THE

CHRISTIANE GRUBER is Professor of Islamic Art in the

MOON

MOON
THE A Voyage
History of Art Department at the University of Michigan, Through Time
Ann Arbor. Her primary fields of research include Islamic
book arts, figural painting, depictions of the Prophet
As the earth’s only natural satellite, the moon has
Muhammad, and Islamic ascension texts and images,
intrigued and inspired humans since the dawn of
about which she has written three books and edited
civilization. Within Islamic cultural spheres in particular,
half a dozen volumes. She also pursues research in
the sun and the moon are known conjointly as the “two
Islamic codicology and paleography, having authored
celestial luminaries.” Often conceptualized as a lesser
the catalogue of Islamic calligraphies in the Library of
sun, the moon breaks the day’s heat and illuminates the

A Voyage Through Time

Congress as well as edited a volume of articles on Islamic
night sky, providing relief from the elements and travel
manuscript traditions. Her third field of specialization
guidance in darkness. It has also served as the ultimate
is modern Islamic visual and material culture, about
timekeeper as well as a regulator of canonical acts,
which she has written several articles and co-edited a
including the determination of the fasting month of
number of volumes.
Ramadan and the yearly pilgrimage to Mecca.
Although centuries-old, our fascination with the
ON THE COVER: Details of The Moon, folio from
moon and the cosmos has accelerated ever since the first
a Falnameh (Book of Omens), India, second half of
landing on the moon in 1969. This book commemorates
sixteenth century, opaque watercolour, ink, and gold on
the fiftieth anniversary of the Apollo 11 lunar mission.
paper, 49 x 35 cm. Wereldmuseum, Rotterdam, WM-
While this landmark event proved a giant leap for
71803-1. Photo © Collection Wereldmuseum, Rotterdam,
mankind, humans inhabiting the sublunary world have
The Netherlands. Acquired with the support of the
been wayfarers into the celestial spheres in thought,
Vereniging Rembrandt.
word, practice, and art since time immemorial.
The Moon: A Voyage Through Time is published
in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name
at the Aga Khan Museum in Toronto from March 9 to
August 18, 2019. The book takes the reader on a journey
that encompasses the moon’s pivotal role in ancient
Near Eastern civilizations as well as its influence on the
Islamic faith, scientific inquiry, the portable arts, Persian
Sufi poetry, Ottoman and Mughal visual and material
cultures, and modern and contemporary art. In this trek
across time and space, artworks made in the Middle
East and beyond help us to understand our ongoing
CAD/US $49.99
engagement with the moon.

www.agakhanmuseum.org THE
MOON A Voyage
Through Time
Edited by Christiane Gruber
 THE
MOON A Voyage
Through Time

Edited by Christiane Gruber

33108_Moon Book a-6.indd 3 2019-02-26 10:03 AM

 Text copyright © 2019 by The Aga Khan Museum
Images and works of art copyright © 2019 by museums, galleries, and organizations as indicated.

Published in conjunction with The Moon: A Voyage Through Time, an exhibition organized by the Aga Khan Museum and
presented from March 9 to August 18, 2019.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise (except brief passages for purposes of review), without
the prior permission of the Aga Khan Museum. Permission to photocopy should be requested from Access Copyright.

First published in Canada in 2019 by

Aga Khan Museum
77 Wynford Drive
Toronto, Ontario
M3C 1K1
www.agakhanmuseum.org

Editor and Co-Curator: Christiane Gruber

Project Manager and Copy Editor: Michael Carroll
Publications: Jovanna Scorsone, Education and Public Engagement Manager, Aga Khan Museum
Cover and Interior Design: The Swerve Design Group Inc.

5 4 3 2 1 23 22 21 20 19

ISBN 978-1-926473-15-4

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Title: The moon : a voyage through time / edited by Christiane Gruber.

Other titles: Moon (Toronto, Ont.)
Names: Gruber, Christiane J., editor. | Aga Khan Museum (Toronto, Ont.), host institution, publisher.
Description: Catalogue of an exhibition held at the Aga Khan Museum from March 9 to August 18, 2019. | Includes bibliographical
references.
Identifiers: Canadiana 20190055286 | ISBN 9781926473154 (softcover)
Subjects: LCSH: Islamic arts — Exhibitions. | LCSH: Islamic art and symbolism — Exhibitions. | LCSH: Islam and art —
Exhibitions. | LCSH: Moon — In art — Exhibitions. | LCSH: Islamic literature — History and criticism. | LCSH: Moon —
In literature. | LCSH: Islam and science. | LCGFT: Exhibition catalogues.
Classification: LCC NX688.A4 M66 2019 | DDC 709.17/671074713541 — dc23

Printed in Canada

33108_Moon Book a-6.indd 4 2019-02-26 10:03 AM

 CONTENTS

1 FOREWORD
HENRY S. KIM

2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CHRISTIANE GRUBER AND ULRIKE AL-KHAMIS

3 NOTE TO THE READER

4 INTRODUCTION
CHRISTIANE GRUBER

ESSAYS
8 Visualizing the Moon in the Ancient Near East
ÖMÜR HARMANŞAH

15 From Timekeeper to Dimmed Sun

The Moon’s Long Shadow in the Qur’an and Islamic Literature
WALID A. SALEH

22 The Moon in the Sciences

HAMID BOHLOUL AND SONJA BRENTJES

29 The Moon in Islamic Portable Arts

FRANCESCA LEONI

35 “The Real Intention Was My Beloved”

