (Baeyer's reagent). The disappearance of the pink colour of potassium
permanganate shows the presence of unsaturation.

Precautions
1. Do not inhale the bromine water or bromine in carbon tetrachloride.

2. If the compound is soluble in water, use bromine water for testing. If the compound is
insoluble in water, then dissolved 5 mL of the compound (liquid) or a pinch of the solid
in 1 mL of carbon tetrachloride and test it with bromine in carbon tetrachloride solution.

3. Add the reagents dropwise.

15.2.1 Functional Group

A functional group is that part of the compound which contains an atom or a group of atoms
and shows specific reactions. It is the reactive part of a given compound whereas the
hydrocarbon part is the non-reactive part. For example, in CH3 _ CH2 _ CH2 _ COOH.

CH3 _ CH2 _ CH2 - is the non-reactive hydrocarbon chain, while- COOH is the functional
group called carboxylic acid group.
All the reactions of CH3 CH2 CH2 COOH are due to the presence of - COOH group.

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In the following section, we shall discuss the chemistry of four functional groups, phenol,
carboxylic(-COOH), aldehyde (-CHO) and ketone = O. The examples of compounds
containing these groups are given in the folowing table.

Functional Group Class of the Compound Specific Example

C6H5 _ OH Phenols C6H5 _ OH

Phenolic

cresol
CH 3COOH
Carboxylic
Ethanoic acid
Carboxylic
acid group Benzoic Acd

Salicylic Acid

Phthalic Acid
CH 3 CHO
Aldehydes Ethanal
Aldehydic C 6H 5CHO
Benzaldehyde
CH 3COCH 3
Propanone
>C=O
Ketonic Ketones

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A) Test for Carboxylic Group
The carboxylic group can be tested by the tests as given below.

i) Litmus test : Put a drop of an aqueous solution of the compound on blue litmus paper.
if the blue litmus turns red, acidic nature is indicated.

ii) Sodium hydrogen carbonate test : Add a saturated solution of sodium hydrogen
carbonate to an aqueous solution of the compound. If brisk effervesence appear due to
evolution of CO2 gas, the carboxylic group is confirmed.

CH 3COOH + NaHCO3 → CH3COONa + CO2 ↑ + H 2O

iii) Esterification test : The given organic compound is mixed with absolute ethanol in
equal amounts and a few drops of conc. sulphuric acid are added. The mixture is warmed
on a water bath. If a fruity smell (pleasant sweet smell) is obtained, the presence of
caboxylic group is confirmed.
few drops of

B) Tests for phenolic group

i) Ferric chloride Test : Dissolve a pinch of organic compound in water or alcohol. A
few drops of this solution are mixed with neutral ferric chloride solution. If a red, blue
or violet colouration appears, then the presence of phenolic group is confirmed.

For example, thus, red colouration is obtained with phenol while, with 0, m and - p-
cresil, it is violet. With Resorcinol, gives blue colouration whereas catechol gives green
colouration.

ii) Liberamann's Test : The organic compound is mixed with solid sodium nitrite (2-3
crystals) and gently warmed for a few seconds. The mixture is cooled and conc sulphuric
acid is added. The solution appears red in colour on dilution with water and the colour
changes to blue / green on treatment with sodium hydroxide. The above observation
confirms the presence of phenolic group in the given compound.

NO
4-nitrosophenol

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 H2O
HO = O

( )

C) Tests for Aldehydes and Ketones

Both aldehydes and ketones contain the carbonyl group ( C = O). The carbonyl group can
be confirmed by :
i) 2, 4- dinitrophenyl hydrazine (2,4-DNP test)
ii) Sodium bisulphite
i) 2, 4 - DNP Test : The organic compound is treated with 2,4-DNP reagent and warmed
over a water bath. Formation of yellow or orange crystals indicate the presence of a
carbonyl group (aldehydic orketonic).

-321-
ii) Sodium bisulphite test : The organic compound is treated with a saturated solution of
sodium bisulphite. The mixture is shaken well and left for 15 minutes. The formation of
a crystalline precipitate indicates the presence of a carbonyl group.

