This document has been approved for use by agen- ACI515.

1R-79
cies of the Department of Defense and for listing in
the DoD Index of Specifications and Standards. (Revised 1985)

A Guide to the Use of Waterproofing, Dampproofing,

Protective, and Decorative Barrier Systems
for C@ncrete

Warner K. Babcock Clark R. Gunness Dorothy M. Lawrence Andrew Rossi, Jr.

Arthur E. Blackman, Sr. Kenneth A. Heffner Stella L. Marusin Donald L. Schlegel
Donald E. Brotherson A. L. Hendricks Charles J. Parise Lawrence E. Schwietz
Robert W. Gaul James E. Kubanick Charles 0. Pratt

This Guide updates and expands the scope of the cember 1966 ACI JOURNAL. William H. Kuenning was
committee report "Guide for the Protection of Con- chairman when this Guide was published. Albert M.
crete Against Chemical Attack by Means of Coatings Levy was chairman from 1974 to 1977 when some of
and Other Corrosion Resistant Materials:' which ap- the information, found in the chapters on "Water-
peared in the December 1966 ACI JOURNAL. The pre- proofing Barrier Systems" and "Dampproofing Bar-
vious Guide has been revised and is found in rier Systems," was developed.
Chapter 6 of this Guide entitled "Protective Barrier
Systems." In addition, there are new chapters on
"Waterproofing Barrier Systems:' "Dampproofing
Barrier Systems," and "Decorative Barrier Systems." Chapter I-Introduction, page 5I5.IR-2
A separate chapter on conditioning and surface 1.1-General discussion
preparation of concrete is included because it is rele- 1.2- The systems concept for barriers
vant to all the other chapters. 1.3-Barrier performance difficult to define
This Guide is not to be referenced as a complete 1.4-Economic factors for barrier selection
1.5-lnspection during application
unit.
1.6-Safety requirements

Keywords: abrasive blasting: acid treatment (concretel: acid resistance; ad-

hesion; asphalts; chemical attack; chemical cleaning: coatings; concrete Chapter 2-Barrier systems: types and
bricks: concretes: deler.ents: emulsifying a~ents; epoxy resins; finishes; performance requirements. page 5I5.IR-3
furan reSInS; glass IIbers: Inspection: 10Int sealers: latex (rubber): mortars 2.I-Definitions of barrier systems
imalerialsl; paints; phenolic resins; plastics. polymers. and resins; polyester
resins: polyurethane resins: protective coatings; repairs; sealers; silicates; 2.2-When waterproofing is used
sulfur; surfactants; temperature: tests: vaporbarriers: waterproofing. 2.3-When damp proofing is used
2.4-When protective barrier systems are used
2.5-Susceptibility of concrete to attack by chemicals
Foreword 2.6-When decorative painting barrier systems are used
ACI Committee 515 was organized in 1936 and pub-
lished a report "Guide for the Protection of Concrete Chapter 3-Concrete conditioning and surface
Against Chemical Attack by Means of Coatings and prepatation, page 5I5.IR-12
Other Corrosion Resistant Materials:' in the De- 3.I-General requirements
3.2-Repair of surface defects
3.3-Stopping or rerouting of water
3.4-Surface preparation
ACI Committee Repon."i, Guides, Standard Practices, and Commentaries are intended for
guidance in planning, designing, executing. and inspecting construction. This document is
intended for the use of indi viduals who are competent to evaluate the significance and
limitations of its content and recommendations and who will accept responsibility for Copyright © 1986. American Concrete Institute. All rights reserved indud-
the application of the material it contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any in~ rip,t'llc; 01
reprodudion ttr'ld use in any form or by any means. including
ana aU responsibility for the lital,:,d principles. The tnstllutC shall not be liable for any loss or
the making 01 copies by any photo process. or by any electronic or mpchan-
dReati~e~~i~~ ~i[eJ~~~[llcrlt shaJl nOt be made in contract documenl'\. [f items found in kal device. printed or written or oral. or recorJing for sound or visual
this document are desired by the ArchitectlEngineer to be :.J part of the contract documents, reproduction or for use in any knowledge ur retrieval system or device.
they shall be restated in mandatory language for incoqX"lration by the ArchitecUEngineer. unless permission in writinJ( is obtained from the copyriKhl proprietors.
Chapter 4- Waterproofing barrier systems, A]] the barrier systems discussed in this Guide
page 515.1R-18 will be limited to those that are made up of poly-
4.1-Characteristics of waterproofing meric cementitious and ceramic materials.
4.2-Guide to selection
4.3-Design and application
4.4-Inspection and sampling 1.2-The systems concept for barriers
4.5-Preconstruction conference checklist To understand the factors affecting the perform-
ance of the various barrier systems, it is necessary to
Chapter 5-Dampproofing barrier systems, consider them not isolated but as part of a whole. As
page 515.1R-29 an example, consider a protective coating system for
5.1-Characteristics of dampproofing a concrete structure below grade; the specific ele-
5.2-Guide to selection of dampproofing barriers ments are: the barrier material, the interface of the
5.3-Application
barrier and concrete surface, concrete to a depth of Y4
in. (6 mm), the remainder of the concrete, the sta-
Chapter 6-Protective barrier systems,
bility of the ground supporting it, and the ground
page 515.1R-30
6.1-Characteristics of a protective barrier system
water pressures (see Section 6.2 for more details).
6.2-Elements of a protective barrier system Awareness of the systems concept will make one
6.3-Guide for selection of protective barrier systems appreciate that selection of a barrier material is only
6.4-Description of barrier materials one of many interrelated steps necessary to insure
6.5-Special composite barriers satisfactory performance. Equally important are
6.6- Testing of completed barrier systems
placement, consolidation curing of the concrete, sur-
face cleanliness, surface preparation, application
Chapter 7-Decorative paint barrier systems,
procedures, and inspection.
page 515.1R-38
7.1-Characteristics of decorative paint systems
A decision whether to use a barrier and its selec-
7.2-Guide to selection of decorative paints tion should be made when the concrete structure is
7.3- Types of paints being designed. Configuration of the structure, con-
7.4-Painting procedures struction methods, and job sequencing can affect
7.5-Repainting procedures barrier installation and quality. Barrier penetrations
can be minimized and the barrier aspects of the job
will be better planned.
Placement and curing of the concrete should be in
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION accordance with ACI 304 and ACI 308.4,5 This should
1.1-General discussion be followed by the appropriate surface preparation to
Many concrete structures are designed and built to remove any weak concrete, laitance, and foreign ma-
(1) contain water within the structure, or (2) main- terial.
tain dry conditions within the structure when it is This Guide will provide the best available informa-
subject to water conditions on the outside. Since tion to assist in the selection, placement, installation
concrete is not always completely impermeable to and inspection of these barrier systems. Suggestions
water and since concrete may sometimes develop for the design and fabrication of the concrete struc-
cracks after placement, it is sometimes necessary to tures that are to receive a barrier system will also be
cover the surface with a barrier material to meet included. The goal of this Guide is to make the
these requirements. In this Guide, they will be iden- reader aware of the factors insuring satisfactory bar-
tified as waterproofing barrier systems (Chapter 4) rier performance.
and damp proofing barrier systems (Chapter 5). See
definitions in Sections 2.1.1 and 2.1.2 and discus-
sion in Sections 2.2 and 2.3. 1.3-Barrier performance difficult to define
Some concrete structures may be subjected to There are no formulae, such as those available to
chemical attack on one or more surfaces by water, designers of concrete structures, that can be used in
acids, alkalies, salt solutions, or a wi'de variety of the selection, placement, application,'and inspec-
organic chemicals. Damage may be merely surface tion of barrier systems because many of the factors
discoloration or surface roughening, or it may be as affecting barrier performance are difficult to define
catastrophic as acid attack with the resulting loss of and are intangible factors. Structural engineers intro-
structural integrity. The affected surfaces are gener- duce strength reduction factors, load factors, and fac-
ally covered with barrier materials. These materials tors of safety into their design formulae to allow for
with the supporting concrete are designated in Chap- variations in manufacturing or construction, and to
ter 6 of this Guide as protective barrier systems. See compensate for those aspects of the design that can-
discussion in Sections 1.2, 2.4, and 2.5. not be precisely predicted.
Some concrete surfaces require a change in color Surface cleanliness is a major factor affecting ad-
for esthetic reasons. A wide variety of paints are hesion and subsequent performance of the barripr
commercially available for this purpose. In this system, and yet we are unable to quantify it. The
Guide they will be callt;·rJ.decorative paint barrier reader should be aware that the application of a bar-
systems (Chapter 7). See Sections 2.1.4 and 2.6. rier system is really an art not a science. Once this is
recognized, action as outlined in this Guide can be tional Bureau of Standards.3 Also. the barrier
taken to make sure the barrier system will meet the manufacturer should be contacted for recommenda-
performance expectations of the owner or agency. tions.

1.4-J:conomic factors for barrier selection References

It is important for the owner or agency to recognize 1. "Safety and Environmental Contro!''' Monual of Coating Work
that selection, placement, installation, and inspec- for Light-Water Nuclear Power Primary Containment and Other
Safety Related Facilities, Publication No. 03-401079-14, ASTM,
tion of a barrier system can be dominated by eco- Philadelphia, 1979, Chapter 7.
nomic considerations to thp. detriment of perfor- 2. "Coatings and Linings for Immersion Service." TPC Publica-
mance. There may be pressures to select and install a tion No.2, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston,
barrier system that has the lowest initial cost per 1972, Chapter 1, Safety, pp. 1-9.
unit. However, these barriers may have a low per- 3. Brungraber, R. J., ''A New Portable Tester for the Evaluation of
the Slip-Resistance of Walkway Surfaces," Technical Note No.
formance potential. In addition to initial cost, some 953, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., July 1977,
attention should be given to determine the cost of 51 pp.
replacing a barrier system failing prematurely and to 4. ACI Committee 304, "Recommended Practice for Measuring,
other costs associated with the failure. Other costs Mixing, Transporting. and Placing Concrete (ACI 304-73) (Re-
affirmed 1983)." American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1973, 4C
may include damage to concrete structures or water
pp. Also. ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 2.
damage to equipment or excavating to expose the 5. ACI Committee 308, "Standard Practice for Curing Concrete
waterproofing. (AC! 308-81)," American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1981, 11 pp.
Selection of a barrier system should be based upon Also, ACi Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 2.
the life-time performance potential giving the lowest
annual cost per unit per year. A system that costs
less on an annual basis will most likely result in CHAPTER 2-BARRIER SYSTEMS:
higher initial cost because the materials and applica- TYPES AND PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS
tion labor used may be more expensive, or a larger 2.1-Definitions of barrier systems
quantity of 'material may be needed. 2.1.1 Waterproofing barrier s.vstems-Waterproof-
In addition, selection of a qualified applicator or ing is a treatment of a surface or structure to prevent
use of an inspection program may increase initial the passage of water under hydrostatic pressure! (see
costs but not annual costs. The manufacturer and Chapter 4). Waterproofing barrier systems may be
applicator of the barrier material should be selected placed on the positive or negative side (see Fig.
on the basis of past performance, financial responsi- 2.1.1).
bility, technical reliability, capability and willing- 2.1.1.1 Positive side barrier systems-Positive
ness to supply technical assistance, and reputation side barrier systems are placed on the same side as
for standing behind their product and work. the applied hydrostatic pressure (See Table 4.2).
2.1.1.2 Negative side barrier systems-Negative
side barrier systems are placed on the side opposite
1.5-lnspection during application to the applied hydrostatic pressure (See Table 4.2).
In conjunction with the decisions to select a bar- 2.1.2 Dampproofing barrier systems-Dampproof-
rier material and an applicator, plans should be for- ing is a treatment of a surface or structure to resist the
mulated for establishing a suitable inspection passage of water in the absence of hydrostatic pres-
program to oversee the surface preparation and ap- sure (see Chapter 5). Anotner definition of damp-
l

plication work, and to make sure the barrier is ap- proofing given in ACI Special Publication 192 is:
plied in accordance with the specification. Inspec- "Treatment of concrete or mortar to retard the pas-
tion should commence before the barrier is installed sage or absorption of water, or water vapor, either by
and the final inspection should be made after the application of a suitable coating to exposed surfaces,
barrier has been placed. Use technical assistance
available from the materials manufacturer or retain
an independent inspection agency familiar with the
specified barrier system.

1.6-Safety requirements
Appropriate safety requirements should be fol-
HYDROSTATIC
lowed with respect to all materials, operations and PRESSURE
procedures described in this Guide. J.2

Plastic and rubber barrier surfaces may be slip-

pery, especially when wet, and could be a safety haz-
ard to personnel. The skid resistance of a barrier
BARRIER
surface can bp. increased as required. A portable
CONCRETE
tester, identified as the NBS-Brungraber Slip-
Resistanr.e Tester, for the evaluation of the slip re- Fig. 2.1.1-Comparisoll of positive side and negative side
sistanr.e of surfaces has been developed by the Na- waterproofi ng.
or by use of a suitable admixture or treated cement." salts may later be brought to an exposed surface as
As these definitions indicate, dampproofing will moisture moves out of the concrete. Barrier systems
only reduce the rate of transmission of water through help prevent efflorescence on the surface of concrete
concrete. The use of admixtures or special cements walls.
for dampproofing is not within the scope of this
Guide. 2.3-When dampproofing is used
2.1.3 Protective barrier systems-Protective bar- A dampproofing barrier system is used to perform
rier systems are used to protect concrete from degra- the same functions as a waterproofing system but
dation by chemicals and suhsequent loss of cannot be used to protect against water under pres-
structural integrity. to prevent staining of concrete. or sure. A drainage system may be required to prevent
to protect liquids from being contaminated by the the development of a head of water. Dampproofing is
concrete (see Chapter 6). a low-cost system because the material thickness is
2.1.4 Decorative paint barrier systems-Deco- relatively low and minimum surface preparation is
rative paint barrier systems are used to stabilize or required.
change the appearance or color of a concrete surface A dampproofing barrier system will minimize
for esthetic reasons (see Chapter 7). water vapor transmission through concrete as long as
the concrete will not be subjected to a continuous or
2.2- When waterproofing is used even an intermittent head of water.
Waterproofing is normally used to prevent leakage
of water into. through. or out of concrete under hy- 2.4-When protective barrier systems are used
drostatic pressure. If freezing and thawing condi- Protective barrier systems are required to protect
tions exist. as in above-grade applications or if water concrete from deterioration when exposed to chem-
is carrying aggressive chemicals which attack rein- icals (see Sections 2.4.1, 2.4.2, and 2.4.3). See Refer-
forcing steel or concrete. then the waterproofing bar- ences 3, 4, and 5 for more comprehensive informa-
rier will be used to prevent leakage into the concrete. tion on the durability of concrete. In some cases a
If a dry surface is required for applying coatings, barrier is required to prevent chemicals from being
then waterproofing could be used to prevent contaminated when they contact a concrete surface.
moisture from leaving the concrete. Waterproofing is Waterproofing and dampproofing barrier systems,
also used to minimize unsightly carbonates or as well as decorative painting barrier systems, may
efflorescence. also perform roles as protective barriers because they
2.2.1 Water leakage into and through concrete- cover a concrete surface so that direct contact with
Water may be forced through concrete by hydrostatic aggressive chemicals is greatly reduced or in some
pressure, water vapor gradient, capillary action, cases eliminated. However, when the primary func-
wind-driven rain, or any combination of these. This tion of a barrier system is to improve the durability of
movement is aggravated by porous concrete, cracks concrete, other types of barrier systems are generally
or structural defects, or joints that are improperly used and these are described in Chapter 6.
designed or installed. Leakage of water into struc- 2.4.1 Acid and alkali attack-Acids, some salt so-
tures may cause structural damage, and invariably lutions. and water (depending on purity and tem-
causes damage to the contents of the structure. Leak- perature) will react with the Ca(OH)2 in the hydrated
age of water out of water-storage structures may also portland cement binder of concrete to form water
cause structural damage or damage to adjacent facili- soluble reaction products resulting in the disintegra-
ties. Waterproofing membranes are intended pri- tion of the concrete. Strong alkalies (over 20 percent)
marily to prevent the passage of water in liquid form. attack other constituents in the cement resulting in
They also retard the passage of water vapor in vary- concrete disintegration. Section 2.5 discusses the
ing degrees depending on the type of membrane. susceptibility of concrete to attack by chemicals.
2.2.2 Water leakage out of concrete-To prevent The rate of attack will not only depend on the
moisture from leaving the concrete and coming in above reaction but also on how quickly the reaction
contact with moisture sensitive materials, the water- products are leached or removed from the surface
proofing barrier should be placed on the concrete and on the ability of the chemical to penetrate into
surface on which the moisture sensitive material will the hardened cement paste. Limestone and dolomite
be applied. This could prevent delamination. blister- aggregates are susceptible to acid attack and may also
ing. and deterioration of moisture sensitive paints, cause disintegration of the concrete, but in other in-
wall and floor coverings, and adhesives. stances they may function as sacrificial materials
2.2.3 Minimize efflorescence-Efflorescence is a and prolong service life.
deposit of salts, usually white. formed on a surface, 2.4.2 Sulfate attack-Sulfate solutions (sodium,
the substance having emerged in solution from potassium. magnesium) can cause disintegration of
within concrete or masonry and deposited by evap- concrete by reacting with the tricalcium aluminate in
oration.2 Also, soluble salts of various kinds. chiefly portland cement to form calcium sulfo-aluminate
sulfates .. may be carried by water into the concrete (ettringite) which has a volume larger than the origi-
from the soil or other environmental source. These nal reactant materials. The internal volume increase
~
can result in cracking of the concrete. Sulfate attack crete. A moist. reactive solid can attack concrete, as
is normally controlled by using sulfate resistant port- can aggressive liquids and solutions. Dry gases. if
land cement and/or pozzolan materials such as fly aggressive, may come into contact with sufficient
ash. Sulfate resistance is also improved by using a moisture within the concrete to make attack possi-
dense concrete with a low water-cement ratio.3 ble. Moist, aggressive gases would tend to be more
2.4.3 Corrosion of embedded steel-Penetration of destructive. .
chemical or salt solutions through concrete is likely Temperature may affect the rate of attack in two
to cause localized corrosion of reinforcing steel. For- different ways. The common effect is that chemical
mation of rust results in expansive pressures which activity usually increases exponentially, approx-
cause deterioration of the concrete near the steeP imately doubling with each 10 C (18 F) rise in tem-
Chapter 4 of Reference 3 above discusses this prob- perature. Temperature may also affect the rate of
lem and possible solutions. Two of the solutions in- attack indirectly. As temperature rises, the moisture
volv,: the use of barrier systems. Acprotective barrier content of the concrete is reduced, making it drier
may be factory applied to reinforcing steel before use but more permeable to additional fluid. As tem-
and/or a waterproofing barrier may be applied to the perature falls, it may sometimes cause sufficient nor-
positive side of the concrete. mal shrinkage to open small cracks and allow greater
2.4.4 Product contamination-Solutions, such as penetration of liquid into the concrete.
high purity water or chemicals, may become con- In addition to considering the rate of attack, it is
taminated by direct contact with concrete. Also, the desirable to determine how extensive the attack
flavor and odor of food products may be adversely might be. For example a concrete structure may be
affected by concrete. placed in an acid soil, but if the acidity is not re-
plenished, the available acid may be quickly neu-
tralized with little or no damage to the concrete.
2.5-Susceptibility of concrete to attack by
Alternate wetting and drying can be harmful; in-
chemicals
creased destruction due to alkali-aggregate reaction
2.5.1 Factorsaffecting attack6-In general, the vul-
is possible. Dissolved substances may migrate
nerability of concrete to chemical attack results from
through the concrete and deposit at or near a surface
three of its characteristics: permeability, alkalinity, from which evaporation occurs. The deposit may be
and reactivity.
the original substance or some reaction product
Permeability to liquids and gases varies consider-
formed in the concrete. This effect can be seen in the
ably with different concretes. Even the best concrete
familiar "efflorescence" on walls of concrete, brick,
has some small degree of permeability. Permeability
or stone.
increases rapidly with increasing water-cement ratio Salt solutions can also be more disruptive to con-
and with decreasing moisture curing time. Penetra- crete subjected to freezing and thawing than water
tion of fluids into the concrete is sometimes accom- alone. This is commonly observed after the applica-
panied by chemical reactions with cement, aggre-
tion of deicing salts to non-air-entrained highway
gates, and/or embedded steel (if present). Leaching of pavements. However, damage from either can be
cement hydration compounds, or deposition of ex- minimized by the use of an adequate amount of in-
traneous crystals or crystalline reaction products can tentionally entrained air in an otherwise high quality
also degrade the system. concrete producing air bubbles of the correct size,
The alkaline, hydrated portland cement binder re-
spacing, and distribution.
acts with acidic substances. This reaction is usually
accompanied by the formation and removal of solu- 2.5.2 Materials that attack concrete-Table 2.5.2
ble reaction products, resulting in disintegration of gives a summary of the effects of many materials on
the concrete. When the reaction products are insolu- concrete. This information. based both on literature
ble, deposits are formed on the concrete surface or in sources and experience, must be considered a guide
the concrete causing a considerably reduced reaction to assist in designing a test program using the con-
rate. crete mixes and chemicals for a specific application.
2.5.1.1 Rale and extent of attack- Usually the In addition to individual organic and mineral
rate of attack will be increased by an increase in the acids which may attack concrete, acid-containing or
concentration of aggressive agents in solution. acid-producing substances such as acidic industrial
The pH of a solution indicates whether it is al- wastes. silage. fruit juices. sour milk. salts of weak
kaline. neutral. or acidic. A neutral solution has a pH bases. and some untreated waters may also cause de-
of 7. Acid sol utions have pH values less than 7 and terioration of concrete.
alkaline ones have values over 7. When the pH de- Most ammonium salts are destructive because in
creases from 7, the solution becomes more acidic and the alkaline environment of concrete they release
it will become more aggressive in its attack on con- ammonia gas and hydrogen ions. These are replaced
crete. by dissolving calcium from the concrete. The res~l!./
The physical state of the chemical agent is also of is a leaching action. much like acid attack.
significance. Dry. nonhygroscopic solids do not at- Animal wastes contain substances which may ox-' .....
tack drv concrete. but some will attack moist con- idize in air to form acids which attack concrete. The
 o
MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE

* Acetic acid, all Harmful if wet. when sulfides and

concentrations sulfates leach out (see sodium sulfate)

Liquid loss by penetration. May

contain acetic acid as impurity (which
see) Automobile and diesel May disintegrate moist concrete by
exhaust gases (n) action of carbonic, nitric, or sulfurous
Acid waters (pH of 6.5 Disintegrates slowly. In porous or acid
or less) (a) cracked concrete, attacks steel

Solid fat disintegrates slowly, melted fal

more rapidly

Disintegrates rapidly. In porous or May contain, as fermentation products,

cracked concrete, attacks steel acetic, carbonic. lactic, or tannic acids
(which see)
Disintegrates. In porous or cracked
concrete. attacks steel

Harmful only if it contains harmful See specific chemical. such as

ammonium salts (see below) hypochlorous acid. sodium
hypochlorite. sulfurous acid. etc.
May disintegrate moist concrete slowly
or attack steel in porous or cracked
moist concrete

Disintegrates. In porous or cracked

concrete. attacks steel

Gaseous bromine disintegrates. Liquid

bromine disintegrates if it contains
Disintegrates slowly. In porous or hydrobromic acid and moisture
cracked concrete. attacks steel

In porous or cracked concrete, attacks

Disintegrates. In porous or cracked steel. (b) Steel corrosion may cause
concrete. attacks steel concrete to spa II

Disintegrates. In porous or cracked

concrete. attacks steel
Disintegrates concrete of Inadequate
sulfate resistance

Ammonium Disintegrates. In porous or cracked

superphosphate concrete, attacks steel
Gas may cause permanent shrinkage
Ammonium
(see also carbonk acid)
thiosulfate

Not harmful
 Disintegrates. especially in presence of Disintegrates. especially in presence of
air air

Chrome plating Scaling of non-air-entrained or

solutions (0) insufficiently aged concrete (b)

Chromic acid, all Attacks steel in porous or cracked See automobile and diesel exhaust
concentrations concrete gases

Harmful if wet. when sulfides and

sulfates leach out (see. for example.
sodiuJll sulfate)

Sulfides leaching from damp coal may

oxidize to sulfurous or sulfuric acid. or
ferrous sulfate (which see)

See anthracene. benzol. carbazole. • Fermenting fruits. Industrial fermentation processes

chrysml. creosote. cresol. cumol. grains, vegetables. or produce lactic acid. (e) Disintegrates
paraffin. phenanthrene, phenol. toluol. extracts slowly (see lactic acid)
xylol

Disintegrates concrete of inadequate

sulfate resistance

Disintegrates. especially in presence of Disintegrates concrete of inadequate

air quality

Disintegrates, esp(~cially in presence of Harmful if it contains ferric sulfate

air (which see)

f)isin!l~grales, especially in pmsence of

air
Disintegrales concrete of inadequate
sulfatp. resistance

Snlfides le<lching from d<lmp coh may See ammonium sulfate. ammonium
oxidize to sulfurous or sulfuric acid superphosphate. manure. potassium.
(which se"l nitrate. sodium nitrate

Copl",r pl<lliug
solutions Ipl
Ilot gases (-lO()-1100 F) cause thermal
Ilisinlegr<lt"s cOllu"l" 01 ill,,,I'''lu<lte stress"s, Cool"d, C!lndensed sulfurous.
"dLII" n'Sisl;lIll:l~ hl'druchloric ,,,:ins disinlegrall, slowly

I LII'nlllll if il cOIlI"iIlS l:llpl",r s,dL,I"

("'hich St'''1
'I:orilliddel"'de, :17 FOrtuic ,":id. formed ill solutioll.
I""T"'II disintegr<lt"s slowl\'
 -Formic acid. 10 If fatty oils are present. disintegrates
percent slowly

-Formic acid. 30
percent Liquid disintegrates slowly. Dried or
drying films are harmless
-Formic acid. 90
percent May disintegrate moist concrete by
action of carbonic. nitric or sulfurous
acids (see also automobile and diesel
Hydrofluoric. other acids. and sugar
exhaust gases)
cause disintegration (see also
fermenting fruits. grains. vegetables.
extracts)

Ammonium salts seldom present in

sufficient quantity to disintegrate

Disintegrates slowly. In porous or

cracked concrete. attacks steel

-Grain See fermenting fruits. grains. Disintegrates concrete of inadequate

vegetables. extracts sulfate resistance

Disintegrates concrete of inadequate

sulfate resistance
Horse fat Solid fat disintegrates slowly. melted fat
more rapidly

Solid margarine disintegrates slowly.

melted margarine more rapidly
-Hydrochloric acid. all Disintegrates rapidly. including steel
concentrations Acetic and lactic acids. and sugar
disintegrate slowly
Hydrofluoric add. all Disintegrates rapidly. including steel
concentrations

Hydrogen sulfide Not harmful dry. In moist. oxidizing

environments converts to sulfurous
acid and disintegrates slowly

Hypochlorous acid. 10 Disintegrates slowly

percent

Sulfides. sulfates. or acids present

-Lactic add. 5-25 disintegrate concrete and attack steel in
percent . porous or cracked concrete

Solid fat disintegrates slowly. melted fat

Illore rapidly

Lard disintegrates slowly; lard oil more

rapidly Atlemperatures"" 120 F. disintegrates
slowly

Lead mfining solutions Disintegrates slowly

Iq) Disintegrates. especially in presence of I
air
Leuna saltpeter Sell amlllonium nitrate and ammonium I

d
sulfall! Nickel plating Nickel ammonium sulfate disintegrates
snlutions (v) slowly
 Disintegrates concrete of inadequate Potassium hydroxide.
sulfate resistance 25 percent or over

Nitric acid. all Potassium Harmless unless potassium sulfate

concentrations permanganate present (which see)

'Oleic acid. 100 Disintegrates concrete of inadequate

percent sulfate resistance

Disintegrates concrete of inadequate

sulfate resistance

Harmless unless potassium sulfate

Sulfides leaching from damp ores may present (which see)
oxidize to sulfuric acid or ferrous
sulfate (which see)

Not harmful. Protects tanks against Disintegrates. especially in presence of

acetic acid. carbon dioxide. salt water. air
Poisonous. Do not use with food or
drinking water

Shallow penetration not harmful. but

should not be used on highly porous
WJrfaces like concrete masonry (u)

Perchloric acid. 10
percent
See text. Also calcium chloride.
magnesium chloride. sodium chloride

Liquid loss by penetration. Fatty oils. if

present. disintegrate slowly
Flavor impaired by concrete, Lac.tic
acid may disintegrate slowly

Disintegrates concrete of inadequate

sulfate resistance. Attacks steel in
• Phosphoric acid, porous or cracked concrete
10-85 percent
'Usually not harmful (see hydrogen
Attacks steel in porous or cracked sulfide)
concrete
Acetic. butyric. lactic acids (and
sometimes fermenting agents of
hydrochloric or sulfuric acidsl
disintegrate slowly

'Potassium aluminum Disintegrates concrete of inadequate Slaughter house

sulfate sulfate resistance wastes (wI

Harmless unless potassium sulfate

present (which see)

Magnesium chloride. if present. attacks

steel in porous or cracked cuncrete

Potassiulll h\'droxid."
15 IwrCl,nt
 Not harmful. except to calcium
aluminate cement

Magnesium chloride. if present. attacks

steel in porous or cracked concrete. (b)
Steel corrosion may cause concrete to
spall May disintegrate slowly if damp (see
tanning liquor)

·Sodium hydroxide.
1-10 percent Organic acids. if present. disintegrate
slowly
'Sodium hydroxide.
20 percent or over

Liquid disintegrates slowly. Dried or

drying films are harmless
Sodium phosphate
(monobasic)

Disintegrates concrete of inadequate

sulfate resistance
Allacks steel in porous or cracked
concrete

Sodium sulfate. if present. disintegrates See fermenting fruits. grains.

concrete of inadequate sulfate vegetables. extracts
resistance

Slowly disintegrates concrete of

inadequate sulfate resistance

Liquid disintegrates slowly. Dried or Not harmful. Necessary to prevent

drying films harmless flavor contamination

With moisture forms sulfurous acid 'Zinc refining solut;ons Hydrochloric or sulfuric acids. if
(which see) (x) present. disintegrate concrete

'Sulfuric acid. 10-80 Zinc sulfate (which see) sometimes

percent formed by oxidation

'Sulfuric acid. 80
percent oleum
 SO'lletimes used in food processing or as food or beverage ingredient. Ask for advisory opinion of Food and Drug Administration
regarding coatings for use with food ingredients.

a Waters of pH higher than 6.5 may be aggressive if they also contain bicarbonates. (Natural waters 'lre usually of pH higher than 7.0
and seldom lower than 6.0. though pH values as low as 0.4 have been reported. For pH values below 3. protect as for dilute acid.)

b Frequently used as a deicer for concrete pavements. If the concrete contains too little entrained air or has not been aged more than
one month. repeated application may cause surface scaling. For protection under these conditions. see "deicing salts."

c Carbon dioxide dissolves in natural waters to form carbonic acid solutions. When it dissolves 10 extent of 0.9 to 3 parts per million it
is destructive to concrete.

d Frequently used as deicer for airplanes. Heavy-spillage on runway pavements containing too little entrained air may cause surface
scaling.

e In addition to the intentional fermentation of many raw materials. much unwanted fermentation occurs in the spoiling of foods and
food wilstes. also producing lactic acid.

h However. in those limited areas of the United States where concrete is made with reactive aggregates. disruptive expansion may be
produced.

n Composed mostly of nitrogen. oxygen. carbon dioxide. carbon monoxide. and water vapor. Also contains unburned hydrocarbons.
partially burned hydrocarbons. oxides of nitrogen. and oxides of sulfur. Nitrogen dioxide and oxygen in sunlight may produce
ozone. which reacts with some of the organics 10 produce formaldehyde. peracylnitrates. and other products.

o These either contain chromium trioxide and a small amount of sulfate. or ammonium chromic sulfate (nearly saturated) and sodium
sulfate.

p Many types of solutions are used. including

(a) Sulfate-Contain copper sulfate and sulfuric acid.
(b) Cyanide-Contain copper and sodium cyanides and sodium carhonate.
(c) Rochelle-Contain these cyanides. sodium carbonate. and potassium sodium tartrate.
(d) Others such as f1uoborilte. pyrophosphate. amine. or potassium cyanide.

Reference here is to combustion of coal, which produces carbon dioxide. water vapor. nitrogen. hydrogen. carbon monoxide. carbo-
hydrates. ammonia. nitric acid. sulfur dioxide. hydrogen sulfide. soot. and ashes.

u Porous concrete which has absorbed considerable molten paraffin and then been immersed in water after the paraffin has solidified
has been known to disintegrate from sorptive forces.

w May contain various mixtures of blood. fats and oils. bile and other digestive juices. partially digested vegetable mailer. urine. and
manure. with varying amounts of water.

x Usually contains zinc sulfate in sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid concentration may be low (about 6 percent in "low current density"
process) or higher (about 22-28 percent in "high current density" process).
 saponification reaction between animal fats and the Corrosion of Metals in Concrete. SP-49, American Concrete In-
hydration products of portland cement consumes stitute, Detroit, 1975, 142 pp.
ACI Committee 210, "Erosion Res'sti'nrp of Concrete in
lhese hydration products. producing salts arId alco-
Hydraulic Structures, "(ACI 21OR-55)(Reaffirmed 1979), American
hols, in & reaction analogous to that of acids. Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1955, 10pp. Also. ACI Manual of Con-
Many agents attack concrete and destructively al- crete Practice. Part 1.
ter its chemical composition by means of reaction
mechanisms which are only partially or incom-
pletely understood. Sea water. perhaps largely be-
cause of its sulfate content, may be destructive to CHAPTER 3-CONCRETE CONDITIONING
permeable concrete or those made with cement hav- AND SURFACE PREPARATION
ing a high tricalcium aluminate content. Some poly- 3.1-General requirements
hydroxy organic compounds such as glycols. This chapter provides recommendations for condi-
glycerol, and sugars slowly attack concrete. tioning or repairing the concrete surface by removing
2.5.3 Materials that do not attack concrete- There surface defects that can affect the performance of the
are a large number of chemical's which do not attack barrier system and for surface preparation by chem-
concrete. Many of these are listed in Table 2.5.2. ical and blast cleaning methods to insure good adhe-
Among the common I1eutral salts w. icI1 do not sion between he I)arrier mater' I ?nr thp r0'1rrptp
attack concrete are most carbonates and nitrates. The documents issued by ACI Committees 301. 302.
some chlorides. fluorides, and silicates. Lime water and 311 should help to assure the desired concrete
is usually beneficial to concrete because it promotes quality.1.Z.12 New concrete must be structurally
hydration without removal of lime from the concrete. sound, dry and clean to prevent loss of bond. How-
Other weak alkaline solutions are not usually ever, some proprietary barrier systems can be applied
harmful. Products derived from petroleum. when to green or wet concrete, but their use should be
free of fatty oil additives or other potentially acidic based on the recommendations and detailed instruc-
materials. are normally harmless to mature concrete. tions of the materials manufacturer.
Some of these materials can, however, cause undesir- The three types of surface contamination that can
able discoloration. result in poor adhesion of the barrier material to the
concrete are described below.
2.6-When decorative painting barrier systems 3.1.1 Release agents on forms-Release agents on
are used forms. such as oil, wax. grease and silicone. which
In addition to changing color or appearance of the will transfer to the concrete surface during place-
concrete surface for esthetic reasons, a decorative ment. should not be used if a barrier system will be
paint barrier can minimize concrete suface degrada- applied later. If materials are not completely removed
tion by rust stains from improperly filled form-tie they cause poor adhesion between the barrier system
holes. from embedded steel and from mold or algae and the concrete. Since these materials are usually
growing on a moist surface. These materials may also invisible. their complete removal may be difficult. In
function as a protective barrier system as defined in addition, the procedure for their removal will de-
Section 6.1 in Chapter 6. pend on the nature of the specific contaminant. Pro-
prietary paint systems applied to forms and
References formulated to prevent contamination of the concrete
1. "Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Bituminous and surface should be used.
Other Organic Materials for Roofing, Waterproofing. and Related 3.1.2 Curing. compounds-Curing compounds
Building or Industrial Uses," (ASTM D 1079-74), ASTM, Phila- should not be used on concrete surfaces on which an
delphia, 1974. I . adhesive-bonded barrier is to be applied unless it
2. ACI Committee 11/;. "Cement and ConcretE' er inology,"
(ACI116R-78). American Concrete Institute, Detroit. 1978,50 pp.
car. be completely removed oetore appllcauon at t e
3. ACI Committee 201, "Guide to Durable Concrete," (ACI barrier, or unless the curing compound is compatible
201.2R-77)(Reaffirmed 1982), American Concrete Institute. De- with the barrier material and the concrete surface.J
troit, 1977, 37 pp. Liquid, meTllPrane.-forming curing compounds
4. Biczok, (mre. Concrete Corrosion-Concrete Protection, 8th consisting of waxes, resins. chlorinated rubber and
Edition, Akademiai Kiado, Budapest, 1972,545 pp.
5. Woods, Hubert. Durability of Concrete Construction. ACI
solvents are used extensively for curing concrete. Re-
Monograph No.4, American Concrete Institutellowa State Univer- cently, curing compounds based on two component.
sity Press. Detroit. 1968. 190 pp. epoxy resin paints have been developed which may
6. ACI Committee 515. "Guide for the Protection of Concrete be more compatible with barrier systems; however.
Against Chemical Attack by Means of Coatings and Other Corro- field testing is necessary to establish compatibility.
sion Resistant Materials," ACI JOURNAL. Proceedings V. 63. No.
12, Dec. 1966, pp. 1305-1392. 3.1.3 Admixtures in concrete-Some special pur-
pose admixtures, such as water-immiscible chem-
icals intended to retard evaporation of water during
Additional sources of information
Polymers in Concrete. SP-40. American Concrete Institute, De-
cure, when added to the concrete during mixing may
troit, 1973, 362 pp. \';i'cci,e adhesion problems.
Polymers in Concrde: Inlernational Symposium. SP-5!l. Ameri- The barrier material should be compatible with the
can Concrete Institute. Detroit. 197!l, 426 pp. surface of the concrete.
Description of concrete
problems

Small surface voids 1:1 grout. made with portland cement and sand passing
and rutted cracks the No. 30 sieve. Mixed to a creamy consistency.

Epoxy. urethane. or resin latex with inert fill- The latex or resin should have high filler content.
ers blended to a thick consistency.

Large surface voids 1:2.5 to 1:3 mortar. made with portland cement. and
and rutted cracks sand passing a No. 16 sieve. mixed to a stiff consistency.
. C

Polymer (latex or epoxy) modified composi- Latex or Ppoxy with portland cement and suitable aggre-
tion gates.