The Moon in Persian Sufi Poetry
OMID SAFI

45 From Auspicious Ornament to State Symbol

The Crescent Moon in Ottoman Art and Architecture
ÜNVER RÜSTEM

56 Moonlight Empire
Lunar Imagery in Mughal India
YAEL RICE

63 Travelling Crafts
The Moon and Science Fiction in Modern and Contemporary
Middle Eastern Art
ELIZABETH RAUH

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 CATALOGUE
75 The Moon in Pre-Islamic Middle Eastern Civilizations
89 The Moon in Islamic Faith and Spirituality
125 The Moon in Islamic Science
161 The Moon in Islamic Arts
207 The Moon in Modern and Contemporary Islamic Art

226 BIBLIOGRAPHY

233 CONTRIBUTORS’ BIOGRAPHIES

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 Foreword

J
uly 20, 2019, marks the fiftieth anniversary of the first landing of humans on the moon.
The moment Neil Armstrong stepped out of the lunar module of Apollo 11 onto the
moon’s surface marked not only the beginning of future space exploration — “a giant
leap for mankind” — it also symbolized the culmination point of humanity’s longing,
curiosity, and fascination attached to the moon over thousands of years. Around the world
the silent mystery and wondrous beauty of the closest heavenly body to earth have inspired
belief systems, science, and the arts, and continue to do so to this day.
The Moon: A Voyage Through Time celebrates the fiftieth anniversary of the moon landing
and is the first exhibition of its kind. It focuses on the central role the moon has played in
the faith, science, and arts of the Muslim world. The exhibition brings together manuscripts,
miniature paintings, scientific instruments, artifacts, and spectacular contemporary art,
including Luke Jerram’s mesmerizing Moon installation, to tell a multitude of stories
about the moon’s importance in inspiring spiritual growth, scientific discovery, and
artistic creativity.
This publication is intended to complement the exhibition with new, interdisciplinary
research. It covers a wide range of topics, examining the moon’s role in the Ancient Near
East; the Qur’an and Islamic literature; science; Sufi poetry; and the art of Ottoman, Mughal,
and other Islamic cultures, as well as contemporary art.
The Aga Khan Museum would like to sincerely thank the authors and Christiane
Gruber, co-curator of the exhibition and editor of this publication. We would also like to
acknowledge and thank our lenders and the contemporary artists who participated in the
exhibition: the Cleveland Museum of Art; Columbia University Libraries, New York City;
Farjam Foundation, London; Harvard Art Museums, Cambridge; Morgan Library and
Museum, New York City; History of Science Museum, Oxford; National Museum of World
Cultures, Amsterdam; Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto; Tropenmuseum (Museum of the
Tropics), Amsterdam; University of Michigan Library, Ann Arbor; Victoria and Albert
Museum, London; Wereldmuseum (World Museum), Rotterdam; and Ala Ebtekar, Ayham
Jabr, Canan Şenol, Luke Jerram, Shahpour Pouyan, and Mohamed Zakariya.

Henry S. Kim
Director and CEO
Aga Khan Museum

Foreword | 1

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 Acknowledgements

T
his catalogue showcases objects displayed in the exhibition The Moon: A Voyage
Through Time, on view at the Aga Khan Museum in Toronto from March 9 to August
18, 2019. We wish to thank our many colleagues, in particular Silke Ackermann,
Cheryl Copson, Evyn Kropf, Mary McWilliams, Clemens Reichel, and Mirjam Shatanawi,
for their assistance in securing loans. A special thanks also goes to Ala Ebtekar, Ayham Jabr,
Canan Şenol, Luke Jerram, Venetia Porter, Shahpour Pouyan, and Mohamed Zakariya for
their contributions to the exhibition as well as to Justin Kasper, who provided NASA lunar
imagery of the moon’s craters for inclusion in the show.
The dynamic team at the Aga Khan Museum made the exhibition and publication
possible. We wish to thank Sarah Beam-Borg and her team — Simon Barron,
Curtis Amisich, Sarah Chate, and Ghazaleh Rabiei — for overseeing all aspects of the
exhibition; registrar Megan White for securing all loans; Alessandra Cirelli and Aly Manji for
handling all image-related issues; Bita Pourvash for her research assistance; Michael Carroll
and Jovanna Scorsone for their editorial and logistical supervision of the publication; and
Reich + Petch for the exhibition design.
Last but not least, we extend our thanks to Michelle Al-Ferzly for serving as a curatorial
assistant and contributing more than twenty entries to the catalogue. We are also most
grateful to the international scholars who wrote this volume’s eight landmark essays
exploring the moon in Ancient Near Eastern civilizations, the Islamic faith, scientific inquiry,
the portable arts, Persian Sufi poetry, Ottoman and Mughal visual and material cultures, and
modern and contemporary art. This journey would not have been possible without their
expert knowledge, good humour, and willingness to sail to publication in almost record time.

