LESSON 1: SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Systems of linear equations play an important and motivating role in the subject of linear
algebra. In fact, many problems in linear algebra reduce to finding the solution of a system of
linear equations. Thus, the techniques introduced in this chapter will be applicable to abstract
ideas introduced later. On the other hand, some of the abstract results will give us new insights
into the structure and properties of systems of linear equations.
All our systems of linear equations involve scalars as both coefficients and constants,
and such scalars may come from any number field K. There is almost no loss in generality if the
reader assumes that all our scalars are real numbers – that is, that they come from the real field
R.

Linear Equations and Solutions

A linear equation in unknowns x1, x2, …, xn is an equation that can be put in standard
form
a 1 x 1+ a2 x 2 +…+ an x n =b
where a1, a2, …, an and b are constants. The constant ak is called the coefficient of xk, and b is
called the constant term of the equation.
A solution of the linear equation is a list of values for the unknowns that satisfy the
equation.

Example. Consider the following linear equation in three unknowns x, y, z:

x +2 y −3 z=6

We note that x = 5, y = 2, z = 1 is the solution of the equation. That is,

5+2 ( 2 )−3 ( 1 )=6

5+ 4−3=6
6=6

System of Linear Equations

A system of linear equations is a list of linear equations with the same unknowns. In
particular, a system of m linear equations L1, L2, …, Lm in n unknowns x1, x2, …, xn can be put in
standard form
a 11 x1 + a12 x 2+ …+a1 n x n=b1
a 21 x1 + a22 x 2+ …+a 2n x n=b 2
.........................
 a m 1 x 1+ am 2 x2 +…+ amn xn =bm
where aij and bi are constants. The number aij is the coefficient of the unknown xj in the equation
Li, and the number bi is the constant of the equation Li.
The system is called a m× n (read : m by n) system where m is the number of equations
and n is the number of unknowns. A system is called a square system if the m = n.
The system is said to be homogeneous if all the constant terms are zero – that is, if
b1=0, b2 = 0, …, bm = 0. Otherwise, the system is said to be nonhomogeneous.
A solution (or a particular solution) of the system is a list of values for the unknowns. The
set of all solutions of the system is called the solution set or the general solution of the problem.

Example. Consider the following system of linear equations:

x 1+ x2 + 4 x 3+3 x 4 =5
2 x1 +3 x 2+ x3 −2 x 4 =1
x 1+ 2 x 2−5 x 3+ 4 x 4 =1

It is a 3 x 4 system because it has three equations in four unknowns. Determine whether (a)
u=(−8 ,6 , 1 ,1) and v=(−10 ,5 , 1 ,2)
(a) Substitute the values of u in each equation, obtaining

−8+ 6+4 (1 )+3 ( 1 )=5 or −8+ 6+4 +3=5 or 5=5

2 (−8 ) +3 ( 6 ) +1−( 1 )=1 or −16+18+1−2=1 or 1=1
−8+2 ( 6 )−5 ( 1 )+ 4 ( 1 )=1 or −8+12−5+4=1 or 1=1
Therefore, u is a solution of the system because it is a solution of each equation

(b) Substitute the values of v in each equation, obtaining

−10+5+ 4 ( 1 ) +3 ( 2 )=5 or −10+5+ 4+6=5 or 5=5

2 (−10 ) +3 ( 5 ) +1−2 ( 2 )=1 or −20+15+1−4=1 or −8=1
Therefore, v is NOT a solution of the system because it is not a solution of the second
equation.

The system of linear equations is said to be consistent if it has one or more solutions,
and it is said to be inconsistent if it has no solution.
 System of linear
equations

Inconsistent Consistent

Infinite number of
No solution Unique solution
solutions

Matrices and System of Linear Equations

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. The numbers in the array are called
elements of the matrix.
Matrices are usually denoted by capital letters. Examples of matrices in standard
notation are

[ ] [ ]
7 1 3 5 6
[
A= 2 3 −4
7 5 −1 ] B= 0 5
−8 3
C= 0 −2 5
8 9 12

Rows and Columns. Matrices consist of rows and columns. Rows are labeled from the top of
the matrix, columns from the left. The following matrix has two rows and three columns.

[ 27 3 −4
5 −1 ]
Size and Type. The size of a matrix is described by specifying the number of rows and columns
in the matrix. For example, a matrix having two rows and three columns is said to be a 2 x 3
matrix; the first number indicates the number of rows, and the second indicates the number of
columns. When the number of rows is equal to the number of columns, the matrix is said to be a
square matrix. A matrix consisting of one row is called a row matrix. A matrix consisting of one
column is a column matrix. The following matrices are of stated sizes and types.