Holes: repair in con- Hydraulic cement and aluminum or iron

fined area powder with oxidizing agent

3.2-Repair of surface defects patches with white portland cement replacing part of
ACI Committee 301 has developed procedures for the gray portland cement should be made on ex-
the repair of surface defects in cast-in-place concrete, posed concrete to select the patch proportions with
and these are described in this section.! For addi- the best color match. The quantity of mixing water
tional information review the procedures developed should be limited to that necessary for handling and
by the Bureau of Reclamation.4 Precast concrete is placing. The patching mortar should be thoroughly
normally produced in a shop operation. Sharp off- mixed and worked with a trowel to the extent that it
sets between precast sections should be corrected as is the stiffest consistency that will permit placing.
indicated for new cast-in-place concrete. Surface de- 3.2.1.2 Application of patching material-After
fects, including tie holes, unless otherwise specified surface water has evaporated from the area to be
by the contract documents, should be repaired im- patched, the bond coat should be well brushed into
mediately after form removal (see Table 3.2). the surface. When the bond coat begins to lose the
3.2.1 Removal and repair of defects-Pro· water sheen, the premixed patching mortar should
cedure- All honeycombed and defective concrete be applied. The mortar should be thoroughly consol-
areas should be removed down to sound concrete. If idated into place and struck off so as to leave the
chipping is necessary, the edges should be perpen- patch slightly higher than the surrounding surface.
dicular to the surface or slightly undercut. No feath- To allow for some initial shrinkage. it should be left
eredges should be permitted. The area to be patched undisturbed for at least 1 hour before being finally
and a band at least 6 in. (150 mm) wide surrounding finished. The patched area should be kept damp for 7
it should be dampened to prevent absorption of days. Metal tools should not be used in finishing a
water from the patching mortar. A bonding grout or patch in a formed wall which will be exposed.
bond coat should be prepared using a mix of approx- 3.2.1.3 Special patching procedures for protec-
imately one part cement to one part fine sand (sand tive barriers-The repair of defects in concrete
passing a No. 30 mesh sieve). mixed to a consistency which will be covered with a protective barrier sys-
of thick cream, and should then be well brushed into tem for intermediate service (see Table 6.3) requires
the surface. ACI 546.IR and ACI 303 also describe special attention. Conventional portland cement-
patching with portland cement concretell.H based patching materials should not be used unless
3.2.1.1 Patching material-The patching mix- specifically recommended by the barrier material
ture should be made from the same materials and manufacturer. Adhesion of these patching materials
with approximately the same proportions used for to cured concrete may not be high enough to prevent
the concrete if esthetics are important. The coarse loss of bond caused by the internal stresses in the
aggregate should be omitted. The mortar should con- barrier material (see Sections 6.1 and 6.2 for a more
sist of no more than one part cement to 2 '1~ parts detailed explanation of this phenomenon). The use
sand by damp loose volume. Where appropriilte. trial of proprietary patching materials with polymer addi-
 tions should improve adhesion to the concrete, but it The use of cementitious quick-setting materials
must be determined whether the polymer addition should be considered as water stops only until per-
will affect the adhesion between the patching and manent surface repairs can be made. Epoxy injection
barrier materials. Patching with resin-based mate- or chemical grouts can be either a temporary or per-
rials, using the same resin that is used for the protec- manent repair depending on the following condi-
tive barrier material, may be the most reliable tions. If the crack is nonmoving. epoxy injection
method. However, it is necessary to obtain specific could be a permanent repair. If cracks move enough
recommendations from the manufacturer. to destroy adhesion between the concrete and the
3.2.2 Tie holes-After being cleaned and thor- epoxy, the repair should be considered to be tempo-
ougly dampened. tie holes should be completely rary. Chemical grout can be effective on a permanent
filled with patching mortar. basis if it is not allowed to dry out.
3.2.3 Proprietary materials-Proprietary com- 3.3.2.1 Cementitious quick-setting materials-
pounds may be used in lieu of. or in addition to. the These materials are made from portland cement,
foregoing patching procedures.1O Such compounds sand (in some cases) and a chemical that will accel-
must be used in accordance with the manufacturer's erate the setting time or hardening. If metals (rein-
recommendations. Specific approval from the barrier forcement, conducts, etc.) are embedded in the
manufacturer should be obtained before proprietary concrete of the structure being treated, materials con-
compounds are used for patching. These materials taining chloride should not be used that would pro-
should be compatible with the barrier system and duce in the quick-setting mix a chloride ion content
not interfere with good adhesion between the two. exceeding the limits suggested in Section 4.5.4 of the
3.2.4 Fins and sharp offsets--Fins, protrusiuns or ACI 201 "Guide to Durable Concrete" for the various
similar irregularities projecting from the concrete construction and environmental conditions de-
surface should be removed back to the surface by scribed therein. Setting time may be from 15 seconds
chipping. bushhammering. needlegunning, or wire to several minutes, depending on the formulation
brushing. Care should be exercised to obtain a rea- used. mix proportions and temperature. Because of
sonably planar surface for application of the barrier the alkaline nature of these materials, rubber gloves.
system. Sharp offsets in the surface, such as those goggles and protective clothing should be worn. Mix-
caused by form work misalignment, should be me- tures of plaster of paris and cement should not be
chanically abraded to provide gradual and smooth used because of the danger of excessive expansion
transitions between the offset surfaces. For some bar- that could cause cracking of the patching material.
rier systems. it is normally not necessary to have all All loose and weakened concrete should be re-
surfaces of a concrete area in exactly the same plane, moved and the sides of a crack should be under-cut
so long as the transitions are gradual and smooth. before patching proceeds. Detailed instructions con-
The barrier material manufacturer should be con- cerning sl1rface preparation. type of quick-setting
tacted for recommendations. materials, and mixing and application procedures
should be obtained from the manufacturer of the
quick-setting materials.
3.3-Stopping or rerouting of water
Water. seeping or flowing into or through a con- 3.3.2.2 Epoxy injection-Temporarily seal the
crete structure must be stopped before a barrier sys- crack at the surface, using an epoxy resin paste. to
tem can be applied. Before deciding upon a repair withstand injection pressures. A low viscosity epoxy
procedure to stop the water. the type of defects pre- adhesive is then injected under pressure through
sent in the concrete and source of the water should ports which have been established in the surface
be determined. Three options to solving this problem seal. The injected adhesive displaces the water in the
are: crack and after curing binds both faces of the crack to
1. Stop or reroute water at its source. form a seal. Qualified and experienced applicators
2. Stop water on surface opposite source. should be used for this work.
3. Reroute water on surface opposite ~ource. 3.3.2.3 Chemical grouts-Small grout holes up
3.3.1 Stopping or rerouting water at source-Ex- to 1 in. (25 mm) diameter are drilled tlirough the
cavation outside the structure and installation of new concrete wall in the area of the leaks. Pipes are in-
drainage should be considered. Submarine ioca- serted and a low viscosity (2 cps). 2-part plastic
tions, bedrock. or abutting buildings may make ex- monomer solution is pumped into the soil. The soil
cavation impossible or uneconomical. However, becomes saturated with monomer which hardens to
partial treatment to reduce flow of water from the form a seal. The use of chemical grouts require
water-source side may facilitate work on the opposite qualified and experienced applicators and should be
side. limited to special applications.
3.3.2 Stopping water' on surface not in contact 3.3.3 Rerouting water on surface not in can fact
with the source-When water is coming through a with the source-Each crack through which water is
crack, hole. or porous area because the water cannot flowing should be covered with a small hollow en-
be stopped or re'routed at its source, it may be possi- closure to form a channel. As an example. wire mesh
ble to stop the flow from the side opposite the water. formed in a semicircle is placed over the crack and a
cementitious quick-setting material is used to cover 3.4.3 Mechanical cleaning
the holes in the mesh and to hold the mesh in place. 3.4.3.1 Scarification-Scarification by a me-
Several of these enclosures or channels are then con- chanical impacting device on concrete surfaces is
nected together to route the water to a central loca- useful to remove thick overlays of dirt or weakened
tion. Once the flow of water has been controlled, material. However, after scarification it is usually
other repair methods listed in Table 3.2 can be used considered necessary to water blast or sand blast to
prior to applying a barrier system. remove aggregate weakened by the mechanical im-
pacting. c;inding may be useful when small areas
3.4-Surface Preparation are to be cleaned or when the cleaned surface must
be smooth.
3.4.1 General-An important step toward achiev-
3.4.3.2 Blast cleaning-Blast or abrasive clean-
.ing adequate bond strength is to pay careful attention
ing is the most effective way to remove"laitance, dirt,
to the preparation of surfaces to receive barrier mate-
efflorescence and weak surface material. There are
rials. Good barrier performance depends on proper
three types of blast cleaning procedures: dry sand-
surface preparation. The concrete surface must not
blasting, wet sandblasting, and high-pressure water
be contaminated by chemicals that can prevent good
jetting. Abrasive cleaning methods other than sand-
adhesion between the barrier material and the con-
blasting can also be used provided that the surface is .
crete. The surfaces must be newly exposed concrete
not contaminated by the abrasive used. Selection of
free of loose, weak and unsound materials. Concrete
an abrasive cleaning method will depend in part on
surfaces should generally be dry; however, there are
local environmental restrictions and upon tests to
barrier systems that can be applied over damp con-
evaluate the effectiveness of the method used. Oil
crete. In these cases, the recommendation of the bar-
and grease that have soaked into the surface should
rier material manufacturer should be followed. Care
be removed prior to blast or abrasive cleaning (see
must be taken to prevent moisture from collecting at
Section 3.4.2).
the interface between the concrete and the barrier
The compressed air used for sandblasting must be
material during curing.
clean and free of oil particles. This means that the air
Bond strength is of critical importance for negative
compressor must be equipped with efficient oil and
side waterproofing barrier systems since the hydro-
water traps. Care must be exercised to assure that
static force is trying to force the barrier material off
clean water is used for wet blast cleaning.
the surface. For positive side waterproofing~arrier
systems, bond strength is critical for traffic-bearing 3.4.3.3 Amount removed by blast cleaning-The
applications and to prevent blistering and delamina- surface should be abraded to an extent that small
tion for exposed and above-grade applications. How- aggregate particles are exposed. If the surface of the
ever, for below-grade and positive side applications concrete is weak, more material should be removed.
where the barrier system will be pushed against the The amount removed should be sufficient to result in
concrete by hydrostatic pressure, bond strength may a strong, souhd substrate suitable for the intended
be considered important to prevent lateral movement barrier material.
of water that has been trapped behind the barrier 3.4.3.4 Blast cleaning methods-Comparisor:-
system. Wet sandblasting has an advantage over conventional
Prior to the application of a barrier material, it is (dry) sandblasting because the need for a dust collec-
generally considered necessary to test for adequacy tion system is eliminated. However, there may be a
of surface preparation. The strength of the prepared water removal problem. Water jetting remuves less
concrete surface, as well as the ability of the material surface material because no abrasive is used. It is
to adhere to the concrete, are the two major items to usually .::;onsidered to be a satisfactory cleaning pro-
check and are reviewed in 3.4.5. ACI Committee 503 cedure for a decorative painting (Chapter 7); how-
has developed detailed surface preparation pro- ever, for protective barrier systems (Chapter 6), it may
cedures, and these are found in 3.4.2, 3.4.3, and not remove enough weak surface material to enable
3.4.4." ASTM Recommended Practice C8ll-8t also these systems to perform satisfactorily.
covers surface preparation. II 3.4.4 Acid etching-In the past acid etching has
3.4.2 Chemical cJeaning- This step may be neces- been considered as a completely reliable method of
sary prior to blast cleaning or acid etching to remove surface preparation but experience has indicated that
surface contaminants such as oil. grease and dirt. it is not as dependable as mechanical abrading meth-
Solutions of caustic soda or trisodium phosphate ods. Acid etching is now only recommended for
may be used. as well as proprietary detergents spe- areas where no alternative means of cleaning are pos-
cially formulated for use on concrete. They should be sible. If acid etching must be employed, it should be
applied with vigorous scrubbing, followed by flush- performed by those experienced in its use.
ing with water to remove all traces of both the de- 3.4.4.1 Cleaning before acid elching- The sur-
tergent allJ the contaminant. Solvents should not be face to be acid etched should first be examined to
used for this purpose because they tend to dissolve determine the necessity for precleaning (see Section
the material and spread the contamination over a 3.4.2) to remove surface contaminants that acid etch-
larger area. ing will not remove. If contamination is only laitance
or a normal amount of dirt or traffic soil, other than A test to determine quality (i.e., strength) of concrete
grease or oil, precleaning is not required. A surface at and near the surface to a depth of Y4 in. (6 mm) is
moderately contaminated with oil should be pre- discussed in Section 3.4.5.4. The reason for this test
cleaned with a detergent. If oily, caked deposits of is explained in Section 6.2.3.
surface contaminants are present, the bulk of the ma- The applicable tests, described below, for various
terial should be removed by scraping before the de- barrier systems are listed in Table 3.4.5.
tergent treatment. Animal fats should be removed by 3.4.5.1 Cleanliness of surface
scrubbing with a 10 percent solution of caustic soda 3.4.5.1.1 Dusty condition-Wipe the surface
to saponify them. Other heavy deposits can be re- with a dark cloth. If a white powder is on the cloth,
moved by mechanical abrading methods. Detergents the surface is considered to be too dusty and there-
used for precleaning should be of a heavy-duty, non- fore unsatisfactory for some barrier systems.
ionic type. They should be scrubbed vigorously into 3.4.5.1.2 Oily condition-Sprinkle water on
the surface with a brush or power broom followed by the dried concrete surface. If the water spreads out
flushing with water until the surface is neutral or immediately instead of standing as droplets, it may
slightly alkaline (as indicated by litmus or pH paper) be concluded that the surface is not contaminated by
before beginning the acid treatment. oils or dust. The test will not reveal the presence of
other surface contaminants such as carbonates and
3.4.4.2 Acid etching procedure-The acid used
alkalies.
for etching should be a 10/90 to 20/80 dilution ratio
3.4.5.1.3 Acid condition-Use pH paper to
of commercial grade hydrochloric acid in water solu-
determine the acidity at the concrete surface. A pH
tion applied at the rate of 1 qt per sq yd (1.0 1/sq m).
below 4 is considered unacceptable.
When the presence of chlorides cannot be tolerated,
due to possible corrosion of the reinforcing steel, a 3.4.5.2 Dryness of surface-Test method-For
15 percent phosphoric acid solution should be used. some barrier systems, a qualitative moisture test for
For large areas, low pressure automatic spray equip- normal weight concrete is recommended by ACI
ment should be used to apply the acid solution. For Committee 503.6 Moisture content is considered ex-
small areas, plastic sprinkling cans can be used for cessive if moisture collects at the bond line between
dispensing the acid solution. A stiff bristle street the concrete and the barrier material before the bar-
broom, brush, or similar implement should be used rier has cured. This may be evaluated by taping a 4 x
4 ft (1.2 x 1.2 m) clear, polyethylene sheet to the
to spread the acid solution uniformly over the sur-
face. The foaming action of the acid will subside in 3 concrete surface and determining the time required
to 5 min, after which time the surface should be thor- for moisture to collect on the underside of a poly-
oughly flushed with water while scrubbing with stiff ethylene sheet. Also the ambient conditions. i.e.,
bristle or wire brushes to remove the salts formed by sunlight, temperature and humidity during the test
the reaction of the acid with the alkaline constitu- should simulate, as much as practical, the condi-
ents in the concrete and to dislodge loose particles. tions existing during application and curing of the
A second treatment may be necessary to insure an barrier. The time for moisture to collect should be
absolutely clean surface. compared with the time required for the barrier ma-
The adequacy of the flushing operation should be terial to cure-a value that should be supplied by the
checked at several points within the cleaned area by material manufacturer. If it cures in a time that is less
placing litmus or pH paper on the wet surface to than that required for moisture to collect, it may be
determine whether the acid has been completely concluded that the concrete is adequately dry.
neutralized. After it has been determined that flush- 3.4.5.2.1 Water-based barriers-To promote
ing is adequate, the surface should be allowed to dry. adhesion, water-based barriers should be applied to
On a normal sunny, summer day, concrete will usu- damp concrete surfaces. However, there should be no
ally dry sufficiently in about 1 to 2 hr. When forced . free-standing water on the surface of the concrete
drying is necessary, heat may be applied, or, if neces- 6l
when they are applied.
sary, dry, oil~free air may be blown over the surface. 3.4.5.3 Strength of surface when laitance is pre-
sent- The strength of the surface can be significantly
3.4.5 Tests for surface quality prior to applica- reduced by laitance. Laitance is defined as a layer of
tion- The quality of the concrete surface is an weak and nondurable material containing cement
important factor affecting adhesion of barrier sys- and fines from aggregates, brought by bleeding water
tems. Tests for cleanliness, dryness, and strength of to the top of overwet concrete, the amount of which
the surface will indicate whether good adhesion will is generally increased by overworking or over-
result. Tests will give a good indication of surface manipulating concrete at the surface by improper
quality. This is particularly true when evaluating the finishing.7
effect of concrete patching compounds and form re- 3.4.5.3.1 Test for laitance- The presence of
lease agents. The number of tests and the areas to be laitance may be detected by scraping the surface
tested shall be mutually agreed upon between the with a putty knife. If a loose powdery material is
manufacturer. applicator of the barrier material and observed, excessive laitance is present' Adhesion
owner's representatives and specified in the contract. could be adversely affected by this laitance.
 Surface
strength to
depth of V.
Cleanliness Dryness Laitance Patch test in.
(3.4.5.1) [3.4.5.2) (3.4.5.3.1) (3.4.5.3.2) (3.4.5.4)

Waterproofing barriers
(Chapter 4)

Hot-applied bituminous-reinfQrced
Hot-applied bituminous-
nonreinforced
Prefabricated bituminous
Prefabricated nonbituminous
Cold-applied bituminous-reinforced
Cold-applied bituminous-
nonreinforced
Cold-applied nonbituminous
reinforced
Cold-applied nonbituminous
nonreinforced
Cementitious barriers

Dampproofing barriers
(Chapter 5)

All systems except water-based

materials
Water-based materials

Protective barriers
(Chapter 6 and Tab~ 6.3)

Materials for mild service x X X

Materials for intermediate service:
Nonbituminous materials X
--
Bituminous materials X X X X
Materials for severe service X
Composite systems for severe service:
Type (a) X
Type (b) X X X

Decorative systems
(Chapter 7)

Water-based paints
Solvent-based one-component paints
Solvent-based two-component paints

3.4.5.3.2 Patch tests for surface strength-Ap- Appendix A of ACI Committee 503~ report. A
ply the barrier system to be used to an area of clean smaller, less cumbersome testing device called an
and dry concrete. After the barrier system has cured, Elcometer Adhesion Tester-O to 1000 lb/in.~ (0 to 6.9
the adhesion of the system should be checked. There MPa) range could be used to test the surface strength
is no standard test so the method of test and the of concrete.H
evaluation of test results will depend on the type and It is normally used for epoxy and polyester protec-
properties of the barrier system used. The manufac- tive barrier systems having thicknesses in excess of
turer of the barrier material should be asked to rec- '/\\; in. (1 Yz mm) (see Table 6.3). However, it has not
ommend test methods. been established that this test is necessary prior to
The patch test for surface strength will also indi- the application of all types of protective barrier mate-
cate whether the cleanliness (see Section 3.4.5.1) rials. The epoxy and polyester barriers usually fail by
and dryness (see Section 3.4.5.2) are satisfactory. a cohesive failure of the concrete just below the inter- .
3.4.5.4 Strength of surface to (J depth of '/~ ill. (6 face. The failure occurs when the internal stresses in
mm)-A practical field test method to measure the the material exceed the tensile strength of the con-
tensile strength of a concrete surface is described in crete. Three main sources of stresses arc: shrinkage of
the barrier material during curing, thermal stresses, of adhesion of the barrier material. The use of a ce-
and stresses from external loading. mentitious or a breather type barrier can minimize
3.4.6 Moisture in concrete and effect on barrier the problem.
adhesion-Concrete should be dry before the barrier
material is applied. Not only is surface moisture ob- References
1. ACI Committee 301, "Specifications for Structural Concrete
jectionable, but moisture within the concrete may
for Buildings (ACI301-84)." American Concrete Institute, Detroit.
also affect the ability of a coating to adhere to the 1984, 33 pp. Also. ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 3.
surface. There are no precise guidelines to indicate 2. ACI Committee 311, "Guide for Concrete Inspection," (ACI
when moisture will be a problem, although a qualita- 311.4R-80) (Revised 1984)," American Concrete Institute, Detroit.
tive test is described in Section 3.4.5.2. A brief expla- 1980, 5 pp. Also, ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 2.
nation of how the moisture in concrete can affect the 3. ACI Committee 308, "Standard Practice for Curing Concrete
(ACI 308-81)," American Concrtlte Institute, Detroit. 1981. 11 pp.
adhesion of a barrier follows. Also, ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 2.
Poor barrier adhesion to the concrete can result if 4. Concrete Manual, 8th Edition, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation,
water vapor diffuses out to the concrete surface. A Denver, 1975, pp. 393-429.
surface that is too damp may produce voids in the 5. ACI Committee 503, "Use of Epoxy Compounds with Con-
material and lead to blistering or peeling after it has crete," (ACI 503R-80) (Revised 1984), America!'! Concrete Institute,
Detroit, 1984, 33 pp. Also, ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 5
cured to a hard film. The following factors should be 6. ACI Committee 503, "Standard Specification for Producing"
considered in determining whether or not this will Skid-Resistant Surface on Concrete by the Use of a Mulli-
be a problem: Component Epoxy System {ACI 503.3-79)," American Concrete
1. The rate of vapor transmission through and from Institute, Detroit, 1979, 6 pp.
7. ACI Committee 116, "Cement and Concrete Terminology,"
the concrete.
(ACI 116R-78), American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1978, 50 pp.
2. The amount of moisture remaining in the con-
8. Berger, D. M" and Mroz, S. E .. "Instruments for Inspection of
crete at any given stage. Coatings," Journal of Testing and Evaluation, V. 4, No. 1. 1976.
3. The ability of the coating to "breathe." and 9. ACI Committee 506, "Recommended Practice for Shotcreting
therefore, allow moisture to pass through itself. (ACI 506-66) (Revised 1983)." American Concrete Institute.
4. The temperature differential between the con- Detroit, 1983. 16 pp. Also, ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 5.
10. "Special Products Evaluation List (SPELl." Report No.
crete surface and ambient air temperature while the FHWA·RD-83-093. Federal Highway Administration. Washington,
coating is curing. If the concrete temperature is be- 0, c., Aug. 1983, pp. 176-249.
low that of the dewpoint of the surrounding air, 11. "Standard Practice for Surface Preparation of Concrete for
moisture will condense on the surface. Application of Chemical-Resistant Resin Monolithic Surfacings,"
(ASTM C 811-Ell). ASTM, Philadelphia. 1981. 3 pp.
5. The ability of the material to displace moisture
12. ACI Committee 302. "Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab
from the surface. Construction," (ACI 302.1R-80), American Concrete Institute,
Proprietary cementitious materials are available Detroit, 1980.46 pp. Also, ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 2.
which can be applied to damp concrete and concrete 13. ACI Committee 546, "Guide ior Repair of Concrete Bridge
which is subjected to hydrostatic pressure. These Superstructures," (ACI 546.1R-80), American Concrete Institute,
Detroit, 1980. 20 pp. Also, ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 2.
materials can provide a dry surface for barriers re-
14. ACI Committee 303. "Guide to Cast-in-Place Architectural
quiring this property for good adhesion. Concrete Practice," (ACI 303R-74}(Revised 1982), American Con-
3.4.6.11nfluence of ambient conditions on adhe- crete Institute. Detroit. 1982, 30 pp. Also, ACI Manual of Concrete
sion-It has been found by experience that there is Practice, Part 3.
better adhesion between a concrete surface and the
barrier material when it is applied in the afternoon. It Additional sources of information
is reasoned that the concrete was exposed to sun and ACI Manual of Concrete Practice:
Recommendations for Construction of Concrete
air for at least 6 hr and this resulted in a lower surface Pavements and Concrete Bases (Part 21
moisture content. A secondary benefit for applying a Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Nor-
barrier material in the afternoon is that the surface mal. Heavyweight. and Mass Concrete (Revised
has, in most cases, reached its maximum tem- 1984) (Part 1)
Recommended Practice for Measuring. Mixing.
perature so no further expansion of air in the con-
Transporting, and Placing Concrete (Reaffirmed
crete pores will occur. This will eliminate the ten- 1983) (Part 2) .
dency for expanding air to cause blistering of the 305R-77 Hot Weather Concreting (Revised 1982) (pari 2)
applied barrier material while it is curing. 306R-78 Cold Weather Concreting (Revised 1983) (Part 2)

