GS-18 GUIDELINES FOR THE ALLEVIATION OF EXCESSIVE SURGE PRESSURES ON ESDGUIDELINES FOR THE ALLEVIATION OF EXCESSIVE SURGE PRESSURES ON ESD SOCIETY OF INTERNATIONAL GAS TANKE OPERATORS AND TERMINAL The Society is a non-profit making organisation dedicated to the protection and promotion of the mutual interests ofits Membersin the safe operation of liquefied gastankersand liquefied gas loading and receiving terminals. SIGTTO was formed in October 1979 and currently has in membership over 60 companies owning or operating over 70% of world LNG cartier and terminal capacity and over 45% of LPG carrier and terminal capacity. SIGP'TO is organised to represent its membership before, and consult with, the International Maritime Organization and other bodies. The Society of International Gas Tanker and Terminal Operators Ltd., London Liaison Office, Staple Hall, 87/90 Houndsditch, London EC3A TAX Tel 01-621-1422 Telex 894525-G Fax 01-626-5913CONTENTS Purpose of Guidelines Summary Definitions PART A - SOME DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS AND OPERATIONAL GUIDELINES 1 Potential Surge Pressure Hazards 2. Guidelines Common to Ship and Terminal 24 Guidelines prepared by an industry working group convened by the International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) 22 Safe transfer rates 23 Valve characteristics/closure times 24 Pipeline design pressure and pipeline anchors 25 Linked ship and terminal shut-down signal systems 26 Operational factors 3. Additional Guidelines for Consideration by the Terminal 4 Additional Guidelines for Consideration by the Ship PART B - THE THEORY OF SURGE PRESSURE AND ITS ALLEVIATION 5. Surge Pressure Theory 5a The Joukowski equation 52 Line pack effects 53 Secondary surges Sa Surge assessments 55 ‘The calculation of wavespeed 6 Surge Pressures in a Typical Loading System 61 Description of "basic’ system studied 62 Effect of independent ship ESD 63 Alleviation equipment 1 Surge Pressures in a Typical Unloading System 8 Effects of Variation of Parameters 81 Flow rates 82 Valves 83 Line lengths 84 Pipe diameters 85 Fluid properties 86 Dead legs 87 Gas eliminators 88 Pumps 9. Design Approach to Alleviate Surge Pressures 9 Pump shut-down/diversion of flow 92 Surge pressure relief 10, References Page No, u u 3 B 3B B 14 “4 15 45 16 8 18 19 ct 24 25 26 Py 34LIST OF FIGURES Page No. 1, Typical development of surge pressure after a rapid valve closure 4 2 Improvement in safe loading rate if flow rate is controlled at the pump discharge and not at the end of the jetty or on the ship 0 3. Start of surge pressure on closure of ESD valve 2 4, Full surge pressure following ESD valve closure 2 5. LPG tanker loading system 15 6. The reduction of flow with time on valve closure a 7. LPG tanker unloading system 31 LIST OF GRAPHS A. Butane loading + Flow reduction at jetty head on ESD Ww B, Butane/ammonia _—- Variation of pressure at jetty head on ESD a loading C. Butane loading - Variation of maximum pressure with pumped flow rate » D. Butane loading + Variation of maximum pressure with Total Valve Closure Time 23 E, Butane loading + Variation of maximum pressure with ESD valve size B F. Valve closure = Variation of Effective Valve Closure Time with number of ESD characteristics valves closing in parallel on G. Butane Toading ~ Variation of maximum pressure with line length 5 H. Butane loading + Variation of maximum pressure with pump trip delay 9 J. Butane loading = Reduction in flow at jetty head with pump trip 2» K. Butane loading = Variation of pressure on ESD with pump trip 30 L, Butane unloading —- Variation of maximum pressure with pump trip delay 30 M, Butane unloading - Variation of pressure at jetty head on ESD with no pump trip 31 N. Butane unloading - Variation of pressure at jetty head on ESD with pump trip 33 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ‘The Society acknowledges the assistance given by Hydraulic Analysis Limited in drafting the text of Part B of these Guidelines and for the preparation of the Figures and Graphs. Acknowledgement is also due to Members of the ESD working group.Purpose_of Guidelines Surge pressures are recognised as a phenomena which can lead to very high stressing of pipelines and equipment with the consequent possibility of leakage. The aim of this document is to assist persons unfamiliar with the phenomena of surge pressures and to give practical guidance to the operators, designers and engineers of both liquefied gas ship and terminal loading and unloading systems which will enable them to: = recognise the potential hazards of surge pressure; + understand the factors which affect surge pressure; review the engineering and operating procedures of their cargo transfer system; = appreciate aspects of surge pressure control on the other side of the ship/shore interface for mutual understanding of safe transfer procedures; + appreciate that surge pressures can be reduced or eliminated by incorporating a linked ship/shore ESD. system. Part A is addressed to operators; Pari B introduces surge alleviation theory and practice in some more. detail These Guidelines are not intended to be a design or operational cote of practice, nor is guidance given on the accurate prediction of maximum surge pressures. They must not therefore be used in isolation to examine the safety of any system, but may be of assistance in the recognition and assessment of surge pressure potential when reviewing liquid cargo transfer systems in existing and new bulk liquefied gas carriers and shore marine terminals. In this context, reference is made to the SIGTTO Recommendations and Guidelines for Linked Ship/Shore Emergency Shut-down of Liquefied Gas Cargo Transfer (Reference 10.1) ‘Summary First, in principle, the maximum and the minimum total pressures which can be developed under maximum surge conditions in normal operations must not exceed the design pressure of ship and terminal cargo transfer systems. Surge pressures may cause over- or under-pressure of loading and unloading systems, which are caused by fast changes of flow, and may occur following emergency shut-down. Potential surge pressures can be limited at the design stage by carcful selection of cargo transfer rate with pipeline diameter or valve closure speed with pipeline length. Ideal designs should accommodate surge pressures totally. Designs arc, however, subject to practical limitations and it is usually necessary therefore to install surge alleviation facilities Relicf valves, accumulators and pump shut-down are the most common features of alleviation Although in ‘most systems, taking pump pressure off the transfer line is a potent form of surge alleviation, it should not be used in isolation unless the adopted system is one of high integrity. ‘The advantages of a delay-free linked ship/shore ESD system for taking pump pressure off the transfer line are presented. Many other publications are available on the subject of surge pressures, several of which are listed in Section 10, References. While each publication has its own approach, they all support the conclusion that careful consideration must be given to surge pressures in order to prevent problems. Computer modelling programs enabling accurate analysis