Christiane Gruber Ulrike Al-Khamis

Guest Curator Curator
Professor of Islamic Art Director of Collections and Public Programs
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Aga Khan Museum, Toronto

2  |  THE MOON — A Voyage Through Time

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 Note to the Reader

T
he transliteration of Arabic words follows the Library of Congress system as
described in the International Journal of Middle East Studies, with diacritical
marks removed to ease legibility. Persian and Ottoman Turkish words follow the
Arabic transliteration system, but their slight variations in pronunciation are taken into
consideration. Transliteration is not used for words commonly used in English such as
Muhammad, Qur’an, and Hadith.
Names of individuals are followed by the years of their death (d.), regnal years (r.), or
in the case of authors, the years during which their literary activities flourished (fl.) if their
dates of death are unknown. When dates of death or activity are not fully established, several
dates or a range of dates (ca.) are given. Moreover, the Islamic AH (anno Hegirae) and the
Common Era (CE) dates are provided in that order, in particular when an object or painting
includes a precise year of manufacture (741/1141, for example). If a date does not have dual
years, then it is noted in CE. The AH calendar is lunar, while the CE calendar is solar, so at
times an AH date spans two CE years. In such a case, the span of two CE years is provided.
Frequently used honorific expressions after the names of prophets, respected individuals,
and God are omitted for the sake of simplicity. When the Qur’an is cited, Qur’anic chapter
number and verse number(s) are given.

The authors of the texts in the Catalogue part of this book are signified by initials.
What follows is a key to those initials:

BP: Bita Pourvash

CG: Christiane Gruber
ER: Elizabeth Rauh
HB: Hamid Bohloul
MF: Michelle Al-Ferzly
SB: Sonja Brentjes
UAK: Ulrike Al-Khamis

Note to the Reader  |  3

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 Essays

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 Visualizing the Moon in the Ancient Near East
Ömür Harmanşah1

If the sun (dšá-maš) stands in the halo of the moon: in all lands (people) will speak the truth; the son will
speak the truth with his father; universal peace.

— From an astrological report sent to the Assyrian king2

T
he moon played a major role in the ancient Middle Eastern Anatolia. In doing so, as an art historian, my biased focus is on the
world as a celestial body, as a material measure of time various apparitions of the moon on monuments, works of art, and
and temporality, as a site for predicting the future, and as the artifacts of visual culture, which will help me narrate its story.
a benevolent god of abundance, prosperity, and in certain places, Contrary to the modern scientific vision of the moon as a
even healing. In this essay, I discuss both the veneration and the “lifeless, rocky satellite,”3 the protagonist of this new materialist tale
visualization of the moon in Pre-Islamic (ritual) contexts to provide is no less than a major cosmic actor, a vibrant and powerful god
a visual-historical biography of the moon, which was imagined who shaped and safeguarded the everyday life and fate of humanity.
both as a divine presence and as a cosmic actor. For the sake of New materialism urges us to return to the matter, liberating it as
brevity and coherence, I will focus on the ancient Mesopotamian much as possible from the ontological straitjacket of anthropocentric
engagements with the moon during the Bronze and Iron Ages, and idealism, symbolism, and classification.
pursue the very popular cult of the moon in Hellenistic and Roman

The Shining Bowl: The Moon God in Early Mesopotamia

Celestial bodies played a prominent role in the mythology and cult A full-moon-shaped calcite disk with a carved register
practice of early Mesopotamian cultures. The moon god Nanna- containing figural representation and a dedicatory inscription of
Suen/Sîn (in his Sumerian/Akkadian names), the sun god UTU/ Enheduanna, daughter of Sargon of Agade, was excavated in several
Šamaš, and Inanna/Ištar, who was associated with Venus, had fragments in the giparu complex in 1927 CE (Fig. 2). The disk
significant presence in the early centuries of urban religion in features a partially preserved horizontal register of a highly carved
Mesopotamia in the late fourth and throughout the third millennia narrative relief that depicts Enheduanna making a libation offering
BCE, with the primary cult centres located in the cities of Ur, Sippar, to a stepped structure (usually presumed to represent a ziggurat)
and Uruk respectively (Fig. 1). At the port city of Ur on the southern with the help of a nude male priest and two other attendants. The
edge of the Mesopotamian plain, Nanna-Suen’s sanctuary complex, design of the composition is very well known from the stone wall
known in Sumerian as E-kiš-nu-ḡal (literally, “House sending light to plaques dedicated to neighbourhood temples in Early Dynastic
the earth”), was one of the largest urban institutions of its time and cities of Mesopotamia, such as Nippur, Tutub, and Eshnunna,
was managed by high priestesses who were often linked to royalty. although those plaques all share the same rectangular form with
At the height of the history of this institution during the Third a central perforation.4 What makes the disk extraordinary is its
Dynasty of Ur (2112–2004 BCE), the cult complex witnessed a major unique shape, since it arguably mimics that of the full moon. Also
rebuilding project sponsored by the king Ur-Namma, including rare is the replacement of an anthropomorphic image of the deity
the construction of the well-known giparu complex (a cultic-cum- with an architectural monument that alludes to a ziggurat as the
palatial compound for the high priestess) and the stepped tower- visual signifier of divine presence (an icon, if you will). If so, one
temple ziggurat dedicated to Nanna-Suen. may suggest that Nanna-Suen is vibrantly present in this image

8  |  THE MOON — A Voyage Through Time

33108_Moon Book 7-72.indd 8 2019-02-26 11:33 AM

 Fig. 1: Map of early
Mesopotamian cities by
Anandaroop Roy from Art of the
First Cities: The Third Millennium
B.C. from the Mediterranean
to the Indus © 2003 by The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York. Reprinted by permission.