[ ] []
2 5 7 8
[ 1 0 3
−2 4 5 ] −9 0 1
−3 5 8
[ 4 −3 8 5 ] 3
2
1 ×4 matrix 3 ×1 matrix
2 ×3 matrix 3 ×3 matrix
a row matrix a column matrix

Location. The location of an element in a matrix is described by giving the row and column in
which the element lies. For example, consider the following matrix.
 [ 27 3 −4
5 −1 ]
The element 7 is in row 2, column 1. We say, that it is in location (2, 1).
The element in location (1, 3) is -4. Note that the convention is to give the row in which
the element lies, followed by the column.

Identity Matrices. An identity matrix is a square matrix with 1s in the diagonal locations (1,1),
(2, 2), (3, 3), etc., and zeroes elsewhere. We write In for the n × n identity matrix. The following
matrices are identity matrices.

[ ]
1 0 0
[ ]
I 2=
1 0
0 1
, I 3= 0 1 0
0 0 1

There are two important matrices associated with every system of linear equations. The
coefficients of the variables form a matrix called the matrix of coefficients of the system. The
coefficients, together with the constant terms, form a matrix called the augmented matrix of the
system. For example, the matrix of coefficients and the augmented matrix of the following
system of linear equations are as shown:

[ ] [ ]
x1 + x 2+ x3 =2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
2 x 1 +3 x 2+ x 3=3 2 3 1 2 3 1 3
x 1−x 2−2 x3 =−6 1 −1 −2 1 −1 −2 −6

matrix of coefficients augmented matrix

Observe that the matrix of coefficients is a submatrix of the augmented matrix . The augmented
matrix completely describes the system.

2 × 2 Systems
Let us examine geometrically a system of the form

a 11 x1 + a12 x 2=b1
a 21 x1 +a22 x 2=b 2

Each equation can be represented graphically as a line in the plane. The ordered pair
(x1, x2) will be a solution of the system if and only if it lies on both lines. For example, consider
the three systems

x 1 + x 2=2 x 1+ x2 =2 x 1 + x 2=2
(i) (ii) (iii)
x 1−x 2=2 x 1+ x2 =1 −x 1−x 2=−2
 The two lines in system (i) intersect at the point (2, 0). Thus, {(2, 0)} is the solution set of
(i). In system (ii) the two lines are parallel. Therefore, system (ii) is inconsistent and hence its
solution set is empty. The two equations in system (iii) both represent the same line. Any point
on this line will be a solution of the system.
In general, there are three possibilities: the lines intersect at a point, they are parallel, or
both equations represent the same line. The solution set then contains either one, zero, or
infinitely many points.

Practice
Test your understanding by answering the following problems.
1. Determine the matrix coefficients and augmented matrix of each of the following systems
of equations.

x 1+ 3 x 2=7 −x 1+ 3 x 2−5 x 3=−3

(a)
2 x1 −5 x 2=−3 (b) 2 x 1−2 x 2+ 4 x 3=8
x 1 +3 x2 =6

2. Interpret the following matrices as augmented matrices of systems of equations. Write

down each system of equation.

[ 14 ] [ ]
2 3 8 7 5 −1
(a)
5 6 (b) 4 6 2 4
9 37 6
References

Khan, S. (n.d.). Khan Academy. Retrieved August 31, 2020, from

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/precalculus/x9e81a4f98389efdf:matrices/
x9e81a4f98389efdf:mat-intro/e/matrix_dimensions?modal=1

Khan, S. (n.d.). Matrices | Precalculus | Math. Retrieved August 31, 2020, from
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/precalculus/x9e81a4f98389efdf:matrices/
x9e81a4f98389efdf:mat-intro/e/understand-matrix-coordinates?modal=1

Khan, S. (n.d.). Matrices | Precalculus | Math. Retrieved August 31, 2020, from
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/precalculus/x9e81a4f98389efdf:matrices/
x9e81a4f98389efdf:representing-systems-with-matrices/e/represent-systems-with-
matrices?modal=1

Khan Academy (Director). (2011, March 8). Consistent and inconsistent systems | Algebra II |
Khan Academy [Video file]. Retrieved August 31, 2020, from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ix8Nne-a-KQ

Leon, S. J. (2010). Linear Algebra with Applications: Eighth Edition. Pearson Education.

Lipschutz, S., & Lipson, M. (2009). Linear algebra. New York: McGraw-Hill.