OH
|
→ C6H5 _ C _ SO 3 Na+
_
C 6H5CHO + NaHSO3
|
Benzaldehyde H
Addition product

A) Tests for Aldehydes

i) Fehling's Test : The organic compound is treated with Fehling's solution and warmed
over a water bath. Appearance of a red / orange precipitate confirms the presence of
aldehyde group.
_
CH 3CHO + 2Cu2+ + 5OH → CH 3COO + Cu2O ↓ + 3H2O
Acetaldehyde Fehlings Red precipitate
Solution

The aldehyde reduces the Cu 2+ (cupric ions) to cuprous state (Cu2O cuprous oxide)
3. Tollen's Reagent test : To the organic compound, an equal amount of Tollen's reagent
is added and the mixture is warmed on a water bath. Appearance of shinings silver
mirror on the inner walls of the test tube confirms the presence of aldehydic group.
_
CH 3CHO + 2[Ag(NH 3)2]+ + 3OH → CH3COO + 2Ag + 4NH 3 + 2H2O
Tollen's Reagent Silver mirror

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 The Tollen's reagent (ammonical silver nitrate solution) contains silver ions. These are
reduced by aldehydes to metallic silver.

B) Test for keton

Ketones do not give Fehling's and Tollen's tests. Ketones give the following two tests which
are not given by aldehydes :
1. m-Dinitrobenzene test : To a mixture of finely powered m-dinitrobenzene and an equal
amount of amount of organic compound, add dilute sodium hydroxide solution. The
appearance of red colour indicates the ketonic group.
2. Sodium nitroprusside test : To the given organic compound, add sodium nitroprusside
solution and a little sodium hydroxide solution. Appearance of red-violet colour confirms
the presence of ketonic group.

15.3 MATERIALS REQUIRED

(1) Apparatus (2) Chemicals

Test tubes, Test tube stand, Samples of organic compounds.

Test tube holder, Water bath, Bromine water. Alkaline potassium
Tripod stand. permanganate solution. Neutral ferric
chloride solution, Sodium nitrite (solid).
Litmus paper, Sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Alcohol, Conc. sulphuric acid, 2, 4-
Dinitrophenyl hydrazine soltion, sodium
bisulphite solution, m-Dinitrobenzene solid,
Sodiumnitroprusside, Sodium hydroxide
(10% solution), Fehling's reagent, Schiffs
reagent and Tollen's reagent.

15.4 HOW TO PERFORM THE EXPERIMENT

The tests should be performed systematically as described in the following table. All
functional groups should be tested. The experiments performed should be recorded as shown
below :

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 Table 1 : Tests for Unasaturation

Experiment Observations Inference

(a) To a solution of 0.2g. of Bromine is decolourised Unsaturation present

the organic compound in water or or
or CCl4, add bromine water or Bromine is not decolourised Unsaturation absent
bromine in CCl4 dropwise.
Shake the mixture after
each addition.

b) To the organic compound KMnO4 solution is Unsaturation present

(0.5g) and 1 mL of 0.5% aq. decolourised or or
KMnO4 solution dropwise KMnO4 solution is not Unsaturation absent
decolourised

Table 2: Tests for phenolic hydroxyl group

Experiment Observations Inference

(a) Dissolve 50 mg of organic Blue litmus turns red Compound is acidic in nature
compound in 1-2 mL of water or May be phenolic OH
or alcohol. Put a drop of the group or carboxylic
solution on blue litmus paper acid or phenolic OH
No change or carboxlic group
absent

(b) To a solution of the compound Blue, green, violet or Phenolic OH group present
in water or alcohol add a drop pink colouration or Phenolic OH group
of freshly prepared neutral appears or (no absent
ferric chloride solution (characteristic
colouration

(c) i) Heat about 50 mg of the Deep blue or green Phenolic group present
organic compound with sodium
nitrite (2-3 crystals) gently
for 30 seconds in a dry test
tube. To the cooled mixuture,
add 1 mL conc. H2SO4
ii) Add about 2-3 mL water The colour changes Phenolic OH group present
to the above mixture to red
iii) Add NaOH solution to Blue or green colour or Phenolic OH group absent
the above mixture negative test if the test is negative

-324-
Precautions
1. Phenol is highly corrosive. It causes blisters on the skin. Always handle it carefully.
2. Neutral ferric chloride should be freshly prepared, see Appendix for details.
3. Phenol turns blue litmus red. Carboxylic acids also give the test but phenol does not
decompose sodium hydrogen carbonate.
4. Instead of phenol, naphthols may be given for test for phenolic group.