in three indexical, non-anthropomorphic ways: the writing of his Due to the shape that the moon takes in waxing and waning, it
name in the dedicatory inscription on the back of the disk, the full was often imagined to have horns and therefore took the epithet
moon shape of the object, and the architectural representation of his “wild bull” in Sumerian literature.6 Furthermore, in hymns and
temple as a sign of his divinity. astrological texts, the moon god is imagined as a shepherd herding
Visual representations of this male deity, Nanna-Suen, are his flock of stars
extremely rare across history and principally restricted to scenes in the night sky,
on seals, in which he is signalled via a crescent (uškaru).5 Often, the thereby associating
crescent stood in for Nanna-Suen as an indexical element, especially Nanna-Suen with
on public monuments such as steles. In other cases, the crescent was the common
awkwardly added to a rather generic anthropomorphic image of a metaphors of
male deity identified as Nanna-Suen (or Sîn), just because a crescent pastoral power held
is either hovering about his body, made part of his headdress, or held by the kings of the
in his hand. In his close relationship to his son, Šamaš, the sun god, time. Late third
the moon god’s crescent was often syncretized with the sun god’s and early second
astral, radiating symbol, creating a crescent enveloping a solar disk. millennia literary
Examples of this unification of the crescent moon and the sun disk texts refer to kings
are visible on the very top of the Ur-Namma stele or on the seal of as “shepherds,”
Bilalama, son of Kirikiri, governor of Eshnunna, dating from the i.e., benevolent Fig. 2: Disk of Enheduanna, Early Akkadian
twentieth century BCE (Fig. 3). rulers who care Period (twenty-third century BCE), calcite,
25.6 cm (diameter) x 7.1 cm (thickness).
The literary persona and the poetic imagery of the moon are for the well-being Courtesy of the University of Pennsylvania
even richer. Its iconography was very much related to the empirical of animal herds Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,
image no. 295918, object no. B16665.
observation of the moon for astronomical and divinatory purposes. and maintain their

Visualizing the Moon in the Ancient Near East  |  9

33108_Moon Book 7-72.indd 9 2019-02-26 11:33 AM

 abundance. These kings boasted
about building the cattle-pen
(Sumerian, tùr) and sheepfold
(Sumerian, amaš), which served
as metaphors for cities and
their sanctuaries.7 Moreover, in
astrological omens, the halo of
the moon is poetically described
as the “cattle-pen” of Nanna-
Suen, speaking to the same
association with pastoral care.8
His other common epithet, “the
shining bowl” (Sumerian, dilim-
Fig. 3: Cylinder Seal of Bilalama, son of Kirikiri of Eshnunna, and modern impression. Seal: lapis lazuli, gold,
babbar), may have also derived and silver, 4 cm (height), 1.5 cm (diameter). Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, seal
from a visual imagination based OIM A7468, impression OIM C4133.
on empirical observation of the
moon during particular phases,
likening the celestial body to a
glistening metal bowl.9

Harran and the Oracular Shrine of the Moon

The Mesopotamian monthly calendar was lunar and based on the life. The inscriptions on the three stelae erected by Nabonidus and
daily observation of the moon. Therefore, one would expect rich his mother were discovered in the pavement of the Ayyubid Great
visual and literary metaphors alluding to the moon’s vibrant and Mosque (Ulu Cami) of Harran in 1956 CE, and they testify to this
luminous form to be produced. As the Babylonian celestial sciences ambitious building project.11 The moon god’s oracular sanctuary at
of astronomy (the making of accurate calendars) and astrology Harran continued to be visited by pilgrims for many centuries into
(divination based on the appearance and movement of celestial the Roman period, and the holiness of the city was maintained by
bodies) were developed in increasing complexity during the second the practitioners of the later monotheistic religions at the site via its
and first millennia BCE, the central role of the moon (and the association with a memorable visit by Abraham.12
moon god) in cult practice did not vanish. The moon remained Multiple stone monuments dating to the Iron Age in the region
the main measure of time reckoning, everyday temporality, and of Harran testify to the cultural and visual prominence of the moon
predicting the future. god’s worship. The three stelae of Sîn (linked to the local Luwian
In the first millennium BCE, the city of Harran (ancient moon god Arma) that were found at the archaeological mounds of
Ḫarrānu) near modern Urfa in southeastern Turkey rose as a Aşağı Yarımca and Sultantepe in the Harran Plain, and Pazarcık to
major place of veneration and pilgrimage for the moon god Sîn, the west of the Euphrates, provide us with a good understanding of
while Assyrian, Babylonian, and local Syro-Hittite monuments the non-anthropomorphic nature of the representation of the deity
reproducing his imagery proliferated in this northern Syro- (Figs. 4–6).13 In these tall stone stelae with rounded tops, we see the
Mesopotamian region. Under Assyrian imperial rule, the holy city of moon god’s crescent mounted upon a post, which is adorned with
Harran received “divine protection” status (kidinnu) as an oracular tassels and raised on a double-stepped base. The Aşağı Yarımca stele
sanctuary, a very rare privilege.10 The sanctuary of Sîn, known as has a weathered inscription in which the names of Sîn and Harran
E-ḫul-ḫul (“House, the joy of all the people”), was famously rebuilt are legible.14 For its part, the Sultantepe stele was found during
by the Babylonian ruler Nabonidus (r. 556–539 BCE), whose own the 1952 CE excavations on the summit of the Sultantepe mound
mother, Adad-guppi, was a priestess of Sîn in Harran all through her (identified as ancient Huzirina), associated with “Building M” and its