3.4.6.2 Encapsulation of concrete-Encapsula-

tion of concrete is a special problem. This can occur
when a concrete slab-an-grade receives a vapor bar-
rier on the underside and is subsequently covered on CHAPTER 4-WATERPROOFING BARRIER
top with a barrier system. Water can be trapped in the SYSTEM
concrete making it more susceptible to freeze-thaw 4.1-Characteristics of waterproofing
deterioration. In addition. if the concrete is encapsu- Membrane waterproofing is the most reliable type
lated during a relativelY cool day and then is sub- of barrier to prevent liquid water under a hydrostatic
jected to higher ambient temperaiures. the increased head fJiOOlentering an undt~rgroulld structure. High
vapor pressure of the trapped water could cause loss qualitv C(J1H:rete.admixtures and removal of the hv-
 drostatic pressure by drainage (subsurface tile, well- and concrete and should be removed. Chapter 3 on
points, etc.) should reduce water leakage problems. surface preparation should be reviewed before speci-
Waterproofing consists of surrounding the entire fications (contract documents) are issued.
positive or negative side of the structure with a con-
tinuous barrier. The purpose is to prevent leakage
into a usable space or to prevent loss of water from a 4.1.2 Specifier's checklist-Another important
retaining structure. To be successful, the barrier must factor affecting the performance of a waterproofing
be continuous and completely cover walls, floor, and barrier system is the development of specifications to
other surfaces subjected to liquid water. See Sections define the type of barrier required and the quality of
2.1.1.1 and 2.1.1.2 for definitions of positive side and the installed system. A specification will also serve
negative side waterproofing. Waterproofing mem- as a valuable tool to enable the owner or agency.
~ranes have varying permeability coefficients designer, construction management; applicator and
(perms). High quality concrete may have a per- inspector, to communicate more effectively with
meability coefficient as low as 10· cm/sec. If a spec-
H each other before the work commences. The sug-
ified vapor transmission is required, the system gestions listed below should help the specifier de-
should be selected to meet this requirement. velop a document to promote a high quality barrier
Traditionally, waterproofing barriers consist of system:
multiple layers of bituminous-saturated felt or fabric 1. Follow manufacturer's guide specification. Re~
cemented together with hot-applied coal tar pitch or solve questions or disputed areas before contract
asphalt for positive side applications. There are also documents or final specifications are issued for bids
cold-applied systems that use multiple applications and eventual award of contract.
of asphaltic mastics and glass fabrics. Today, a 2. Specify that all technical data from the manufac-
number of other positive side waterproofing barriers turer and applicator be submitted to the specifying
can be selected, which include cold-applied sys- agency after award of contracts.
tems, such as elastomeric membrane barriers, ce- 3. Establish the limitations and requirements dur-
mentitious membranes, modified bituminous ing application that will be imposed by weather con-
materials, bentonite-based materials, and a number ditions such as temperature, rain and wind.
of proprietary types of waterproofing barriers. For 4. Specify concrete surface quality and finishes to
negative side waterproofing, cementitious mem- meet requirements of Chapter 3.
branes or metallic oxide waterproofing materials can 5. Do not use curing compounds. release coatings
be used. The number of coats or plies, thickness, and on concrete forms, or admixtures in the concrete that
the types of materials will vary with the job condi- interfere with adhesion of the barrier material to con-
tions. References 1 through 10, and 12, will provide crete (see Sections 3.1.1, 3.1.2, 3.1.3). Consider the
aciditional information about waterproofing barrier use of polyethylene lined forms.
systems. 6. Specify the type of flashing and reinforcing ma-
To be effective, the application of waterproofing terials to be used to provide flashings at all openings
requires meticulous care and strict adherence to the and projections where the barrier will terminate if
manufacturer's recommended procedures. Poor or needed.
7. Minimize the number of penetrations through
careless workmanship will result in leaks that are
extremely difficult to find and costly to repair. There- the barrier because leaks are more likely to occur in
fore, a suitable inspection program should be formu- these areas.
lated for the application work. The use of a qualified, 8. Barrier materials that are completely bonded to
independent inspection agency is advisable (see Sec- the concrete substrate are preferred over unbonded
tion 4.4.1). ones to prevent water migration at the interface hav-
ing entered from a membrane rupture. Leaks in un-
4..1.1 Performance vs. surface preparation-An bonded systems are more difficult to trace than in
important factor affecting the performance of water- fully bonded systems.
proofing barrier systems is the quality of the concrete 9. Provide continuous support for the barrier.
surface. A smooth surface essentially free of hon- otherwise punctures can be expected.
eycomb. depressions. fins, holes. humps, dust, dirt. 10. Anticipate substrate movement and provide
oils. and other surface contaminants is necessary to sufficient expansion joints.
provide continuous support to the barrier material 11. Provide protection of the barrier when work is
and good adhesion between the two. Water pressure performed over or near the barrier.
acting on unsupported material may cause it to ex- 12. Provide protection before backfilling if not al-
trude, deform, or even eventu;Illy rupture. Good ad- ready part of membrane system.
hesion between the concrete surface and the barrier 13. Request that manufacturer confirm that the bar-
material is essential to prevent water migration and rier system selected is suitable for the end use
leakage if there is a small ~ut or opening in the bar- intended. The performance guarantee should be de-
rier mat~rial. Form coatings or release agents and fined by the manufacturer.
concrete curing membranes could interfere with the 14. Specify that applicator must be approved and
development of good adhesion b~tween the barrier certified by the manufacturer of the system to be
• Concrete may remain moist. eliminating drying. shrinkage. and • Water is prevented from entering concrete
cracking • Dried concrete is protected from freeze/thaw damage
• Inspection and repair possible and economical after backfill • Corrosion protection if aggressive chemicals are present
• No additional excavation costs for application or repair

• No freeze/thaw protection on above grade or exposed • Membrane inaccessible. if sandwiched or backfilled for
applications inspection
• No corrosion protection if aggressive chemicals are present • Repairs
• May have to stop moisture flow to install the system • Additional excavation costs for installation of membrane
• Damage possible during backfill

used (Applicable to liquid-applied system-see Sec- When selecting a negative or positive side water-
tion 4.2.4.) proofing system, the specifier should thoroughly re-
15. Do not use barrier systems as surface applica- view the advantages and disadvantages of placing
tions over concrete decks that already have a barrier the waterproofing barrier on the negative or positive
on the underside. Blistering and/or delamination can side and of each type of waterproofing barrier mate-
result from entrapped moisture (see Section 3.4.6.2). O rial (see Table 4.2).
An exception is an unbonded barrier which is vented 4.2.1 Positive side waterproofing barrier sys-
or a barrier system that has an adequate transmission tems-Positive side waterproofing barrier systems
rate. (Applicable to liquid-applied systems-see are placed on the same side as the hydrostatic pres-
Section 4.2.4.) sure. Application methods are classified as hot-ap-
16. When barrier materials are exposed to the plied systems or cold-applied systems.
weather, they must be resistant to ultraviolet and Although hot-applied systems enjoy widespread
ozone or provisions should be made to protect ex- use, field conditions. experience. type of contractor,
posed areas with weather resistant flashing mate- safety, and personal preferences may dictate other
rials. As an example, some preformed 'barriers (see waterproofing systems. Cold-applied systems may be
Section 4.2.6) use clear polyethylene films which bituminous or elastomeric systems applied either as
should not be left exposed. (Applicable to sheet- a solid (roll or sheet) or applied as a liquid. Cold-
applied systems-see Section 4.2.5.) applied systems can be advantageous when smog
17. Require flood test for horizontal installations control or fire considerations prohibit the use of bi-
after work is complete (see Section 4.4.2). tuminous heating equipment. On tall buildings or for
18. Do not use liquid-applied materials over unre- remote locations. it may be more economical to use a
inforced lightweight aggregate concrete fills or thin cold system rather than hoist or transport the equip-
veneers that use PYA or latex additives or bonding ment needed for hot systems. The cold-applied sys-
adhesives. tems can be used on irregularly-shaped surfaces with
19. Liquid-applied barriers may not cover. hide, or less difficulty than that encountered with felt-
level surface irregularities. reinforc.ed, hot-applied bituminous systems. The liq-
20. The installation of subsurface and surface uid-applied elastomeric systems generally result in
drainage systems to reduce water pressure is membranes with excellent elongation characteristics
encouraged. at moderate temperatures. However, these same
me.mbranes may not have the same tensile strength
4.2-Guide tQ selection characteristics as membranes which use felt or fabric
When selecting a waterproofing system, the spec- as reinforcement.
ifier should use his experience and judgment. He Two types of reinforcing fiber constructions are
should consider the severity of the water conditions. used in waterproofing systems: namely, felt and fab-
the type of construction and the conditions under ric. Fabric has two advantages over felt: (1) It is
which the materials will be applied. The manufac- stronger, more pliable and conforms more readily to
turer should also be consulted concerning the thick- irregular surfaces, therefore, it is generally used as
ness, number of plies or coats- (where applicable), reinforcement at corners and angles; (2) It can absorb
details of openings. joints, cants, coves, penetrations, vibration and movement better than felt, so it is pre-
crack repair. termination details, application charac- ferred on bridge decks, tunnels, roadways, and under
teristics, protective covering, and other pertinent floors that support heavy machinery. Glass fabric is
data that will assure satisfactory performance of the more resistant to deterioration than cotton or jute
barrier system. and is therefore more useful for applications where it
 .,: . ' .' ~
S'RUCIURAl SlAB
.ROIECIlOH BMRO ;:.:.' .:}: j ~ PROTECTION BOARD
f£ll OR fABRIC
... , .'

;
. ...
~.' ,.

" ••••••• 1 •• •.•

Fig. 4.2.1.1-a-Schematic view. wall and slab water- Fig. 4.2.1.1-b-Schematic view. typical waterprO!lfing at
proofing.· base corner.

is not possible to use a protective covering (see Sec- and/or elastomeric materials; they may be "built-up"
tion 4.3.4]. in a manner similar to hot-applied systems or may be
Systems employing felts are generally considered applied as a liquid to form a membrane or may be
to be less permeable than fabrics containing cotton factory fabricated into sheets or rolls and then joined
or glass. in the field to form the barrier system. Within each of
4.2.1.1 Hot-applied bituminous barrier mate- these categories. there are several variations avail-
rials- The materials used for hot-applied systems able.
are bituminous substances of either coal tar pitch or Cold bituminous systel11s use asphalt emulsions _
asphalt derived from petroleum (see Sections 6.4.1 (see Section 6.4.2) or solvent cut-back asphaltic mas-
and 6.4.3]. tics and are reinforced with fabric. These mastics
The bitumens (coal tar pitch and asphalt] used in and emulsions have little strength within them-
hot-applied systems have very little strength within selves. The fabric acts as a reinforcement in the same
themselves. Fabrics and felts act as reinforcement to way that it does in hot-applied systems. Materials
withstand the strains of expansion. contraction. tem- used for waterproofing should be protected from the
perature changes. vibration. and building movement. weather.
Fig. 4.2.1.1-a is a schematic view of the waterproof- Many of the manufacturers do not recommend the
ing system for a wall and slab using hot-applied bi- use of asphalt emulsions below grade because they
tuminous barrier materials and fiber reinforcing may reemulsify if not fully cured before contacting
materials of either felt or fabric.· Nailers (see Section water. It is difficult to determine when the emulsion
4.3.2] and protection board (see Section 4.3.4) are has become fully cured. However, they may be used
also shown. Fig. 4.2.1.1-b is a more detailed view of a as a dampproofing barrier (see Chapter 5).
corner section.
4.2.1.3 Liquid-applied elastomeric barrier
Felts used in a waterproofing system are usually
materials
the same as those used for roofing purposes. Cotton
fabrics weigh a minimum of 10 oz per square yard 4.2.1.3.1 General description of materials-
(0.34 kg/m2) and have a long record of use. Glass Elastomeric materials are liquids that are applied by
fabric has been in use since 1946. It is the strongest of means of squeegee, roller, brush. trowel, or spray.
the fabrics in use. having a minimum tensile strength When cured. they form a film. resistant to water and
of 75 lb per in. (1.35 kg/mm) of width. Jute (treated many other chemicals. With some of these materials.
burlap) is sometimes used because of its coarse tex- the manufacturer may require reinforcement with
ture. All of the fabrics are available in a variety of glass fabric. An elastomer is defined in ASTM D1566
widths ranging from 3 in. (75 mm) to 48 in. (1220 as a "macromolecular material that returns rapidly to
mm). approximately the initial dimensions and shape after
Felt or felt-type materials in roll form should be substantial deformation by a weak stress and release
stacked on ends and protected from the weather. It is of the stress. "13 Some barrier materials may be used
extremely important that the rolls be stored to pre- as exposed coatings on roofs or floors for pedestrian
vent the ends from absorbing moisture. Fabrics or wheel traffic. while others may be protected by
should be stored on their side. surfacings such as concrete, asphaltic concrete.
Overheating and subsequent thermal degradation brick, or tile.
of the bituminous material occurs unless the kettle Liquid-applied membranes are formulated as sin-
temperature is controlled. Keep within the manufac- gle- or multiple-component products such as neo-
turer's recommended temperature limits. prene (polychloroprene). neoprene-bituminous
4.2.1.2 Cold-applied bituminous barrier mate- blends, polyurethane. polyurethane-bituminous
rials-Cold-applied systems may use bituminous blends. and epoxy-bituminous blends.
 4.2.1.3.2 General application charac- sian joint can result in unwanted chemical reactions
teristics-Each of the liquid-applied systems has and deterioration of the joint sealant, sheet material
special application requirements that are peculiar to andlar barrier material.
that system. Some of the systems require a glass cloth
or mesh to reinforce the film. Others allow the film 4.2.1.3.3 Special application suggestions-
to stretch to provide maximum flexibility but require Liquid-applied systems can be vp-rysensitive to mis-
reinforcement with cloth or mesh over joints and handling and misuse during application. The follow-
cracks that are more than 60 mil (1Yz mm) in width. ing suggestions are made to eliminate or at least
The applicator should follow the manufacturer's di- minimize problems.
rections. When the directions or specifications are 1. Do not use liquid systems as surface applica-
not clear or appear to be contradictory, he should tions over concrete decks that already have a buried
request clarification. For surface preparation. refer to membrane under them. Blistering andlor delamina-
Chapter 3. Many of the systems require a dry film tion can result from entrapped moisture (see Section
thickness of at least 50 mil (1Y4 mm) where traffic is 3.4.6.2). Unlike an unbonded barrier, it is not possi-
expected. It is necessary to apply the material in ble to relieve pressure by venting.
multiple coats to minimize the effect of pin hole for- 2. Request that the manufacturer confirm that
mation, a characteristic of liquid-applied membrane membrane is suitable for the end use intended.
systems. 3. Follow manufacturer's guide specifications and
Weather conditions such as ambient temperature, resolve questions or disputed areas before contract
precipitation, and humidity can affect the quality of documents or final specifications are issued for bids
the application and subsequent performance of the and eventual award of contracts.
barrier system. Below a certain temperature. many of 4. Specify that the applicator must be approved
the materials will be too viscous to form a continu- and certified by the manufacturer of the system to be
ous film of the correct thickness and the adhesive used.
bond to the concrete is reduced in strength. In addi- 5. Specify that all technical data from the manufac-
tion, the development of required mechanical prop- turer and applicator be submitted to the specifier im-
erties may not occur as expected. Precipitation mediately after award of contracts.
during and immediately after applicaticn can also 6. Specify concrete surface quality and finishes to
adversely affect properties of the barrier material. meet requirements of Chapter 3.
The manufacturer should supply pertinent informa- 7. Do not use liquid-applied materials over light-
tion concerning cold and hot weather application as weight aggregate concrete fills or thin veneers that
well as the effect of moisture on the barrier material have polyvinyl acetate (PVA) or latex bonding agents.
during application. 8. Liquid-applied barriers will not cover. hide, or
Expansion joints should be fabricated in two steps. level surface irregularities.
First the two concrete sections should be joined with 9. Specify the type of flashing and reinforcing ma-
an eJastomeric sealant using standard procedures terials to be used. Provide flashings at all openings
'and recommendations of ACI Committee 504.10 After and projections where the membrane will terminate.
the barrier material is applied a sheet elastomer The various materials should be compatible and not
should be embedded into it and covered with addi- cause chemical reactions when in contact with each
tional liquid-applied barrier material to completely other. Compatibility should be determined by the
cover the sheet (see Fig. 4.2.1.3.2). material manufacturer.
The sheet elastomer must be compatible with the
chemical compounds used in the liquid-applied ma- 4.2.1.4 Sheet-applied barrier materials
terial as determined by the material manufacturer. 4.2.1.4.1 General description-Precured elas-
Using the wrong design and materials for the expan- tomeric sheet materials may be calendared, ex-
truded. or spread coated. The system may be fully
bonded to the substrate or laid loose (unbonded) ac-
cording to the manufacturer's rel::ommendations.
Sheet-applied materials. generally available. are
listed below:
1. Neoprene is a synthetic rubber identified as
polychloroprene. It has good resistance to intermit-
tent oil exposure and to bacteria. fungi, acids. ultra-
violet. and ozone. It is usually applied in 60 mil (1.5
mm) sheets and may be used either exposed or below
other wearing surfaces. 0
2. Butyl is a synthetic rubber identified as poly-
isobutylene. It is best suited for below grade. con-
cealed waterproofing installations. However, re-
Fig. 4.2.1.3.2-Schematic view, liquid applied barrier sistance to ozone, ultraviolet, bacteria, fungi, and
with expansion joinl.4 soil acids is good.
 3. EPDM is a synthetic rubber resulting from the 1. Surfaces, on which an adhesive is to be applied,
polymerization of ethylene and propylene. Properly must be free of dust, dirt, and chemical contami-
formulated compounds based on EPDM provide nants, some of which may not be visible. Cleaning
good resistance to ozone, ultraviolet, and weather- such surfaces with detergent and/or solvents will
ing. The material supplier should provide test data to usually be effective.
indicate the degree of resistance to ultraviolet and 2. Adhesive peel tests before and during installa-
weathering. EPDM remains elastic through a wide tion should be conducted to determine the quality of
range of temperatures. the lap joints. The manufacturer of the material
4. Plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC) sheet is should be contacted for recommendations.
produced by adding a chemical, called a plasticizer, 3. The shelf-life of the adhesive should be checked.
to a hard and rigid polyvinyl chloride plastic. The Some adhesives that are stored beyond the recom-
r:esult is a soft, pliable material that has properties mended time or above the recommended tem-
similar to the three elastomeric materials listed perature, shown on the can label, will produce low
above. Some vinyls have relatively poor resistance to strength joints.
direct exposure to ultraviolet and weather compared 4. The "open-time" should also be given on the
to elastomeric materials. However, new plasticizers label. Many adhesive coated surfaces will not form a
for vinyls are now available to improve these strong bond if they have allowed to dry (solvent re-
properties. moval) for too long a period before joining. However,
4.2.1.4.2 Joining sheet materials-There are some solvent should be allowed to escape before
two methods of joining sheet-applied barrier mate- joining the two surfaces.
rials. One is adhesive bonding (or adhesive seaming) 5. Ambient temperature during application can af-
and the other is solvent cementing (or chemical fect "open-time." At low temperatures, the solvents
welding). In both casef>, a lap joint is formed where may evaporate too slowly and prevent formation of a
one sheet ovorlaps the other by 2 to 6 in. (5 to 15 cm). strong joint. At high ambient temperatures, the sol-
Adhesive bonding is used to join precured sheet vents may flash-off (evaporate) too fast to effect a
applied barrier materials such as neoprene, butyl, good joint.
6. The method of applying pressure just after the
and EPDM. The adhesives are usually solvent based
elastomers that are brush applied to the barrier sur- two adhesive-coated surfaces have been joined is
faces that are to be lap bonded. See Section 4.2.1.4.3 important. The manufacturer should give detailed
for details concerning the adhesive bonding instructions. The formation of "fish mouths" is one
procedure. problem encountered during joint preparation which
Solvent cementing, which is also known as chem- cannot always be solved by the use of extra pressure.
ical welding, is a special type of adhesive bonding A "fish mouth" describes a condition where the edge
and is usually used for joining sheets of plasticized of one sheet, because it is puckered or rippled, can-
Pve. In the case of solvent cemcnting, the adhesive not be completely bonded to the other sheet. The
is formed in-situ by dissolving the surface of PVC "fish mouth" can form a deep channel and be a
with a suitable solver-t. After the two surfaces to be source of leakage. The top of each "fish mouth" must
bonded develop a paste-like surface, they are then be slit to make it easy to join the unbonded rubber
pressed together. As the solvent diffuses away from pieces to the mating surface.
the joint, strength increases, developing full strength
in 24 to 48 hr. The comments in Section 4.2.1.4.3 4.2.1.4.4 Special application suggestions-
concerning adhesive bonding procedure also apply Like the liquid-applied systems, the sheet systems
to solvent cementing. can be very sensitive to misuse during application.
4.2.1.4.3 Adhesive bonding procedure-Each These suggestions are made to eliminate or at least
manufacturer should supply the adhesive suitable minimize problems:
for its material. Different adhesives may be needed 1. Barrier materials that are completely bonded to
for bonding to the substrates and the lap joints. The the concrete substrate are preferred over unbonded
manufacturer's recommendations and instructions ones.
for adhesive bonding should be followed because 2. Do not use curing compounds that interfere with
failure to do su will usually result in problems. When adhesion of the sheet to concrete (see Section 3.1.2).
using sheet barriers, the adhesive bonded lap joints 3. Minimize the number of penetrations through
or spliced butt joints are the most critical areas. The the barrier.
manufacturer should provide data about the long- 4. Provide continuous support for the sheet, other-
term strength retention properties, when exposed to wise punctures can be expected.
water, of adhesive bonds used to join these shect ma- 5. Provide protection board when work is per-
terials. The same kind of information should be re- formed over the barrier.
quested for adhcsive bonds betwecn concrete and the 6. Require a flood test after installation is
sheet materials. complete.
Succcssful adhcsive bonding requires that attcn- 7. Specify materials that are resistant to the ele-
tion bE givcn to the following items: ments in exposed situations.
 4.2.1.5 Preformed barrier materials-A prefabri- such as pools. tanks, fountains, and concrete decks
cated waterproofing barrier usually consisting of (see Fig. 4.2.1.6). With proper design and attention to
polyethylene film, polyvinylchloride film, or non- accommodate for the rigid barrier, cementitious
woven plastic fabric, glass fabric, coated on one or membranes can also be used on below grade founda-
both sides with bituminous materials derived from tions. Special traffic bearing grades of cementitious
either asphalt or coal tar base materials and usually membranes are available for parking and pedestrian
modified with various polymers to improve physical areas.
properties. The overall thicknesses of these mem- 4.2.1.6.1 Special design considerations-
branes vary from product to product, usually ranging
Since cementitious membranes are rigid, they must
from 40-200 mil (1-5 mm). Preformed barrier mate-
be applied on sound concrete sections. Their rigid
rials are supplied in either sheet or roll form. The roll
nature requires careful design consideration with
form is generally more pliable and can be formed
particular attention required to joints and cracks sub-
around and into corners. Sheet material is not as ject to movement. Cementitious membranes with
pliable and must be cut to fit corners and other thermal coefficient of expansion and flexural proper-
changes in the form of the concrete surface.
ties comparable to that of concrete, as well as shrink-
4.2.1.5.1 Special application suggestions- age, are preferred; since they allow the membrane to
The following precautions should be followed when
move with the concrete and reduce the chance of the
specifying these membranes: membrane debonding or cracking. The following are
1. Provide complete backup for the barrier mate-
some general design considerations when using ce-
rial. Separation at laps may occur when the material
mentitious membranes:
is not fully supported when applied over large open 1. For above grade applications, characteristics of
areas. Further, these materials are more susceptible to the structure which cause movement at joints or
puncture when not supported. cracks deserve evaluation. These characteristics may
2. Anticipate substrate movement and provide suf- include thermal, shrinkage and normal structural
ficient expansion joints as required to preclude the response.
possibility of substrate cracks. 2. Cementitious membranes cannot span moving
3. Membranes that use clear polyethylene top
joints or cracks. Joints and cracks subject to thermal
films must not be left exposed. Plan to provide flash- and structural movement should be sealed with an
ing for protection from sunlight and physical damage elastomeric sealant or other material which would
as recommended by the manufacturer. accommodate such movement.
4. Provide protection to the membrane before
3. Before applying the cementitious membranes, it
backfilling. is recommended that the concrete be properly cured
4.2.1.6 Cementitious membrane barrier mate-
and allowed to complete its shrinkage.
rials-Cementitious membranes are waterproofing 4. Careful planning of joints is required to elimi-
barriers which become hard and rigid after being nate cracking of the concrete substrate. Design isola-
mixed. They can be applied by trowel, spray or by tion joints along all points of abutment between each
the dry-shake/power trowel method to the thickness substrate unit to accommodate for any differential
ranges between V8 in. (3 mm) for normal applications movement will protect the substrate and barrier from
and from Y4 to 1 in. (6 to 24 mm) for heavy traffic cracking.
bearing applications. Cementitious membranes are 5. Manufacturer's recommended architectural de-
available in various colors. They can be applied on tails and design guidelines should be closely fol-
damp. semi-smooth, rough, and irregular surfaces. lowed when utilizing cementitious membranes.
They can be dressed to provide a smooth. rough, or Cementitious materials have properties that are dif-
textured finish. Cementitious membranes are com- ferent from other membranes used for positive side
monly used on surfaces that will be left exposed, waterproofing.
4.2.2 Negative side waterproofing barrier sys-
tems---::Negative side systems are placed on the side
opposite the applied hydrostatic pressure. There are
WATER PRESSURE
FROM THIS SIDE two types of waterproofing barrier materials available
for negative side applications. They are cementitious
membrane waterproofing materials and metallic ox-
ide waterproofing materials.
1. Cementitious membrane waterproofing-Ce-
mentitious membranes are special, rigid, hydraulic
cement compositions which upon hardening form a
waterproofing cement coating. Cementitious mem-
branes. which are usually self-curing, are pre-
packaged, bagged mixes that require only the
Fig. 4.2.1.li-Sc:lwlJlotic vielV of positive side. above gra(h~. addition of water. Some manufacturers offer traffic
umwnlitious mcmbrune woterpruofing. bearing cementitious membranes which may be left
exposed to commercial and industrial traffic. Mate- 6. Additional properties to be considered when se-
rials are available for sealing active leaks, cracks, lecting a negative side barrier are flammability, tox-
penetrations, cants, coves. and fillets. Their applica- icity, effect on drinking water, resistance to efflo-
tion rates are normally specified in Va to V4 in. (3 to 6 rescence and discoloration, and ability to be
mm) thick applications. Some cementitious mem- patched.
branes resist very high hydrostatic pressures with a 4.2.2.2 Design considerations-Consideration
very low permeability, and therefore can be painted must be given to all joints and areas subject to move-
or coated with a protective barrier system if desired. ment since negative side waterproofing barrier sys-
2. Metallic oxide waterproofing materials-Metal- tems are rigid. Proper design and treatment of expan-
lic oxide waterproofings include a mix of fine metal- sion. control and construction joints are of vital im-
lic materials which chemically react, oxidize. portance. otherwise leakage will occur in those areas
penetrate and/or expand into the .capillaries of the which the barrier cannot span during movement (see
concrete, thereby decreasing the permeabiUty of the Fig. 4.2.2.2). Eacb substrate to receive the negative
concrete. Metallic oxide waterproofing materials re- side waterproofing barrier must be designed with the
quire surface preparation to yield an open pore and objective to move as an individual unit. Designing
capillary system to ensure capillary penetration. Ap- isolation joints along all points of abutment between
plication of metallic oxide waterproofing requires each substrate unit to accommodate for any differen-
field mixing of metallic filings, an oxidizing catalyst, tial movement will protect the substrate and the bar-
sand and cement with water. An application of 3 to 5 rier itself from cracking. The substrate unit must also
coats is normally required. Constant moist curing is be structurally sound. The structure and its founda-
also essential to promote oxidation. A sand/cement tion as a whole must also be designed to withstand
coat is usually applied as a finish coat. Metallic ox- the expected load and any hydrostatic pressure. Dif-
ide waterproofing, when properly mixed, applied ferential foundation settlement that could cause
and cured, results in a rigid waterproofing barrier. cracking should be eliminated. Existing structures
This type of barrier is highly dependent upon the undergoing attack. deterioration, settlement and
quality of workmanship. Close field supervision is structural failure must first be rendered sound prior
recommended to ensure proper mixing and that all to the application of any waterproofing barrier
steps are followed by the applicator. Material costs system.
are usually low, while the multicoat labor costs are 4.2.2.3 Installation
high. 4.2.2.3.1 Surface preparation-Proper surface
preparation is essential to ensure that a good bond is
achieved. Prepare the surface in accordallfe with the
4.2.2.1 Characteristics of negative side water- manufacturer's instructions. Surfaces mustb-e,Jree of
proofing barriers-For a negative side waterproofing loose, weak. and unsound concrete. Proper identifi-
barrier to perform effectively, a number of charac- cation of cracks subject to movement should be
teristics and properties are necessary, some of which made, and they must be isolated, and treated, to en-
may be unique and not required of positive side sure a properly sealed surface. See Chapter 3 for
waterproofing barrier systems. details.
1. The barrier must provide the lowest possible
The information in Section 3.4 should provide a
constant water permeability under hydrostatic pres- good guideline toward properly preparing surfaces to
sure immediately upon curing. This will ensure that receive negative side waterproofing barrier material.
the barrier will show no dampness on interior sur-
faces, or will not contribute to the humidity in the
sealed space.
2. The barrier must bond permanently to the sub-
strate, and the bond strength must be higher than the
expected hydrostatic pressure.
3. The barrier must be rigid to eliminate blistering,
ballooning, debonding, and rupturing under hydro-
static pressure.
4. Shrinkage in the plastic and hardened state
must be low enough to prevent cracking and debond-
ing. The thermal coefficient of expansion must also
be compatible with the concrete. These properties
are also important for properly sealing penetrations.
cants. coves. and cracks.
5. When required, the negative side barriers should WATER PRESSURE PIPE
FROM THIS SIDE PENETRATION
have good resistance to traffic. abrasion. erosion.
chemicals, and temperature resistance. Availability negoth'e
Fig. 4.2.2.2-Schemol it: view of below grode. showing
in various colors or the ability to be painted may be side. cenwllt it iow; lIlelll/)rolle woterproofing
desirable. p(~I1f!lrution.
 4.2.2.3.2 Application rates and techniques- rely on the mechanical equipment supplier for de-
The application rates and techniques should be in sign detail that results in equipment supports that
accordance with manufacturer's recommendations. rest on the waterproof membrane. This should not be
Barrier materials which require field measuring and done because it results in conditions unfavorable to
mixing of bonding agents or additives, should be the waterproofing system. Poorly designed and ex-
avoided to eliminate the risk of improper measuring eCllted flashing can result in damage to the water-
and mixing. Prepackaged barrier materials with spe- proofing materials as well as to the contents of the
cific mixing instructions are preferred. building.
The techniques for applying negative side water- The surface of adjoining building elements that are
proofing barriers vary greatly. Generally, negative used to form the seal at the terminus of the water-
side barriers may be brushed, troweled, or sprayed proofing barrier should meet the same requirements
on cured concrete. Some proprietary cementitious as the surfaces that receive the waterproofing barrier.
powders may be dry-shaken and power troweled A treated wood nailer or other device may be needed
onto plastic concrete surfaces. Before initial set oc- so that the top edge of the flashing materials may be
curs, application rates are usually specified by thick- mechanically secured according to the man ufac-
ness or by average rate in Ib/sq ft. The specifier turer's recommendation. Reglets are not recom-
should insure that this rate can be controlled and mended as a substitute for a nailing strip or device.
inspected. In all cases the membrane flashing should be raised
4.2.2.3.3 Curing and protection-Self-curing well above the expected maximum "water line" of
materials are easier to install, provide more reliable the finished surface (see Fig. 4.3.1.1).
performance and are preferred. However, some ap- 4.3.1.2 Flashing below grade-In areas below
plied negative side waterproofing barriers require im- grade or below the wearing surface of plaza decks,
mediate additional moisture and a thorough moist flashing materials should be the same as or compati-
curing to complete their chemical reaction. Many ble with those used in the waterproofing system.
negative side waterproofing barriers require protec- Compatibility should be determined by the material
tion from traffic, abrasion, and erosion; however, cer- man ufact urer.
tain barrier materials are available which may be left
4.3.1.3 Flashing above grade-Elastomeric
exposed as a traffic bearing topping. Material proper-
flashing materials should be used with systems using
ties will dictate the necessary post curing protection
elastomers for waterproofing. Exposed edges must be
required.
water-tight, and stripped-in. Exposed material must
be resistant to sunlight and other weather condi-
4.3-Design and application
tions. Counterflashings, where desired for esthetic
4.3.1 Flashing
reasons, may be metal or a compatible elastomeric
4.3.1.1 General-The line or joint where the
material.
waterproofing membrane terminates at walls, etc.,
can be the most vulnerable area of the whole system. 4.3.2 Nailers-When vertical surfaces are to be
Many reports of failures or leaks can be traced back waterproofed and nailing is required, horizontal nail-
to faulty or poor construction details. The flashing ing strips, flush with the surface, should be provided
details are generally subject to the worst possible at least 4 in. (100 mm) above grade and at 6 ft (1.8 m)
conditions of weathering and mechanical damage. intervals along the height of the wall to permit in-
Many times the waterproofing system will not per- stallation of the barrier material in lifts or sections.
form satisfactorily because insufficient considera- The nailer should be treated to resist rot, decay and
tion was given to flashing design during the planning termites with a chemical that is compatible with the
stages. Often, the designer or building owner will bituminous materials used for waterproofing (see
Fig. 4.2.1.1-a and 4.3.2).
4.3.3 Joints-Joints in the concrete surface are ei-
ther construction joints, isolation joints, contraction
joints, or expansion joints. III Joints occurring be-
tween concrete placements that are reinforced by
continuing the slab or wall reinforcement through
the joints are construction joints. Joints that are not
reinforced must be treated as expansion joints ..
Expansion and isolation joints are designed to ac-
commodate movement in one or more directions, re-
spectively. They are an integral part of the structural
system and are designed to reduce stresses caused by
temperature fluctuations. differential foundation set-
tlements, and movements between different building
elements. Joints designed for seismic loading are
Fig. 4.3.1.1-Schematic view. waterproofing for slab below usually very large in order to accommodate move-
grade and at vertical surface.· ment due to earthquakes.
 (grade line) ___ --- WEARING SURfAcr

