Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Sta. Mesa, Manila

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS for

EDUC 30073
FACILITATING LEARNER CENTERED
TEACHING

Compiled by:

Dr. Manolito S. San Jose

Course Title: Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching
Course Code: EDUC 30073
Course Credit: 3 Units
Pre-Requisite: None
Course Description
This course explores the fundamental principles, processes, and practices anchored on
learner-centeredness and other educational psychologies as these apply to facilitate
various teaching-learning delivery modes to enhance learning.

LESSON OVERVIEW

Outcomes –Based Teaching and Learning is Outcomes-Based Education (OBE) applied

in the classroom. The shift to an outcomes-based quality assurance made explicit in CHED
Memo 46 s. 2012 necessitates the articulation of educational goals in terms of learning
outcomes. Learning outcomes are what are what students know and are able to do after the
instruction. In OBE, the focus of education shifts from what the teacher or expert gives to the
student to the competencies that the student acquires/develops. Competencies refer to
knowledge, skills and values that the students acquire from instruction.

Table of Contents
1. Introduction to the course contents, activities, and requirements.
2. Metacognition
3. Learner-Centered Psychological Principles- Focus on the Learner
4. Review of Theories Related to the Learner’s Development
5. Student diversity- Individual Differences
6. Learning/Thinking styles and Multiple Intelligences
7. Learners with Exceptionalities
8. Focus On learning- Behaviorism
9. Cognitive Perspective
10. Gestalt Psychology
a. Information Processing
b. Gagne’s conditions of Learning
c. Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal/Subsumption Theory
11. Cognitive Processes
a. Constructivism
b. Transfer of Learning
12. Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
13. Motivation
a. Meaning and types of Motivation
b. Theories on Factors Affecting Motivation
14. Student’s diversity in Motivation
 a. Human Environmental Factors Affecting Motivation
15. The Classroom Climate
a. The Physical Environment
b. Assessment strategies that Can Increase Motivation

Institutional Learning Outcomes

1. Creative and Critical Thinking

2. Effective communication
3. Strong Service Orientation
4. Passion to life-long learning
5. Sense of Nationalism and Global Responsiveness
6. Community engagement
7. Adeptness in the Responsible Use of Technology
8. High level of leadership and organizational skills
9. Sense of Personal and Professional Ethics

Course Outcomes
By the end of this module, the student should be able to;
1. Adopt the action learning model exemplified by the 4 As approach which incudes
activity, analysis, abstraction and application.
2. Discuss the different Theories of Learning.
3. Identify different learning and thinking styles of the students.
4. Discuss the different Behaviorist Perspective
5. Focus on the most basic information about the content to avoid the “mile-wide and
inch-deep” treatment of the course.
6. Help the students acquire the meta cognitive skill right at the beginning of the
course to enable him/her to employ the same and get most from every module.
7. Formulate good learning environment.
8. Help the student to cultivate the habit of reflective thinking.

LESSON PROPER

Lesson 1
A. Introduction to the course contents, activities, and requirements.
B. Metacognition
Objectives
1. Explain Metacognition in your own words.
2. Discuss the importance of Metacognition in teaching and learning.
 The term “metacognition” was coined by John Flavell. According to Flavell (1979),
metacognition consists of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences or
regulation.Metacognition, simply put, is “thinking about thinking” or “learning how to learn”. It
refers to higher order of thinking which involves active awareness and control over the
cognitive processes engaged in learning.

Metacognition is one’s ability to use prior knowledge to plan a strategy for approaching a
learning task, take necessary steps to problem solve, reflect on and evaluate results, and
modify one’s approach as needed. It helps learners choose the right cognitive tool for the task
and plays a critical role in successful learning.Metacognition is "cognition about cognition",
"thinking about thinking", "knowing about knowing", becoming "aware of one's awareness" and
higher-order thinking skills. The term comes from the root word meta, meaning "beyond", or "on
top of".

Metacognition is, put simply, thinking about one’s thinking. More precisely, it refers to the
processes used to plan, monitor, and assess one’s understanding and
performance. Metacognition includes a critical awareness of a) one’s thinking and learning and

b) oneself as a thinker and learner.

Initially studied for its development in young children (Baker & Brown, 1984; Flavell, 1985),
researchers soon began to look at how experts display metacognitive thinking and how, then,
these thought processes can be taught to novices to improve their learning (Hatano& Inagaki,
1986). In How People Learn, the National Academy of Sciences’ synthesis of decades of
research on the science of learning, one of the three key findings of this work is the
effectiveness of a “‘metacognitive’ approach to instruction” (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000,
p. 18).

Metacognitive practices increase students’ abilities to transfer or adapt their learning to

new contexts and tasks (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, p. 12; Palincsar& Brown, 1984;
Scardamalia et al., 1984; Schoenfeld, 1983, 1985, 1991). They do this by gaining a level of
awareness above the subject matter: they also think about the tasks and contexts of different
learning situations and themselves as learners in these different contexts. When Pintrich (2002)
asserts that “Students who know about the different kinds of strategies for learning, thinking,
and problem solving will be more likely to use them” (p. 222), notice the students must “know
about” these strategies, not just practice them. As Zohar and David (2009) explain, there must
be a “conscious meta-strategic level of H[igher] O[rder] T[hinking]” (p. 179).

Metacognitive practices help students become aware of their strengths and weaknesses
as learners, writers, readers, test-takers, group members, etc. A key element is recognizing the
limit of one’s knowledge or ability and then figuring out how to expand that knowledge or extend
the ability. Those who know their strengths and weaknesses in these areas will be more likely to
“actively monitor their learning strategies and resources and assess their readiness for
particular tasks and performances” (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, p. 67).

The absence of metacognition connects to the research by Dunning, Johnson, Ehrlinger,

and Kruger on “Why People Fail to Recognize Their Own Incompetence” (2003). They found
that “people tend to be blissfully unaware of their incompetence,” lacking “insight about
deficiencies in their intellectual and social skills.” They identified this pattern across domains—
from test-taking, writing grammatically, thinking logically, to recognizing humor, to hunters’
knowledge about firearms and medical lab technicians’ knowledge of medical terminology and
problem-solving skills (p. 83-84). In short, “if people lack the skills to produce correct answers,
they are also cursed with an inability to know when their answers, or anyone else’s, are right or
wrong” (p. 85). This research suggests that increased metacognitive abilities—to learn specific
(and correct) skills, how to recognize them, and how to practice them—is needed in many
contexts.

Assessment

In “Promoting Student Metacognition,” Tanner (2012) offers a handful of specific activities for
biology classes, but they can be adapted to any discipline. She first describes
four assignments for explicit instruction (p. 116):

 Pre-assessments—Encouraging Students to Examine Their Current Thinking: “What do I

already know about this topic that could guide my learning?”
  The Muddiest Point—Giving Students Practice in Identifying Confusions: “What was
most confusing to me about the material explored in class today?”

 Retrospective Postassessments—Pushing Students to Recognize Conceptual

Change: “Before this course, I thought evolution was… Now I think that evolution is
….” or “How is my thinking changing (or not changing) over time?”
 Reflective Journals—Providing a Forum in Which Students Monitor Their Own
Thinking: “What about my exam preparation worked well that I should remember to do
next time? What did not work so well that I should not do next time or that I should
change?”

References

 Adams, Maurianne, Bell, Lee Ann, and Griffin, Pat. (1997). Teaching for diversity and
social justice: A sourcebook. New York: Routledge.
 Bransford, John D., Brown Ann L., and Cocking Rodney R. (2000). How people learn:
Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
 Baker, Linda, and Brown, Ann L. (1984). Metacognitive skills and reading. In Paul David
Pearson, Michael L. Kamil, Rebecca Barr, & Peter Mosenthal (Eds.), Handbook of
research in reading: Volume III (pp. 353–395). New York: Longman.
 Brown, Ann L. (1980). Metacognitive development and reading. In Rand J. Spiro,
Bertram C. Bruce, and William F. Brewer, (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading
comprehension: Perspectives from cognitive psychology, linguistics, artificial
intelligence, and education (pp. 453-482). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
 Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process Maria Rita D. Lucas and Brenda b.
Corpuz, 2014

Lesson 2

Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

Objectives
1. Explain the 14 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
2. Advocate the use of these principles

Major theories/principles and models of learning

Several ideas and priorities, then, affect how we teachers think about learning, including the
curriculum, the difference between teaching and learning, sequencing, readiness, and transfer.
The ideas form a “screen” through which to understand and evaluate whatever psychology has
to offer education. As it turns out, many theories, concepts, and ideas from educational
psychology do make it through the “screen” of education, meaning that they are consistent with
the professional priorities of teachers and helpful in solving important problems of classroom
teaching. In the case of issues about classroom learning, for example, educational
psychologists have developed a number of theories and concepts that are relevant to
classrooms, in that they describe at least some of what usually happens there and offer
guidance for assisting learning. It is helpful to group the theories according to whether they
focus on changes in behavior or in thinking. The distinction is rough and inexact, but a good
place to begin. For starters, therefore, consider two perspectives about learning, called
behaviorism (learning as changes in overt behavior) and constructivism, (learning as changes in
thinking). The second category can be further divided into psychological constructivism
(changes in thinking resulting from individual experiences), and social constructivism, (changes
in thinking due to assistance from others). The rest of this chapter describes key ideas from
each of these viewpoints. As I hope you will see, each describes some aspects of learning not
just in general, but as it happens in classrooms in particular. So each perspective suggests
things that you might do in your classroom to make students’ learning more productive.

Theories Related to Child’s Development

Learning Theory describes how students absorb, process, and retain knowledge
during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience,
all play a part in how understanding, or a world view, is acquired or changed and knowledge
and skills retained.

Five Theories of Child Development

1. Erikson's Psychosocial Developmental Theory.

 Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through
eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage,
the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative
outcome for personality development.

2. Bowlby's Attachment Theory.

Bowlby (1958) proposed that attachment can be understood within an evolutionary
context in that the caregiver provides safety and security for the infant. Attachment is
adaptive as it enhances the infant's chance of survival.

Characteristics of Attachment
There are four basic characteristics that basically give us a clear view of what
attachment really is. They include a safe heaven, a secure base, proximity maintenance
and separation distress. These four attributes are very evident in the relationship
between a child and his caregiver.