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 cobbled pavement.15 The inscription of the Pazarcık stele dates to the distinctive form of his visualization and imagination around Harran,
time of Adad-nerari III (r. 811–783 BCE) and details the resolution perhaps as a way of underlining the shared Mesopotamian visual
of a border dispute by this Assyrian king between the regional states heritage of the deity with its deep temporality. This pictorial unity
of Kummuh and Gurgum. In this stele, the moon god seems to suggests that it was not essential to seek novel iconographies for
appear as the divine mediator and the witness of the dispute. Sîn or his equivalents in local Hittite, Luwian, and Aramaic belief
Based on the archaeological research in the region, it is now systems. Above all, the continued post-antiquity legacy of Harran
clear that not one but several temples dedicated to the moon god as a holy place for the cult of the moon and as a site of divination is
existed in the Harran plain and environs at sites such as Sultantepe significant for understanding the long-term cultural biography of
and Aşağı Yarımca. The non-anthropomorphic representations of such places of cultural practice.
the moon god that are common among all these monuments mark a

Fig. 4: Aşağı Yarımca Stele, Late Neo-Assyrian period, dedicated to the moon god, found in the Harran
Plain, Aşağı Yarımca village, Harran, Şanlıurfa Province, in 1949 CE, dark grey basalt. Anatolian Civilizations
Museum, Ankara. Drawing from Kemalettin Köröğlu, “Neo-Assyrian Rock Reliefs and Stelae in Anatolia,” in
Köröğlu and Adalı, The Assyrians, fig. 9. Courtesy of Kemalettin Köröğlu and Yapı Kredi Publications.
Fig. 5: Sultantepe Stele, Late Neo-Assyrian period, dedicated to the moon god, 110 cm (height)
x 36 cm (width) x 12 cm (thickness), found in two fragments in Sultantepe mound excavations in
1952 CE, associated with the building reproduced in Köröğlu, “Neo-Assyrian Rock Reliefs and
Stelae in Anatolia,” fig. 10. Courtesy of Kemalettin Köröğlu and Yapı Kredi Publications.
Fig. 6: Pazarcık Inscribed Stele, dated to the time of Adad-nerari III (r. 811–783 BCE), basalt, 140 cm (height) x 44 cm
(width) x 16.5 cm (thickness). Kahramanmaraş Museum, Turkey, Wikimedia Commons, photo by Klaus-Peter Simon.

Visualizing the Moon in the Ancient Near East  |  11

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 The Cult of Mên in Anatolia

The popularity of the cult of Sîn in northern Syro-Mesopotamia cities in Central Asia thus reflected a mixture of Anatolian and
is perhaps comparable to the emergent cult of the moon god Mên Mesopotamian stylistic features hybridized with local and Greek
in Hellenistic and Roman Anatolia. In the wider inner Anatolian visual material culture.
plateau stretching from the bend of the Halys River (Kızılırmak) In the central Anatolian plateau, the best-known sanctuary of
down to Pisidia and Pamphylia in the south and Lydia in the west Mên is located in Pisidia, where he is known by the localized epithet
between the Hermus and Meander Rivers, the cult of Mên was Askaênos. Devotees of Mên Askaênos had to climb the steep slopes
dominant and widespread particularly during the second and third of the Gemen Korusu/Karakuyu Tepesi, three and half kilometres
centuries CE. We know about the cult’s popularity thanks to the southeast of the modern town of Yalvaç, to reach the temple
abundance of local inscriptions in the countryside. 16
complex of Mên. The temple dates to the second century BCE,
In his iconographic rendering, this male deity seems to have was built on top of a limestone mountain (sixteen hundred metres
adopted a Phrygian heritage — as most archaizing Roman cults high), and served as an extra-urban sanctuary to the city of Pisidian
in Anatolia did if they wished to emphasize their deep Anatolian Antioch.19 According to Strabo (XII.8.14), the temple institution and
roots. In visual representations, he is shown wearing a Phrygian the priesthood here controlled “sacred estates” and managed “sacred
cap and outfit, while crescent-shaped, horn-like extensions emerge slaves” (ἱερόδουλοι).
from his shoulders. The marble bust of Mên from the Yenimahalle Mên’s rectangular temenos (enclosure) is perched on the summit
neighbourhood in Ankara is an oft-cited example of such of the western ridge and features a spectacular view of the plain of
representations (Fig. 7). Here, he is depicted with a youthful face and Antioch. The extraordinary temenos wall, built with ashlar blocks of
elaborately shaped, deeply carved long hair with curls, and wears the local dark grey limestone and incorporated with local bedrock,
a Phrygian cap along with a military toga fastened with a fibula comprises an assemblage of anathemata, a heart-warming collection
on the right shoulder. The discovery of inscriptions mentioning of votive reliefs and personal petitions carved and dedicated to
Meter (or Phrygian Kybele) and Mên, as well as coins from Ankara’s Mên over the centuries (Figs. 9–10). These votive carvings, both
Roman baths depicting Mên inside a
temple, suggests that the famous Temple of
Augustus in Ankara must have replaced a
temple to Mên or a combined sanctuary to
Meter/Kybele and Mên.17
An extraordinary gilded silver plate
from Aï Khanum, an Alexandrian
foundation in remote Bactria (today in
northern Afghanistan), illustrates how far
east this intimate relationship between the
moon god and Kybele had travelled in the
Hellenistic period (Fig. 8).18 In this unusual
scene, the polos-wearing Kybele faces the
spectators as she rides on mountainous
terrain, accompanied by winged Nike, on
Fig. 8: Ceremonial Silver Plate, Aï Khanum,
a chariot drawn by two lions. Her chariot Afghanistan, temple with niches, third century
approaches a stepped altar-like structure BCE, gilded with gold leaf, 25 cm (diameter).
on which a priest figure makes an offering. National Museum of Afghanistan, Kabul.