of surge pressure are also available and, used with trained engineers, these programs are able to identily potential surge pressure problems and means for their solution.Definitions ‘The definitions listed below relate to their usage within this document; their use by initial capital letters. Other publications may use similar terminology with different interpretations. ESD_ System An Emergency Shut-Down System which, initiated either manually or by automatic control sensors, enables rapid and effective shut-down of relevant operations and equipment in a safe and controlled manner. Surge Pressure ‘The rapid change in pressure as a consequence of a change in flow rate in a pipeline, Pipeline Period The time required for a pressure signal to travel the pipeline system in use from one end to the other end and back again. The time is twice the length of the pipeline divided by the wavespeed Wavespeed ‘The velocity of sound in the fluid when flowing in a pipe, and is the speed at which surge pressures are transmitted along a pipeline. ‘Total Shut-Down Time ‘The time from manual or automatic initiation of ESD to final closure of ship or terminal manifold valves. Signal_Response Time The time between initiation of ESD and the recognition of the initiating signal by the ESD system (For example, the time between initiating ESD at a remote control and the operation of the ESD interface units in the main control centre). Actuation Response Time The time between recognition of an ESD signal by the ESD system and the commencement of the required actuation, ‘The Actuation Response Time occurs immediately following the Signal Response Time. (For example, the time between operation of the ESD interface units in the main control centre and the commencement of an ESD valve closure), Total Valve Closure Time ‘The time for a valve to move from the open to the closed position Effective Valve Closure Time The period over which an ESD valve reduces the flow from 90% of its steady state to zero. (In relation to Total Valve Closure Time, this is typically about the last 5% for gate valves, about the last 15% for butterfly valves, about the last 25% for ball valves and about the last 30% for plug valves, when these ESD valves are at the end of a long pipeline system).PART_A - SOME DESIGN AND OPERATION GUIDELINES Part A has been prepared to enable operating managements of gas ships and terminals to review the design and engineering as well as the operating procedures of their cargo transfer systems. Such reviews may assist in avoiding the generation of excessive surge pressures on ESD or on other events in order not to exceed pipeline and equipment design pressure limits wre_Hazards 1 Potential Surge Presst ‘A. pressure surge is generated in a pipeline system when there is any change in the rate of flow of liquid in the line. The surge pressure can be dangerously high if the change of flow rate is too rapid. Surge pressures are most likely to be created during cargo transfer as a result of one of the following occurrences: (a) closure of an automatic ESD valve (©) rapid closure or opening of a manual or power-operated valve () slamming shut of a non-return valve (@) starting or stopping of a pump ‘The maximum pressure generated in a pipeline is the aggregate of the vapour pressure, the static head due to the liquid level in the storage tank, the pump pressure under no- flow conditions and the surge pressure created by the fastest flow reduction, for example flow stoppage by closure of a valve. ‘The development of this maximum pressure is illustrated in Figure 1, If the maximum pressure generated in the pipeline exceeds the strength of any part of the pipeline system upstream of the valve there may be leakage or rupture leading to a spillage. ‘There are similar risks if a valve is opened to fill a downstream pipeline system too rapidly. ‘The reason why liquefied gas cargo transfer systems, and in particular those of loading terminals arc susceptible to high surge pressures can be summarised in the following categories: (@) Economic: High flow rates are required to minimise ship turn round time. The economics of pump and line selection usually dictate a high flow velocity and hence high surge pressures if shut-down occurs. (b) Safety: With hazardous cargoes, the prevention of spillage is essential. Fast- acting emergency shut-down valves closed by high tank level, ESD or power failure are now common and are capable of closing against full flow. Reference 102 describes @ method to estimate the maximum safe transfer rate for 19 bar g systems. (©) Probability of an incident: Frequency of changes of flow rate, tank switching necessitating frequent valve movements, power failures, inadvertent pump trips, etc, can cause high surge pressures. (@) Inherent design: Loading and unloading systems must be capable of delivering a defined flow rate into different sizes and designs of tank. They are invariably designed to deliver to the highest tank back pressure with the result that flows considerably higher than design are delivered to tanks with low back pressures. This problem is exacerbated by the wide variations in relative tank operating pressures and liquid levels including the rise and fall of the tide. -3-parame cage — secre PRESSURE PROFILE - SORMA FLOW 1 TIME_P-0 ESD VALVE CLOSES RAPIOLY. [ss fe a Ai == i . IVE SURGE REACHES STORAGE TANK, OT _ AM pack occurs when Ps negative is greater than Pa so that the pump delivers additional liquid through its NIR.V. during negative surge pressures. Py =Vapour pressure plus liquid head pressure in storage tank. Note: Some recent terminals use submerged pumps mounted within P2 =Pump pressure at loading flow. Ps =Surge pressure on rapid closure of ship ESD valve against the loading flow. Ps =Increase in pump pressure at no-flow. the storage tank with all pipeline Jine connections through the roof of the tank, Figure 1 : Typical development of surge pressure _after_a rapid valve closureLiquefied gases are stored in “closed” tanks and incondensible gases are removed from tanks and pipework on entry into service so that reduction in wave speed due to its “free gas’ content is small (see Section 85). The relatively low viscosity of liquefied gases enables 2 high pipeline flow rate to be achieved with modest pumping power. ©) Inconsistent pressure ratings: Contrary to the mutually recognised aim for compatible systems, there are different standards for terminal and ship systems. In practice, the lowest ‘allowable standard for pipework and loading arms for many terminal installations is ANSI Class 150 pressure rating, whereas ship pipework sometimes has lower ratings. Cargo transfer systems should ideally be designed to be inherently safe from over-pressurisation Although improvements can be made to ships and terminal installations which do not fully comply with this design philosophy, examination of the above factors indicates that a compromise between ideal theory and practical operation must be achieved. Adequate surge calculations are required to ensure safe cargo transfer rates for given ESD Total Valve Closure Times. As an example, the American National Standard for Liquid Petroleum Transportation Piping Systems, ANSI