3. Freud's Psychosexual Developmental Theory.

Freud proposed that psychological development in childhood takes place during
five psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. ... Freud also
believed that all tension was due to the build-up of libido (sexual energy) and that all
pleasure came from its discharge.
In Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory, he proposed that the behavior and
development of a person are influenced by the interaction between the conscious and
unconscious aspects of that person’s mind.
The Id is present at birth and represents everything that we inherit from our parents. It
comprises our needs that require constant fulfillment and operates on the pleasure
principle, as well as the need for immediate gratification, without regard for
consequences or realities.
The Ego develops as a result of our attempts to satisfy our needs through interactions
with our physical and social environment. In other words, it arises from the Id. The Ego
attempts to fulfill the Id’s desire by serving as a negotiator that strives for a compromise
between what the Id wants and what the outside world can grant it.
The Ego is also a decision-maker that operates on the reality principle, evaluating
conditions of the real world which may or may not satisfy the Id’s demands and seeking
acceptable methods of fulfilling the Id’s wishes.
 The Superego arises from the Ego and develops as an internal representation of the
moral values of the environment. The Superego judges what we should morally do or not
do, and guides us about the shoulds and should nots of our lives. It rewards us with
pride and positive feelings upon doing good, and punishes us with feelings of guilt,
shame or fear for not abiding by values that we have set for ourselves.

4. Bandura's Social Learning Theory.

The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and
modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. ... Social learning
theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between
cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences.

Table 1

Concept Definition

1. Expectations Individual's beliefs about likely results of actions.

Individual's beliefs based on observing others like

2.
self and/or visible physical results of desired
Observational Learning
behavior.

3. Behavioral Capability Knowledge and skills needed to influence behavior.

5. Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory.

Piaget proposed four major stages of cognitive development, and called them
(1) sensorimotor intelligence, (2) preoperational thinking, (3) concrete operational
thinking, and (4) formal operational thinking. Each stage is correlated with an age period
of childhood, but only approximately.
Piaget's four stages

Stage Age Goal

Sensorimotor Birth to 18–24 months old Object permanence

Preoperational 2 to 7 years old Symbolic thought

Concrete operational 7 to 11 years old Operational thought

 Formal operational Adolescence to adulthood Abstract concepts

Assessment

Review Freud’s Components of the Personality. Write important concepts about them.
A. ID
B. EGO
C. SUPEREGO

Lesson 3
Focus on the Learners

Researchers distinguish between metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation

(Flavell, 1979, 1987; Schraw& Dennison, 1994). Metacognitive knowledge refers to what
individuals know about themselves as cognitive processors, about different approaches that can
be used for learning and problem solving, and about the demands of a particular learning task.
Metacognitive regulation refers to adjustments individuals make to their processes to help
control their learning, such as planning, information management strategies, comprehension
monitoring, de-bugging strategies, and evaluation of progress and goals. Flavell (1979) further
divides metacognitive knowledge into three categories:

 Person variables: What one recognizes about his or her strengths and weaknesses in
learning and processing information.

 Task variables: What one knows or can figure out about the nature of a task and the
processing demands required to complete the task—for example, knowledge that it will
take more time to read, comprehend, and remember a technical article than it will a
similar-length passage from a novel.

 Strategy variables: The strategies a person has “at the ready” to apply in a flexible way
to successfully accomplish a task; for example, knowing how to activate prior knowledge
before reading a technical article, using a glossary to look up unfamiliar words, or
recognizing that sometimes one has to reread a paragraph several times before it makes
sense.
Livingston (1997) provides an example of all three variables: “I know that I (person variable)
have difficulty with word problems (task variable), so I will answer the computational problems
first and save the word problems for last (strategy variable).”

Why Teach Metacognitive Skills?

Research shows that metacognitive skills can be taught to students to improve their
learning (Nietfeld&Shraw, 2002; Thiede, Anderson, &Therriault, 2003).Constructing
understanding requires both cognitive and metacognitive elements. Learners “construct
knowledge” using cognitive strategies, and they guide, regulate, and evaluate their learning
using metacognitive strategies. It is through this “thinking about thinking,” this use of
metacognitive strategies, that real learning occurs. As students become more skilled at using
metacognitive strategies, they gain confidence and become more independent as learners.

Individuals with well-developed metacognitive skills can think through a problem or approach a
learning task, select appropriate strategies, and make decisions about a course of action to
resolve the problem or successfully perform the task. They often think about their own thinking
processes, taking time to think about and learn from mistakes or inaccuracies (North Central
Regional Educational Laboratory, 1995). Some instructional programs encourage students to
engage in “metacognitive conversations” with themselves so that they can “talk” with
themselves about their learning, the challenges they encounter, and the ways in which they can
self-correct and continue learning.

Moreover, individuals who demonstrate a wide variety of metacognitive skills perform

better on exams and complete work more efficiently—they use the right tool for the job, and they
modify learning strategies as needed, identifying blocks to learning and changing tools or
strategies to ensure goal attainment. Because Metacognition plays a critical role in successful
learning, it is imperative that instructors help learners develop metacognitively.

What’s the Research?

Metacognitive strategies can be taught (Halpern, 1996), they are associated with
successful learning (Borkowski, Carr, & Pressley, 1987). Successful learners have a repertoire
of strategies to select from and can transfer them to new settings (Pressley, Borkowski, &
Schneider, 1987). Instructors need to set tasks at an appropriate level of difficulty (i.e.,
challenging enough so that students need to apply metacognitive strategies to monitor success
but not so challenging that students become overwhelmed or frustrated), and instructors need to
prompt learners to think about what they are doing as they complete these tasks
(Biemiller&Meichenbaum, 1992). Instructors should take care not to do the thinking for learners
or tell them what to do because this runs the risk of making students experts at seeking help
rather than experts at thinking about and directing their own learning. Instead, effective
instructors continually prompt learners, asking “What should you do next?”

McKeachie (1988) found that few college instructors explicitly teach strategies for
monitoring learning. They assume that students have already learned these strategies in high
school. But many have not and are unaware of the metacognitive process and its importance to
learning. Rote memorization is the usual—and often the only—learning strategy employed by
high school students when they enter college (Nist, 1993). Simpson and Nist (2000), in a review
of the literature on strategic learning, emphasize that instructors need to provide explicit
instruction on the use of study strategies. The implication for ABE programs is that it is likely
that ABE learners need explicit instruction in both cognitive and metacognitive strategies. They
need to know that they have choices about the strategies they can employ in different contexts,
and they need to monitor their use of and success with these strategies.

Recommended Instructional Strategies

Instructors can encourage ABE learners to become more strategic thinkers by helping
them focus on the ways they process information. Self-questioning, reflective journal writing,
and discussing their thought processes with other learners are among the ways that teachers
can encourage learners to examine and develop their metacognitive processes.

Instructors can model the application of questions, and they can prompt learners to ask
themselves questions during each phase. They can incorporate into lesson plans opportunities
for learners to practice using these questions during learning tasks, as illustratetd in the
following examples:

 During the planning phase, learners can ask, What am I supposed to learn? What
prior knowledge will help me with this task? What should I do first? What should I
look for in this reading? How much time do I have to complete this? In what direction do I
want my thinking to take me?

 During the monitoring phase, learners can ask, How am I doing? Am I on the right
track? How should I proceed? What information is important to remember? Should
I move in a different direction? Should I adjust the pace because of the difficulty? What
can I do if I do not understand?
  During the evaluation phase, learners can ask, How well did I do? What did I learn?
Did I get the results I expected? What could I have done differently? Can I apply this way
of thinking to other problems or situations? Is there anything I don’t understand—any
gaps in my knowledge? Do I need to go back through the task to fill in any gaps
in understanding? How might I apply this line of thinking to other problems?

Rather than viewing reading, writing, science, social studies, and math only as subjects or
content to be taught, instructors can see them as opportunities for learners to reflect on their
learning processes. Examples follow for each content area:

 Reading: Teach learners how to ask questions during reading and model “think-alouds.”
Ask learners questions during read-alouds and teach them to monitor their reading by
constantly asking themselves if they understand what the text is about. Teach them to
take notes or highlight important details, asking themselves, “Why is this a key phrase to
highlight?” and “Why am I not highlighting this?”

 Writing: Model prewriting strategies for organizing thoughts, such as brainstorming

ideas using a word web, or using a graphic organizer to put ideas into paragraphs, with
the main idea at the top and the supporting details below it.

 Social Studies and Science: Teach learners the importance of using organizers such
as KWL charts, Venn diagrams, concept maps , and anticipation/reaction charts to sort
information and help them learn and understand content. Learners can use organizers
prior to a task to focus their attention on what they already know and identify what they
want to learn. They can use a Venn diagram to identify similarities and differences
between two related concepts.

 Math: Teach learners to use mnemonics to recall steps in a process, such as the order
of mathematical operations. Model your thought processes in solving problems—for
example, “This is a lot of information; where should I start? Now that I know____, is
there something else I know?”

The goal of teaching metacognitive strategies is to help learners become comfortable with
these strategies so that they employ them automatically to learning tasks, focusing their
attention, deriving meaning, and making adjustments if something goes wrong. They do not
think about these skills while performing them but, if asked what they are doing, they can
usually accurately describe their metacognitive processes.

Activities/Assessment:
Fogarty (1994) suggests that Metacognition is a process that spans three distinct phases, and
that, to be successful thinkers, students must do the following:

1. Develop a plan before approaching a learning task, such as reading for comprehension
or solving a math problem.

2. Monitor their understanding; use “fix-up” strategies when meaning breaks down.

3. Evaluate their thinking after completing the task.

References:

Biemiller, A., &Meichenbaum, D. (1992).The nature and nurture of the self-directed

learner. Educational Leadership, 50, 75–80.

Borkowski, J., Carr, M., &Pressely, M. (1987). “Spontaneous” strategy use: Perspectives from
metacognitive theory. Intelligence, 11, 61–75.

Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-

developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906–911.

Flavell, J. H. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), The

nature of intelligence (pp. 231–236). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Flavell, J. H. (1987). Speculations about the nature and development of metacognition.In F. E.

Weinert& R. H. Kluwe (Eds.), Metacognition, motivation, and understanding (pp. 21–29).
Hillside, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Fogarty, R. (1994). How to teach for metacognition. Palatine, IL: IRI/Skylight Publishing.

Halpern, D. F. (1996). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Livingston, J. A. (1997). Metacognition: An overview. Retrieved December 27, 2011

from http://gse.buffalo.edu/fas/shuell/CEP564/Metacog.htm

McKeachie, W. J. (1988). The need for study strategy training. In C. E. Weinstein, E. T. Goetz,
& P. A. Alexander (Eds.), Learning and study strategies: Issues in assessment, instruction, and
evaluation (pp. 3–9). New York: Academic Press.
Meichenbaum, D. (1985). Teaching thinking: A cognitive-behavioral perspective. In S. F.,
Chipman, J. W. Segal, & R. Glaser (Eds.), Thinking and learning skills, Vol. 2: Research and
open questions. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

North Central Regional Educational Laboratory.(1995). Strategic teaching and reading project
guidebook. Retrieved December 27, 2011

Nietfeld, J. L., &Shraw, G. (2002).The effect of knowledge and strategy explanation on

monitoring accuracy. Journal of Educational Research, 95, 131–142.