The sun god Helios in the form of a bust Fig. 7: Bust of Moon God Mên, second to
and the syncretic astral image of the fourth centuries CE, found in Yenimahalle
crescent moon and the sun disk, known neighbourhood of Ankara, marble, 64.5 cm
(height) x 46 cm (width at shoulders) x 29
from Mesopotamia, are represented as cm (base diameter), right-hand crescent a
shining celestial bodies in the sky. The restoration. Courtesy of Halil Demirdelen and
Anatolian Civilizations Museum, Ankara.
Greco-Bactrian art of the Alexandrian

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 free-standing ex voto offerings and those carved on the walls of the popular and widespread, with multiple cult places across the rural
temenos or the living rock, include representations of miniature landscape. Dedications were made at the Yalvaç sanctuary of Mên
temples (naiskos) as well as a series of lunar crescents, sometimes Askaênos by the community that linked indexical representations
bull heads and garlands, and many brief inscriptions carved inside of the moon (as crescent) combined and framed with miniature
those architectonic frames. Several of the short inscriptions record architectural forms. This everyday visualization of the moon as
simple dedications indicating names of the devotees, their family divinity, to whom one petitions for a propitious future, remained
members, and their vows. The longer dedicatory inscriptions are non-anthropomorphic and largely indexical, aligning well with
largely agonistic in nature and refer to athletic competitions. Bases representations of the moon god Sîn on Assyrian stelae and early
and statues also were erected in the temenos for athletic victors. Mesopotamian depictions of the deity on scenes of dedication.
Inside the temenos wall and
raised on a stepped crepis of
nine to ten risers was a small
peripteral Ionic temple, also
built of the local grey and white
limestone. Outside the temenos
walls, the sanctuary included
a small temple on the eastern
slope, a small stadium, and a
series of stone-built, house-
like structures on the lower
slopes, perhaps reserved for the
accommodation and banquet
needs of the pilgrims.
If we follow the word of
Fig. 9: Votive carved stone offered to Mên Askaênos, Pisidian Antioch, Fig. 10: Temenos wall with
the ancient authors and the 175–125 BCE. Courtesy of Kelsey Museum of Archaeology, University of buttresses, Sanctuary of Mên
inscriptions that were found Michigan Archives, 5.0180, photo by George R. Swain, 1924. Askaênos, Pisidian Antioch.
in the countryside, the cult of Courtesy of Kelsey Museum
of Archaeology, University of
Mên seems to have been quite Michigan, 7.1579, photo by
George R. Swain, 1924.

From Allegory to Anthropos

To conclude this exceedingly brief history of the moon’s depiction image of the anthropos into the lunar imagination, as is the case for
over the span of twenty-five hundred years, one can suggest that the Roman bust. In the end, the insertion of the anthropomorphic
the moon’s visuality reveals an ethical struggle between, on the proves to be the work of political powers and the assimilating forces
one hand, the collective, allegorical imagination of the moon as a of imperial iconography — and not so much the collective work of
powerful divine actor not modelled on the image of the human, and the social imagination.
on the other hand, the awkward political attempts to introduce the