Table 3 : Test for carboxylic acids

Experiment Observations Inference

(a) The aquecous solution of Blue litmus turns red - COOH group may be
the organic compound is put on or present
a blue litmus paper No change - COOH group absent
(b) To the 0.2g organic Effervescences seen - COOH group present
compound add saturated solution or or
of sodium hydrogen carbonate No effervescences - COOH group absent
(c) Ester formation Fruity odour develops - COOH group present
To 0.2 g of the organic compound or
add an equal amount of ethyl
alcohol and a drop of conc. sul-
phuric acid. Warm the mixture
on a water bath. No fruity odour - COOH group absent

Table 4 : Tests for aldehydes and ketones

Experiment Observations Inference

(a) To the solution of the organic yellow of orange carbonyl group present
Compound (1mL) and 5mL precipitate (-CHO or > CO)
2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine
reagent. Heat the solution
in a water bath,
(b) The organic compound white precipitate -CHO, >C=O present
(0.5g) is shaken with 2 mL
of saturated sodium bisulphite
solution.

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(c) To a solution of equal Red precipitate of Cu2O Aldehyde (-CHO)
volumes offering's A and group present
Fehling's B, add 0.2 g of the
organic compound. Heat
the mixture for 5 min. in a
water bath.

(d) To 1 mL of AgNO3 solution Silver mirror is formed Aldehyde (-CHO)

add a drop of dil. NaOH solution. on the inner side of the group present
To this, add ammonium hydroxide test tube.
dropwise fill the precipitate
dissolves. To the resulting solution
add 0.1g of the organic compound
Heat for 5 min. in a water bath.
red colour

(e) Add 1 mL of sodium red colour Ketone (<C = O)

nitroprusside solution to 0.5 g group present
of the organic compound.
Shake the mixture and add
NaOH solution dropwise

(f) Mix 0.1g of the organic Violet colour fades Ketone (<C = O)
compound with 0.1 g m- slowly group present
dinitrobenzene. Add I mL
dil. NaOH soln. add shake.

Precautions
1. Tollen's reagent should be freshly prepared

2. Benzaldehyde reacts very slowly and a grey precipitate is generally obtained. Shake
the tube vigorously to break the oily globules from time to time.

3. Wash the test tube thorough;y with warm sodium hydroxide solution followed by
washing it with a large amount of water

Specific Example
(This is not a part of the experiment)

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Example : 1
Aim of the Experiment : To identify by chemical tests which one of the samples, A and B is
benzaldehyde and which one is acetone.

Apparatus : Test-tubes

Chemicals : Silver nitrate solution, Ammonium hydroxide, Iodine solution and Sodium
hydroxide.

Observations : Perform the following chemical tests with compounds A and B.

Experiment Obsevation
Compound A Compound B
1. Colour and physical state Colourless liquid (turns Colourless
yellow on standing) liquid
2. Odour Odour of bitter almonds Pleasant smell
3. Solubility in
i) Water Immiscible Miscible
ii) Sodium hydroxide solution Immiscible Immiscible
iii) 5% NaHCO 3 Solution Immiscible Immiscible
iv) Conc. HCl Immiscible Immiscible
4. Chemical Test
i) Tollen's Test : a) Place 1 mL A shining silvermirror
of silver nitrate solution in a clean forms
test-tube and add 1 drop of dil.
NaOH solution. A brown ppt. is
formed. Add ammonia solution
dropwise until the brown ppt. just
redissolves. To this add about 0.5
mL of liquid A and warm the
test-tube in a beaker of bioling
water for 5 minutes.
b) Repeat this test with liquid B No silver mirror
ii) Sodium nitroprusside test : No characteristic colour Red colour
Add 1 mL of soidum nitroprussdie formation
to 0.5 mL of the liquid A and B in

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 separate test tubes. Add NaOH
Solution to both the test tubes and
shake them.
iii) (a) Mix 0.5 mL of the liquid B Violet colouration
with 0.5g. of soild appears that fades slowly
m-dinitrobenezene add NaOH
and shake the contents
(b) Repeat the same with liquid A No characteristic colour

Example : 2
Aim of the Experiment : To identify by chemical tests which one of the samples, C and D is
phenol and which one is benzoic acid

Apparatus : Test-tubes

Chemicals : Sodium nitrite, Sodium hydrogen carbonate

Observations :