Nist, S. (1993). What the literature says about academic literacy. Georgia Journal of
Reading, Fall-Winter, 11–18.

Pressley, M., Borkowski, J. G., & Schneider, W. (1987). Cognitive strategies: Good strategy
users coordinate metacognition and knowledge. In R. Vasta, & G. Whitehurst (Eds.), Annals of
child development, 4, 80–129. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Schraw, G., & Dennison, R. S. (1994).Assessing metacognitive awareness. Contemporary

Educational Psychology, 19, 460–475.

Simpson, M. L., &Nist, S. L. (2000). An update on strategic learning: It’s more than textbook
reading strategies. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 43(6) 528–541.

Thiede, K. W., Anderson, M. C., &Therriault, D. (2003). Accuracy of metacognitive monitoring

affects learning of texts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 66–73.

Lesson 4

A. Student diversity
B. Learning/Thinking styles and Multiple Intelligences

Objectives

1. Describe the different learning/thinking styles and multiple intelligence.

2. Plan learning activities that match learner’s learning/thinking styles and multiple
intelligences.

TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLE

Teaching Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences to Students

Many teachers who use learning styles and multiple intelligences in their classrooms wonder
how important it is for students to know about these models. Experience has taught us that
students who understand the models are better able to understand their own learning profiles, to
develop flexibility and adaptability in their thinking, and to set realistic goals about minimizing
learning weaknesses and maximizing strengths. In fact, research on the importance of
metacognitive thinking supports the notion that instructional approaches that help students
reflect on their own learning processes are highly beneficial to their overall learning and tend to
stimulate motivation to improve as learners (Brown, 1989; Marzano et al., 1988).
When students engage in this kind of “thinking about thinking,” they become more self-directed
and are able to select appropriate strategies for particular learning situations. In Libertyville,
Illinois, where high schoolers take a course in style-based metacognition, course instructor Sue
Ulrey explains, “We want students to understand what sorts of learning styles there are and how
to interpret their own behavior in learning. This leads to greater self-awareness.” (Caccamo,
1998, Section 5, p. 3) Because models of learning can be taught rather easily to children as
young as 1st grade (Armstrong, 1994), many teachers teach students about learning style and
multiple intelligences so they can better understand themselves as students and as people. Of
course, students—and teachers—must understand that styles and intelligences are not simply
categories of identification; any description of a learner is an approximation. Both models are
useful ways of helping us to understand our own strengths and weaknesses as learners so that
we may grow and become more balanced. This chapter will show you a compendium of
methods some teachers use to teach both models to their students..

Teaching Students About Learning Styles

Demonstration
Barb Heinzman of Geneva, New York, led her students through the following hands-on “Apple”
demonstration to teach them about perception and judgment:
“Apple” Demo
Everyone uses four ways to learn. Today we will learn how we use our four functions to learn
about an apple. [Barb has apples in a bag, one for each student in a group.]
One way to learn about something is through your five senses: your eyes, ears, nose, touch,
and taste. Your senses tell you what something looks like, tastes like, feels like, and so forth.
Select an apple and use your senses to describe your apple.
Another way to learn about something is to use your sixth sense. This is called intuition. It helps
you to learn about things that you can't see, touch, taste, or smell. It helps you to make guesses
or to use your imagination. Imagine what your apple might taste like or imagine where it comes
from. Intuition also helps you to symbolize things. What are some things your apple might
symbolize? Some examples might be good health or New York City. Use your intuition to come
up with a new idea of what an apple might symbolize.
Still another way to learn about an apple is to use your thinking. Your thinking helps you to
understand the purpose for things. For example, thinking helps you to understand the parts of
an apple and what their functions are. Identify some of the parts of your apple—stem, skin,
seed, pulp—and think about what each part does.
The last way to learn about something is to use your feelings. Feelings tell you if you like or
dislike something. Do you feel you will like your apple? Discuss what you like or dislike about it.
Now, put your apple back in the bag. With your eyes closed, try to find your apple using all of
your senses.

Questioning in Style
Another way to teach students about the four learning styles is to have them experience
activities or questions in each of the four styles and then ask them to reflect on the thinking they
used to answer the question or complete the activities.
For example, after reading a story, Barb Heinzman asks her students questions about what they
remember (Mastery), questions that require explaining and proving (Understanding), questions
that require the use of their imagination (Self-Expressive), or questions that invite students to
reflect on and share their feelings (Interpersonal). Barb used the questions in Figure 6.1 to help
students comprehend and hook into the first chapter of the historical novel My Brother Sam Is
Dead.

Figure 6.1. Questions in Style—My Brother Sam Is Dead

What is happening in the story? Who Which character do you relate to the most? The
are the characters and what are their father, Sam, or Tim? Whom do you agree with, Sam
traits? or his father?

What is the meaning of the story? Why What do you imagine Tim is thinking during this
are the characters arguing? argument? How is a colony like a child?

Note: See Collier, J. L., & Collier, C. (1989). My brother Sam is dead. New York: Scholastic
Paperbacks.
Barb reinforced that the Mastery style focuses on remembering; Understanding style, on
reasoning or explaining; the Self-Expressive style, on imagining or creating; and the
Interpersonal style, on relating or feelings. She then asked her students to stop after answering
each question and to think about which type of thinking they used. By the end of the day the
students understood the four learning styles. Next, she asked her students to pay attention to
which styles of thinking they enjoyed the most; which they found difficult to do; and which they
wanted to get better at. Soon the students were able to analyze activities and diagnose their
own learning styles and profiles.
Of course, four-style questioning can be used at any grade level. With primary students, it is
important to use words that are easy to understand. A 1st grade teacher made her presentation
on styles particularly memorable by using a visual organizer of a face and by using simplified
words, rather than abstract style categories (see Figure 6.2).

Figure 6.2. Head Organizer

Similarly, four-style questioning is also effective with secondary students. Figure 6.3 shows an
activity a high school English teacher used in conjunction with Robert Frost's poem “The Road
Not Taken” to help her students become more aware of style, as well as better readers of
poetry.
Figure 6.3. Questions in Style—Secondary Level: Poem “The Road Not Taken”
What is happening in the poem? Who is Do you relate to this poem? Tell about a hard
speaking? Identify the rhyme scheme. decision you have made.

What is the meaning of the poem? What is What do you imagine the poet was thinking
meant by “And that has made all the when he wrote this? How is a decision like a fork
difference?” in the road?

Or, rather than developing questions in style, you may assign students tasks in style. This
method asks students to complete four tasks while simultaneously reflecting on their style
preferences and dislikes. One particularly effective way to use tasks in style is to assign tasks
that have to do with learning styles as content. This way, students are deepening their own
understanding of learning styles while they are becoming more aware of who they are as
learners. Figures 6.4 and 6.5 provide elementary and secondary examples, respectively, of
tasks in various learning styles.

Figure 6.5. Tasks in Style—Secondary

Mastery Relating

Write the name of each learning style. Under Develop a lesson plan for teaching learning
the name, write three facts about that learning styles to an elementary school student.
style. Then, pick a character who represents
that style.

Understanding Self-Expressive

Write a brief essay that compares your Pick four symbols to represent each of the
learning style to that of a classmate or learning styles. On separate pieces of drawing
relative. Include the strengths and paper, draw each symbol. Then explain why
weaknesses of the two styles you are you picked it to represent a particular learning
comparing. style.

Reflecting in Style
Similar to questioning in style, reflecting in style asks students to think back on work they have
done and to use the four styles to develop a deep awareness of how they think and work (see
Figure 6.6). The goal of this task is to determine how the lessons learned about the self might
be applied to the next project.

Figure 6.6. Reflecting in Style

What did you do to complete the project? What did you like about doing this project?
Describe the steps you took. What didn't you like?
How has carrying out this project changed the way
you view yourself as a learner?

Which steps worked best for you? Why do In doing this project, what did you learn that you
you think so? might apply in doing another project?
As you did the project, what didn't work so In doing the project, what did you learn?
well for you? If you were to do this project again, what might you
How do you know you did a good job? do differently?
How do you know the project was done
well? List at least three reasons.

Descriptions and Case Studies

Another method is to have students read descriptions about the four styles and to think about
which style sounds most like them and which sounds least like them. Stacey Gerhardt of
Geneva, New York, gives her students case studies that sound like the one shown in Figure 6.7.

Figure 6.7. 5th and 6th Grade Case Studies

The following four passages were written by four different 5th and 6th grade students about their
experiences at school. Each student represents one of the four learning styles: Each is either a
Mastery, Interpersonal, Understanding, or Self-Expressive learner. Read the passages and
decide which one sounds the most like you. Underline any words or phrases that describe
behaviors you can identify with.
The Cast of Characters
Samuel T.: Mastery Learner
I will often make a list of my next day's activities so I can be ready. Then I can check them off
when I get them done, which usually happens. I don't mind class projects, as long as the
teacher gives us an exact set of directions as to what is due and when. Usually I turn in those
projects a few days early to make sure I have them done. Teachers like my work, although they
say that I need to be more flexible and realize that there isn't always a right and a wrong
answer. I am not exactly sure what they mean by that. I come to school to learn, and so I like it
when the teacher shows me exactly what to do and what the answers are. I know I have
mastered the material when I get a test or project back and everything on it is 100 percent right.
Nina F.: Self-Expressive Learner
Other kids usually like to have me on their project team because I always have lots of ideas. I
like it best when the teacher says, “You pick a project and create what you want.” Don't you
think that's what school should be for? I mean, it should be a place where they let you come and
explore ideas instead of page after page of stuff! I really like thinking of things to do, although all
of my “brainy ideas” don't always come off. Of course, the more ideas we can come up with, and
the crazier they are, the better for me. I sometimes get into trouble because I finish assignments
at the last minute. I don't really forget them, it's just that some of the routine junk really bores
me. Sometimes I'll get so involved in an idea that's not necessarily the one we're working on, I
forget about the one I have to turn in!
Nancy T.: Understanding Learner
I like learning about ideas and their history and the reasons that people believe in them. The
part of a class that I like best is when we get a chance to really think through a topic, usually on
paper but sometimes out loud in discussion. I remember my mom saying that as a little kid I was
always asking “Why?” I guess that hasn't changed much. If people give me a chance to
compare choices and make my own decisions, I usually make the right one. I think school is a
great place to find out all sorts of things. If, after a long discussion or an assignment, I have
been able to look at all the different viewpoints and start to understand them, then I feel like I
haven't wasted my time. For this reason, I guess I like essay tests the best because they give
me some time to really express my opinions and prove my ideas.
Shamir F.: Interpersonal Learner
You might call me a “people person.” It always makes me feel good to know that I have helped
someone, even if it's just talking something over. Now that I think about it, I have always been
the one moved by the teacher because I talk so much in class. That never bothered me so
much because then I got to meet new people! I wasn't trying to go against the teacher. It's just
that I find it more interesting doing work with a friend or a group than by myself. That's the best
thing about school—lots of action among friends. People have told me that I get too “emotionally
involved” with everything, but I really like finding out how others feel about things and what they
are doing about them. I am happiest when the teacher divides us into groups to develop some
project together, and I really get into an assignment when it relates somehow to me.