2-PLY STRIP-IN /-- OAAINAG[ COURSE

OVERlAY

Fig. 4.3.3-a-Schemalic view, expansion joint with curb·

multi-ply system.'

Expansion joints for large buildings are generally

located between 100 and 300 ft (30 m and 90 m) SlOf'( AWAY
FROM JOINT ~.': .~~ _ DRAINAGl COURSE
apart. For these distances. large amounts of move- ". ...* 2·PtY R£INfORC(MfNl

ment are possible, particularly during the construc-

tion phase before the insulation is applied. Move-
ment in the range of Vz to IVz in. (12 to 38 mm) can be
anticipated. Where practical. the edges of expansion
joints should be raised so that the joint is above the
"water line."
Expansion joint design is a complex subject and
the schematic views of expansion joints shown in
Fig. 4.2.1.3.2, 4.3.3-a, and 4.3.3-b should not be used Fig. 4.3.3-b-Schematic view, expansion joint, multi-ply
as guides to designing these joints. The figures serve system.·
only to give the reader an overall view of all the
components making up expansion joints. ASTM 2. Concrete protection slab-Use 3 in. (75 mm)
C898fi should provide some helpful design details. thick. 3000 psi (20.7 MPa) minimum concrelr. The
To achieve watertightness, careful consideration concrete protection slab must be designed for mini·
must be given to the design of all joints. Joint designs mum thermal movement and cracking. The slabs
may include a means for transferring the load from should be designed to provide slope for drainage. If
one side to the other without differential movements mesh reinforcement is used in the slab. protection
which could damage the waterproofing barrier. This board should first be placed on the barrier surface.
is especially true for precast concrete construction; 3. Insulating materials-These offer limited pro-
however. it also applies to all other types of construc- tection and should be covered with a wearing surface
tion. immediately after application. The material should
4.3.4 Protection ofinstalled barriers-Waterproof- be chemically compatible with the membrane sys-
ing barriers should not be subject to abuse from con- tem, should not deteriorate when subjected to pro-
struction traffic or the effects of backfilling oper- longed wet periods and should be dimensionally
ations. Any puncture. tear or damage makes the stable.
membrane useless. Since the waterproofing opera-
tion is generally needed early during construction, 4.4-lnspection and sampling
protective coverings or protection board should be 4.4.1 Inspection program-As discussed in Sec-
used. The protection board should be applied imme- tion 4.1. plans should be formulated for establishing
diately following the application and testing of the a suitable inspection program to oversee the applica-
waterproofing barrier. The following materials tion work. When the following key items are not cov-
should be considered for providing protection: ered in the specification requirements, follow the
1. Protection board-A prefabricated asphalt sheet manufacturer's recommendation:
or panel 3 to 5 ft (0.9 to 1.5 m) in width and 8 to 12 ft 1. Surface condition and surface cleanliness.
(2.4 to 3.6 m) in length. Thicknesses vary from VH to 2. Weather conditions, such as humidity, tem-
1/. in. (3 mm to 6 mm) with 1/2 in. (13 mm) thick perature and precipitation, should be such that they
material available for special applications. The pan- will not interfere with the quality of the applied
els may incorporate glass fabric or organic felt for material.
reinforcement and fiJcings of polyethylene for addi- 3. The application of the miJterial should be in ac-
tional moisture resistance (see Fig. 4.3.2). cordance with the specification. The job should not
 progress unless the inspector has been given such the mechanical contractor's superintendent. A rec-
information. ord of the meeting should be kept to indicate all the
4. Maintain a material inventory to make sure that decisions and agreements reached. This record
the material is being applied at the specified rate. should be made a permanent part of the job records.
This is a checkpoint on barrier thickness. The following is a partial list of the specification
4.4.2 Flood testing-Flood testing is useful for items that should be covered at the meeting:
horizontal membrane applications. The area to be 1. Establish how the surfaces will be considered
tested should be flooded with at least 1 in. (25 mm) acceptable for the application of the waterproofing
of water, but in no event should the water be allowed materials.
to stand above the finished level of the membrane 2. Establish a construction schedule for the in-
flashing. Drains should be plugged and curbings stallation of the waterproofing barrier system. If other
(permanent or temporary) should be formed to retain crafts are to be working in this area, the quality of the
the water for a period of at least 24 hr. Any leaks barrier can be adversely affected.
found during this period should be repaired in accor- 3. Review, in detail, drawings and specifications
dance with the manufacturer's recommendations for the waterproofing barrier system. Samples of the
(which may require complete drying) and the area waterproofing materials should be available for in-
should then be retested. Before repairing the sur- spection. If there are differences between the archi-
faces, they should be dry. tect's specifications and the material manufacturer's,
Temporary barricades or curbs can be formed by they must be resolved before construction begins and
use of sand bags and polyethylene film to impound the decision incorporated into the job record as ei-
water for localized testing. ther a field order or change order. If there are Factory
When it is impractical to flood test an area because Mutual or Underwriters Laboratories' requirements
the slope of the deck would produce excessive water that conflict with the job specifications, these, too,
depths, the membrane can be tested by allowing must be resolved before construction proceeds.
water to run continuously over the area for a period 4. Clearly establish those areas where the water-
of at least 8 hr. During the 8 hr period, the whole area proofing contractor can store materials and
must be kept completely immersed. equipment.
4.4.2.1 Special test consideration-Before start- 5. Establish the clearances that will be required
ing tests, make sure that there is a place for the water adjacent to the areas to be waterproofed so that the
to be drained. If drains are not connected (a frequent handling of materials and the application procedures
occurrence), provisions will be necessary for pump- can be done in a safe manner. Agreements on back-
ing and/or disposing of the water. filling operations should be made, as well as whether
This may be particularly difficult to do when the scaffolding is to be used or not. Backfill against bi-
barrier is located several stories above ground as oc- tuminous systems should be made within 24 hr after
curs in upper level mechanical equipment rooms. installation, since slippage of the system could
4.4.3 Visual inspection-There are many times result.
when flood testing will not be possible because of job 6. If the waterproofed surface is to be used as a
conditions, weather, location, etc. In those cases, a working platform after the waterproofing is applied,
thorough inspection is necessary. All laps, termina- an agreement must be reached relative to membrane
tions, and flashings must be carefully checked for protection. This agreement should indicate how and
any evidence of "fish mouths," incomplete adhesion who will provide the protection.
or other conditions that may be detrimental to the 7. Agreement should be reached on the final basis
watertight integrity of the membranes. of acceptance for the installed waterproofing barrier.
4.4.4 Test samples of work-Test sampling pro-
vides a specimen of the waterproof membrane to
References
supplement any visual inspection made during the
1. Thomas. N. F.. "Neoprene (Polychloroprene) Membranes."
membrane application as agreed upon in the specifi- Building Seals and Sea/anls. STP-606, ASTM, Philadelphia,
cations by the applicator, material manufacturer, and 1976. pp. 182-203.
the owner's representative. The samples may be 12 x 2. Fogel. Joseph. "Cold-Applied Fluid Elaslomeric Membranes,"
12 in. (305 mm x 305 mm) or 4 x 36 in. (100 mm x Building Seals and Sea/anls. STP-606. ASTM. Philadelphia.
915 mm) following the procedure in ASTM 03617.11 1976. pp. 204-217.
3. Ciandollo. O. J.. "A Membrane Applicator's Viewpoint."
Building Seals and SealClnls. STP-606. ASTM. Philadelphia.
1976. pp. 218-232.
4.5-Preconstruction conference checklist 4. "NCRA Roofing and Waterproofing ManuaL" National Roof-
The job specifications should require a pre- ing Contractors Association. Chicago.
construction conference. Even if the specification 5. "Standard Guide for Design of Built-Up Bituminous Mem-
does not require one. it is a good practice to have one. brane Waterproofing Systems for Building Decks," (ASTM C
9Bl-83). ASTM. Philadelphia. 1983. 19 pp.
The meeting should be attended by the general con-
h. "Standard Guide for Use BHigh Solids Content. Cold Liquid-
tractor. waterproofing subcontractor, architect, and Applied Elaslomeric WateqJroofing Membrane with Separate
material manufacturer. When possible, a represen- Wearing Course." (ASTM C 878-7B). ASTM. Philadelphia. 1978.
tative of the owner should also be present as well as z.I PI'.
 7. "Building Systems. Roof and Waterproof Deck Systems Study CHAPTER 5-DAMPPROOFING BARRIER
lor General Services Administration." Engineering No. 480. May
SYSTEMS
1970.
8. Edwards. R. M .. "Development of Asphalt-Polymer Water- 5.1-Characteristics of dampproofing
proofing Systems." Roofing Systems. STP-603. ASTM. Phila- Dampproofing is considered to be effective in re-
delphia. 1976. pp. 13-26. tarding water passage if the concrete surface involved
9. Parise. C. J.. "Architectural Considerations in Plaza Membrane shows no change in color or shading normally asso-
Waterproofing Systems." Materials Research and Standards. V.
11. No.5. May 1971. pp. 19-22.
ciated with that caused by water.
10. ACI Committee 504. "Guide to Joint Sealants for Concrete A dampproofing coating will not be effective if it is
Structures." (ACI 504R-77). American Concrete Institute. Detroit. subjected to a continuous or even an intermittent
1977.58 pp. Also. ACI Manual of Concrete Practice. Part 5. head of water. It is necessary to use a drainage system
11. "Recommended Practice for Sampling and Analysis of New to prevent development of such a head. A damp-
Built-Up Roof Members." (ASTM D 3617-77). ASTM. Phila-
delphia. 1977. b pp. .
proofing coating will not bridge cracks. so if cracks
12. "Special Products Evaluation List (SPEL)." Report No. are present or develop later. dampproofing will not
FWHA-RD-78-31. Federal Highway Administration. Washington. be effective.
D.C .. Dec. 1977. pp. 60-82 and 256-294. The main advantage of dampproofing is that it is a
13. "Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Rubber." (ASTM low cost procedure requiring' a minimum amount of
D 1566-83a). ASTM. Philadelphia. 1983.
concrete surface preparation.
It should be emphasized that a dampproofing bar-
rier system should not be used if there is a chance
that a water head will develop or that cracks will
occur after the barrier is applied.
Additional sources of information
ASTM Standards. 1983 . .for Waterproofing:
C 836-81 Standard Specification for High Solids Con- 5.2-Guide to selection of dampproofing barriers
lent. Cold Liquid-Applied Elastomeric Water-
See Table 5.1 for a summary of general guide to the
proofing Membrane for Use with Separate
Wearing Course selection of dampproofing barriers.
Standard Specification for Asphalt Primer 5.2.1 Barrier system on interior face-Properly
Used in Roofing. Dampproofing. and built and moisture proofed walls should be free of
Waterproofi ng moisture that comes from the exterior and should not
D 43-73 Standard Specification for Creosote Primer
require coating. or other treatment on the inside. If
(1981) Used in Roofing. Dampproofing. and
Waterproofing the wall surfaces do transmit moisture to the interior.
Standard Methods of Sampling and Testing they may require coating with portland cement
Bitumen-Saturated Felts and Woven Fabrics paint. latex paint. urethane. or epoxy coating: how-
for Roofing and Waterproofing ever. the effectiveness of these is usually limited.
Standard Specification for Bitumen-Saturated
They will not withstand any hydrostatic head. A
Cotton Fabrics Used in Roofing and
Waterproofi ng latex paint with just enough binder to provide the
D 449-79 Standard Specification for Asphalt Used in required consistency will allow free breathing. thus
(1983) Dampproofing and Waterproofing alleviating the problem. If the wall surface is damp. a
D 450-78 Standard Specification for Coal-Tar Pitch moisture-compatible paint should be chosen.
Used in Roofing. Dampproofing. and
5.2.2 Barrier system on concrete masonry walls
Waterproofing
D 491-79 Standard Specification for Asphalt Mastic above grade-Concrete masonry walls should nor-
(1983) Used in Waterproofing mally be painted on the exterior for dampproofing
D 1327-82 Standard Specification for Bitumen-S~turated purposes. The paint used should be almost imper-
Woven Burlap Fabrics Used in Roofing and meable to water but should have some permeability
Waterproofing
to water vapor so that if moisture should become
Standard Specification for Glass Fabrics
(Woven and Treated) for Roofing and trapped or condensed within the wall it can slowly
Waterproofi ng escape to the exterior.
D 2521-76 Standard Specification for Asphalt Used in
(1981) Canal. Ditch. and Pond Lining
D 3020-75 Standard Specification for Polyeth\'lene and 5.3-Application
(1980) Ethvlene Copolymer Plastic Sheeting for The application characteristics and procedures of
Pond. Canal. and Reservoir Lining a coating will van' with each formulation. The ap-
Standard Index of Methods for Elastomeric plicator and owner should be guided by recommen-
and Plastomeric Roofing and Waterproofing
dations of the coating manufacturer. However. there
Materials
Standard Specification for Vulcanized Rubber are certain items tlwt affect coating quality. These are
Sheeting for Pond. Canal. and Resen'oir listed below in a generalized manner. Materials
Lining should extend from the outer edge of the footing. at
Standard Specification for Fabric-Reinforced. the bottom of the \\'a II. to abo\'e grade at the top of the
\'lIlcaniwd Rubber Sheeting for Pond. Canal. \\·<.dl.
rlnd Reser\'()ir Lining
Slandnrd Spt'l.ificalion fur Liquid-:\pplied
5.3.1 Weather restrictions-Genera IIv. damp-
:""oIHene :lnd Chioroslilfon<ili·d PoIWII1\ I,,,w proofing should nol be applied when the ambient i.Iir
L'sed in Roofing <ind \\aterproofing tClllpcrature or concrete surface is btdow 40 F (4 C)
515.1 R·30 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE

Table 5.1-Dampproofing coating materials

Recommendations for specific elements or structures

Walls below grade Walls above grade

Concrete masonry Concretp Concrete masonry Concrete

Ext. face Int. face Ext. face Int. face Ext. face Int. face Ext. face Int. face

Water-based portland
cement paint X X X X X X

Portland cement with

stearic acid. water
repellants. or latex
emulsions X X X X X X

Portland cement
parging coated with
asphalt or coal tar X

Cold-applied asphalt X

Latex paints X X X X X X

Two-component epoxy
paints X X X X X

Solvent-based
chlorinated rubber
paint X X X X X X

Coal-tar-polyurethane
paint X X

Two-component or
moisture-cured
polyurethane paints X X X X X X

Fish oil-based with

mica and asbestos
fillers X X

nor when the temperature is expected to drop to 32 F A protective barrier system consists of the barrier
(0 C) before the coating has dried or cured. Damp- material, the concrete surface it is protecting, the
proofing should not be applied in rain. snow, fog. concrete structure and the foundation. The quality of
mist, or when the relative humidity might result in concrete, especially at and near the surface will in-
condensation or frost formation on concrete surfaces fluence performance of the system because it affects
due to variations between the concrete surface tem- the ability of the barrier material to perform as ex-
peratures and ambient air temperatures. pected. The elements of a protective barrier system
5.3.2 Number of coats-At least two coats should are shown in Fig. 6.1 and the role of each is ex-
be applied, and often more, depending on the kind of plained in Section 6.2. An in-depth understanding of
coating and the severity of service. The number of 0 these elements is' essential in order to obtain op-
coats and thickness of each will depend on the timum performance of protective barrier systems.
nature of the service and upon the manufacturer's A major factor affecting performance of a protec-
recommendations. tive barrier is its ability to remain bonded to the con-
crete. Chapter 3 on surface preparation and section
3.2.1.3, in particular should be reviewed during the
CHAPTER 6-PROTECTIVE BARRIER SYSTEMS initial stages of design. to provide the basis for the
6.1-Characteristics of a protective barrier system construction specifications.
Protective barrier systems are used to protect con-
crete from degradation by chemicals and subsequent 6.2-Elements of a protective barrier system
loss of structural integrity, to prevent staining of con- 6.2.1 Barrier materiaJ- To be effective ill protect-

crete, or to protect liquids from being contaminated ing concrete. a barrier material should have certain
by concrete. basic properties:
 (a) When the barrier material is exposed to a chem- CD Concrete to Depth
of 114 in. 16mml
ical environment. the chemicals should not cause
degradation. swelling, dissolving, cracking, or em-
brittlement of the barrier material. The chemicals
should not permeate or diffuse through the barrier so
as to destroy the adhesion between it and concrete.
(b) The abrasion resistance must be adequate to
prevent the barrier material from being abraded dur-
ing normal service.
(c) The adhesive bond strength of a nonbituminous
barrier to concrete should be at least equal to the
tensile strength Qf concrete at the surface. This bond
may also be affected by the cleanliness of the con-
crete surface.

6.2.2 Concrete-barrier interface-Most non-

bituminous barrier materials specifically formulated
for use over concrete develop and maintain an ad- Fig. 6.1-Elements of a barrier system for concrete struc-
hesive bond strength greater than the tensile strength lure below grade, schematic cross section view.
of concrete provided that the surface is properly pre-
pared. The surface should be free of loose particles.
dirt. dust. oil, waxes. and other chemicals that pre-
vent adhesion. Moisture within concrete may affect cedures to accomplish this are described in Section
the ability of a barrier system to adhere to the surface 3.4.
if water vapor diffusing out of concrete condenses at 6.2.4 Concretestructure-Any cracks in concrete
the concrete/barrier interface before the barrier has including those that occur before and after applica-
had an opportunity to cure. This problem is dis- tion of the barrier will reflect through the barrier if
cussed in detail in Section 3.4.6. concrete is subject to thermal or physical movement.
This concrete movement can destroy the ability of
6.2.3 Concrete to a depth of Y4 in. (6 mmJ-Per- the barrier to provide protection of concrete. A poor-
haps the most critical part of the nonbituminous bar- quality concrete slab with high permeability may al-
rier system is the first '/4 in. (6 mm) of concrete. When low ground water to travel through the concrete so
a failure occurs. a thin layer of concrete up to '/4 in. (6 rapidly that the surface will never dry sufficiently to
mm), but usually less than I/x in. (3 mm) thick, gener- allow the barrier to develop good adhesion, or the
ally adheres to the underside of the barrier material. head pressure may push the barrier material away
This means that the concrete failed because the inter- from the concrete.
nal stresses in the barrier material were greater than 6.2.5 Foundation conditions-A dimensionally-
the tensile strength of the concrete near the interface. unstable base or one that does not have sufficient
These stresses may occur because of the following: supporting strength can cause cracks in concrete
1. Shrinkage and polymerization developed which are detrimental to these barriers, as discussed
stresses when the material cures. This is common to above. Also, the availability and amount of ground
all two-component polymeric materials cured by a water is a major factor in the success of a barrier. The
chemical reaction between the resin and curing use of a waterproofing barrier on the exterior surfaces
agent. a of tanks and tunnels, for example, will prevent the
2. Differential volume change in concrete and the entry of water into concrete and is required when an
barrier due to a difference in coefficient of thermal interior protective barrier system is to be applied (see
expansion coupled with a change in temperature. All Chapter 4).
polymeric barriers have a much higher thermal ex-
pansion coefficient than concrete. A filler is usually 6.3-Guide for selection of protective barrier
added to the barrier material so that its thermal co- systems
efficient wi II be closer to that of concrete. Selection of a barrier system, which provides op-
A barrier system should have a low modulus of timum performance at the lowest cost (on a $/yr
elasticity to prevent stresses from being greater than basis), is complicated because there are such a vari-
the tensile strength of concrete over the range of tem- ety of systems available. To help in the selection pro-
perature expected for its use. Weak surface concrete cess, protective barrier systems are divided into three
is a result of overworking during finishing. the pres- general categories according to the severity of the
ence of laitance on the surface or improper curing. chemical service conditions: these being mild, inter-
As a result. concrete may fail due to the stresses im- mediate, and severe (see Table 6.3).
posed on it even hy a low modulus barrier system. 1. Mild chemical service conditions-Typical ex-
Removal of weak surf,H:e material is essential for sat- amples of mild service conditions are water, chem-
isfactory performance of these barrier systems. Pro- ical solutions with a pH as low as 4, deicing salts.
 Severity of
chemical Total nominal Typical protective Typical but not exclusive uses of
environment thickness range barrier systems protective systems in order of severity

Under40 mil Polyvinyl butyral, polyurethane, methyl • Protection against deicing salts.
(1 mm) methacrylate, alkyl-alkoxysilane, epoxy, acry lic, • Redu.::e exposure regarding freeze-
chlorinated rubber, styrene-acrylic copolymer thaw resistance.
• Prevent staining of concrete.
Asphalt, coal tar, chlorinated rubber, epoxy, • Use for high-purity water service.
polyurethane, vinyl, neoprene, coal tar epoxy, • Protect concrete in contact with
coal tar urethane chemical solutions having a pH as
low as 4, depending on the chemical.

125 to 375 mil Sand-filled epoxy, sand-filled polyester, sand- • Protect concrete from abrasion and
(3t09mm) filled polyurethane, and bituminous materials. intermittent exposure to dilute acids
This filler is usually silica sand. in chemical, dairy and food
processing plants.

20 to 250 mil Glass-reinforced epoxy, glass-reinforced • Protect concrete tanks and floors
lV' to 6 mm) polyester, precured neoprene sheet, plasticized during continuous exposure to dilute
PVCsheet mineral, (pH is below 3) organic
acids, salt solutions, strong alkalies.

20 to 280 mil Composite systems: • Protect concrete tanks during

lV, to 6'1. mm) (a) Filled epoxy system topcoated with a continuous or intermittent
pigmented but unfilled epoxy immersion, exposure to water, dilute
Over 250 mil acids, strong alkalies and salt
(6mm) (b) Asphalt membrane covered with acid-proof solutions.
brick using a chemical-resistant mortar • Protect concrete from concentrated
acids or acid/solvent combinations.
Over 250 mil lc) Glass-reinforced furan membrane covered • Protect concrete from acid-solvent
(6mm) with acid-proof brick using a chemical- combinations.
resistant mortar

freeze-thaw cycles. concr-ete staining. and high pu- phalt membrane covered with acid proof brick using
rity water service. Thickness of protective barriers a chemical-resistant mortar, and a sand-filled epoxy
are under 40 mil (1 mm). Some of the generic types of system top coated with an epoxy barrier.
materials used for the barriers include methyl meth- The thickness of the barrier usually increases as
acrylate, alkyl-alkoxysilane. polyvinyl butyral, the severity of the chemical service condition in-
acrylics. epoxy, polyurethane. chlorinated rubber, as- creases. Reference 1 should provide background in-
phalt, coal tar, and polyvinyl chloride. formation on this subject.
A recent study identified four barrier systems A description of the materials listed in Table 6.3 is
which were able to reduce chloride penetration in found in Sections 6.4 to 6.5.
concrete by 80 to 95% when compared with un- 6.3.1 Factors affecting selection-Selection of a
coated concrete." These were formulations based on barrier to protect concrete for a specific chemical ser-
epoxy, methyl methacrylate, and alkyl-alkoxysilane vice requires an awareness of the following items.:
materials. 1. The barrier material must be resistant to deterio-
2. Intermediate chemical service conditions- ration or degradation by the chemicals to which it
> Typical examples of intermediate service conditions will be exposed at the operating temperature.
are intermittent exposure to dilute acids in chemical,. 2. The barrier material must resist the diffusion or
dairy, and food processing plants. and abrasion in permeation of the chemical through it. Adhesion of
combination with chemicals. Thickness of protective the barrier material to concrete can be adversely af-
barriers are 125 to 375 mil (3 to 9 mm). Typical bar- fected by this phenomenon-especially when the
rier materials include filled epoxy, filled polyester, diffusing material is acidic.
filled polyurethanes, and bituminous formulations. Chemical resistance and permeation resistance are
3. Severe chemical service conditions-Some two separate properties. A chemical such as hydro-
chemical service conditions are dilute or concen- chloric acid can permeate through various plastic
trated mineral or organic acids and strong alkali so- and rubber barrier materials to cause loss of adhesion
lutions. Thickness of these barriers are typically 20 without any indication that the chemical has de-
to 250 mil (1/2 to 6 mm) or over 250 mil (6 mm) in graded the barrier material.
some cases. Some of the barrier systems are glass 3. The temperature of the chemicals contacting the
reinforced epoxy or polyester. precured neoprene barrier material will affect performance. Each mate-
sheet. plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC) sheet. as- rial has its own characteristic maximum operating
temperature for a given chemical environment. Ther- tions. Resistance to solvents is poor. Resistance to
mal shock caused by rapid changes in temperature water is often considered to be somewhat lower than
can crack some barrier materials or result in loss of coal tar-derived products.
bond between the barrier and concrete.
6.4.2 Bituminous emulsions-Bituminous emul-
.J.3.2 Selection and testing of barrier material- sions are made using either asphalt or coal tar base
There is no guarantee that materials made by differ-
binders. modified as required by the manufacture
ent manufacturers will perform the same. even when
prior to emulsification. These binders are dispersed
classified as the same generic type. They vary in the
in water, using either mineral stabilizers or chemical
types and amounts of ingredients. so their perform-
type emulsifying agents to assist in dispersion and to
ance will also vary. In addition. the application char-
retain emulsion stability. Coal tar base emulsions are
acteristics. such as ease of applying the material to
usually mineral stabilized.
concrete. sensitivity to moisture on a concrete sur- The performance of films deposited from emul-
face or a very limited temperature application range
sions differs from those from solvent "cutbacks" or
will affect performance.
from hot melt applications. For example. films de-
The type and thickness of the barrier required will posited from emulsions are likely to be more permea-
depend on the severity or aggressiveness of the en- ble to water vapor. They are often capable of with-
vironment. Barrier selection must be based on test- standing higher temperatures than the other two
ing or past experience. If tests are to be conducted. types. Films deposited from the mineral stabilized
the entire barrier system should be applied to con- form of emulsion are considered to have excellent
crete specimens before exposing them to the actual atmospheric exposure characteristics. having more
environment or one that simulates as closely as pos- resistance to alligatoring than even the chemical type
sible this environment. If selection must be made emulsion.
before tests of sufficient duration (as agreed between Drying or setting times vary with emulsion type
manufacturer and user) can be conducted, the barrier and film thickness; this characteristic becomes criti-
supplier should be asked to supply fully-docu- cal in the event of exposure to rain or ponded water
mented case histories where his system has pro- within 2-4 hr after application. Even high melting or
tected concrete under the same or similar environ- relatively insoluble material may be used as the
mental conditions. The selection of a reliable barrier emulsion base by the manufacturer without making
manufacturer and applicator is as important as the a major change in the consistency of the finished
selection of the barrier itself. product. Frequently, such emulsions possess thix-
otropic or false body characteristics, thus permitting
6.4-Description of barrier materials application of relativcly thick coats of materials with
A description of some of the materials used for a minimum of sagging. They may be brush. spray, or
protective barriers follows: roller applied. Storage stability of mineral stabilized
6.4.1 Asphalt-The term "asphalt" is applied to products are considered good.
two types of material. The first are natural asphalts, 6.4.3 Coal tar-The coal tar used in the manufac-
normally of high consistency, found either as min- ture of coal tar base barrier materials is obtained from
erai deposits (gilsonite type) or in open pits the destructive distillation of coal. This tar, in turn. is
(Trinidad Lake Asphalt). The second. and more com- distilled to produce the coal tar pitches, which may
mon, are those oil refinery products produced as the be subsequently modified by processing or by vari-
residue from the distillation of petroleum crudes; ous additives as was done with the asphaltic types to
these may vary significantly in consistency. Suitable produce products of various types ranging in consis-
products for use as barrier coatings may be made tency from thin liquids to hcavy mastics and/or
from either natural or refinery-produced materials semisolids. Coal tar based barrier materials may be of
which may have been processed further by the man- the hot-applied type or may. be applied cold. Cold-
ufacturer prior to incorporation into the barrier coat- applied coatings usually contain a solvent and are
ings. Suitable coatings may contain various fillers, known as cutbacks. Coal tar emulsions are also avail-
fibers. solvents, or even polymers. each added to im- able (see Section 6.4.2).
prove or modify certain physicai properties. As- The outstanding property of the coal tar pitch-
phaltic barrier materials as purchased may range in based barrier products is their excellent water re-
consistency from thin, coli-applied liquids to heavy, sistance. Their resistancc to acids is moderatc and to
hot-applied mastics. alkalis is good. They normally do not support bac-
Cold-applied types usually contain either a sol- terial growth. In the hot-applied form or as a solvent
vent (at which time they are known as "cutbacks") or cutback, they uftcn alligator sevr.rely when subjected
may be in the form of an emulsion (see Section 6.4.2). to atmospheric COIH.I itions. which may Iim it thc use
Because of their good resistance to acids and ox- of those particular types of products for abovc
idizing solutions. asphalt barrier coatings. may bc ground expusure. Coal tar emulsions. however. do
used alonc or in combination with reinforccments. have excellenl atmospheric (~XpOSllrecharacteristics.
such as bitllminized glass fabrics for protr.ctiun of It should b(~noll~d that some coal tar solvents will
concrete vessels used to contain acids and salt solu- impart o!JjectionalJlr. last(~and odor to potable water
 supplies, so coal tar based products shO!..lldnot be either more or less than needed will adversely affect
used for that purpose without obtaining specific rec- the overall perfomance of the system.
ommendations from the manufacturer for the partic-
6.4.5.1 Epoxy resin-Filled-A low-viscosity
ular application being considered. epoxy resin is blended with graded fillers in the
6.4.4 Chlorinated rubber-Chlorinated .rubber res- range of 40 to 200 mesh to form a trowelable !'nix that
ins are produced by chlorinating isoprene rubber to a is applied approximately 1/~in. (6 mm) thick to a
chlorine content of as much as 67 percent. The re- concrete f100r.2 Vertical walls may be covered to this
sulting product no longer possesses the resiliency thickness by using specially-formulated materials.
and elasticity of the rubber from which it was The fillers are usually added in the proportion of 5
produced. to 1 by weight of activated resin. This high filler load-
Barrier materials using chlorinated rubber have ex- ing reduces the coefficient of thermal expansion and
cellent resistance to alkalies, moisture, and abrasion. makes it more resistant to thermal shock. The filler
Their adhesion to concrete is good. They are widely will also reduce the shrinkage stresses formed when
used for concrete floor coatings, traffic paints, and the liquid epoxy polymerizes to a solid.
swimming pools. They have adequate resistance to a Since these materials are normally formulated to
wide range of common acids, aliphatic hydrocar- protect concrete floors subject to intermittent ex-
bons, and lower alcohols. They are not resistant to posure to chemicals, the floors should be sloped V~
nitric, acetic, and sulfurous acids, nor to concen- in.lft (20 mm/m) and be free of low spots to assure
trated aqueous ammonia. They are dissolved or soft- complete drainage of chemicals into a collection
ened by aromatic hydrocarbons, fatty acids, and trench. Barrier systems described in Section 6.4.5.2
animal and vegetable oils. Chlorinated rubber may are also used to protect concrete floors.
be used in water service up to 140 F (60 C). A typical floor topping is applied in three steps:
They have limited resistance to heat and will de- 1. A low-viscosity epoxy resin, approximately 5
compose when used above 225 F (107 C). In continu- mil (VB mm) thick, is applied to a properly prepared
ous, direct sunlight, only the pigmented coatings, or concrete surface. The first coat or primer will pro-
those with ultraviolet absorbers, can satisfactorily be mote adhesion of the thick filled epoxy (see Step 2
used. below) to concrete. The low-viscosity primer wets
6.4.5 Epoxy resins-Although there are many the surface of the concrete and flows into the surface
types of epoxy resins available, the one normally pores. If the surface pores afl~ open, they will be
used for protective barriers is based on a reaction filled when the filled epoxy resin is applied. When
product of bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin.6 The resin flows from the filled epoxy material into the
epoxy resin, which is usually a liquid, must react surface pores, it becomes "resin starved" resulting in
with another chemical called a curing agent or hard- low strength and poor bond to concrete.
ener before it becomes a solid and develops chemical 2. A filled epoxy material is troweled on to a thick-
resistance, hardness, and abrasion resistance.· ness of approximately I/~in. (6 mm) thick. Compact-
The curing agent used with the epoxy resin has a ion by trowelling is necessary to eliminate porosity.
major influence on the mechanical and chemical re- pinholes, and discontinuities.
sistance properties of the hardened resin. Curing 3. A low-viscosity epoxy resin is then applied to
agents most commonly used are aliphatic amines. seal the surface of the previously-applied material.
amine adducts. amido-amines and polyamides. This step is not always used and will depend on the
The versatility of formulation that makes epoxies manufacturer's recommendation. However, a seal
attr~tive in many applications has lead to confusion coat will insure that chemicals will not reach the
with Jregards to the performance that can be ex- concrete if for some reason the troweling was not
pected. It is important to select an epoxy system that effective in eliminating porosity in the material.
is obtained from a proven source and that has been Timing of the three application steps shown above
designed specifically for the intended application. is important to ensure good adhesion between coats.
Properly selected and applied epoxy systems pro- The recommendations of the material manufacturer
vide a very tough, durable coating with excellent should be followed:
caustic, acid and solvent resistance. Epoxy formula- 6.4.5.2 Glass-reinforced epoxy resin- The glass-
tions are compatible with concrete. providing excel- reinforced epoxy barrier is multi-coat, in the dry-film
lent adhesion. Some formulations adhere to damp thickness range of 20 mil (V~mm) to 250 mil (6 mm).
surfaces. As thickness increases there is a greater chance that
Epoxy resins and their curing agents react in a discontinuities or pinholes in the barrier material
noncatalytic fashion. Each molecule of epoxy must will be eliminated. Because these materials are used
find a molecule of curing agent to react with. Thus. to protect concrete from acids and other aggressive
complete mixing of the system is extremely impor- chemicals that could cause rapid disintegration. it is
tant. Where possible. contrasting colors should be essential that none of the chemicals reach the
used for the two components to provide a visual concrete.
guide to adequate mixing. Only the precise amount A typ!cal barrier is built up in four steps:
,<PC- of curing agent recommended should be used. Using 1. A low-viscosity ep~Jxy resin, approximatdy 5
 mil (Va mm) thick. is applied to a properly prepared 2. Air inhibits the cure of some polyesters. This
surface (see Section 5.4.5.1-Item 1 for more details). problem is solved by applying a final topcoat that
2. An activated and filled epoxy resin, 50 mil contains about 1-2 percent paraffin. The paraffin
(1 V4 mm) thick. is trowelled on a properly prepared rises to the surface and prevents direct contact be-
concrete surface. In this 'lpplication the inert filler is tween the polyester surface and air. Without paraffin
generally finer than No. 100 mesh (150 mm) and is in the topcoat, the surface will remain tacky.
used to produce a heavy bodied, trowelable material. 6.4.8.1 Polyester resin-Filled- The discussion
3. Woven glass fabric is then applied over the ep- in Section 6.4.5.1 applies.
oxy surface before the epoxy has hardened and an
unfilled, activated epoxy resin is brushed on the 6.4.8.2 Glass-reinforced polyester resin-The
glass fabric so it will be saturated with resin. glass reinforced polyester protective barrier is similar
4. After the epoxy resin has partially cured, as in- to the epoxy system described in Section 6.4.5.2. In
dicated by a 'tacky surf~ce, another heavy coat as in addition to the reasons for using a primer given in
Step 2 above, is applied. Section 6.4.5.2, a primer is also used with polyester
resins because they will not cure properly in the
6.4.6 Neoprene sheet-Precured-Precured neo- presence of water. Moisture in concrete may be suffi-
prene sheet, in thicknesses ranging from 60 to 125 cient to inhibit the cure.
mil (1 1/2 to 3 mm) can be applied to a smooth con- There are two types of glass reinforcement used
crete surface by using suitable neoprene adhesives. with polyester barrier materials. One type is glass
Neoprene adhesives have the same chemical re- fibers in the form of either nonwoven mat or woven
sistance as the sheet itself, so the joints between fabric. The other type uses glass flakes as the rein-
sheets will be reliable if properly made. If concrete to forcement. These flakes are approximately 5 mil (Va
be protected has a complicated geometry, a catalyzed mm) thick and 60 mil (1.5 mm) in diameter.
neoprene solvent-based formulation may be spray or
brush applied to a thickness of 50 mil (1.5 mm). This 6.4.9 Polyurethane resins-Urethane barrier mate-
material will have the same chemical resistance as rials are based on the reaction of two chemicals: a
the sheet material. resin component (polyol) and an isocyanate curing
agent.
6.4.7 Plasticized polyvinyl chloride sheet-Poly- The ability of the isocyanate curing agent to react
vinyl chloride (PVC), which is a rigid or stiff resin, is with a vast array of coreactant resins (polyols), each
made flexible by the addition of a plasticizer such as possessing varying properties, has led to a large fam-
dioctyl phthalate. The plasticized PVC sheet may be ily of barrier materials which are often lumped under
bonded to a surface using suitable adhesives. The the single name "urethane." Care must be taken,
joints between sheets are made using a heat sealing therefore. to match job sevice requirements with the
or thermal welding procedure. proper type of urethane barrier.
Vinyl sheets, extruded with anchor lugs on one Urethanes (see Table 6.3) have been used to protect
side. may be used to form a lining at the time the concrete from deicing salts and other chemicals.
concrete is placed. They have been used to prevent fungus growth on
6.4.8 Polyester resins-Although there are many concrete, to protect against winddriven rain while
generic types of polyester resins. there are two that lending self-washing properties. When urethanes are
are normally used for barrier materials in the more mixed with long lasting decorative pigments, they
severe chemical environments. One is based on the can be used to mask concrete discoloration.
reaction between maleic anhydride and bisphenol A. Generally speaking. urethanes have good re-
and the other is produced by reacting acrylic acid sistance to chemical attack, and excellent impact
with an epoxy and is commonly called a "vinyl es- and abrasion resistance. They have excellent adhe-
ter." These resins are mixed with approximately 50 sion characteristics, are hard, yet flexible. and exte-
percent styrene monomer to lower the viscosity (ap- rior grades exhibit excellent long-term gloss and
proximately 150 centipoise) to improve workability. color retention.
The styrene also reacts chemically with the polyester Although they are usually supplied as two package
resin after the appropriate catalysts or curing agents systems. single component systems, which are cured
are added. by moisture in the air, are available. Urethanes are
The liquid resin is converted to a solid by using a supplied in a wide range of viscosities. Some sys-
peroxide catalyst such as benzoyl peroxide and an tems contain solvents to obtain the required vis-
accelerator such as dimethyl aniline. The concentra- cosity; others do not. They are generally applied
tion of the catalyst may be varied to change the rate of using conventional coating techniques. They should
curing. not be applied to damp surfaces.
There are two conditions that can prevent poly- Because of the wide latitude of formulation ca-
ester resins from curing completely. pabilities presented by isocyanate curing agents,
1. Water will inhibit curing of polyesters; and many new urethane finishes are continually bei.ng
therefore. when they are used. a primer. which is not introduced into the market. Before a urethane barner
sensitive to water. should be applied to the concrete material is used. the application and end use recom-
firs t. mendations of the manufacturer should be fully UD-
derstood and closely followed. Work closely with a The acid-proof brick barrier is made up of two
technically oriented supplier in this regard. major components (Fig. 6.5):
6.4.9.1 Urethane resin-Filled-The discussion 1. The primary barrier is the chemical-resistant
in Section 6.4.5.1 applies. material applied directly to concrete. A solvent-
6.4.10 Polyvinyl butyral-Polyvinyl butyral resin based asphalt primer and an asphalt barrier. V4 in. (6
has excellent resistance to weathering and is used to mm) thick is one type commonly used. The asphalt
seal concrete surfaces. The resin is dissolved in a is a hot melt type material and is applied in two coats
solvent and is applied in thin films of less than 3 with a reinforcing glass fabric between them. Other
mils (0.08 mm) per coat. barrier systems may be used in place of asphalt.
6.4.11 Acrylic resins-These materials result from 2. The brick with chemical-resistant mortar joints
the vinyl polymerization of acrylic monomers which is then applied over the asphalt barrier. Since the
are modified by the addition of plasticizers and pre- brick and mortar joints may develop cracks. their
polymers. These are used as a thin unfilled coating primary function is to protect the relatively fragile
or as a thick sand-filled mortar. asphalt barrier from damage caused by mechanical
6.4.12 Glass reinforced furan resin-The glass- abuse and from excessive temperature. The thickness
reinforced furan resin barrier is similar to the epoxy of the brick is determined by service temperature and
system described in Section 6.4.5.2. In addition to mechanical loading.
the reasons for using a primer given in Section There are three types of brick used for this type of
6.4.5.2. a primer is used with furan resins for another barrier.7 Red shale is most frequently used and is
reason. The acid catalyst used to cure the furan will identified as Type L in ASTM C 279,5 Fireclay brick
react with the portland cement of the concrete. If the (Type H-ASTM C 279) is used mainly when the
acid catalyst at the concretelresin is neutralized. the barrier is subject to thermal shock. Carbon brick is
furan will not harden and the concrete surface will used when hydrofluoric acid or strong alkaline solu-
be attacked. resulting in poor bond and eventual tions (above a pH of 12.5) are present.
cracking of the furan. A typical red shale brick is 8 in. x 3 % in. x 2 V4 in.
After the primer has been applied. one coat of a (205 mm x 95 mm x 55 mm). A thinner brick, less
filled furan mortar is trowled on the surface and than 1 Vz in. (38 mm). identified as floor tile, is used
glass cloth is embedded in the furan before it hard- in the food and drug processing industry.
ens. After the furan has setup. a second trowel coat of A description of various chemical-resistant mortar
furan mortar is applied. Then. a 60 mil layer of a materials are in the next six sections.
neoprene latex is spray-applied to the hardened 6.5.1.1 Furan mortar-Furan resin mortars have
furan. The neoprene acts as a parting agent so the been used with acid-proof brick and tile sheathings
furan resin mortar. used with the acid-proof brick since 1941. They are supplied as two-part systems.
will not adhere to the glass-reinforced furan barrier. At the time of use the liquid furan resin is mixed
with the powder filler. which ordinarily consists of
6.S-Special composite barriers carbon. coke flour. or silica. The filler contains an
6.5.1 Acidproof brick composite construction- acid catalyst which polymerizes the resin to a hard.
This type of protective barrier has been used since infusible state. Once the resin and catalyst are mixed.
1934 to protect concrete floors from very aggressive. they have a relatively short working time under nor-
acidic chemicals.3.4•5 Another major use is in the food mal conditions. However. before mixing they have a
and drug processing industries where an easily- good shelf life and are stable in storage. The furan
cleanable surface is required. mortars may be generally used up to 350 F (177 C).
Since an acid catalyst is used to polymerize the
furan resin. it should not be applied directly to con-
crete. Concrete will neutralize the acid catalyst and
ACID RESISTANT BRICK inhibit the cure. resulting in poor adhesion of the
t furan to concrete.
6.5.1.2 Phenolic mortar-Phenolic resin mor-
~;~ tars. based on phenol-formaldehyde resin binder •
~~
•• ~ "I •