B314 (Reference 10.4) in Section 402.24 states: ‘Allowances for Variations from Normal Operations Surge calculations shall be made and adequate controls and protective equipment shall be provided so that the level of pressure rise due to surges and other variations from normal operations shall not exceed the internal design pressure at any point in the piping system and equipment by more than 10 per cent". Some terminal piping system Codes, for example ANSI B313, specify a short term overpressure limit of 33 per cent, whereas the IMO Gas Carrier Codes specify no overpressure. allowance. Excessive surge pressures on ESD can be avoided if the ship and the terminal ESD systems are linked to act in combination such that, irrespective of whether ESD is initiated on the ship or on shore, the terminal will shut down first during loading of cargo and the ship will shut down first on discharging. Typical marine loading and discharge system studies (Reference 103) undertaken for SIGTTO indicate that pipeline peak pressures will be considerably reduced if the cargo transfer pump pressure is taken off the line at least one Pipeline Period before the valve commences its effective closure. By these means the precise sequencing of valve closure from pump to receiving tank becomes less important. Nevertheless, since the ship/Shore cargo connection and the ship's pipework must be regarded as the most vulnerable portions of the transfer system, it is desirable that the terminal ESD valves should close before the ship's valves in loading operations in order to protect the loading arm or hose from surge pressures. Similarly, in discharge operations, it is desirable that the ship ESD valves close before the terminal valves. As the IMO Gas Carrier Codes require that ship cargo pumps be stopped on initiation of ESD, the surge pressures in the ship pipelines may be limited within their design pressure.2a 22 23 231 Guidelines Common to Ship and to Terminal Guidelines prepared by an industry working group convened by the International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) ‘The ICS Guidelines were submitted to the IMO in October 1977 and are reproduced in full in Reference 10.2 under the title “Surge pressure control with automatic shut-down systems". This reference is a useful introduction to the control of surge pressures during ship loading/discharge operations. It concluded that there were three possible methods to avoid excessive surge pressures:- (a) To reduce loading/discharge rates to a safe rate as a consequence of the Total Valve Closure Times in use in the ESD systems (a useful method is presented for the rapid assessment of safe transfer rates in 19 bar g pipeline systems in Reference 10.2) (b) To change valve closure characteristics/extend closure times (see 23 below). (©) To link ship and terminal ESD systems so that the terminal will shut down first Auring loading and so that the ship will shut down first during discharge of cargo (see 25 below). ‘These methods have their advantages and disadvantages and are not always complete in themselves. It may be necessary to reduce flow velocities even if ship and terminal shut-down systems are linked, or if the characteristics/closure times of ESD valves have been adjusted, or if the shore system is exceptionally long. Safe_transfer_rates The surge analysis of the cargo transfer system in a loading terminal will enable management to provide their operators with guidance on safe loading rates for given ship ESD valve types and their Total Valve Closure Times. This necessitates a fairly good insight into the hazards of surge from the terminal representative in determining the safe loading rate, Similar considerations apply to the determination of safe discharge rates when a receiving terminal ESD valve or booster pump may stop the discharge flow. Valve_characteristics/closure_ times Comparative valve characteristics ‘A. surge pressure caused by closure of a valve may far exceed the no-flow head of a pump. The pressure upstream of a closing ESD valve increases and the pressure downstream decreases. This increasing pressure difference maintains the flow through the closing valve until the opening through the valve is greatly reduced. The resistance to flow through the closing valve has to be increased until it is significant in comparison with the resistance to flow through the transfer pi it will significantly reduce the flow. This is why the Effective Valve Closure Time is only a proportion of the Total Valve Closure Time (see ‘Definitions’ on page 2). As the aperture in a standard gate valve is significantly larger than a ball or butterfly valve at all stages of closure, standard gate valves only effectively reduce flow in about the last 5% of their closure, compared with about the last 159% for butterfly valves, with about the last 25% for standard ball valves and with about the last 30% for plug valves, when installed at the end of a long pipeline,232 233 234 Ball, plug or butterfly valves are generally used for ESD of cargo flow. Gate valves may be installed for emergency shut-down of fluid flow provided that closure characteristics are taken into account in the system design. Other factors such as axial and vertical plane flutter of the wedge gate during ESD should also be considered. Butterfly valves have slammed shut following disc-to-spindle attachment failure causing severe surge pressure damage. Butterfly valves with the disc offset from the spindle centreline will fail to the open position should disc-to-spindle or spindle failure occur. ‘Therefore, as a general requirement for ESD valves, and especially for butterfly valves, actuators, valve spindles and disc-to-spindle attachment must be sized so as to accommodate the ESD dynamic torque/force anticipated. Flow _control_valves It is recommended that flow control valves at the end of a long pipeline system should be smaller than line size so as to “bite” on the liquid flow earlier in their closure stroke. The increased resistance to fluid flow of a smaller than line size valve in a long pipeline system is negligible (eg. ESD valves may be 50-90% of the appropriate line diameter or hhave ‘reduced bore” valve internals). Thus ship manifold ESD valves may match the individual tank liquid line ESD valves; this will facilitate the manifold valves to be adjusted to close before the individual tank valves so as to keep loading surge pressures out of the ship's pipework. The additional resistance of the reduced bore valve will be negligible when connected to the terminal transfer line for cargo loading or discharge. Recognising that ESD valves are for emergency use only, separate flow control valves should be provided for control of cargo transfer rate. The expected, or unexpected, closure of the flow control valve should be considered for consequent siirge pressure in the pipeline (see also Section B,section 5.4). Reliable valve closure times Ships and terminals should ensure that all their liquid transfer line power-operated valves will function correctly under all service conditions (eg. at ambient temperatures and at minimum service temperature, with no cargo flow and under full cargo flow, where applicable, and following a failure