Experiment Obsevation
Compound A Compound B
1. Colour and physical state Colourless or pink White solid
crystalline solid
2. Odour Carbolic Odourless
3. Solubility in : Sparingly soluble
Sparingly soluble, forms
i) Water an emulsion Soluble
ii) Dil. NaOH solution insoluble Soluble
iii) 5% NaHCO 3 solution insoluble Soluble
iv) Conc. HCl insoluble Soluble
4. Blue litmus test Turns red Turns red
5. Chemical tests
i) Libvermann's test
a) Perform Libermann's test Deep blue of green colour
with protion of compound C. For

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 procedure, see excepriment in table
b) Repeat this test with a portion
of compound D No colouration
ii) Sodium hydrogen carbonate test
(a) Place 3 mL of 10% NaHCO3, No effervescences
soln. in a clean test-tube and
add a portion or the compound
C. Warm it.
(b) Repeat this test with a Strong
portion of compound D. effervescences

Conclusion
The given organic compound was found to contain ........... functional group.

15.5 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. Name the functional group (s) presence in the following compounds. Phenol, benzoic
acid, sallicylic acid and acetone.
..................................................................................................................................
2. How will you distinguish the following pairs of compounds ?
a) Acetic and acetaldehyde.
b) Acetic acid and phenol.
..................................................................................................................................
3. Write the reaction for bromine water test on C6H5 - CH = CH2
..................................................................................................................................
4. What tests would be given by the following compound ?
..................................................................................................................................
CH = CH _ COOH.

..................................................................................................................................

5. What is Bayer's reagent ?

..................................................................................................................................

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6. Why should Tallen's reagent be freshly prepared ?
..................................................................................................................................
7. Which compound is more acidic. Phenol or benzoic acid ?
..................................................................................................................................
8. How-will you differentiate between phenol and cresols ?
..................................................................................................................................
9. How will you infer the presence of carbonyl group in a compound ?
..................................................................................................................................
10. Give an example of aromatic compound which is known methyl ketone.
..................................................................................................................................

15.6 NOTE FOR THE TEACHER

1. The students may be given enough number of samples of the same funtional group for
proper practice.
2. Phenol is highly corrosive. Test for phenolic groups, the students may be given-Naphthol,
β - Naphthol, or o-, m- p- cresols etc. Avoid giving phenol directly to the students
without proper precautions of handling.
3. Students should be told to wear lab coats and use gloves when corrosive subtances are
being handled.
4. The students and the assistant should be instructed to keep inflammable liquids away
from the burner.
5. A sample worksheet is given in this section. The students may be asked to record the
experiment in this format.

15.7 CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Ans. 1 : The functional groups present in the following compounds are :

Phenol - Phenolic group.
Benzoioc acid - Carboxylic acid group
Salicylic acid - Phenolic group and carboxylic group.
Acetone - Ketonic group.
Ans. 2 : Acetone and Acetaldehyde can be distinguished by any of the following tests.

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 i) Fehling's test
ii) Tollen'stest
iii) Sodium nitroprusside test
iv) m-dinitrobenzene test
The changes observed are tabulated below :

S.No. Test performed Acetaldehyde Acetone

a. Fehling's test red colouration appears x

b. Tollen's test Silver mirror is formed x
c. sodium nitroprusside test x Violest colouration
d. m-dinitrobenzene test x red colouration

Ans. 3 : C 6H5 _ CH = CH2 + Br2 = C6H5 _ CH _ CH 2

| |
Br Br
Ans. 4 : CH2 = CH _ COOH will give the following test :

i) Positives test for unsaturation due to the double bond,

ii) Positive test for carboxylic groups.
The compound will therefore, give positive test with bromine water and positive
test with sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Ans. 5 : Baeyer's reagent is an alkaline solution of potassium permanganate, (Please see
appendix for details)
Ans. 6 : Tollens reagent is a solution of ammonical silver nitrate. It should be freshly
prepared because it is unstable as it can easily decompose to Ag2O and finally to
silver, on standing.
Ans. 7 : Benzoic acid is a stronger acid than phenol. Bencoic acid will give brisk
effervescences with sodium hydrogen carbonate solution due to the liberation of
carbon dioxide gas. Phenol does not give positive test with sodium hydrogen
carbonate as it is a weak acid.
Ans. 8 : Phenol and cresois can be differentiated by neutral ferric chloride test. Phenol will
give red colouration. o-m- and p-cresol will give voilet colouration.
Ans. 9 : Carbonyl compounds give 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine test and soium bisulphite
test. Crystalline precipitates are formed in both cases.
Ans. 10 : Acetophenone is an example of methyl ketone. It has the formula.