Rank the four characters according to their similarity to you:

1. Not at all like me; 2. A little like me; 3. Somewhat like me; or 4. A lot like me.

Samuel T. Nina F. Nancy T. Shamir F.

How can you explain this order? Does it tell you anything about yourself?

Descriptions at the high school level look different from those in Figure 6.7. For example, Figure
6.8 provides a sample description a high school teacher developed for both styles and
intelligences. Students then had to identify and explain how they knew what style (and
intelligences) they exemplified.
Figure 6.8. High School Case Study
Brad: I really liked my American Literature class. It wasn't really formal, and the teacher didn't
lecture for hours about stuff that no one was interested in. He encouraged discussions of the
books, letting us form little work groups within the classroom. We got a chance to talk to other
kids and see what they thought about the reading instead of just hearing the teacher's point of
view. And when we finished talking in small groups, we were allowed to report to the whole
class what we had discussed. Even the regular discussions were good because our teacher
really cared about what everyone had to say. We could speak without raising our hands or
anything, and he didn't even get mad! That was good because lots of times I wanted to talk.
There were a lot of things in the books which I really understood—characters that were like
me—and my teacher encouraged me to speak up and share my feelings with the class. He also
encouraged good communication between him and the students by having personal writing
conferences with individual students on a regular basis. That way, we got to see what he
thought about how we were doing in class.

Checklists and Inventories

Checklists and inventories are valuable tools that help students reflect on their preferred
behaviors. Simple checklists are sufficient for primary and lower elementary students. For
example, 3rd grade teacher Joanne Curran of Ladue Schools, Missouri, introduces and uses
the checklist shown in Figure 6.9, with the following directions:
We are all able to learn in different ways. But just like you have a favorite toy or TV show, you
also have a favorite style of learning. Because of your learning style, there are things that you
really enjoy. There are other things that you may not like at all. No style is better than another.
They are just different. Sometimes, we need to be able to work in a style that is not our favorite
because it's the best way to get a job done.

Finding out your favorite learning style is as simple as 1–2–3:

1. Color in the circle next to any sentences that seem to fit you.

2. Count the number of circles you colored in each square.

3. Circle the box with the most colored-in circles. It is probably your favorite learning style.

Figure 6.9. Elementary Checklist

Mastery Interpersonal
___ I enjoy doing things I know about. ___ I like games that everyone can play and

___ I'm good at getting things done. nobody loses.

___ I like copying or making things. ___ I enjoy working with friends.

___ I follow a routine every morning. ___ I'm good at helping others.

___ I work out problems step-by-step. ___ I like group projects.

___ I like it when everyone is happy.

___ I am good at understanding other people's

feelings.

Understanding Self-Expressive
___ I enjoy reading about things that ___ I enjoy doing things I've never done before.
interest me. ___ I'm good at discovering things.
___ I'm good at organizing things. ___ I think of lots of new ideas.
___ I like to figure out how things work. ___ I like to use my imagination.
___ I learn mostly from reading. ___ I like art and music.
___ I like assignments that make me ___ I like “What if . . .” questions better than “yes-
think. and-no” questions.
___ I like to take my time on projects that
interest me.

At upper elementary through secondary levels, the best means for identifying and
helping students reflect on their strengths and weaknesses as learners is to use the Hanson-
Silver Learning Preference Inventory (LPI) (1991), currently used in hundreds of schools across
the United States. The LPI contains 36 multiple-choice questions whose answers are keyed to
each of the four learning styles (as well as to tendencies for introversion and extroversion).
Figure 6.10 shows some examples of LPI items.

Figure 6.10. Sample Learning Preference Inventory Items

Not available for electronic dissemination.
Source: From the Hanson-Silver Learning Preference Inventory. Copyright © 1991 by Silver
Strong & Associates' Thoughtful Education Press

The LPI provides teachers with a comprehensive picture of each student's learning
profile, including a visual overview (see Figure 6.11), learning strengths, learning weaknesses,
preferred environment, and motivating activities.

Figure 6.11. Sample Visualization of a Student's Profile

Having this information at their disposal, teachers can make informed decisions about
how to address student styles so that students are effectively accommodated, challenged, and
motivated to grow as learners. Use of the LPI has proven especially beneficial in addressing the
needs of underachievers, low achievers, and gifted and talented students.
“Style Amoeba”
A fun and effective method for teaching style to elementary students is to use a “style
amoeba” (see Figure 6.12). Used by Janice Rugg-Davis (1994), a style amoeba is a grid with
four style descriptions. The students draw an amoeba in the middle, placing most of the body in
the quadrant they feel most expresses their style; they place proportional amounts in each of
the remaining quadrants. They then color the sections of the amoeba according to its quadrant.

Figure 6.12. Style Amoeba

(ST) Brown (SF) Red
Brown is an earthy color. It signifies “down-to- Red often is used to show feelings. It
earth” ideas that usually are accepted as simple, gives an impression of emotion. Red is the
factual, and without variance in the answers. It significant color for the nation's most
gives a straightforward type of feeling without “feeling” holiday, Valentine's Day. The SF
deviating from the standard. The ST likes things to likes everything to be personalized or
be “down-to-earth.” have feeling.

(NT) Green (NF) Purple

Green is the color of the grass. The grass comes Purple is a creative color. It is not a basic
and goes each year and always promotes growth color, nor is it a very common one. It gives
and wonder. Green has come to symbolize this the impression of uniqueness and
“wonder.” It represents a desire to know more and individuality in creation or design when
understand why things work. It also means “GO.” applied to art or drawing. Purple is also a
The NT's thoughts are always on the “go”! color chosen often for its beauty. An NF is
constantly striving to make beauty.

Note: ST = Sensing-Thinking learner; SF = Sensing-Feeling learner; NT = Intuitive- Thinking

learner; NF = Intuitive-Feeling learner.

Source: Rugg-Davis, J. K. (1994). Number the stars: A literature resource guide. St. Louis:
Milliken Publishing. Reproduced by permission.

Figure 6.13–6.16. “Style Symbols” Demo

One style uses the five senses and thinking. A second style likes to learn with the five senses
The symbol of this style is the hand. We use and feelings. The symbol for this style is the
the hand to symbolize these students heart. We use the heart to represent this style
because they like to learn through hands-on because these students like to learn with their
activities, and they like following directions friends. They like to learn about people and how
one step at a time. These learners like to be they feel. They like questions that ask about
told or shown what to do; also, they like their feelings. They also like to be shown what to
activities that have right or wrong answers. do, but like to talk and work with others as they
learn.

A third style likes to learn through the sixth The last style uses the sixth sense—intuition—
sense—intuition—and thinking. The symbol along with feeling. The symbol for this style is
for this style is the head. We use the head to the eye. We use the eye because these students
represent this style because these students love to use their imagination to see things that
like to learn by thinking about things. These can't be seen by the senses. They like activities
students like to solve problems and explain that allow them to pretend and to create their
things. They enjoy questions that ask them to own ideas. They also like to choose their own
explain how and why things work. projects and to make things that are new and
different.

Reflection Charts
Once your students understand the four styles, they can begin to reflect on how they use each
style and what skills they need to develop in order to improve their learning in that style. For
example, one way to get students to reflect is to ask them to pay attention to how they went
about the task, to decide what styles they used, and to give themselves advice for the next time
they complete a task [see Figure 6.17].
Figure 6.17. Style Reflection Chart

Noticed Styles Advice

I came up with a lot of I work well in the Self-Expressive I need to concentrate more on
ideas. style, but I could do better in what I'm doing.
I had a hard time Mastery style. I need to pay attention to the
selecting which ideas to details.
use. I need to learn how to decide
I worked well with my what to do when I have a lot of
team. ideas.
I am a little disorganized.

Teaching Students About Intelligences

Many of the methods for teaching students about style will also serve as ways to teach them
about multiple intelligences. For example, you can assign students tasks that ask them to use
different intelligences (rather than styles) and ask them to reflect on their learning process
afterward. You can also use student descriptions and case studies that emphasize intelligences
rather than styles. Simple intelligence checklists and inventories (like the Multiple Intelligences
Indicator in Appendix A) can also be developed, and methods like analyzing characters in
literature and history can work well for learning both styles and intelligences. Certainly,
examining the accomplishments of famous people (as you did in Chapter 1) will yield a rich
lesson on intelligences.

Symbols and Reflection Charts

Using symbols for each intelligence, or asking students to create their own symbols also helps
in teaching students about intelligences. It is also a good idea to use a reflection chart to help
students pay closer attention to their learning process and to advise themselves on how to
improve their learning. Figure 6.18 (p. 98) shows a sample reflection chart.

Figure 6.18. Intelligence Reflection Chart

Noticed Styles Advice

I am creative—I like My linguistic, musical, and I need to “put my guard down” when
to use words in intrapersonal intelligences are I work in groups, and I need to listen
strange ways. highly developed. to others more attentively.
I like to work by My spatial and logical- I need to begin seeing the way I
myself. mathematical intelligences are move and use my body as an
I hum, whistle, and somewhat developed. intelligence that I can develop.
tap a beat while I My interpersonal and bodily-
work. kinesthetic intelligences need the
most improvement.

Demonstration
One way to teach students about the eight intelligences is to ask them to think about
things they do or have done that require them to use specific intelligences. After explaining each
intelligence, the teacher can stop and engage students in brief activities that demonstrate each
intelligence.For instance, after explaining logical-mathematical intelligence, you might ask
students to solve a logic puzzle or make an interpretation of numerical data. Asking students to
pay close attention to a piece of music, to use their bodies to represent a concept, to gather and
classify natural items, or to work with other students are just some of the many activities you
might use to make your demonstration particularly memorable. Along the way, you can fold in
reflection, asking students to note how well they use each intelligence and what they might do to
improve.