..
~ ~~:, ':'
)(3.,_.,."
~

..
.' ~ J~ ••.~,.
~.. ,
..:..: ..•.•...•...

'''a.·~1
'", ~ .
. have been used in chemical-resistant masonry in the
United States since 1937. Although still available.
. '··.,11. ,.. .
their use has largely been displaced by the furan
o
-,
...
-,.
•
. " .... :.
0

, r : ~", resin mortars. More recently. however. modified phe-

" . ",_ I ~ - nolic resin mortars with special properties have re-
"~i
"" \.'
:.:•. "'y '.4'
\) \: ..•
,,'. ':-f':". ,,,' " ••
,- '.;:0 I."
gainedosomc of the market. The phenolic resin
o~.,,:"~''''; '.' .,... ::~,:',,::o
mortar is prepared by mixing the liquid resin with an
inert powder filler containing an acid catalyst (see
last paragraph in Section 6.5.1.1). The powder filler
Fig. 6.5-Acidproof brick barrier for concrete trench, sche- may consist of silica flour. carbon. coke flour, or
matic view.
""""
barytes.
 The maximum service temperature limit for the Polyester resin mortars are supplied with a silica
phenolic resin mortars is generally considered to be or carbon filler. The filler is commonly supplied as a
350 F (177 C). The stability or shelf life of the liquid separate component which contains the small re-
resin is not good. Even at 60 F (16 C)~a shelf life of no quired am08nt of peroxide catalyst. The shelf life of
mor~ than 6 months should be expected. the resin is limited to about 6 months. The heat re- 0
sistance is relatively low and they rarely can be con-
6.5.1.3 Sulfur mortar-Sulfur mortars usually sidered for use at temperatures above 250 F (121 'c).
contain an inert silica or carbon filler and a plas-
ticizer to reduce brittleness and improve other prop- 6.5.1.6 Epoxy mortar-Epoxy resin mortars
erties required in a masonry joint material. The most have been used in chemical-resistant masonry since
commonly used plasticizers are polysulfides. Sulfur 1955. Three hardening systems have been used for
mortars have been used extensively in masonry lin- these mortars; aliphatic amines, amine adducts, and
ings of process vessels, sewer trenches, and masonry polyamides:
floors of chemical plants since 1934. 1. When aliphatic amine converters are used, the
The heat resistance of sulfur mortars is low; the mortar is usually furnished as a three-part system to
temperature limitation is 190 F (88 C). Sulfur mortars be mixed at the time of use. The amine converter is
are applied as hot melt materials ami are usually sup- first added and mixed into the liquid epoxy resin,
plied in the form of ingots. The mortar is heated in a then the inert filler is added to give a good trowelable
melting pot or tank with precautions to prevent over- mix.
heating or igniting. While molten, it is poured into 2. In the adduct type, a portion of the epoxy resin
place to fill the joint spaces in brickwork. The advan- is prepolymerized using a large excess of the amine
tage of these materials is that after being poured into curing agent. This prepolymerized portion acts as a
place they harden on cooling and can be placed in curing agent and is added and mixed with un-
service immediately. polymerized resin just before application. As sup-
plied by the manufacturer, this type of mortar is
6.5.1.4 Silicate mortar-Silicate mortars with- therefore a two-part system, an unpolymerized resin
out a catalyst had been used in chemical-resistant and a prepolymerized resin, both containing fillers.
brickwork and protective barriers prior to 1913. A 3. In this system, a polyamide resin is copolymer-
two-component chemically-hardening silicate mor- ized with the epoxy resin and no further curing agent
tar was formulated by reacting a mildly acidic solid is required. This mortar is likewise furnished as a
or other reactive agent in the powder filler compo- two-part system in which the inert fillers are already
nent with the silicate solution component to precipi- incorporated in the two liquid resins. The two parts
tate a silica gel binder. Such mortars first became are mixed in specified proportions at the time of ap-
available about 1913 when sodium silico-fluoride plication. These are used when some degree of flexi-
was incorporated with the filler. By 1965 further bility and a lesser degree of chemical resistance is
modifications were made involving a variety of so- required.
dium or potassium silicate solutions as well as col- Storage of any of the three systems is no real prob-
loidal silica solutions. lem. Heat resistance is considered to be no greater
Their heat resistance is considered to be good up than 250 F (121 C), and sometimes the service tem-
to about 750 (399 C), but the silicate mortars have perature should be limited to 200 F (93 C).
been used under some conditions up to a vitrifica-
tion temperature of 1,500 F (816 C), and even higher. 6.5.2 Filled epoxy topcoated with an epoxy-An
The silicate mortars are easy to use and low in cost in epoxy resin, normally solventless, is blended with
comparison to the resin-base mortars. Storage is gen- various sizes of aggregate (usually silica) to produce
erally no real problem if the powder is kept dry and a barrier which can be either sprayed, brushed,
the liquid portion is not frozen. Because of the high squeegeed or troweled. This system is used to seal
porosity, a heavy membrane is required to serve as a the surface and fill surface porosity prior to top coat-
barrier between the brickwork and the concrete sur- ing with a protective barrier system resistant to the
face to be protected. The silicate mortars should not intended environment.
be used if they will be exposed to neutral or caustic
service conditions. Under such conditions the joints
6.6- Testing of completed barrier systems
will be attacked and washed out.
Tests to be used as a basis for acceptance of the
6.5.1.5 Polyester mortar-The polyester resin installed barrier system should be defined and de-
mortars have been in use since 1952. They have scribed in detail in the specification or contract doc-
found ready application in brick and tile linings for ument. The barrier matericds manufacturer should be
various bleaching vessels, particularly in the pulp consulted to make sure the proposed tests are com-
and paper industry. Mortars of this type are based on patible with the properties of the materials used in
unsaturated polyester resins dissolved in styrene, the barrier.
which is also a coreactant. Prior to using, a second A repair procedure should also be included in:the
component, called a promoter, is mixed with the specification if any defective areas are found during
resin. acceptance testing.
 At present there are no accepted testing pro- C 608·71 Standard Test Method for Brittle Ring Tensile
cedures, although it is necessary to make sure the (1977) Strength of Chemically Setting Silicate and Silica
Chemical-Resistant Mortars
protective barrier systems are free of pinholes or
discontinuities.