in power supply to the valve actuators). The IMO Gas Carrier Codes require ship liquid tine ESD valves: - to be the failclosed (closed on loss of power) type and be capable of local manual operation; - to fully “close under all service conditions within 30 seconds of ESD initiation. Information about the closing time of the valves and their operating characteristics should be verifiable and reproducible. Such valves should close smoothly. Pre-operation testing of power-operated valves and agreement to use of manually. operated valves in the transfer system should be discussed and agreed during pre-cargo transfer discussions. (Reference 10.5, Sections AT and C12). Operators will need to note the Signal and Actuation Response Times between initiation of ESD and the commencement of ESD valve closure. The type of valve (gate, plug, ball or butterfly) will need to be noted in order to estimate the Effective Valve Closure Time as a proportion of the Total Valve Closure Time as measured. operated valves Problems may be experienced in adjusting the closure time of pneumatic/spring-return actuators, Actuators should be generously sized so as to provide the higher closure torque/force required during ESD flow through the valve. Also slow valve closure is required without jerkiness in operation especially over the last 25% or so of valve iD235 24 24d 242 closure to the fully closed position. This is particularly important where mechanical or pneumatic air spring-return actuators are used which exhibit lowest closure torque/force at the end of the valve closure stroke. The most common method of slowing down the closure rate of air-operated/spring-return actuated valves is to introduce an adjustable outflow restrictor valve in the actuator exhaust to atmosphere. In this way the rate at which the valve-to-open air pressure bleeds out of the cylinder can be reduced and thus the closure speed is reduced. However, the closure torque provided by an air or mechanical spring-return actuator is at a minimum when fully extended at the end of the stroke at valve closure, But, it_is precisely at the end of the closure stroke that slow, jerk-free closure is required. For this reason some spring-return actuated valves cannot be adjusted to close reliably in longer than 15 to 20 seconds. A disadvantage of the exhaust restriction method of slowing valve closure is that it also increases the Signal Response Time between actuating an emergency shut-down and commencement of valve closure, and thus reduces the Effective Valve Closure Time permitted by the IMO Gas Carrier Codes, Fire-safe_designs ESD valves may need to be of fire-safe design depending on their location, for example depending on their proximity to the loading arms. Pipeline design pressure and_pipeline anchors Ship and terminal design differences ‘As described at the start of Part A, a difference between ship and terminal pipeline design pressures and design codes often exists. Ship and marine terminal pipeline systems should, ideally, be designed to the same pipeline standard. Most liquefied gas marine terminal pipelines are designed to ANSI B313, with flanges to ANSI B16 Class 150, which allows @ maximum short term, limited pressure rating of 19 bar g + 33% = 253 bar g for carbon and specified alloy steel materials or a lower rating for specified stainless steel materials. This short term limited pressure rating (10 hours at any one time, 100 hours total per year) is to cover unanticipated surges and other variations from normal operations. ‘The IMO Gas Carrier Codes specify a minimum design pressure of 10 bar g and no over pressure allowance (see Section 4), Many existing gas carriers have a pipeline design pressure of 10 bar g in compliance with the IMO Gas Carrier Codes. This is technically acceptable providing that high integrity ship/shore link and emergency shut-down systems are in use. Pipeline anchors Pipeline anchors should be provided to carry the maximum surge pressure load at each ESD valve in a direction axial to the pipe centre-line as well as possible amplifications which may arise from the use of bellows expansion units, pipeline vibration, 2-phase flow, etc. Thus for 19 bar g maximum Working Pressure, with a test pressure of 15 times W.P,, the minimum pipeline axial anchor loads would be as_follows:- Pipeline dia (mm) 250 300 400 ‘Axial load. (KN) 140 200 360 Such anchor loads may require some terminals to use a water-front ESD valve to protect the jetty structure from such loads.25 25.1 252 26 Linked ship and terminal shut-down signal systems Recommendations for linked ESD systems As described in the final paragraph of Part A, section 1, and in more detail in Part B section 9.1.2 of this document, considerable reductions in ‘surge pressure can be achieved by linking ship and terminal shut-down systems, provided that both the link and the associated ESD systems are of high integrity. Reference 10.1 describes such a link system and these Guidelines will serve to assure the integrity of the ESD systems. Part ‘A, Section 4 includes further considerations for a ship’s interface with a link system, sumatic, electric, radio and fibre-optic _signal_systems Pneumatic signal systems contain inherent Signal Response Times dependent primarily on the length of signal pipework between the venting point and the location of the ESD pressure sensing device. Such systems are acceptable for the provision of a robust simple means of initiating an ESD confined to the ship, Tntrinsically safe clectrical signal systems are delay-free and have been proven reliable in dedicated liquefied gas shipping trades and in marine oiljgas installations provided that they are adequately specified and operated (see the Appendix to Reference 10.1). Radio transmission links are delay-free and in use where both the ship and the terminal fare equipped with a radio transceiver interfaced to their respective ESD systems. Such links have to be unaffected by any other electro-magnetic sources. which may be present in the ship/shore environment, may not interfere with any communication systems of ship and terminal and use a locally approved transmission frequency. Fibre-optics is a relatively new signal transmission technology which is also delay-free. Operational factors The following factors are well documented and understood but they are basic to the maintenance and control of a high integrity and safe emergency shut-down system and are repeated here to complete the picture, Good operating procedures should avoid pressure surge problems. Surge pressures are most likely to be created during cargo transfer as a result of one of the following, occurrences: (@) closure of an automatic ESD valve. (b) rapid closure or opening of a manual or power-operated valve. (©) slamming shut of a non-return valve (@) starting or stopping of @ pump. The ESD system equipment should be regularly maintained and tested to ensure correct and reliable function. ‘The inadvertent closure of a valve, without ESD initiation due to mal-operation or malfunction and without the protective features of pump shut-down, could result in hazardous surge pressures. This problem should be considered individually by ships and terminals in terms of pipeline design pressures, cargo transfer rates, operating procedures and what is reasonably practicable and safe in the circumstances, “However, the availability of rapid shut-down of transfer pump pressure by reaction of the terminal or ship via a linked ESD signal system will be a major contribution to minimisation of cargo spillage or of potential equipment damage (see Part B, Section 9.12).