Intelligence Stations
Another effective method for teaching students about multiple intelligences is to set up
intelligence stations or activity centers (Armstrong, 1994). These are learning centers with
appropriate activities for each intelligence set up around the classroom. Activity centers can be
designed to meet a number of instructional purposes. You might create permanent centers with
the same materials at each station all year long and have students explore various topics using
these permanent materials. Or you might change the contents of the stations throughout the
year so that at the bodily-kinestheticcenter, for instance, students can design pyramids using
construction blocks while studying Ancient Egypt and later use manipulatives and abacuses to
understand math concepts.
To make his stations particularly memorable for students, one teacher chose to use
famous people to represent the intelligence of each station. His learning centers were labeled
Maya Angelou's Station, Marie Curie's Station, Georgia O'Keeffe's Station, Ludwig von
Beethoven's Station, Jackie Joyner-Kersee's Station, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Station,
Socrates's Station, and Charles Darwin's Station. Before engaging in any activities, students
read brief biographical descriptions and, wherever possible, experienced the work of each
famous person (e.g., reading a selection of Angelou's poetry, listening to the fourth movement
of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, listening to Dr. King's “I Have a Dream” speech). After
students had learned about the eight people and their eight intelligences, the class discussed
how intelligences are important in helping humans achieve great things.

Activities/Assessment:
1. Choose a particular learning style and intelligence of students. Plan learning activities that
match with the particular learning styles and multiple intelligences of students
2. Make a compilation of teaching strategies based on the different thinking/learning styles and
multiple intelligences.

Lesson 5

Focus On learning

A. Behaviorism
Objectives

1. Explain the basic principles of behaviorism.

2. Make a simple plan applying the primary laws of learning.
3. Determine how to use rewards in the learning process more effectively

Behaviorism: changes in what students do

Behaviorism is a perspective on learning that focuses on changes in individuals’

observable behaviors— changes in what people say or do. At some point we all use this
perspective, whether we call it “behaviorism” or something else. The first time that I drove a car,
for example, I was concerned primarily with whether I could actually do the driving, not with
whether I could describe or explain how to drive. For another example: when I reached the point
in life where I began cooking meals for myself, I was more focused on whether I could actually
produce edible food in a kitchen than with whether I could explain my recipes and cooking
procedures to others. And still another example—one often relevant to new teachers: when I
began my first year of teaching, I was more focused on doing the job of teaching—on day-to-
day survival—than on pausing to reflect on what I was doing.
 Note that in all of these examples, focusing attention on behavior instead of on
“thoughts” may have been desirable at that moment, but not necessarily desirable indefinitely or
all of the time. Even as a beginner, there are times when it is more important to be able to
describe how to drive or to cook than to actually do these things. And there definitely are many
times when reflecting on and thinking about teaching can improve teaching itself. (As a teacher-
friend once said to me: “Don’t just do something; stand there!”) But neither is focusing on
behavior which is not necessarily less desirable than focusing on students’ “inner” changes,
such as gains in their knowledge or their personal attitudes. If you are teaching, you will need to
attend to all forms of learning in students, whether inner or outward.

In classrooms, behaviorism is most useful for identifying relationships between specific actions
by a student and the immediate precursors and consequences of the actions. It is less useful for
understanding changes in students’ thinking; for this purpose we need theories that are
more cognitive (or thinking-oriented) or social, like the ones described later in this chapter. This
fact is not a criticism of behaviorism as a perspective, but just a clarification of its particular
strength or usefulness, which is to highlight observable relationships among actions, precursors
and consequences. Behaviorists use particular terms (or “lingo,” some might say) for these
relationships. One variety of behaviorism that has proved especially useful to educators is
operant conditioning, described in the next section.

Operant conditioning: new behaviors because of new consequences

Operant conditioning focuses on how the consequences of a behavior affect the

behavior over time. It begins with the idea that certain consequences tend to make certain
behaviors happen more frequently. If I compliment a student for a good comment made during
discussion, there is more of a chance that I will hear further comments from the student in the
future (and hopefully they too will be good ones!). If a student tells a joke to classmates and
they laugh at it, then the student is likely to tell more jokes in the future and so on.

The original research about this model of learning was not done with people, but with
animals. One of the pioneers in the field was a Harvard professor named B. F. Skinner, who
published numerous books and articles about the details of the process and who pointed out
many parallels between operant conditioning in animals and operant conditioning in humans
(1938, 1948, 1988). Skinner observed the behavior of rather tame laboratory rats (not the
unpleasant kind that sometimes live in garbage dumps). He or his assistants would put them in
a cage that contained little except a lever and a small tray just big enough to hold a small
amount of food. (Figure 1 shows the basic set-up, which is sometimes nicknamed a “Skinner
box.”) At first the rat would sniff and “putter around” the cage at random, but sooner or later it
would happen upon the lever and eventually happen to press it. Presto! The lever released a
small pellet of food, which the rat would promptly eat. Gradually the rat would spend more time
near the lever and press the lever more frequently, getting food more frequently. Eventually it
would spend most of its time at the lever and eating its fill of food. The rat had “discovered” that
the consequence of pressing the level was to receive food. Skinner called the changes in the
rat’s behavior an example of operant conditioning, and gave special names to the different
parts of the process. He called the food pellets the reinforcement and the lever-pressing
the operant (because it “operated” on the rat’s environment). See below.

Figure 1: Operant conditioning with a laboratory rat

Skinner and other behavioral psychologists experimented with using various reinforcers
and operants. They also experimented with various patterns of reinforcement (or schedules of
reinforcement), as well as with various cues or signals to the animal about when reinforcement
was available. It turned out that all of these factors—the operant, the reinforcement, the
schedule, and the cues—affected how easily and thoroughly operant conditioning occurred. For
example, reinforcement was more effective if it came immediately after the crucial operant
behavior, rather than being delayed, and reinforcements that happened intermittently (only part
of the time) caused learning to take longer, but also caused it to last longer.

Operant conditioning and students’ learning: Since the original research about operant
conditioning used animals, it is important to ask whether operant conditioning also describes
learning in human beings, and especially in students in classrooms. On this point the answer
seems to be clearly “yes.” There are countless classroom examples of consequences affecting
students’ behavior in ways that resemble operant conditioning, although the process certainly
does not account for all forms of student learning (Alberto & Troutman, 2005). Consider the
following examples. In most of them the operant behavior tends to become more frequent on
repeated occasions:

 A seventh-grade boy makes a silly face (the operant) at the girl sitting next to him.
Classmates sitting around them giggle in response (the reinforcement).

 A kindergarten child raises her hand in response to the teacher’s question about a story
(the operant). The teacher calls on her and she makes her comment (the reinforcement).

 Another kindergarten child blurts out her comment without being called on (the operant).
The teacher frowns, ignores this behavior, but before the teacher calls on a different
student, classmates are listening attentively (the reinforcement) to the student even
though he did not raise his hand as he should have.

 A twelfth-grade student—a member of the track team—runs one mile during practice (the
operant). He notes the time it takes him as well as his increase in speed since joining the
team (the reinforcement).

 A child who is usually very restless sits for five minutes doing an assignment (the
operant). The teaching assistant compliments him for working hard (the reinforcement).

 A sixth-grader takes home a book from the classroom library to read overnight (the
operant). When she returns the book the next morning, her teacher puts a gold star by her
name on a chart posted in the room (the reinforcement).

These examples are enough to make several points about operant conditioning. First, the
process is widespread in classrooms—probably more widespread than teachers realize. This
fact makes sense, given the nature of public education: to a large extent, teaching is about
making certain consequences (like praise or marks) depend on students’ engaging in certain
activities (like reading certain material or doing assignments). Second, learning by operant
conditioning is not confined to any particular grade, subject area, or style of teaching, but by
nature happens in every imaginable classroom. Third, teachers are not the only persons
controlling reinforcements. Sometimes they are controlled by the activity itself (as in the track
team example), or by classmates (as in the “giggling” example). This leads to the fourth point:
that multiple examples of operant conditioning often happen at the same time. A case study in
Appendix A of this book (The decline and fall of Jane Gladstone) suggests how this happened
to someone completing student teaching.

Because operant conditioning happens so widely, its effects on motivation are a bit
complex. Operant conditioning can encourage intrinsic motivation, to the extent that the
reinforcement for an activity is the activity itself. When a student reads a book for the sheer
enjoyment of reading, for example, he is reinforced by the reading itself, and we we can say that
his reading is “intrinsically motivated.” More often, however, operant conditioning
stimulates both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation at the same time. The combining of both is
noticeable in the examples in the previous paragraph. In each example, it is reasonable to
assume that the student felt intrinsically motivated to some partial extent, even when reward
came from outside the student as well. This was because part of what reinforced their behavior
was the behavior itself—whether it was making faces, running a mile, or contributing to a
discussion. At the same time, though, note that each student probably was also extrinsically
motivated, meaning that another part of the reinforcement came from consequences or
experiences not inherently part of the activity or behavior itself. The boy who made a face was
reinforced not only by the pleasure of making a face, for example, but also by the giggles of
classmates. The track student was reinforced not only by the pleasure of running itself,
but also by knowledge of his improved times and speeds. Even the usually restless child sitting
still for five minutes may have been reinforced partly by this brief experience of unusually
focused activity, even if he was also reinforced by the teacher aide’s compliment. Note that the
extrinsic part of the reinforcement may sometimes be more easily observed or noticed than the
intrinsic part, which by definition may sometimes only be experienced within the individual and
not also displayed outwardly. This latter fact may contribute to an impression that sometimes
occurs, that operant conditioning is really just “bribery in disguise,” that only
the external reinforcements operate on students’ behavior. It is true that external reinforcement
may sometimes alter the nature or strength of internal (or intrinsic) reinforcement, but this is not
the same as saying that it destroys or replaces intrinsic reinforcement. But more about this issue
later!

Key concepts about operant conditioning: Operant conditioning is made more

complicated, but also more realistic, by several additional ideas. They can be confusing
because the ideas have names that sound rather ordinary, but that have special meanings with
the framework of operant theory. Among the most important concepts to understand are the
following:

 extinction
  generalization

 discrimination

 schedules of reinforcement

 cues

The paragraphs below explain each of these briefly, as well as their relevance to classroom
teaching and learning.

Extinction refers to the disappearance of an operant behavior because of lack of

reinforcement. A student who stops receiving gold stars or compliments for prolific reading of
library books, for example, may extinguish (i.e. decrease or stop) book-reading behavior. A
student who used to be reinforced for acting like a clown in class may stop clowning once
classmates stop paying attention to the antics.

Generalization refers to the incidental conditioning of behaviors similar to an original operant. If

a student gets gold stars for reading library books, then we may find her reading more of other
material as well—newspapers, comics, etc.–even if the activity is not reinforced directly. The
“spread” of the new behavior to similar behaviors is called generalization. Generalization is a lot
like the concept of transfer discussed early in this chapter, in that it is about extending prior
learning to new situations or contexts. From the perspective of operant conditioning, though,
what is being extended (or “transferred” or generalized) is a behavior, not knowledge or skill.