CHAPTER 7-DECORATIVE PAINT BARRIER

1. Zolin. B. I.. "Protective Coatings: Protective Lining Perform- SYSTEMS
ance." Chemical Engineering Progress, V. 66. No.8. Aug. 1970. pp.
7.1-Characteristics of decorative paint systems
31-37.
2. "Standard Specification for Chemical-Resistant Resin Mono- Although the surface of concrete itself has a satis-
lithic Surfacings," (ASTM C 722-80), ASTM, Philadelphia, 1980, 3 factory appearance for many structures, it may be
pp. necessary to paint it to change its color or texture or
3. ASTM Specifications for Chemical-Resistant Mortars:
to improve its stain resistance.
C 466-74 Standard Specification for Chemically Setting
(1979) Silicate and Silica Chemical-Resistant Mortars It must be recognized that an improperly-applied
C 722-80T Standard Specification for Chemical-Resistant paint system will have an appearance considerably
Resin Monolithic Surfacings less desirable than if no paint had been applied
Standard Specification for Chemical-Resistant originally.
Resin Mortars
7.1.1 Performance vs surface preparation-A ma-
Standard Specification for Chemical-Resistant
Sulfur Mortar jor factor in the performance of a paint system is its
C 658-74 Standard Specification for Chemical-Resistant ability to remain bonded to the concrete. It is neces-
(1980) Resin Grouts sary to eliminate conditions on the concrete surface
4. ASTM Recommended Practices for Chemical Resistant that can cause poor adhesion. Examples of these are
Mortars:
laitance, efflorescence. inadequately cured concrete.
C 397-74 Recommended practice for Use of Chemically
Setting Chemical-Resistant Silicate and Silica surface moisture, and chemical contaminants such
Mortars as form release agents and curing compounds.
C 399-74 Standard Practice for Use of Chemical-Resistant Chapter 3 on surface preparation should be re-
(1980) Resin Mortars viewed in great detail because the information and
C 723-80T Standard Practice for Chemical-Resistant Resin
suggestions are essential in preventing premature
Tile or Brick Grouts
Recommended Practice for Use of Chemical-Re- paint failures associated with poor adhesion.
sistant Sulfur Mortars
5. "Standard Specification for Chemical Resistant Masonry 7.2-Guide to selection of decorative paints
Units," (ASTM C 279-79), ASTM, Philadelphia, 1979, 3 pp. See Table 7.2 for a summary of a general guide to
6. ACI Committee 503, "Use of Epoxy Compounds with Con- the selection of decorative paint systems.1.2·3.5
crete," (ACI503R-80) (Revised 1984), American Concrete Institute,
Detroit. 1984, 33 pp. Also, ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 5. 7.2.1 General suggestions for selection-To aid in
7. Sheppard, W. L., Handbook of Chemically Resistant Masonry, the selection of a paint type for any given usage, the
CCRM, Inc., Havertown, pp. 5-11. following suggestions are made:
8. "Concrete Sealers for Protection of Bridge Structures," 1. When the paint is to be applied to a surface
NCHRP Report No. 244, Transportation Research Board, Wash-
which contains high initial moisture, or when
ington. D.C., Dec. 1981, 138 pp.
moisture is liable to enter the reverse face of the con-
crete wall or structure, a permeable coating such as
portland cement paint or latex should be used. In
Additional Sources of Information some cases, a specially formulated, two-component
ASTM
polymer paint could be used because it has a high
C 307-77 Standard Test Method for Tensile Strength of
Chemical-Resistant Mortars degree of resistance to blistering under moisture
Standard Test Methods for Working and Setting pressure and a sufficiently high moisture vapor
Times of Chemical-Resistant Resin Mortars transmission rate.
Standard Test Method for Bond Strength of 2. When the painted surface will be exposed to
Chemical-Resistant Mortars
high humidity or moisture on the painted face, the
Standard Test Method for Absorption of Chem-
ical-Resistant Mortars, Grouts, and Monolithic more impenetrable paints of the one or two compo-
Surfacings nent polymer types should be used. In all cases
Standard Test Methods for Working and Setting mildew resistant finishes should be selected.
Times for Chemical-Resistant Silicate and Silica 3. For surfaces in sanitary services. a two-compo-
Mortars
nent polymer paint. having high gloss with chemical
Standard Test Method for Linear Shrinkage and
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Chemical- and steam resistance. should be chosen.
Resistant Mortars, Grouts, and Monolithic 4. When surfaces in addition to concrete are to be
Surfacings painted. such as embedded or adjacent metal, spe-
Standard Test Methods for Compressive Strength cial consideration should be given to the com-
of Chemical-Resistant Mortars, Grouts, and
patibility of paint to the substrate, and the corrosion
Monolithic Surfacings
C 580-74 Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength and control capabilities of the paint system.
(1978) Modulus of Elasticity of Chemical-Resistant Mor- 5. During application, precautions should be taken
tars, Grouts, and Monolithic Surfacings to prevent fire and explosions. and the exposure of
 personnel to solvents. The Occupational Safety and Table7.2-General guide to selecting types of
Health Act (OSHA) requires that the paint manufac- decorative paints
turer supply all necessary safety information before
Water-based Polymer paint
work begins.
The selection of a specific type of paint depends Portland Latex One- Two-
on the service exposure and the characteristics of the cement polymer compo compo
substrate to which it will be applied. The following
sections give more detailed explanations for some of Interior walls
Normal occupancy X X X
the exposure conditions.
Wet and humid X X
7.2.2 Interior walls-Interior surfaces above Sanitary X X
grade-When an interior wall does not connect to an Exterior walls
exterior wall, a constant dry condition will exist on Exterior surfaces
Normal climate X X X X
all faces of the concrete; hence, most any type of Wet humid climate X X
paint will be serviceable. Sanitary services X X
The water-based polymer latex paints are in widest Interior surfaces
use. The alkyds are used where washability or higher Normal occupancy
gloss is desired. They perform satisfactorily over Above grade X X X
Below grade X X X
aged, dry, and neutralized surfaces. Wet and humid X X
7.2.3 All interior wall surfaces below grade- Sanitary X X
Portland cement or latex type paints are permeable Floors
and are normally used where groundwater from the Subbasement X
Normal service X X
soil may enter walls directly or through connecting
Heavy traffic X
walls. Specially formulated two-component polymer Sanitary X X
paints have a high degree of resistance to this water
pressure and can also be used. These paints should
not be used as waterproofing or dampproofing bar-
riers normally applied to the exterior of sullgrade
foundation walls and floors (see Chapters 4 and 5). 7.2.6 Floors-Coatings for floors generally require
7.2.4 Exterior walls-Interior surfaces above abrasion resistance. One- or two-component paints
grade-For this condition, moisture may enter the are used. Floor and deck type alkyds have been used
outer side of the wall and transmit pressures under where the alkalinity of the concrete will not be a
the coating. Permeable coatings will allow this pres- problem (suspended floors not on grade) and where
sure to be dissipated. Two-component polymer good resistance to wear is not the primary
paints have a high degree of resistance to this water requirement.
pressure. and may be used. A recommended alter- For heavier traffic, the two-component paints are
native is to paint the exterior surface of the wall with preferred. One-component urethanes may also be
a suitable dampproofing barrier system. Then most used.
types of paint may be used for the interior surface. Floors in which terrazzo chips are bound by an
Another useful alternative, possible only in con- epoxy resin have been used. Seamless floors using
struction, is to make a double wall with vented air urethane materials are a variation of the above where
space between the two faces. multicoat systems build an imitation type terrazzo
The information in this section also applies to the using plastic aggregates.
interior partition wall surfaces where the reverse side 7.2.7 Special problem areas- Wet and sanitary
is in an area of wetness or high humidity, such as a service-Wet service areas include wash rooms,
bathroom, shower room. laundry, or kitchen. shower rooms, laundries, kitchens, and other areas
7.2.5 Exterior walls-Exterior surfaces above where high humidity and moisture prevail. Selection
grade-Exterior paints must possess good resistance should be made from the two-component polymer
to the environment and must be able to retain color paints.
under ultraviolet exposure. For any outdoor use, the A waterproofing barrier system should be installed
exterior grade latex paints and portland cement on a structural slab when there is an inhabited area
paints are well suited. below.
When there is little or no moisture differential be- For sanitary service, such as food preparation areas
tween each face of the masonry structure, the one- and first-aid and hospital areas, smooth and easy to
component polymer paints are suitable. but can blis- clean. anti-fungicidal finishes are required. The two-
ter where such a differential does exist. component epoxy and urethane polymer paints
Most two--component epoxy formulations will serve those requirements because they are hard,
chalk and become dull on exposure to sunlight. Cer- dense. and usually have a high gloss. leaving little
tain exterior urethane formulations (aliphatic grades) chance for soil collection or contamination. They are
are available that have excellent gloss and color re- resistant to strong caustic cleaners and disinfectants
tention properties when exposed to sunlight. and in many cases. steam cleaning.
 is very effective in hiding irregularities and defects
in the substrate.
7.3.1 Water-basedportland cement paints-Port- 7.3.2.1 Special application considerations-
land cement paints are pigmented, cement wash Concrete surfaces must be moistened before the ap-
coats that have properties similar to the concrete sur- plication of a water-based latex paint so water will
face itself. For this reason they are used for filling in not be absorbed from the paint before it has a chance
and levelling minor imperfections in the concrete to properly coalesce or cure.
surface. Unless especially formulated to do so, latex paints
Portland cement paints are supplied as dry will not adhere properly to chalky surfaces. Chalk
powders that must be mixed with water prior to should be removed to sound base by brushing, or the
using. After addition of the water, thorough mixing is surface should have a prior application of a low vis-
necessary to obtain the creamy consistency that facil- cosity penetrant paint.
itates a uniform application. They must be used In spite of their ability to pass moisture vapor, it is
within 4 hr after adding the water. not recommended that they be applied over concrete
They adhere reasonably well to concrete only, but which is less than 3 weeks old. Also, any imbedded
should never be applied over old paint or other types or adjacent steel work should be coated with a rust
of surfaces. inhibitive primer before application of a water-base
Colors are restricted to the flat earth colors and paint.
these darken when wetted.
The surface of cement paints is soft and 'granular, 7.3.3 Polymer paihts- These paints are pigmented
and tends to show stains and dirt more than polymer solutions of compounded polymers. They may also
paints. It is more difficult to clean. be blended with organic solvents or may be used
7.3.1.1 Special application considerations- without solvents. They will dry to a smooth, dense,
Portland cement paints must be applied to damp sur- continuous film, with a high gloss and can perform
faces; however, there should be no free surface water. as moisture barriers. Because of these qualities, they
After application, the paint should be cured similar are preferred for environments of high humidity or
to concrete by keeping it moist for 48 to 72 hr. For wetness and where relative freedom from staining
two-coat applications, it is desirable to have the sec- and soiling is required. They are available in a wide
ond coat applied within 24 hr. range of colors.
This paint requires special application procedures Some of the new paints can be successfully ap-
for best performance. Those wishing more detailed plied over damp concrete and masonry; however, for
information on production and application are re- the most part they should be applied over dry
ferred to the ACI Committee Report 616-49.4 surfaces.
Solvent-based coatings may be subdivided into
7.3.2 Water-based polymer latex paints-Latex single and two-component paints described below.
paints are dispersions of pigments and polymeric
film forming materials in water. Typical film formers 7.3.4 Single-component polymer paints-Single-
are butadiene-styrene, chlorinated rubber, vinyl ace- component polymer paints are usually pigmented
tate or butyrate, or acrylic resins. They are seldom solvent solutions of a wide variety of generic resin
identified to the user by these designations, but may types such as chlorinated rubber, styrene butadiene,
be recognized by such label subdesignations as "rub- and vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate copolymers. Since
ber-base latex," "interior latex wall coatings," or "ex- they normally contain a low solids content, the usual
terior latex masonry paint." They. are available in application builds no more than 1 to 2 mil (0.02 to
both exterior and interior grades and in flat or semi- 0.05 mm) dry film thickness per coat. Multiple coats
gloss, but never in high gloss. are required to form a continuous film over concrete.
As the paints are deposited from dispersion, the The number of coats required depends on surface
resulting film is not uniformly dense and continu- texture, porosity, and the desired final dry film
ous; hence they possess the desirable property of thickness. In their usual formulation, these "rubber-
breathing, or moisture permeability. As a result they based" p<!ints possess a considerable degree of
will resist blistering when applied over concrete flexibility and extensibility. If applied in sufficient
with a high or varying moisture content. thickness, they are capable of maintaining a continu-
Their ease of application, by brush or .roller, wide ous coating over minor cracks which may develop in
availability in colors, and ease of clean-up with the concrete substrate.
soapy water have made them the most widely-used Because these paints are relatively impermeable to
paints for interior decoration. moisture (compared to water-based latex paints) they
An interesting and useful modification of latex is could blister when applied to concrete surfaces of
the so-called multicolor paint. In application, a latex high or varying moisture content.
base coat of the required background color is first They have the potential to resist soiling and to be
applied, and over this, a dispersion or emulsion of a cleanable. Special formulations containing only in-
contrastingly pigmented lacquer. After drying, the gredients that meet FDA requirements may be used
surface will have a speckled dual color finish, which in food contact areas. Many are thermoplastic and
soluble in organic solvents and should not be used turer should be used. Thinners should be added only
where surfaces must be cleaned with these materials. after the two components are blended.
Because they are thermoplastic, they should not be 7.3.6 Oil-based paints-Oil-based paints are those
subject to steam cleaning. that contain derivatives of fatty acids or drying oils
such as the alkyds. These paints are not resistant to
the alkalinity of concrete. The use of linseed oil, phe-
7.3.5 Two-component polymer paints-One of the
nolic, or tung oil as primers will give decreased
components is a pigmented solution of a com- caustic susceptibility, but will not eliminate it. Rigid
pounded polymer, with or without solvent, such as control of alkali neutralization, concrete cure, drying
an epoxy, urethane or polyester. The other compo- times, and precautions to reduce moisture migration
nent contains a reactive chemical which is called the are required.
curing agent, hardener, or catalyst. Prior to use, the 7.3.7 Paints for trafflc marking-The use of paints
two must be mixed in accordance with the manufac- for traffic marking is considered to be outside the
turer's instructions. After mixing, a chemical reac- scope of this Guide. Information and specifications
tion takes place between the polymer and the curing on this subject are found in References 5 and 7.
agent. This results in a hard, strong, chemical and 7.3.8 Ceramic tiles-The use of ceramic tiles to
moisture-resistant film that has excellent adhesion to cover concrete surfaCG)sis outside the scope of this
a clean concrete surface. Some formulations Bfoduce Guide. ASTM specifications concerning this subject
a very high gloss that approaches a ceramic tile sur- are listed in Reference 8.
face. Their glossy surface, ease of cleaning, resistance
to chemicals, fungus, and strong detergents. inert-
ness to heat and steam make these coatings ideal for
sanitary and medical uses and as antigraffiti paints. 7.4-Painting procedures
7.3.5.1 Special tile-like systems-A surface that 7.4.1 Storage and preparing paint prior to ap-
approaches the appearance of ceramic tile may be plication-Water-based. polymer latex paints should
obtained on masonry surfaces by first applying a be stored at temperatures above 32 F (0 C). Freezing
filler or leveling coat of a polymeric composition. of the water in the paint will destroy the film-form-
This is followed by an application of a high gloss, ing qualities of the latex. Storage temperature of sol-
two-component, paint. The final appearance will de- vent-based and oil-based paints is not critical.
pend on the original surface roughness, the number However, the temperature of the paint just prior to'
of fill coats applied, and the skill of the applicator. use should be between 50 F (15 C) and 90 F (32 C) to
The finish surface will possess the hardness and insure a dense paint film of the required thickness.
toughness characteristics of these materials. They Paints must be thoroughly mixed just before use to
will have good resistance to abrasion, cleaning insure uniform distribution of pigment throughout
agents, steam and caustic. These systems are usually the liquid. Power stirrers and shakers should be used
lower in cost than ceramic tile work, and may be because they will do a better job of mixing, greatly
used both for ornamental purposes and where clean- minimize labor and shorten the time needed for
liness and ease of cleaning are of utmost importance. complete mixing.
Corridors, lavatories, food preparation areas, first-aid Two-component paints require the mixture of the
and medical areas are examples where these paints two components just before use since they have a
are of special value. limited pot life. Many of these paints should not be
7.3.5.2 Special applicatIon considerations- used until 30 to 50 min have elapsed after mixing;
Both components, which are supplied as a kit and in this is frequently called the "induction" or "sweating-
the correct proportions, must be thoroughly mixed to in" period. If this and the pot life are not included on
insure a complete chemical reaction between the the information label of the paint can, the manufac-
curing agent and the polymer. Power stirrers should turer should be contacted.
be used to assure complete mixing. Many two-com- Thinning of paint should be done only at the man-
ponent paints should not be used immediately after ufacturer's direction and with the recommended
mixing; a 15- to 50-min induction or "sweating-in" thinner. Thinning instructions will usually appear
period is required. The paint manufacturer should on the label of the container.
specify this period on the can label along with the Portland cement paints are obtained as a dry
expected pot-life of the mixed system. powder and must be mixed to a creamy consistency
The manufacturer's mixing instructions must be with water. It is good practice to first reduce the dry
closely followed since the final properties of the material to a stiff paste with about half the required
paints are determined by the mix ratio of the two amount of water, after which additional water should
components. It is advisable to keep a running in- be grildually stirred into the paste until the desired
ventory of the quantities of both components used to cunsistency is obtained. Workability will be im-
assure that the correct mix ratio is maintained during proved by allowing the mixture to soak or prehydrate
application of the paint. for 30 to 45 min prior to application. The amount of
Should thinning or viscosity reduction be neces- paint to be mixed at one time should be based on
sary, only thinners recommended by the manufac- manu fact urer's recommenrlat ions.
 7.4.2 Application of paints-Each paint system applied paint becomes of importance. Thicknesses of
will have unique application characteristics and it is the completed paint application usually equals or
necessary to receive from the manufacturer recom- exceeds 5 mil (Va mm) after drying. The paint manu-
mtlndations concerning the items listed below. The facturer's recommendations for his coat ing is the best
paint should not be used until this information is guide available.
reviewed with the painting contractor. Thicknesses of each coat may be estimated at the
Painting, like most construction wOlk, is best done time of application with a wet film thickness gage
under favorable climatic conditions. Paint increases only if the surface texture is very smooth. Otherwise
in viscosity with cold temperatures; it becomes more the spreading or application rate, sq ftlgal. (sq em/I),
difficult to apply and does not wet the surface as well is the most practical method of film thickness
as when warm. Even though the paint is warmed, estimation.
relatively poor paint work will result if the concrete When more than one coat of the same paint is to be
is cold. It is best to paint when the temperature of the applied, it is good practice to apply alternate coats in
air and concrete is above 50 F (10 C). For many two- slightly contrasting shades to distinguish readily be-
component paints, the air and concrete temperatures tween coats. This can be done with tinting colors or
must be above 60 F (16 C). Some two-component by adding a small amount of differently colored
urethanes and epoxies are now available that can be paint of the same type. However, most manufacturers
applied at temperatures as low as 20 F (-7 C). will supply lightly tinted paints for this purpose.
In most cases, paint should be applied to dry sur- It is relatively easy to calculate a theoretical film
faces. Painting when rain may strike the surface must thickness at any predetermined spreading rate if the
be avoided; the same is true when condensed percent solids by volume is known; this is usually on
moisture is on the surf'lce. Water-based paints may the can label. One gallon (3.78 liters) of solids will
be safely applied to damp (but not wet) surfaces. cover 1,604 sq ft (149 m with one mil (0.025 mm) of
l)

7.4.2.1 Application methods-The paint manu- dry film. The calculation then becomes
facturer must recommend whether brushing, spray- percent solids by vol. x 1,604 .
ing, or rolling should be used for applying the paint. · . f I = mil of dry film
sprea d Ing rate In sq t per ga .
As a general rule, many of the solvent-based paints,
e.g., vinyls, epoxies, and urethanes, are fast drying
and, therefore, are better adapted to spraying than to Allowances should be made for losses caused by
brushing. For most spray application airless spray is spillage and overspray.
recommended. The drying time required before additional coats of
To obtain a good appearance and serviceability of paint are applied, or before the finished application
the paint film, the paint should be applied as a full, is put into service will vary over a wide range de-
wet film, but not so heavily that it will run or sag. pending upon the type of paint and atmospheric dry-
Care must be taken to see that paint is worked into ing conditions. The paint manufacturer will advise
surface depressions; that the coverage is uniform; the proper drying times for his particular products.
and that good blending of the film is obtained at laps. The latex paints, both interior and exterior grades,
7.4.2.2 Thickness and number of coats-For are normally used only for decoration. Thickness is
purely decorative painting, where no factors such as more important than uniform color and appearance.
moisture resistance, strong cleaners or high gloss re-
quirements are involved, the number of coats and 7.S-Repainting procedures
coating thickness need only be that necessary to ob- When repainting with the same type of paint as
tain the required color uniformity, hiding power, and that on the surface, and the old paint is in good con-
texture. With smooth, clean surfaces such as cement- dition, simply clean the surface and apply a single
asbestos, one coat may be all that is required. When coat of paint. Washing with commercial detergents or
the surface to be painted is rough or granular in tex- solvents before painting may be necessary if dirt,
ture, it is advisable to use two or more coats; the first chalk, and grime accumulation is excessive and tena-
coat thinned to allow for penetration. A compatible cious, such as to resist ordinary dusting or hosing.
sealer coat could also be used. Consult the paint manufacturer for information
Some manufacturers provide a separate priming about cleaning procedures.
paint of increased alkali resistance for use with oil- 7.5.1 Compatibility of new paint on old paint-It
base paints. Such a primer is of particular value if the is difficult to determine the compatibility of old and
concrete must be painted before it is fully seasoned. newly-applied paint since poor intercoat adhesion or
Generally, the label on the paint container will pro- delamination may not occur for many months after
vide instructions concerning the need for a special application. It is essential to contact the manufac-
primer or for altering the paint by thinning or adding turer of the old and new paint before attempting to
a special ingredient for application as the first coat. apply new painl over old paint. Examples of com-
Where a decorative paint is to serve another func- patibility problems are shown below.
tion such as withstanding abrasion or frequent clean- Any paint can be applied over Portland cement
ing, or as a dampproofing barrier, the thickness of the paint, but Portland cement paint cannot be applied
 over any other type of paint. In general, the latex Standard Specific:fion for White and Yellow
paints will normally adhere satisfactorily to other Thermoplastic Striping Material (Solid Form)
Standard Specification for White and Yellow Re-
types of paints, but any gloss on the old paint should
flective Striping Material (Flame-Spray Powder)
first be removed by sanding. Standard Specification for Ready-Mixed Alumi-
The adhesion between a fully-cured polyurethane num Paint
paint and newly-applied polyurethane will not be Standard Specification for Sheet Reflective Mate-
very good. Normally a thin coat of an epoxy-poly- rials for Traffic Control Devices
7. ASTM Standards, 1983, for Traffic Paints:
amide paint is applied before the polyurethane is
D 711-75 Test Method for No-Pick-Up Time of Traffic
applied. Specific instructions from the paint manu- Paint
facturer should be obtained when these particular D 713-81 Conducting Road Service Tests on Traffic Paint
paint systems are involved. D 821·47 Evaluating Degree of Abrasion, Erosion. or a
When applying solvent-based paints over oil- (1974) Combination of Hoth, in Road Service Tests of
Traffic Paint
based ones, wrinkling and lifting may be encoun- D 868-48 Evaluating Degree of Bleeding of Traffic Paint
tered. When this occurs the oil-based paint may have (1981)
to be removed or overcoated with a protective barrier D 869-78 Evaluating Degree of Settling of Traffic Paint
coat of the paint manufacturer's recommendation be- D 913-51 Method of Evaluating Degree of Chipping of Traf-
fore repainting. (1981) fic Paint
D 969-54 Method for Laboratory Test of Degree of Bleeding
Loose paint, curled edges, and blistered paint (1981) of Traffic Paint
must be removed before repainting. It may be D 1309-56 Test Method for Settling Properties of Traffic
preferable to remove all of the old paint. Light sand- (1975) Paints During Storage
blasting, water blasting, machine sanding, or paint D 2205-75 Recommended Practices for Testing Traffic Paints
strippers may be utilized. Filling of any cracks and 02743-68 Recommended Practices for Uniformity of Traffic
(1981) Paint Vehicle Solids by Spectroscopy and Gas
holes in the concrete should be done in the same Chromatography
manner as for new concrete (see Chapter 3). D 2792-69 Test Method for Solvent and Fuel Resistance of
If the old paint has become partially removed, but (1981) Traffic Paint
that remaining is in good condition, the bare areas 8. ASTM Standards. 1983. for Ceramic Tile:
should be painted first, followed by a coat over all. C 154-72 Standard Test Method for Warpage of Refractory
(1977) Brick and Tile, or Deviation from a Plane Surface
An additional coat may be necessary for best ap- C 482-81 Standard Test Method for Bond Strength of Ce-
pearance, especially if a pronounced change in color ramic Tile to Portland Cement
is involved. C 483-66 Standard Test Method for Electrical Resistance of
If the old paint is failing by blistering, peeling, or (1951) Conductive Ceramic Tile
disruption from efflorescence the cause of the prob- C 484-66 Standard Test Method for Thermal Shock Re-
(1981) sistance of Glazed Ceramic Tile
lem should be determined. The concrete may have C 485-83 Standard Method for Measuring Warpage of Ce-
been painted while too new, or a source of supply of ramic Tile
moisture to the concrete may still be present. If the Standard Test Method for Facial Dimensions and
latter is true, any new paint vvill probably also per- Thickness of Flat. Rectangular Ceramic Wall and
form unsatisfactorily unless the source of moisture Floor Tile
Standard Test Method for Relative Resistance to
can be eliminated. Consideration should also be Wear of Unglazed Ceramic Tile by the Taber
given to changing the type of paint. Abraser
C 502-78 Standard Test Method for Wedging of Flat. Rec-
(1983) tangular Ceramic Wall and Floor Tile
References C 609-81 Standard Method for Measurement of Small
Color Differences Between Ceramic Wall or Floor
1. "Painting Concrete." Concrete Informotion Sheet No.
Tile
IS134.03T. Portland Cement Association. Skokie. 1977,8 pp.
Standard Method for Evaluating Ceramic Floor
2. "Paints and Protective Coatings." Technical Manual No. TM
Tile Installation Systems
5-618, U.S. Department of the Army. Washington. D.C" 1969.
Standard Test Method for Breaking Strength of
3. Dolch. W. L., "Protective Coatings for Concrete." Technical
Ceramic Tile
Heport No. 2-29 (AD602727j. U.S. Arrny Engineer Division. Sept.
1963. pp. 1-51. Standard Test Method for Resistance of Ceramic
Tile to Chemical Substances
4. ACI Commiltp.e 616, "Recommended Practice for the Applica-
Standard Test Method for Color Permanency of
tion of Portland Cement Paint to Concrete Surfaces (ACI616-49),"
Glazed Ceramic Tile
ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 46. No.1. Sept. 1949. pp. 1-16.
5. "Sp!!cial Products balualion List (SPEL)." Hepart No. FWHA-
RD-71l-31. Federal Highway Admi n is t ration. Washington. D.C..
Dec. 1977. pp. 167-180.210-223. and 237-255.
6. Standard Spp.cificotians for T'ronsportGtion Materials and
Additional Sources of Information
Methods of Sampling and Testing. Part 1. Specifications. 12th
Fcdcrul Sp"cij"icutiolls: .
Edition. American Association of Sta t c Highway and Transporta- TT-P-llO:15(1) Paint. Cem{mtiliolls. Powder. White and Colors
tion Officials, Washington. D.C., 1978. 82/l pp. The applicable TT-P-1411A Paint. Copolymer-Resin. Cementilious
specificat iOilS are:
n~p-ll03:1 Paint. l.atex Base, Exterior
M 247-77 Standard Specification for Class Heads Used in TT-I'-~J(jI) Paint. Lall!x Base. for Exterior Surfaces
Traffic Paint
'ITI'-!l1lJ Paint. Rubber Basc. for Interior Use
M 241l-7/l Standard Sp"cificat ion for Ready-Mixed White TI'-I'-'-l5C Paint. gllbbcr for Swimming Pools and Olher
and YP.l!owTraffic Pai nts Co)u:mte and Masonry Surfac{!s
Tf-P-97D Paint. Styrene-Butadiene Solvent Type, White Tf-C-535B Coating. Epoxy. Two Component
Tf-P-1181A(1) Paint. Styrene-Acrylate Solvent Types. Tints and (1)
Deep Tones Tf-C-542D Coating. Polyurethane. Oil Free. Moisture Curing
Coating: Polyester-Epoxy (Two Component) High- (2)
Build. Gloss and Semigloss. White and Tints MIL-C-22750C Coating. Epoxy-Polyamide
Tf-C-499A Coating Compound. Chemical Resistant, Clear (2)
Tf-C-1659A Coatings: Epoxy Emulsion. Two-Component
Gloss and Semigloss
Coating. Clear (Satin-Finish), Polyurethane Latex. This report was submitted to letter ballot of the committee and was
for Interior Use approved by at least a two-thirds affirmative vote.

Byron I. Zolin Jere H. Rose

Chairman Secretary

Donald E. Brotherson Albert L. Hendricks Charles J. Parise Donald L. Schlegel

Samuel H. Christie. III Joseph E. Haria Charles O. Pratt Lawrence E. Schwietz
Robert W. Gaul James E. Kubanick Andrew Rossi Michael J. Sufi ita
Kenneth A. Heffner