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 15.8 CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

Ans. 1 : Multiple scratches, if made on the glass tube will cause a rough and irregular cut.
Ans. 2 : The outer diameter of the borer should be equal to the inner diameter of the tube
to be inserted into the bore.
Ans. 3 : To avoid cracking of the cork and to get a smoother bore, it is moistened with
water and pressed in a cork presser.
Ans. 4 : The edges should be heated gently by rotating on a flame.

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 Appendix
Preparation of Common Laboratory Reagents

1. Bromine water: Shake 5 ml of liquid bromine with 100 ml of distilled water in a conical
flask. Decant off the clean solution into a bottle and stopper it.
2. Bromine in CC14: Shake 4 ml of liquid bromine with 100 ml of carbon tetrachloride
and stopper the bottle.
3. Alkaline potassium permanganate solution: (Baeyer’s Reagent) Dissolve 1g of solid
potassium permanganate in 100ml of distilled water, then add 1 Og of anhydrous sodium
carbonate. Shake the mixture to dissolve it and stopper the bottle.
4. Neutral ferric chloride: Place 2ml ferric chloride solution in a clean test tube. Add
ammonium hydroxide until a brown precipitate just appears. Now add the original ferric
chloride solution until the precipitate just disappears. (Prepare fresh for a day).
5. 2,4- dinitrophenyl hydrazine (2,4-DNP): Dissolve 2g of 2,4-DNP in 100ml methanol
to which 4ml of conc. Sulphuric acid is added. Filter if necessary.
6. Sodium bisulphate solution: Dissolve 30g of sodium bisulphite in 100ml of distilled
water.
7. Schiff’s reagent: Dissolve 0.1g of fuschine (p-rosaniline hydro chloride) in 100ml
water. Pass sulpher dioxide gas until its red color is discharged. Filter and use the filtrate.
8. (a) Fehling’s solution A: Dissolve 35g of crystalline copper sulphate in 500ml water.
Add 3ml of concentrated sulphuric acid to it.
(b) Fehling’s solution B: Dissolve 173g of Rochelle salt (sodium potassium tartar
ate) and 60g of sodium hydroxide in 500ml of water.
Note:(i) Fehling’s solution A and Fehling’s solution B are available in the market also, (ii)
Mix equal volumes of A and B solutions just before performing the test.
9. Tollen’s Regent: Place 2ml of silver nitrate solution in a clean test tube Add two drops
of sodium hydroxide solution (10% solution). A brown precipitate is formed. Now add
dilute ammonium hydroxide solution drop wise until the brown precipitate of silver
oxide just redissolves.
10. Cone, sulphuric acid 18M as supplied may be used.
11. Cone, hydrochloric acid 12M as supplied may be used.
12. Cone, nitric acid 16M as supplied may be used.
13. Acetic acid (glacial 11M as supplied may be used.