‘The ESD system should therefore be checked to ensure that all factors which can initiate ESD valve closure during a cargo transfer also actuate the ESD signal system. Manually-operated valves which can be closed against the cargo flow should be operated slowly (or not at all). Low gearing may be fitted to the hand operating wheels of such valves to prevent over-fast operation. Similarly, manually-operated valves which may be isolating a pressure difference should be opened slowly to limit the surge pressures consequent on rapid velocity changes in the line, especially when filling an empty line. Manual transfer pump start procedures, so as to ensure that empty lines are filled slowly, and stop procedures, after the transfer rate has been slowly reduced to zero, should be carefully followed. Transfer pumps are usually specified for their maximum ‘duty rating for pressure head and volume flow. When operated at below duty back pressure, they will deliver at an increased flow rate. This will increase surge pressures on ESD. Transfer flow rate should be adjusted slowly by use of a flow control valve preferably at the pump discharge and not by closing a valve at the receiving tank ‘The ship should request the loading terminal to adjust the loading flow. The terminal should request the ship to adjust the discharge flow. Figure 2 from Reference 10.6 illustrates the increase in safe loading rate with flow controlled at the pump discharge if the ship shuts down against the loading flow. 1000m 204mm MAIN. LINE 31 Sdmisee, VELOCITY | ONE 200mm BALL VALVE UNIFORM CLOSURE IN 10 see. 65 BAR PUMP SHUT-OFF PRESSURE, 20 FLOW CONTROL / & Z——FLOW CONTROL 2 “at PUMP DISCHARGE & ee : A . Toa ae | Figure 2 Improvement in safe loading rate if flow rate is controlled at the pump discharge and not at the end of the jetty or on the ship. (This Figure is from Reference 106, but with conditions adapted for butane). -10-When liquid flow is diverted from one tank to another, the valves on the tank about to receive cargo should be fully opened before those on the tank being isolated are shut n_by the Terminal Some discharge terminals require booster pumps where storage tanks are substantially above sea water level or where fully refrigerated LPG is to be heated and stored underground, Such booster pumping systems should either be physically separated from the ship’s pumping system by using an intermediate buffer storage or booster pump capacity should be capable of wide regulation to match ship discharge rates. Ship discharge rates will normally commence and finish at a comparatively low rate and may stop instantaneously in the event of an electric power failure (for example, damaging surge pressures have been experienced where a relatively large capacity booster’ pump has been started and then stopped automatically on low suction pressure). tional Guidelines for Consideration by the Ship Ships are recommended to provide an intrinsically safe (IS.) electrical initiation circuit in replacement of their present pneumatic ESD initiation arrangements, which may not be delay-free for use with a ship/shore linked ESD system. Heat detectors may be fitted in the 1S. clectrical initiation circuit in replacement of the fusible elements required by the IMO Gas Carrier Codes to ensure a delay-free ESD signal. Ships’ pneumatic valve actuation systems may be retained. The ship's LS. electric ESD initiation system will be interfaced with, but galvanically isolated from, its part of the ship/shore signal link Additional Guidelines for Consider A Ships which fit the ship/shore ESD signal link system (Reference 10.1) must ensure that there is a delay-free interface with the ship's cargo pump and compressor stop arrangements, This will ensure that the ship’s pumps are stopped without delay, when an ESD signal is initiated by the receiving terminal, and that the terminal’s ESD valves do not close against the full discharge flow. The ship's compressors will also be protected from damage on ESD of the vapour return system. ‘The ship-side manifold ESD valve should be adjusted to close before other ESD valves in the ship’s liquid loading lines. This ensures that surge pressures on ESD during loading are kept out of the ship's pipework. In consideration of the relatively low safe loading rates appropriate to 10 bar g pipeline systems, existing gas ships should consider uprating their liquid manifold ESD valves, and manifold anchoring arrangements to 19 bar g minimum, and presentation flanges to ANSI B165-1981 Class 150 (sce References 10.7, 108 and 109 which specify minimum flange ratings to ANSI Class 150). New gas ships should have liquid lines and equipment flanged to ANSI BI65 Class 150 minimum with the maximum design pressure rating permitted (see sections 2.4.1 and 242) to better accommodate surge pressures due to unanticipated closure of a terminal valve against full discharge fow or inadvertent closure of an internal loading line valve during loading. Ship operators should ensure that ship pipeline design pressures are specified so as to accommodate normal surge pressure loads during loading and discharge operations as described in Part B Section 54, Cargo liquid lines are especially vulnerable to excessive surge pressures due to the potential number of “dead legs" in their crossover and cargo tank connections (see Part B, Section 86). pirePRESSURE PROFILES AT VARIOUS POINTS IN TIME. » (0AS.INTERVALS) PRESSURE (BAR 6) xe Chow aerons LF Ey DOWNSTREAM LINE pa Figure 3: Start_of surge pressure_on_closure_of ESD _valve i TANK PUMP VALVE siP Pipeline lengths + Suction 100m. 204mm dia, Discharge 1500m. 154mm_dia. Downstream 150m. 204mm dia, Pump data + Duty 350cum/h at 5.50 bar. No-flow pressure 6.50 bar. Valve data : Ball valve 200mm dia. Total Valve Closure Time, 10 seconds. Discharge line : Velocity before ESD S.4m/sec. Maximum surge pressure : 31.22 bar g. Figure 4 : Full surge pressure following ESD valve closure “2Part B - THE THEORY OF SURGE PRESSURE AND ITS ALLEVIATION 52 33 Surge_Pressure Theory ‘The _Joukowski_equation Surge pressures are generated in a piping system whenever equipment operation causes change in flow. A reduction in flow causes the upstream pressure to rise and the downstream pressure to fall. Conversely, an increase in flow causes the downstream pressure to rise whilst the upstream pressure falls. In a cargo transfer system, these changes are generally caused by the operation of valves or the start-up/shut-down of a pump. Both types of upset give rise to high and low pressure waves. For example, a pump shut-down will cause the suction pressure to rise and the discharge pressure to fall. The magnitude of the surge pressure is related to the change in velocity as follows: An Av where Ah = Head change 8 C = Wavespeed Av = Fluid velocity change 8 = Gravitational constant for, the