Discrimination means learning not to generalize. In operant conditioning, what

is not overgeneralized (i.e. what is discriminated) is the operant behavior. If I am a student who
is being complimented (reinforced) for contributing to discussions, I must also learn to
discriminate when to make verbal contributions from when not to make them—such as when
classmates or the teacher are busy with other tasks. Discrimination learning usually results from
the combined effects of reinforcement of the target behavior and extinction of similar
generalized behaviors. In a classroom, for example, a teacher might praise a student for
speaking during discussion, but ignore him for making very similar remarks out of turn. In
operant conditioning, the schedule of reinforcement refers to the pattern or frequency by
which reinforcement is linked with the operant. If a teacher praises me for my work, does she do
it every time, or only sometimes? Frequently or only once in awhile? In respondent conditioning,
however, the schedule in question is the pattern by which the conditioned stimulus is paired with
the unconditioned stimulus. If I am student with Mr Horrible as my teacher, does he scowl every
time he is in the classroom, or only sometimes? Frequently or rarely?
 Behavioral psychologists have studied schedules of reinforcement extensively (for
example, Ferster, et al., 1997; Mazur, 2005), and found a number of interesting effects of
different schedules. For teachers, however, the most important finding may be this: partial or
intermittent schedules of reinforcement generally cause learning to take longer, but also cause
extinction of learning to take longer. This dual principle is important for teachers because so
much of the reinforcement we give is partial or intermittent. Typically, if I am teaching, I can
compliment a student a lot of the time, for example, but there will inevitably be occasions when I
cannot do so because I am busy elsewhere in the classroom. For teachers concerned both
about motivating students and about minimizing inappropriate behaviors, this is both good news
and bad. The good news is that the benefits of my praising students’ constructive behavior will
be more lasting, because they will not extinguish their constructive behaviors immediately if I fail
to support them every single time they happen. The bad news is that students’ negative
behaviors may take longer to extinguish as well, because those too may have developed
through partial reinforcement. A student who clowns around inappropriately in class, for
example, may not be “supported” by classmates’ laughter every time it happens, but only some
of the time. Once the inappropriate behavior is learned, though, it will take somewhat longer to
disappear even if everyone—both teacher and classmates—make a concerted effort to ignore
(or extinguish) it.

Finally, behavioral psychologists have studied the effects of cues. In operant

conditioning, a cue is a stimulus that happens just prior to the operant behavior and that signals
that performing the behavior may lead to reinforcement. In the original conditioning experiments,
Skinner’s rats were sometimes cued by the presence or absence of a small electric light in their
cage. Reinforcement was associated with pressing a lever when, and only when, the light was
on. In classrooms, cues are sometimes provided by the teacher deliberately, and sometimes
simply by the established routines of the class. Calling on a student to speak, for example, can
be a cue that if the student does say something at that moment, then he or she may be
reinforced with praise or acknowledgment. But if that cue does not occur—if the student
is not called on—speaking may not be rewarded. In more everyday, non-behaviorist terms, the
cue allows the student to learn when it is acceptable to speak, and when it is not.

Activities/Assessment:
Make a reflection paper on Operant conditioning. Discuss it in your class.

Lesson 6

Cognitive Perspective
 A. Gestalt Psychology
B. Information Processing

Objectives

1. Describe the different Gestalt principles.

2. Demonstrate appreciation of the usefulness of Gestalt principles in the teaching-
learning process.

Cognitive Perspective

Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt psychology, school of psychology founded in the 20th century that
provided the foundation for the modern study of perception. Gestalt theory emphasizes
that the whole of anything is greater than its parts. That is, the attributes of the whole are
not deducible from analysis of the parts in isolation.Gestalt psychology is a school of
thought that believes all objects and scenes can be observed in their simplest forms.
Sometimes referred to as the 'Law of Simplicity,' the theory proposes that the whole of
an object or scene is more important than its individual parts. The perception of oneness
from many is the basis of gestalt. It derived from the 1890 German philosophy of
Gestaltqualität, meaning "form or shape," which explored the idea of perception. For
example, a picture might have several separate parts that work together to form one
perceived image. The gestalt effect is a ability of the brain to generate whole forms from
groupings of lines, shapes, curves and points. The theory is not a new
one. Gestalt dates to the 1890s and has been associated with great names in
philosophy and psychology over the years.
Activities/Assessment:
1. Watch the Video about Gestalt principles.
2. List at least 5 ways to apply psychology in the teaching and learning process.

Reference
https://study.com/academy/lesson/gestalt-psychology-definition-principles-quiz.html

Lesson 7

A. Gagne’s conditions of Learning

B. Ausubel’s Meaningful

Objectives
 1. Explain Gagne’s conditions of learning.
2. Articulate the benefits of using Gagne’s principles in teaching.
3. Discuss Ausubel’ssubsumption theory

Gagne’s Conditions of Learning (Robert Gagne)

This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning.
... Gagne identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills,
cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. According to Gagne, the higher orders
of learning in this hierarchy build upon the lower levels, requiring progressively greater amounts
of previous learning for their success. The lowest four orders tend to focus on the more
behavioural aspects of learning, while the highest four focus on the more cognitive aspects.
Chain learning- occurs when the learner is able to connect two or more previously learned stimulus-
response bond into a linked order; more complexed psychomotor skills are learned, but they tend to
occur naturally (Maheshwari, 2013) i.e. learning how to tie shoestrings or buttoning a shirt.

AusubelManingful Verbal Assumption Theory

David Ausubel is a psychologist who advanced a theory which contrasted
meaningful learning from rote learning. In Ausubel's view, to learn meaningfully, students must
relate new knowledge (concepts and propositions) to what they already know. ... These more
inclusive concepts or ideas are advance organizers. Ausubel's theory is concerned with how
individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a
school setting (in contrast to theories developed in the context of laboratory experiments). ...
Organizers act as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related
ideas.
agné theory is based upon an Information Processing model and described several factors that
influence learning and as such are called the Conditions of Learning. There are three elements
in Gagné's theory: a taxonomy; internal and external factors necessary to achieve learning and
nine events of instruction. While Gagne's theoretical framework covers all aspects of learning,
the focus of the theory is on intellectual skills. The theory has been applied to the design of
instruction in all domains (Gagner& Driscoll, 1988). In its original formulation (Gagne, 1 962),
special attention was given to military training settings.

Activities/Assessment:
1. Discuss what you perceive as the advantages and disadvantages of using
Gagne’s instructional events in lesson planning.
2. Make a simple lesson outline (teaching sequence) using Gagne’s instruction
event
Lesson 8

Bruner’s Constructivist Theory

Objectives

1. Describe the development of the child’s ability to represent knowledge.

2. Explain how the spiral curriculum works.

Constructivist Theory (Jerome Bruner)

A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active
process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past
knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes
decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental
models) provides meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to “go
beyond the information given”.As far as instruction is concerned, the instructor should try and
encourage students to discover principles by themselves. The instructor and student should
engage in an active dialog (i.e., socratic learning). The task of the instructor is to translate
information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner’s current state of
understanding. Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student
continually builds upon what they have already learned.Bruner (1966) states that a theory of
instruction should address four major aspects: (1) predisposition towards learning, (2) the ways
in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the
learner, (3) the most effective sequences in which to present material, and (4) the nature and
pacing of rewards and punishments. Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in
simplifying, generating new propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information.

Bruner’s constructivist theory is a general framework for instruction based upon the
study of cognition. Much of the theory is linked to child development research
(especially Piaget ). The ideas outlined in Bruner (1960) originated from a conference focused
on science and math learning. Bruner illustrated his theory in the context of mathematics and
social science programs for young children (see Bruner, 1973). The original development of the
framework for reasoning processes is described in Bruner, Goodnow& Austin (1951). Bruner
(1983) focuses on language learning in young children.Note that Constructivism is a very broad
conceptual framework in philosophy and science and Bruner’s theory represents one particular
perspective.This example is taken from Bruner (1973):“The concept of prime numbers appears
to be more readily grasped when the child, through construction, discovers that certain handfuls
of beans cannot be laid out in completed rows and columns. Such quantities have either to be
laid out in a single file or in an incomplete row-column design in which there is always one extra
or one too few to fill the pattern. These patterns, the child learns, happen to be called prime. It is
easy for the child to go from this step to the recognition that a multiple table , so called, is a
record sheet of quantities in completed mutiple rows and columns. Here is factoring,
multiplication and primes in a construction that can be visualized.”

Principles
1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student
willing and able to learn (readiness).
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral
organization).
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going
beyond the information given).
Activities/Assessment:
Reflection paper:From the Module on Bruner’s Constructivist Theory, I realized that….
References
 Bruner, J. (1960). The Process of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
 Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.

Lesson 9

Cognitive Processes

A. Constructivism
B. Transfer of Learning

Constructivism is 'an approach to learning that holds that people actively construct or make
their own knowledge and that reality is determined by the experiences of the learner' (Elliott et
al., 2000). Constructivism is the theory that says learners construct knowledge rather than just
passively take in information. As people experience the world and reflect upon those
experiences, they build their own representations and incorporate new information into their pre-
existing knowledge (schemas).

Related to this are the processes of assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation refers to the process of taking new information and fitting it into an existing
schema.
 Accommodation refers to using newly acquired information to revise and redevelop an existing
schema.

For example, if I believe that friends are always nice, and meet a new person who is always
nice to me I may call this person a friend, assimilating them into my schema. Perhaps, however,
I meet a different person who sometimes pushes me to try harder and is not always nice. I may
decide to change my schema to accommodate this person by deciding a friend doesn’t always
need to be nice if they have my best interests in mind. Further, this may make me reconsider
whether the first person still fits into my friend schema.

Consequences of constructivist theory are that:

 Students learn best when engaged in learning experiences rather passively receiving
information.
 Learning is inherently a social process because it is embedded within a social context as
students and teachers work together to build knowledge.
 Because knowledge cannot be directly imparted to students, the goal of teaching is to provide
experiences that facilitate the construction of knowledge.

This last point is worth repeating. A traditional approach to teaching focuses on delivering
information to students, yet constructivism argues that you cannot directly impart this
information. Only an experience can facilitate students to construct their own knowledge.
Therefore, the goal of teaching is to design these experiences.

Consequences for the classroom

There are many consequences for teaching and the classroom if you adhere to constructivist
principles. The following chart from the Teaching and Learning Resources wiki compares
traditional and constructivist classrooms across several components
Traditional Classroom Constructivist Classroom

Curriculum begins with the parts of the Curriculum emphasizes big concepts, beginning with
whole. Emphasizes basic skills. the whole and expanding to include the parts.

Strict adherence to fixed curriculum is

Pursuit of student questions and interests is valued.
highly valued.