Visualizing the Moon in the Ancient Near East  |  13

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 NOTES
1. I would like to thank Maggie Schuster, my 6. Nick Veldhuis, A Cow of Sîn (Leiden, 1991), 1. 15. Seton Lloyd and Nuri Gökçe, “Sultantepe:
research assistant, who has helped me with 7. Ömür Harmanşah, “The Cattlepen and Anglo-Turkish Joint Excavations, 1952,”
my research on the moon god and for sharing the Sheepfold: Cities, Temples, and Pas- Anatolian Studies 3 (1953): 40 and fig. 6;
with me her excellent work on the iconography toral Power in Ancient Mesopotamia.” In Oliver Gurney, “Sultantepe and Harran.” In
of Anahita. I am grateful to Halil Demirdelen for Deena Ragavan, ed., Heaven on Earth: Roger Matthews, ed., Ancient Anatolia: Fifty
providing me with the high-resolution images Temples, Ritual, and Cosmic Symbolism Years’ Work by the British Institute of Archae-
and valuable inventory information about the in the Ancient World, Oriental Institute Sem- ology at Ankara (Oxford, 1998), 163–176.
Bust of Mên from the Anatolian Civilizations inars, vol. 9 (Chicago, 2013), 371–392. 16. Christian Marek, In the Land of a Thousand
Museum in Ankara. Lastly, I am truly grate- Gods: A History of Asia Minor in the Ancient
8. Verderame, “The Halo of the Moon,” 93; see also
ful to Christiane Gruber for her patience and World (Princeton and Oxford, 2016), 511; see
Mark Hall, “A Hymn to Moon-God, Nanna,” Jour-
encouragement in producing this essay. also Guy Labarre, Le dieu Mèn et son sanc-
nal of Cuneiform Studies 38 (1986): 152–166.
2. From a report sent by an Assyrian ummânū tuaire à Antioche de Pisidie (Brussels, 2010);
9. Piotr Steinkeller, “Nanna/Suen, the Shining
to the Neo-Assyrian king. Hermann Hunger, Labarre, “Les origines et la diffusion du culte
Bowl.” In Paola Corò, Elena Devecchi, Nicla De
Astrological Reports to Assyrian Kings 40 obv. de Men.” In Hadrien Bru, François Kirbihler, and
Zorzi, and Massimo Maiocchi, eds., Libiamo
2′–4′, quoted in Lorenzo Verderame, “The Stéphane Lebreton, eds., L’Asie mineure dans
ne’ lieti calici: Ancient Near Eastern Studies
Halo of the Moon.” In Jeanette Fincke, ed., l’Antiquité: Échanges, populations et territoires
Presented to Lucio Milano on the Occasion of
Divination in the Ancient Near East: A Work- (Rennes, 2009), 389–414; Peter Talloen, Cult in
his 65th Birthday by Pupils, Colleagues and
shop on Divination Conducted During the Pisidia: Religious Practice in Southwestern Asia
Friends (Münster, 2016), 615–625; Stol, 255.
54th Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, Minor from Alexander the Great to the Rise of
Würzburg, 2008 (Winona Lake, IN, 2014), 97. 10. Amelie Kuhrt, The Ancient Near East Christianity, Studies in Eastern Mediterranean
c. 3000–330 BCE Volume II (Lon- Archaeology (Leuven, 2015), vol. 10, 122.
3. Bernd Brunner, Moon: A Brief His-
don and New York, 1995), 614.
tory (New Haven, 2010), viii. 17. This temple dedicated to Augustus is well
11. C.J. Gadd, “The Harran Inscriptions of Na- known, since Augustus’s Res Gestae survives
4. Irene Winter, “Women in Public: Disk of En-
bonidus,” Anatolian Studies 8 (1958): 35–92. on its walls in the form of a bilingual inscription
heduanna and the Beginning of the Office of
En-Priestess, and the Weight of Visual Evi- 12. Tamara Green, The City of the Moon God: Reli- in Greek and Latin. Among philologists and
dence.” In Jean-Marie Duran, ed., La femme gious Traditions of Harran (Leiden, 1992), 11–14. ancient historians, the monument is known as
dans le proche-orient antique: compte rendu de Monumentum Ancyranum. See Suavi Aydın,
13. Kemalettin Köroğlu, “Neo-Assyrian Rock
la 23e Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale Kudret Emiroğlu, and Ömer Türkoğlu, Küçük
Reliefs and Stelae in Anatolia.” In Kemalettin
(Paris, 7–10 Juillet 1986) (Paris, 1987), 189–201. Asya’nın Bin Yüzü: Ankara (Ankara, 2005), 85–87.
Köroğlu and Selim Adalı, eds., The Assyr-
5. Dominique Collon, “The Near Eastern Moon ians: Kingdom of the God Assur from Ti- 18. Frederick Hiebert and Pierre Cambon, Afghani-
God.” In Diederik Meijer, ed., Natural Phenom- gris to Taurus (Istanbul, 2018), 162–207. stan: Hidden Treasures from the National Muse-
ena: Their Meaning, Depiction and Description um, Kabul (Washington, D.C., 2008), 118–119.
14. Seton Lloyd and William Brice, “Harran,”
in the Ancient Near East (Amsterdam, 1992), Anatolian Studies 1 (1951), 108–111. 19. Stephen Mitchell and Marc Waelkens,
19–37; Marten Stol, “The Moon as Seen “The Sanctuary of Mên Askaênos.” In
by the Babylonians.” In Meijer, ed., Natural Pisidian Antioch: The Site and Its Mon-
Phenomena (Amsterdam, 1992), 245–275. uments (London, 1998), 37–90.

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 The Moon in Modern and Contemporary Islamic Art   |  225

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 Contributors’ Biographies
HAMID BOHLOUL studied physics at Isfahan ULRIKE AL-KHAMIS is the Director of Collections YAEL RICE is Assistant Professor of the History
University of Technology before switching to the and Public Programs at the Aga Khan Museum of Art and Asian Languages and Civilizations
history of the exact sciences in the Islamic era. He in Toronto. She has more than twenty years of at Amherst College in Massachusetts. She
received his master of arts from the University of experience as a curator and senior adviser for specializes in the art and architecture of South
Tehran for editing and analyzing Jamshid Kashani’s museum and cultural projects, working with Asia and greater Iran, with a particular focus
Arabic treatise on planetary distances and sizes. institutions that include the National Museums on manuscripts and other portable arts of the
For his Ph.D. thesis (2017) at the Institute for of Scotland and the Glasgow Museums. More fifteenth through eighteenth centuries. Among
Humanities and Cultural Studies in Tehran, he edited recently, she served as Co-Director at the Sharjah other projects, she is in the process of completing
the Arabic text of Kashani’s treatise on equatorium, Museum of Islamic Civilization as well as Senior a monograph entitled Agents of Insight: Painters,
translating it into Persian and writing commentaries. Strategic Adviser to the Sharjah Museums Books, and Empire in Mughal South Asia.
Department in the United Arab Emirates.