surge pressure as given by the Joukowski equation: av where Joukowski surge pressure (N/sq.m) Fluid density °(kg/cu.m) Wavespeed (m/s) Av = Fluid velocity change (m/s) oan For example, a sudden change of 1 m/s velocity in a steel pipeline will result in a pressure change of about 5 bar with liquefied butane and 10 bar with liquefied ammonia, Line_pack effect Surge effects normally cause higher pressures than would exist during steady state operation. For example, a surge caused by closure of a valve may far exceed the no- flow head of a pump (see Figures 3 and 4 on page 12). Additionally, it is not always the initial Surge Pressure which causes the maximum pressure experienced after a shut-down. Although an ESD may have occurred at the outlet valve, a considerable time may pass before all of the system is at standstill. ‘Throughout this time, the pressure will continue to rise, often well above the first surge. This is known as line pack. Figure 1 shows how the transfer pump can continue to discharge liquid into the transfer line during the Pipeline Period of the low pressure wave and this liquid will remain trapped in the transfer line during the period of the high pressure wave on closure of the pump discharge non-return valve. However, if the transfer pump is tripped on initiation of ESD, line pack will not occur Secondary surges Surge pressures pass throughout the system at the Wavespeed of the fluid, and are added to the initial pressure in the system. As the surge reaches or passes through another item of equipment, it is modified, often causing a secondary surge pressure, Surge pressures can also superimpose upon one another such that a high surge pressure can be lowered by a low surge pressure or increased by a secondary high surge pressure. ‘The time over which a velocity change occurs is also a factor in the peak surge pressure. It is sufficient at this stage to acknowledge that a velocity change over a short period generally produces higher pressures than one occurring over a long period. -B-34 35 In summary, large changes in flow over a short period of time lead to high surge pressures. ‘These _can cause even higher pressures if the initial hydraulic gradient is steep. In view of these aspects very serious consideration should be given to the design of pipeline anchoring requirements to compensate for these higher pressures. Surge assessments The Joukowski equation is inadequate to evaluate the complex phenomena described in 5.2 and 53, but can be used to undertake an appraisal or to act as a comparison between various designs. Sophisticated computer programs using a mathematical modelling technique are available to determine accurate values for the maximum, and minimum, pressures in a system. It is essential that assessments cover the various practical scenarios such as rapid ESD or other valve closure (with or without a pump trip), or an inadvertent pump trip. (See also Part A, Section 23.2). The calculation of wavespeed As described in 5.1 above, the surge pressure is also proportional to the wavespeed (C). ‘The wavespeed is primarily dependent on the physical properties of the fluid (which will vary with temperature and pressure), modified by the free gas bubble content and the attenuating properties of the pipeline, The wavespeed can be calculated for liquids with low free gas bubble contents by: where = Internal diameter of pipe Thickness of pipe wall ‘Young’s Modulus of pipe wall Gravitational constant d= Liquid density K = Bulk Modulus of liquid € P = Free bubble content E Current pressure 8 Because liquefied gases are stored in closed containment systems from which incondensible gases are carefully purged, the free bubble content in high pressure surges are normally negligible. — However, because liquefied gascs are normally stored and transported at their boiling point’ temperatures, low pressure surges may result in vaporisation and a reduction in wavespeed in the pipeline. For products stored in equilibrium with air, such as water, the wavespeed, which is about 1400 m/s in pure water containing no free gas, will be reduced almost linearly to 150 rmjs when 10% of the fluid is free gas This effect is very beneficial in the reduction of surge pressures when handling such products Although maximum pressures are usually the major cause of concern, subatmospheric pressures can be the cause of more severe damage, particularly in thin walled pipes for water ballast for example, Liquefied gases are carried at their boiling point temperature, so that a reduction in pressure is rapidly compensated by liquid vaporisation and vice versa. -i4-61 Surge Pressures in_a Typical Loading System ‘A. typical ship loading system (Figure 5) feeds fluid from shore storage tanks to a ship moored at a jetty fitted with loading arms or hoses. As a terminal may handle many different ships using many pipelines of varying length dependant on the product being transferred, its design should be based on the worst eventuality in order to accommodate those parts of the system which have the potential to damage both ship and shore swork. The unknown element of that system to the terminal designer is the ship's pipework design pressure and ESD valve type and closure times, although the assumption, that the ship's manifold at least will be flanged to ANSI B165 150Ib minimum, is generally applied. In order to ensure that the ship's pipework remains adequately protected, it is imperative, therefore, to ensure that in the event of an ESD, the ship’s manifold valve is closed before individual tank valves (sce also 6.3 following). Description of "basic' system _studied It is obviously difficult to define a typical LPG loading terminal, but, the following has been assumed as a basic design for study. Two 200HH 2kH: 300MM DIA. CLASS 150 FIGURE § LPG TANKER LOADING SYSTEM TANKER MANIFOLD E89 VALVES 250M BALL VALYES WITH TOTAL62 Terminal Pipework Length : 2 km Diameter : 300 mm Rating ANSI B 313 Class 150 Maximum allowable pressure = 25.3 bar g (19 bar g +33%) Pumps No flow head equal to 110% duty head Tanks : At vapour pressure Ship Pipework Length : 80m manifold to tanks Diameter : 250 mm Rating Maximum allowable pressure = 19 bar g ESD. Valves + Two 250 mm ball valves at manifold with a Total Valve Closure Time of 15 seconds Tanks ‘At vapour pressure; maximum two tanks loaded at one time Liguid Product : Butane at -5 °C Relative Density : 06 Vapour Pressure: ‘10 bar a Viscosity : 02 Bulk Modulus 2 530 MNisqum. Product : Ammonia at 33 °C Relative Density 0.68 Vapour Pressure: 1.0 bar a Viscosity 0.24 cP Bulk Modulus 2000 MN/sqn. Effect _of independent ship ESD ‘An ESD on the ship may cause a high surge pressure in the ship/shore connection which is usually the weakest section of the loading system, Graphs _A_and B show the reduction in loading flow against time at the jetty head and the surge pressure fluctuation upstream of the ship manifold’s ESD ball valves which were closed in a Total Valve Closure Time of 15 seconds with the loading pump running. This is a typical potential surge pressure prediction where shipishore ESD systems are not linked and the ship actuates its ESD system so as to shut down against the full loading flow. The maximum surge pressure in this transfer system is 272 bar g for the butane cargo and 362 bar g for an ammonia cargo (shown by dotted lines on Graph B). The higher wavespeed and fluid density of ammonia result in a maximum surge pressure 1.33 times more than for butane. However, the full Joukowski surge pressure has not been realised for the ammonia cargo because the higher wavespeed has resulted in an Effective Valve Closure Time which is greater than one pipeline period. VCM has a similar acoustic velocity to butane but its density is 62% higher, so for this product the ‘maximum surge pressure is 1.62 times the maximum pressure for butane. High pipeline velocities, increased carrying capacity and the general economics of pipeline design, can make the pressure problem difficult to solve. This is especially significan when existing loading facilities are required to increase their loading capacities. = 16 -FLOW cu, nH 00 PUMP OPERATING vevocrry TWO 250mm BALL vaLvES cLOse neTRES/SEC 100 IN PARALLEL WITH A TOTAL VALVE CLOSURE TINE OF 18 SECoNOS a? 900. 