Materials are primarily textbooks and Materials include primary sources of material and
workbooks. manipulative materials.
 Learning is interactive, building on what the student
Learning is based on repetition.
already knows.

Teachers disseminate information to

Teachers have a dialogue with students, helping
students. Students are recipients of
students construct their own knowledge.
knowledge.

Teacher's role is directive, rooted in

Teacher's role is interactive, rooted in negotiation.
authority.

Assessment includes student works, observations and

Assessment is through testing and
points of view, as well as tests. Process is as important
correct answers.
as product.

Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing with our

Knowledge is seen as inert.
experiences.

Students work primarily alone. Students work primarily in groups.

Essential components to constructivist teaching

There are several main components to include if you plan on adhering to constructivist
principles in your classroom or when designing your lessons. The following are from Baviskar,
Hartle& Whitney (2009):

 Elicit prior knowledge

New knowledge is created in relation to learner’s pre-existing knowledge. Lessons, therefore,
require eliciting relevant prior knowledge. Activities include: pre-tests, informal interviews and
small group warm-up activities that require recall of prior knowledge.
 Create cognitive dissonance
Assign problems and activities that will challenge students. Knowledge is built as learners
encounter novel problems and revise existing schemas as they work through the challenging
problem.
 Apply knowledge with feedback
Encourage students to evaluate new information and modify existing knowledge. Activities
should allow for students to compare pre-existing schema to the novel situation. Activities might
include presentations, small group or class discussions, and quizzes.
 Reflect on learning
Provide students with an opportunity to show you (and themselves) what they have learned.
 Activities might include: presentations, reflexive papers or creating a step-by-step tutorial for
another student

Examples of constructivist classroom activities

 Reciprocal teaching/learning
Allow pairs of students to teach each other.
 Inquiry-based learning (IBL)
Learners pose their own questions and seek answers to their questions via research and direct
observation. They present their supporting evidence to answer the questions. They draw
connections between their pre-existing knowledge and the knowledge they’ve acquired through
the activity. Finally, they draw conclusions, highlight remaining gaps in knowledge and develop
plans for future investigations.
o Examples of Inquiry-Based Labs (Video)
o Inquiry-Based Labs: A Case Study in Biological Sciences (Video)
o Assessment Options for Inquiry-Based Labs: Summative Assessment in Biological Sciences
Example (Video)
 Problem-based learning (PBL)
The main idea of PBL is similar to IBL: learners acquire knowledge by devising a solution to a
problem. PBL differs from IBL in that PBL activities provide students with real-world problems
that require students to work together to devise a solution. As the group works through the
challenging real-world problem, learners acquire communication and collaboration skills in
addition to knowledge.
o PBL In Action in Medical School (Video)
o Mercer University School of Medicine PBL (Video)
 Cooperative learning
Students work together in small groups to maximize their own and each other's learning.
Cooperative learning differs from typical group work in that it requires interdependence among
group members to solve a problem or complete an assignment.

Transfer of learning means the use of previously acquired knowledge and skills in new
learning or problem-solving situations. Thereby similarities and analogies between previous
and actual learning content and processes may play a crucial role.The theory says that
transfer will occur between tasks where the two tasks share a set of common stimulus
features. This means that the class of tasks to which a particular learned skill should transfer
should be definable by a careful analysis of the conditions of original learning.The main
purpose of any learning or education is that a person who acquires some knowledge or skill
in a formal and controlled situation like a classroom, or a training situation, will be able to
transfer such knowledge and skill to real life situations and adapt himself more effectively.
 There are 5 overarching paradigms of educational learning theories; behaviorism,
cognitivism, constructivism, design/brain-based, humanism and 21st Century skills.
Motor learning researchers have indicated that the best way to enhance transfer and
retention is to train learners using a variable practice structure rather than repetitive practice.
Positive transfer occurs when something we've learned previously aids us in learning at a
later time. ... The students understanding of their own learning ability, and taking that
knowledge with them into another lesson, is an example of positive transfer.There are three
main categories or philosophical frameworks under which learning theories fall: behaviorism,
cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable
aspects of learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based
learning.

Activities/Assessment:
1. Describe strategies to facilitate concept learning.
2. Make a Clip art

Lesson 11

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

Objectives

1. Formulate learning outcomes reflecting the different levels of the revised taxonomy.
2. Explore the use of technology apps in applying the revised taxonomy.

Introduction

What can you say about this paradigm?

 The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, known as Bloom's Taxonomy (Bloom,
Engelhart, Furst, & Krathwohl, 1956) is one of the most recognized learning theories in
the field of education. Educators often use Bloom's Taxonomy to create learning
outcomes that target not only subject matter but also the depth of learning they want
students to achieve, and to then create assessments that accurately report on students’
progress towards these outcomes (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).

Bloom's Taxonomy comprises three learning domains: the cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor, and assigns to each of these domains a hierarchy that corresponds to
different levels of learning. It's important to note that the different levels of thinking
defined within each domain of the Taxonomy are hierarchical. In other words, each level
subsumes the levels that come before it. So, if we look at the cognitive domain for
example (which is represented in Figure 1), we can infer that before a student can
conduct an analysis, they first might need to know the methods of analysis, understand
the different elements to review, and consider which method to apply. It is only then that
they will be ready to conduct the analysis itself.

Figure 1: The hierarchy of the cognitive domain of Bloom's Taxonomy (1956).

Bloom's Taxonomy revised

In 2001, David Krathwohl (one of Bloom’s original collaborators) and co-editor

Lorin Anderson published a revision to the 1956 hierarchy with contributions from
cognitive psychologists, curriculum theorists, instructional researchers, and testing and
assessment specialists. This new revised version introduced a key change to the
cognitive domain of Bloom's Taxonomy: it shifted the language used from nouns to verbs
(see Figure 2) and thereby focused the attention away from acquisition and toward
active performance of the types of learning involved in each stage of the hierarchy.
"Synthesis" was also dropped and "create" was moved to the highest level of the
domain.

Figure 2. Anderson and Krathwol's (2001) revision to Bloom's cognitive hierarchy.

Bloom's Taxonomy in practice

To provide a deeper look at how Bloom's Taxonomy works in practice, we break

down each domain — the cognitive, affective, and pyschomotor — in the following
sections of this Teaching Tip. Here, we present example learning outcomes and
assessments mapped to each level of the domain hierarchies to help you make use of
Bloom’s Taxonomy.

Cognitive domain

The cognitive domain is focused on intellectual skills such as critical thinking, problem
solving, and creating a knowledge base. It was the first domain created by the original
group of Bloom’s researchers. The cognitive hierarchy spans from simple memorization
designed to build the knowledge of learners, to creating something new based on
previously-learned information. In this domain, learners are expected to progress linearly
through the hierarchy, beginning at "remember" and ending at "create." When writing
your own learning outcomes, we encourage you to choose verbs that best describe what
is expected (e.g., for remember, you might consider define, identify, list, recall,
recognize, match, etc.). A search for “Bloom’s Verbs” will provide lists of synonyms to
use.

Cognitive hierarchy

Remember

1. Sample learning outcome: Remember the names and relationships of a cast of

characters in a play.
2. Sample assessment/activity: A multiple-choice test designed to test the memory of
learners.

Rationale: A multiple-choice test will allow educators to see whether students have
effectively memorized the given material.

Understand

1. Sample learning outcome: Understand and explain the main ideas of a play or piece
of literature.
2. Sample assessment/activity: Write a short (1 page) paper summarizing the plot and
most important events in the play.

Rationale: Writing a summary encourages learners to think about what the most
important parts of a piece of literature are, and to decide which aspects of the plot to
discard in favor of a concise summary. It allows educators to evaluate whether or not
they have understood the main idea of the play.

Apply

1. Sample learning outcome: Apply the main ideas/themes in the play to another
context.
2. Sample assessment/activity: Write an advice column responding to one of the
characters.

Rationale: In doing this assignment, learners will consider the implications of a

character’s actions outside of the consequences shown in the play.

Analyze
1. Sample learning outcome: Be able to analyze the relative roles of each character in
the play and their relationships to each other.
2. Sample assessment/activity: Write an analytical paper comparing the antagonists
and protagonists of the play.

Rationale: Through this assignment, as learners consider what makes each character an
antagonist or a protagonist, they need to use both their knowledge of the play and critical
thinking skills.

Evaluate

1. Sample learning outcome: Evaluate the decisions of characters in the play, and
support your evaluation with textual evidence.
2. Sample assessment/activity: Write a response to one of the events in the play, either
supporting or rejecting their actions on the basis of evidence from the play as well as
personal opinion and projected/actual consequences of action.

Rationale: Through this assignment, learners will consider the rationale and
consequences for actions in the play, leading them to understand and make judgements
about the validity of a character’s decision making.

Create

1. Sample learning outcome: Create a new and unique piece of writing using similar
plot devices.
2. Sample assessment/activity: Create a short story using similar plot devices in a new
time or setting.

Rationale: Through this activity, learners must integrate the plot devices and writing
techniques into a new setting, allowing them to practice their creative writing skills and
showing their full understanding of the writer's techniques.

Affective domain

The affective domain focuses on the attitudes, values, interests, and appreciation
of learners. The hierarchy associated with it begins with receiving and listening to
information, and extends to characterization, or internalizing values and consistently
acting upon them. It focuses on allowing learners to understand what their own values
are and how they have developed.

Affective hierarchy
Receiving

1. Sample learning outcome: Listen to other students with respect.

2. Sample assessment/activity: Be an audience member to another student’s
presentation, and then write a summary.

Rationale: Through this assignment, learners will learn how to listen effectively to others
as well as remember key details about their presentation (used in writing the summary).

Responding

1. Sample learning outcome: Speak effectively in front of an audience and actively

respond to others.
2. Sample assessment/activity: Present on a subject in front of the class, and answer
questions from peers about their presentation.

Rationale: Through this, learners will become more comfortable with public speaking as
well as more comfortable with contributing to a discussion in the form of answering
questions.

Valuing

1. Sample learning outcome: Demonstrate and explain own values regarding various
topics.
2. Sample assessment/activity: Write an opinion piece on any issue, explaining one’s
own stance and reasons supporting that stance.

Rationale: Through this, learners will explore not only their own values but why they
support their values, giving them a chance to understand more fully their own value
system.

Organization

1. Sample learning outcome: Compare value systems and understand evidence behind
values.
2. Sample assessment/activity: Organize and compare different cultural value systems,
evaluating the differences between them and why these differences may have
arisen.
Rationale: In doing this activity, learners will consider how value systems are put into
place and organized, as well as the evidence that supports different value systems
across the world.