SONJA BRENTJES is a historian of science with ÜNVER RÜSTEM is Assistant Professor of Islamic
specialization in Islamicate societies and cross- FRANCESCA LEONI has been Assistant Keeper Art and Architecture at Johns Hopkins University.
cultural exchange of knowledge before 1700. She and Curator of Islamic Art at the Ashmolean Museum He received his Ph.D. from Harvard University and
has published broadly on the history of mathematics, of Art and Archaeology, University of Oxford, since has held fellowships at Columbia University, the
translations, mapmaking, travels, courtly patronage, 2011. Prior to that, she held curatorial, teaching, University of Cambridge, and Harvard University.
educational institutions, and historiographical and research posts at the Museum of Fine Arts, His research centres on the Ottoman Empire in its
matters. Brentjes is also interested in the relation Houston (2008–2011), Rice University (2008–2010), later centuries and on questions of cross-cultural
of science and art, multi-text manuscripts, and and The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York exchange and interaction. He is the author of
the visualizations of the heavens and their material (2007–2008). Her recent books include Power the book Ottoman Baroque: The Architectural
cultures across Eurasia and North Africa. and Protection: Islamic Art and the Supernatural Refashioning of Eighteenth-Century Istanbul
(Oxford, 2016) and Eros and Sexuality in Islamic (Princeton University Press, 2019) and has published
Art (co-edited with Mika Natif, 2013). With Liana on subjects ranging from the reception of illustrated
MICHELLE AL-FERZLY is a Ph.D. student at Islamic manuscripts to the legitimating role of
Saif, Farouk Yahya, and Matthew Melvin-Koushki,
the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, where ceremonial in the context of Ottoman architecture.
she is currently co-editing a collection of essays
she focuses on medieval Islamic art. She holds
on Islamicate occult sciences stemming from
a master of arts from Bryn Mawr College and a
her recently completed Leverhulme Trust project
bachelor of arts from Wellesley College. She has OMID SAFI is Professor of Iranian Studies at
“Islamic Divination and Art” (forthcoming 2019).
held fellowships and internships at the Walters Duke University and specializes in the study of
Art Museum, Baltimore; the Museum of Fine Arts, Islamic mysticism and contemporary Islam. He
Houston; and the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. BITA POURVASH is Assistant Curator at the Aga has published a number of volumes, including
Khan Museum in Toronto and Co-Curator of the Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender,
exhibition Transforming Traditions: The Arts of and Pluralism; The Cambridge Companion
CHRISTIANE GRUBER is Professor of Islamic Art to American Islam; Politics of Knowledge in
19th-Century Iran. She has a master of arts from
in the History of Art Department at the University of Premodern Islam; and Memories of Muhammad.
the University of Toronto, Near and Middle Eastern
Michigan, Ann Arbor. Her primary fields of research His most recent book is Radical Love: Teachings
Civilizations Department. Prior to joining the Aga
include Islamic book arts, figural painting, depictions of from the Islamic Mystical Traditions. He leads a
Khan Museum in 2012, she worked on the history
the Prophet Muhammad, and Islamic ascension texts summer program focused on diverse religious
of collecting Islamic art in the collection of Toronto’s
and images, about which she has written three books traditions, art, and spirituality in Turkey and
Royal Ontario Museum, which is included in the
and edited half a dozen volumes. She also pursues Morocco called Illuminated Tours. His podcast
forthcoming volume Canadian Contributions to
research in Islamic codicology and paleography, Sufi Heart airs on the Be Here Now Network.
the Study of Islamic Art and Archaeology. She
having authored the catalogue of Islamic calligraphies
has been a lecturer at York University in Toronto
in the Library of Congress as well as edited a volume
as well as at Semnan University and the Higher
of articles on Islamic manuscript traditions. Her third WALID A. SALEH is Professor of Islamic Studies
Education Center for Cultural Heritage in Iran.
field of specialization is modern Islamic visual and at the University of Toronto. A specialist on the
material culture, about which she has written several Qur’an, the history of its interpretation (tafsir),
articles and co-edited a number of volumes. ELIZABETH RAUH is a Ph.D. Candidate in History the Bible in Islam, and Islamic apocalyptic
of Art at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. literature, he is the author of two monograph,
Specializing in modern and contemporary art and The Formation of the Classical Tafsir Tradition (Brill,
ÖMÜR HARMANŞAH is Associate Professor of
visual cultures of Iran and the Arab world, she 2004) and In Defense of the Bible (Brill, 2008).
Art History at the University of Illinois at Chicago.
is currently completing her dissertation project Saleh has also published articles on the Meccan
He received his Ph.D. from the University of
examining modern art experiments with popular period of the Qur’an and on Islamic Hebraism.
Pennsylvania (2005). His current research focuses
religious practices and folkloric traditions in the He is the recipient of several awards, including
on the history of landscapes in the Middle East
Islamic world. Along with studies in modern and the New Directions Fellowship from the Mellon
and the politics of ecology, place, and heritage in
contemporary art-making, she also researches Foundation and the Konrad Adenauer Award
the age of the Anthropocene. He is the author of
early modern Persianate book arts, Shi‘i Islamic from the Humboldt Foundation in Germany.
Cities and the Shaping of Memory in the Ancient
visual cultures, and issues of image-making across
Near East (Cambridge University Press, 2013) and
different eras in Islamic art history. For 2018–2019,
Place, Memory, and Healing: An Archaeology of
she is the Irving Stenn, Jr. Curatorial Fellow at
Anatolian Rock Monuments (Routledge, 2015).
the University of Michigan Museum of Art.
Since 2010, Harmanşah has directed the Yalburt
Yaylası Archaeological Landscape Research
Project, a regional survey in west-central Turkey.

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