700 600 —2 500 400 a0 _4 200 100 4 8 4 mw TIME - seconns GRAPH A. BUTANE LOADING - FLOW REDUCTION AT JETTY HEAD ON E50 PRESSURE ruse oPeRATING tone wo 250" anki VALVES cLose Eh pamnucee With n FOTN. VALVE Pressure Heno Closure tare or 15 Seconra nevRes ° pewonn CORDING = = = ~~ = yo0 puree Lonozn & — 800 » — 500 * 400 2» \ 200 = 200 Fa 109 5 + 8 em mew TIME - SECONDS GRAPH B BUTANE/ANMONIN LOMDING - VARIATION OF PRESSURE AT JETTY HEAD ON ESD ae63 Alleviation equipment Surge alleviation equipment is usually not installed close to the ESD valve. Hence, the surge pressure rise is ofien well developed before alleviation can limit or relieve the surge. Compounding these inherent problems, there are often several valves which can close against flow. These range from the ship's tank valves to those at the ship's manifold and to those on the jetty. As already mentioned, it is common for ship's valves to be an unknown element to the terminal design enginecr. In an ESD, it is desirable that the jetty valve closes before the ship’s manifold ESD valve in order to protect the loading arm from the surge pressure. Linked ship/shore ESDS should significantly reduce the loading surge hazards. Yet further design limits complicate or preclude a solution, For example, there may be little space on the loading jetty available for surge alleviation equipment, in particular where a large volume of relieved fluid is involved. Moreover, for safety considerations, this equipment may often be protectively located at some distance away from the jetty head (See Section 92.2). Usually therefore, where the loading facility handles a broad range of ships, a compromise solution is necessary. Vessels with extraordinarily fast ESD valves or low pipeline pressure ratings may have to be treated as special cases with flow rates and/or loading pressures being adjusted accordingly. Careful consideration and understanding, by terminal and ship designers and operators, of the parameters affecting surge pressures can often simplify the system, thereby allowing higher loading rates and more economic. systems. Surge Pressures in_a Typical Unloading System ‘Surge pressure phenomena in unloading systems are generally similar to those of a loading system. Some of the constraints arc also similar; specifically, data on the ship's pumps and pipework may be unknown to the receiving terminal. However, the ESD valves are known and the surge alleviation can be facilitated close to the critical ESD valves which are fitted where the pressure surge load may be effectively anchored; there are normally fewer valves and plenty of tank ullage for the relieved liquid, ‘The main problems are the unloading rate and the head developed by the ship's pump. A flow rate can be sot to match the size of relief or rating of the system, although the flow should be limited at the ship and not at the terminal, Reduced flow rates often alleviate problems of high pump head. It should be appreciated, however, that setting lower flow rates for pumps is not a fully fail-safe procedure. Also flow reducing devices may fail to operate when required. Occasionally relief valves, flow recirculation and pump shut-down are incorporated. In general, the design of the complete system should cover for failure of safeguarding components, ‘Terminals with fast acting ESD systems designed to operate within the limit of their own flange and piping standards can very easily generate surge pressures which can be above the ship's flange and piping standards. These surges would be better accommodated if new ship liquid lines were specified to ANSI B165 150 Ibs minimum flange standard. Linked ship/shore ESDS should significantly reduce unloading surge hazards as ship pumps are stopped on initiation of ESD.81 Effects of Variation of Parameters Sections 6 and 7 have discussed some of the problems associated with the design of shipyshore transfer systems. This section aims to give an illustration of the effects of variation in some of the basic parameters within such pumped systems. It is often difficult to consider each of these effects in isolation, but an appreciation of their significance should assist in the overall understanding of potential hazards. A sudden cessation of flow (such as closure of a ship or shore manual or power-operated ESD valve) with transfer pump pressure on the line is assumed to be the worst design case. Section 9.1 describes the benefits of rapid pump shut-down in the reduction of surge pressures on ESD. Flow rates ‘As discussed previously, surge pressures are primarily caused by a velocity change. Reducing the loading rate is therefore a very effective method of limiting potential surge pressures, although it is often economically disadvantageous. Graph C_ illustrates the typical effects of variation in loading rate if pumping continues during ESD. 25 10 MAKINUM PRESSURE TWO 250mH EALL VALVES CLOSE IN PARALLEL WITH A TOTAL VALVE | 200 400 eon 800 000 1200 2400 Caution should be shown in the methods in which the loading rate is reduced on an existing system. For example, a reduction in pump speed (or reduction of impeller diameter) will generally reduce the maximum pressures, but using a flow control valve (FCV) may still subject the system to the same maximum pressures, although the initial 19-82 82.1 fast pressure rise will be reduced. In addition, the following points should be considered. (@) Can the FCV be guaranteed never to be fully opened? A limit stop should be fitted to prevent this. (b) Is the FCV suitable for the new duty? Butterfly valves are commonly used and they have poor cavitation performances especially if the required pressure drop for flow reduction exceeds about half the upstream pressure, (©) Throttling of flow using a valve on the jetty is less satisfactory than using a valve close to the pump. If a shut-down occurs, the increasing pressure drop through the closing ESD valve is partially counteracted by a lower pressure drop through the nearby throttling valve as flow through it is reduced. The rest of the system, therefore, does not react immediately to the changing hydraulic conditions, i.e. the Effective Valve Closure Time is reduced (see Figure 