Characterization

1. Sample learning outcome: Work well in a team of peers.

2. Sample assessment/activity: A group project, including group work on any
assignment.

Rationale: By working in a group, learners must balance their own values with the values
of the team, as well as prioritize tasks and practice teamwork.

Psychomotor domain

The psychomotor domain encompasses the ability of learners to physically

accomplish tasks and perform movement and skills. There are several different versions
including different hierarchies – the examples here fall into Harrow’s (1972) theory of the
psychomotor domain. This hierarchy ranges from reflexes and basic movement to non-
discursive communication and meaningfully expressive activity.

Psychomotor Hierarchy

Reflex

1. Sample learning outcome: Instinctively respond to a physical stimulus.

2. Sample assessment/activity: A game of dodgeball.

Rationale: Learners must react (dodge) the balls that are being thrown at them, allowing
them to develop their reflexive skills.

Basic fundamental movements

1. Sample learning outcome: Perform a simple action (including running and throwing).
2. Sample assessment/activity: A game of dodgeball.

Rationale: Learners must run and throw to actively engage the opposing team, allowing
them to develop these skills.

Perceptual abilities

1. Sample learning outcome: Use more than one ability to integrate different sensory
perceptions.
2. Sample assessment/activity: A game of catch or soccer (or other game involving
movement and passing).

Rationale: Learners must integrate running, visual information about the position of the
ball, and predictive information about the future position of the ball.

Physical abilities

1. Sample learning outcome: Sustain an activity for a set period of time.

2. Sample assessment/activity: Run for 25 minutes steadily.

Rationale: This activity is a measure of the learner’s stamina and physical fitness.

Skilled movements

1. Sample learning outcome: Adapt one’s behaviour and movement to better achieve
goals.
2. Sample assessment/activity: A soccer or other strategic game (football, hockey).

Rationale: This activity allows teams to change their strategy and individuals to change
their physical behaviour depending on the response of the other team.

Non-discursive communication

1. Sample learning outcome: Express oneself through purposeful movement and

activity.
2. Sample assessment/activity: A soccer or other strategic game (football, hockey)

Rationale: These games all involve teamwork, strategy, and integrative and purposeful
movement. Successful teams must integrate all of their senses, communicate through
movement, and use a variety of adaptive strategies.

Activities/Assessment:
Make a ”topic” for teaching. Formulate learning outcomes.

References:
1. Anderson, L., & Krathwohl, D. A. (2001). Taxonomy for learning, teaching and
assessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York:
Longman.
2. Armstrong, P. (n.d.). Bloom’s Taxonomy. Center for Teaching, Vanderbilt University.
 3. Bloom, B. S.; Engelhart, M. D.; Furst, E. J.; Hill, W. H.; Krathwohl, D. R. (1956).
Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals.
Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay Company.
4. Harrow, A.J. (1972). A taxonomy of the psychomotor domain. New York: David
McKay Co.

Lesson 12

Motivation
A. Meaning and types of Motivation
B. Theories on Factors Affecting Motivation

Objectives

1. Distinguish between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.

2. Justify the role of extrinsic motivation in view of the development of intrinsic
motivation.

Introduction

Let’s analyze!!!

“There is no end to education. It is not that you read a book, pass an examination, and finish
with education. The whole of life, from the moment you are born to the moment you die, is a
process of learning. “-Jiddu Krishnamurti

True learning is a life-long process. But to continuously achieve, our children must find it
enjoyable and rewarding to learn so they can develop a sustained level of motivation necessary
for long-term achievement.

Curiosity and motivation to learn is the force that enables students to seek out
intellectual and experiential novelty and encourages students to approach unfamiliar and often
challenging circumstances with anticipation of growth and expectation to succeed. Highly
motivated students are usually actively and spontaneously involved in activities and find the
process of learning enjoyable without expecting any external rewards (Skinner & Belmont,
1993). On the other hand, students who exhibit low levels of motivation to learn will often
depend on the rewards to encourage them to participate in activities they may not find
enjoyable.
 According to one study (Malone, & Lepper, 1987), seven factors endorse motivation:
these are; a. Challenge, b. Curiosity, c. Control, d. Fantasy, e. Competition, f. Cooperation, and
g. recognition.

A comprehensive understanding of motivation is desperately needed to:

1. promote engagement in our classrooms,

2. foster the motivation to learn and develop talent,
3. support the desire to stay in school rather than drop out, and
4. inform teachers how to provide a motivationally supportive classroom climate.

Four theories may be placed under this category: Maslow's hierarchy of needs, ERG theory,
Herzberg's two-factor theory, and McClelland's acquired-needs theory.

Activities/Assessment:
1. discuss the following Theories of Motivation
a. Maslow's hierarchy of needs,
b. ERG theory,
c. Herzberg's two-factor theory,
d. and McClelland's
2. Make a Reflection on learning experiences

References:
1. https://positivepsychology.com/motivation-education/

Lesson 13

Student’s diversity in Motivation

Human Environmental Factors Affecting Motivation

Objectives

1. Explain two principles on the social and cultural influences on motivation.

2. Present the social and cultural influences on the cognitive and motivational
processes of learning by means of a graphic organizer.

Introduction
 Student's Diversity in Motivation means student who, by themselves are already
as diverse , also differ in motivation. This Diversity in motivation may be traced to
differences in Age , developmental stage , gender , socio-economic and cultural
background.Having a diverse group of students simply means recognizing that all the
people are unique in their own way. Their differences could consist of their reading level,
athletic ability, cultural background, personality, religious beliefs, and the list goes on.

Factors that Influence Students' Motivation in Education

1. Class and Curriculum Structure. ...

2. Teacher Behavior and Personality. ...
3. Teaching Methods. ...
4. Parental Habits and Involvement. ...
5. Family Issues and Instability. ...
6. Peer Relationships. ...
7. Learning Environment. ...
8. Assessment.

At the end of this lesson, students are expected to:

1.Distinguish which are the human environmental factors affects a learner,

2.Describe whether a classroom climate is conducive for learning,

3.Cite ways to make assessment more motivating for students

Motivation in the Classroom

One of the biggest challenges in the classroom is thinking of how to improve student
motivation. As said in the previous module, there are two types of motivation for learning which
are intrinsic and extrinsic. It can be taken into account that one of the teacher’s responsibility in
the classroom is to engage their learners in learning by tapping into intrinsic and extrinsic
motivations. There are some ways where a teacher could improve learner’s motivation inside
the classroom such as: Fostering a positive learning environment. –

A teacher’s personality sets the tone of the class. When a teacher shows enthusiasm
and passion in teaching, it can be contagious for most students, who will model the positive
behavior that the teacher shows. Aside from teaching the curriculum, the teacher could be a role
model to reinforce the positive behaviors that your students show. Guarantee that rules are laid
out in the class in detailed so students feel safe to participate and share their opinions and
questions without being ridiculed. Having a sense of freedom to express themselves helps
students to be encouraged and engaged.

Motivation in the Classroom

1. Building rapport with students. –It is said that students who have positive relationships with
their teachers are more engaged in learning. The teacher can conduct group discussion about a
subject that interest them to uncover their personalities.

2. Preparing engaging lessons. –It doesn’t matter what subject has to be covered, the teacher
must always find ways to make the material fun, exciting and engaging to your students.
Facilitate student activities that gives insight to their interests, backgrounds and future goals.
Students are often unmotivated because they are bored to the class routine. Ensure that you
get their attention with music, art, and hands-on activities to tune them into the curriculum.

3. Give your learners options –each learner is unique. With this, provide a variety of projects
and activities to peak their interest.

4. Start a reward program –rewarding learners reinforces positive behavior, and students
eventually internalize the desire for learning. A reward program includes giving praises for
completing assignments and being active participants during class discussion and activities.

Activities/Assessment:
1. By means of a graphic organizer, list down behavioral traits of parents who are
supportive of children’s studies.
2. Reflection on learning experiences about Bullying.

References:
https://www.coursehero.com/file/53380979/w12-Module-010-Motivation-in-the-
Classroompdf/

Lesson 14

A. The Classroom Climate

B. The Physical Environment
Assessment strategies that Can Increase Motivation

Objectives
 1. Describe the classroom climate that is conducive for learning by the use of simile or
metaphor.
2. Create a conducive classroom climate in a simulation.
3. Demonstrate appreciation of assessment as a process to evaluate and facilitate
learning.

Introduction

Classroom climate

Classroom climate refers to the prevailing mood, attitudes, standards, and tone that you
and your students feel when they are in your classroom. A negative classroom climate can feel
hostile, chaotic, and out of control. A positive classroom climate feels safe, respectful,
welcoming, and supportive of student learning.The Importance of a Positive Classroom.
Classroom environment is one of the most important factors affecting student learning. ... Such
an environment provides relevant content, clear learning goals and feedback, opportunities to
build social skills, and strategies to help students succeed (Weimer, 2009).

The ideal classroom is a positive place where a student can come to work toward
specific goals set before them in the class objectives. The teacher is to be positive, organized,
outgoing, confident, and compassionate. The instructor often sets the tone for the entire
classroom. The Successful Classroom, give teachers the tools to strengthen their skills in
learner-centered instruction and classroom management through a participatory workshop. The
Successful Classroom's mission is to promote equity, excellence, and learning for all students
through four different modules.Classroom behavior and classroom communities are very
cohesive components of classroom management.

The Physical environment

Physical environment refers to the level of upkeep, ambient noise, lighting, indoor air quality
and/or thermal comfort of the school’s physical building and its location within the
community.The physical environment of the school speaks to the contribution that safe, clean,
and comfortable surroundings make to a positive school climate in which students can learn.The
physical environment includes land, air, water, plants and animals, buildings and other
infrastructure, and all of the natural resources that provide our basic needs and opportunities for
social and economic development. A clean, healthy environment is important for people's
physical and emotional wellbeing.Today, the Earth has, on average, a temperate,
accommodating environment for human standards. Today, anything that supports life, such as
the atmosphere, the oceans and climate zones such as deserts, tundra and tropical rainforests,
which exist worldwide, is considered a physical environment.
Activities/Assessment:
1. Simulate a classroom setting
2. Let 2 students introduce their classroom rules in a creative way in class. Evaluate
the process as a group.

References:

1. Lucas, marita D. and Corpuz,BrendaB.;Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process,

2014 4th Edition.
2. Marzano, Robert J. (2003) Classroom Management That Works: Research-Based
Strategies foe Every Teacher, Alexandria, Virginia; Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development

Grading System

Class Standing 70%

 Quizzes
Midterm Grade + Final Term Grade = FINAL GRADE
 Attendance
2
 Recitation
 Projects/Assignments/Seatwork/Special Report

Midterm / Final Examinations 30%

100%

DR. MANOLITO S. SAN JOSE

DESED Faculty
August 5, 2020