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14. Dil. Hydrochloric acid 12M: Pour 111ml of cone, sulphuric acid slowly and with
constant stirring in 500ml of distilled water. Cool and make up the volume to 1 liter.
15. Dil. Hydrochloric acid 4M: Add 333.3ml of conc. HCL in the distilled water and
make up the volume to 1 liter.
16. Dil nitric acid 4M: Add 250ml of cone.HNO3 in the distilled water make up the volume
to liter.
17. Dil. Acetic acid 2M: Add 182ml of glacial acetic acid in distilled water and make up
the volume to 1 liter.
18. Ammonia solution 15M as supplied may be used.
19. Dil. Ammonia solution 4M: Pour 266.6ml of the conc.ammonia solution in distilled
water and make up the volume to 1 liter.
20. Ammonium chloride 4M: Dissolve 214g of the salt in one litre of water.
21. Ammonium carbonates 2M: Dissolve 192g of ammonium carbonate in 1 liter distilled
water.
22. Ammonium acetate 3M: Dissolve 231g of the salt in a litre of distilled water.
23. Ammonium sulphate IM: Dissolve 132g of the salt in 1 litre of distilled water.
24. Ammonium oxalate 0.5M: Dissolve 71g of the salt in 1 litre of distilled water.
25. Ammonium molybdate 0.5M: Dissolve 88g of the salt in a mixture of 120ml of conc.
ammonia solution and 80ml of distilled water. Add 240g of ammonium nitrate and
dilute it to 1 liter water.
26. Barium chloride 0.2M: Dissolve 48.8g of the salt in distilled water and make up the
volume to litre.
27. Chlorine water: Take one liter distilled water and saturate it with chlorine gas and
keep the solution in a dark coloured bottle.
28. Calcium chloride 0.2M: Dissolve 4308g of the salt in distilled water and make up the
volume to 1 litre.
29. Copper sulphate 0.5M: Dissolve 124.75g of the salt in distilled water. Add a few
drops of dilute acetic acid and make up the volume to 1 litre.
30. Cobalt nitrate 0.15M: Dissolve 43.65g of the salt in distilled water and make up the
volume to 1 litre.
31. Dimethyl glyoxime 1%: Dissolve 10g of the solid in ethyl alcohol and make up the
volume to 1 litre with distilled water.
32. Ferric chloride 0.5M: Dissolve 135g of the salt in distilled water. Add 20ml of conc.

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 Hydrochloric acid and make up the volume to 1 litre.
33. Ferrous sulphate 0.5M: Dissolve 138.5g of the salt in distilled water containing 10ml
of conc.sulpuric acid make up the volume to 1 litre.
34. Iodine solution 0.05M: Dissolve 12.7g of iodine crystals in distilled water containing
20g of potassium iodide and then dilute it to 1 litre.
35. Lime water: Dissolve some amount of calcium oxide in distilled water, filter the solution
after sometime and keep it in a reagent bottle.
36. Litmus solution (Blue): Dissolve 10g of litmus in distilled water and make up the
volume to 1 litre.
37. Litmus solution (Red): To the blue litmus solution add about 10 drops of dilute
hydrochloric acid.
38. Lead acetate 0.1M: Dissolve 37.9g of the salt in 500mL of distilled water containing a
little acetic acid and make up the volume to 1 litre.
39. Methyl orange : Dissolve 1g. of the solid in distilled water and make up the volume to
1 litre.
40. Mercuric chloride 0.1M : Dissolve 27.2g of the salt in the water and make up the
volume to 1 litre.
41. Nesslers reagent : Dissolve 23g. of mercuric iodide and 16g of potassium iodide in
distilled water and make up the volume to 100mL. Add 150mL of 4M NaOH solution.
Allow it to stand for 24 hours and decant the solution. Solution should be stored in a
dark coloured bottle.
42. Potassium chromate 0.2M: Dissolve 38.8g of the salt in distilled water and make up
the volume to 1litre.
43. Potassium dichromate 0.1M: Dissolve 29.4g of the salt in distilled water and make up
the volume to 1 litre.
44. Potassium iodide 0.2 M: Dissolve 33.2g. of the salt in water and make up the volume
to 1litre.
45. Potassium thiocyanate 0.2M : Dissolve 19.4g of the salt in disttiled water an make up
the volume to 1 litre.
46. Potassium permanganate 0.02M : Dissolve 6.32g of the salt in distilled water and
make up the volume to 1litre. Heat the solution and filter it.
47. Potassium ferrocyanide 0.1M : Dissolve 42.2g of the salt in distilled water and make
up the volume to 1 litre.
48. Potassium ferricyanide 0.2 M : Dissolve 65.8g of the salt in distilled water and make

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 up the volume to 1 litre.
49. Pheuolphthalein 0.1% : Dissolve 0.25g of the solid in 125mL of ethyl alcohol and
then add 125mL of distilled water.
50. Sodium hydroxide 4M : Dissolve 160g of the sodium hydroxide pellets in distilled
water and make up the volume to 1 litre.
51. Silver nitrate 0.1 M : Dissolve 17g of the salt in distilled water and make up the volume
to 1 litre and store it in a brown coloured bottle.
52. Starch Prepare paste of about 1g. of starch in cold water and pour it in 100 mL of
boiling water with constant stirring. Allow it to cool.
53. Disodium hydrogen phosphate 0.1M : Dissolve 35.8g of the salt in distilled water
and make up the volume to 1 litre.
54. Sodium nitroprusside 0.03M : Dissolve 1g. of the solid in 100mL of distilled water.
55. Sodium cobaltinitrate 0.16M : Dissolve 64.64g of the solid in distilled water and
make the volume to 1 litre.
56. Stannous chloride 0.5M : Dissolve 113g of salt in 200mL of concentrated hydrochloric
acid by heating (if necessary). Add several pieces of metallic tin and make up the volume
to 1 litre.
57. Yellow ammonium sulphide : Take about 200mL of concentrated ammonia solution
in a bottle and saturate it with H2S gas. Add 10g of flowers of sulphur and shake well
until sulphur is completely dissolved. Dilute the solution to one litre with distilled water.