2). (@ The duties of operational flow control and ESD should not be combined in a single valve; each duty should be performed by a separate valve suitably placed in the transfer line, Flow limitation is more safely achieved by installing a carefully sized FCV downstream of the pump or by using a smaller pump impeller. An additional safety measure would be to fit a pump high flow trip, or high flow diversion back to the storage tank. Valves Valve coefficients ‘The surge effects due to a valve closure are best explained by first considering flow through the valve alone and subsequently incorporating the interactions due to the pump and piping system in which it operates. If a valve is closed slowly (so that transient pressures do not occur) in a frictionless line between two tanks, then the gravity flow of liquid between the tanks is described by the following formula: a = cfApa where Flow in USGPM Ap Pressure difference across the valve in psi de Relative density (formerly known as S.G.) and where Cv is the Valve Coefficient which is dependent on the percentage open (stroke) of the valve. Valve Coefficients (C.) are almost universally based on flow in US Gallons Per Minute and pressure difference in Pounds per Square Inch, The reduction of Flow against Time of valve closure is shown as line A on Figure 6.822 Flow Figure 6 The reduction of flow with time on valve closure, However, if pipe friction effects are taken into account both the pipe and valve will contribute to the (otal head loss. Hence, as valve closure causes an increased pressure differential, the corresponding flow decrease in turn reduces the friction losses in the piping. ‘These changes in losses therefore partially compensate for one another. An example of this is shown below (it is assumed that the differential pressure exerted by the two tanks on the system remains constant at 100 psi): cof Flow Valve Loss Pipe Loss Time Valve USC Psi Psi Zero 1000 1000 A 90 e 50 430 80 20 ‘This shows that at time T the valve C, has reduced to 5% of its initial value but the flow is still 45% of the original. The flow/time relationship is therefore altered to line B on Figure 6. ‘The transient effects in a system further modify the actual flow/time relationship. As explained in Section 5.1, whenever flow is stopped, pressure changes related by Joukowski’s equation must also occur. Hence as a valve closes and starts to curtail flow the upstream pressure rises and the downstream pressure falls. ‘The pressure differential across the valve therefore increases tending to maintain flow through the valve and modifying the flow/time curve to line C on Figure 6. Valve closure in_a_real_system ‘The factors discussed above make the flow reduction much more sudden than that suggested by the valve Cy/time relationship (line A). The significance of this can be seen when considering a simple system: 4 EI Initially the pump is delivering flow from A to B at a velocity, V, through the length, L, of line, If the valve at B closes suddenly to, say, half open the flow rate at B is reduced causing an increased pressure upstream. This pressure rise is transmitted back through the system at the wavespeed, C, so the effects of valve closure are first experienced at the pump L/C seconds after the flow rate decreases at the valve. Due to a-83 this increased pressure, the flow rate through the pump falls to a new value, dependent fon the pump head/flow curve. This change in flow is then transmitted back down the line to the valve, where its effects are experienced 2 L/C seconds, or one Pipeline Period, afier the valve movement It is apparent from the above that a ‘slow valve closure’ (ic. where the shut-down time is greater than 2 L/C seconds) is beneficial. The flow rate from the pump is reduced (albeit with a delay) and so the velocity finally arrested by the valve as it seats can be significantly less than the initial rate, (with surge pressures correspondingly reduced). In contrast, the reduction of flow through the pump cannot reduce surge pressures if valve closure is "sudden" (ie. less than 2 L/C seconds) and so in this simple system the pressure will rise to the value predicted by Joukowski’s equation based on the initial velocity in the line. ‘The major factor in assessing the magnitude of surge pressures created by closure of a particular valve is the speed of flow decrease. This should be measured as a proportion of the Pipeline Period, and not in seconds as is normal (sce 9.1.1). As discussed, the longer the period of flow cessation (ic. the higher the proportion), the lower the surge pressures will be and, conversely, a very rapid flow cessation will create a very rapid pressure rise which may be costly or impossible to alleviate. Graph D shows the variation in maximum surge pressure as a function of Total Valve Closure Time. Graph A. shows that the curtailment of flow in the loading system studied due to a losing valve is initially slower and finally quicker than would be anticipated from considering the head loss characteristics alone. Emergency Shut-down valves normally give very low pressure losses when fully open, As the valve closes the head loss is still small for more than 50% of the movement. These characteristics, plus the phenomena discussed above, cause flow cessation to occur only over the last 5%-35% of total valve closure (see definitions of Total and Effective Valve Closure Time on page 2) ‘As discussed in Section 23.1, different types of valve have widely differing Effective Valve Closure Times. Similarly, as discussed in Section 232, the size of valve compared to line size can change the Effective Valve Closure Time. For example, a valve which is smaller than line size will have a longer effective closure time than a line size valve because the valve starts to reduce flow earlier in its closure. This indicates that a reduced size ball valve will give the longest effective closure time and hence the lower surge pressure. Graph E shows the reduction in maximum surge pressure which can be achieved by using smaller than line size ESD valves in the loading system studied. Two or more valves closing in parallel reduces the Effective Valve Closure Time. This may occur as shown in the LPG tanker loading system in Figure 5 where two ship manifold ESD valves close against the pumped loading flow. Graph F shows that a single ESD valve would have commenced its effective closure at 50% closed whereas two valves in parallel commence effective closure at 63% closed and three valves in parallel at 70% closed. Hence, closure of several valves in parallel will generally cause higher pressures than closure of @ single similar valve. Line I ‘Again the effects of line length are difficult to isolate as the longer the line the gre the friction losses and hence the higher the pump discharge pressure required. However, as a general rule, the effect is similar to reducing the valve closure time due to the increase in the pipeline period. Hence the full Joukowski surge pressure is more likely to occur in longer lines which also tend to lead to more severe packing. Graph G shows the increase in the pipeline maximum pressure with an increase in pipeline length for a 15 second Total Valve Closure Time.