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 CURRICULUM FOR PRACTICAL WORK IN CHEMISTRY
Objectives of the present course in practical work are as follows:

1. To develop and inculcate laboratory skills and techniques

2. To enable the student to understand the basic chemical concepts.

3. To develop basic competence of analysing and synthesing chemical compound and mixtures.

To meet these objectives three different types of laboratory experiments are provided in the
present practical course.

1. Experiment for developing laboratory skills/techniques

2. Concept based experiments

3. Traditional experiments (for analysing and synthesing chemicals)

List of Practicals
I. Identify the anion and cation present in the given salt and report correct salt and record
the systematic procedure adopted in Analyzing the salt.
a. (NH4)2CO3
b. NH4CI
c. (NH4)2SO4.
d. NH4 Br
e. Al2 (SO4)3.
f. Al(NO3)3.
g. CaCl2.
h. Pb(NO3)2.
i. CuSO4.
j. MnCl2
k. FeSO4.
1. ZnSO4.

II. Estimate the amount of solute present in the given Solution.

SECTION - A
1. Estimate the amount of NaOH present in 250 ml of a given solution 0.2 m Hydrochloric acid
solution is supplied.

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2. Estimate the amount of HCl present in 500 ml of given solution 0.2 m Sodium hydroxide solution
is supplied.

SECTION-B
3. Estimate the amount of Na2CO3 present in 100 ml of given solution 0.2 m HCl solution is supplied.
4. Estimate the amount of HCl present in 250 ml of given solution 0.1 m Na2CO3 is supplied.

SECTION-C
5. Estimate the amount of H2SO4 present in 1000 ml of a given solution 0.2 m NaOH is supplied.
6. Estimate the amount of NaOH present in 500 ml given solution 0.1 m H2SO4 solution is supplied.

SECTION - D
7. Estimate the amount of Na2CO3 present in 250 ml of given solution 0.1 m H2SO4 solution is
supplied.
8. Estimate the amount of H2SO4 in a 100 ml of given solution 0.1 m Na2CO3 solution is supplied.
SECTION - E
9. Estimate the amount of Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate present in 250 ml of given solution 0.02m
KMnO4 solution is supplied.
10. Estimate the amount of KMnO4 present in a 100 ml of given solution 0.1 m Mohr Salt solution is
supplied.

SECTION - F
11. Estimate the amount of Oxalic acid present in a 500 ml of given solution 0.02 m KMnO4 solution
is supplied.
12. Estimate the amount of KMnO4 present in 250 ml of given solution 0.1 m Oxalic acid is supplied.

III.
a. Detection elements in the given organic compound
i. Aniline (C6H5NH2)
ii. Chloroform (CHC13)
iii. Ether (C2H5-O-C2H5)
b. Identify the functional group in the given organic compound
i. Acetone
ii. Acetaldehyde
iii. Phenol
iv. Acetic acid
OR

III. Perform any one experiment from the following

a.
i. Prepare the 2M standard solution of H2SO4 from on stock solution of
H2SO4.

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 ii. Prepare 1 M solution of HCl
iii. Prepare 5 M solution of HNO3.
b. Determine the PH of the following substance using universal indications of PH papers.
i. Given salt solution
ii. Acid solutions with different dilution
iii. Alkali solutions with different dilutions
iv. Fruit juice
c. Determine the melting point (m.p.) of a given solid substance with the help of capillary
tube.
d. Prepare 250 ml, 0.1 M Ferrous Ammonium sulphate solution by weighting (using analytical
balance)
e. Study the solubility of a given solid substances in water at different temperature and plot
the graph (tempt vs solubility)
IV. Viva - Voice
V. Record

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