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Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher

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The place of the practicum in

pre‐service teacher education: the
voice of the students
a a
Kari Smith & Lilach Lev‐Ari
a
Oranim Academic College of Education , Israel
Published online: 20 Aug 2006.

To cite this article: Kari Smith & Lilach Lev‐Ari (2005) The place of the practicum in pre‐service
teacher education: the voice of the students, Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 33:3,
289-302, DOI: 10.1080/13598660500286333

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 Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education
Vol. 33, No. 3, November 2005, pp. 289–302

The place of the practicum in pre-

service teacher education: the voice of
the students
Kari Smith and Lilach Lev-Ari*
Oranim Academic College of Education, Israel
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The focus of this paper is the importance student teachers attribute to the practical experience
of their teacher education program, the practicum. Four hundred and eighty student teachers
from the largest teacher education institution in Israel responded to a questionnaire with 68
closed items asking for their evaluation of various components of the teacher education
program in relation to preparing them for teaching, and about sources for support during the
practicum. The main findings show that the practicum is evaluated highly by a large majority of
students; however, students find importance in the more theoretical aspects of their education as
well. Institutional-based supervisors of the practicum were perceived by student teachers to
provide the strongest support, alongside peers and school-based mentors. School principals were
perceived not to be supportive of student teachers during the practicum. The findings align with
previous research in terms of importance of the practical aspects in preparation for teaching,
however not as a replacement for theoretical courses. Moreover, findings suggest that school
principals do not include school-based teacher education as part of their professional
responsibility.

Introduction
Practical experience, the practicum, has always been part of teacher education
regardless of the approach taken. When most teachers were educated in a form
of apprenticeship, students of teaching spent their time in school observing
an experienced model before engaging in their own practical experience. The
weight of the practicum was reduced when the most common approach to teacher
education became the applied science model in which teaching was studied
theoretically, and then they were inducted into teaching by gradually putting
the theory into practice. More recently the reflective model is widely used and

*Corresponding author: Oranim Academic College of Education, K. Tivon, 36006, Israel.

Email: [email protected]
ISSN 1359-866X (print)/ISSN 1469-2945 (online)/05/030289-14
# 2005 Australian Teacher Education Association
DOI: 10.1080/13598660500286333
 290 K. Smith and L. Lev-Ari

a larger part of teacher education takes place in schools and students are encouraged
to reflect on their experiences and are supported in the process of doing so, learning
by being a reflective practitioner (Schön, 1983). Today, teacher education is
less commonly viewed as a pure applied science (Eisner, 2002); however many
teacher education programs combine the applied science and the reflective
approach. In the UK a larger part of teacher education takes place in schools, and
in the US partnerships between teacher education institutions and professional
development schools (PDS) are common. Lauvås et al. (2001) claim that the
reflective approach has become the mainstream in Scandinavian teacher education.
In the Netherlands Korthagen and his colleagues advocate the realistic approach to
teacher education. Teachers-to-be are put into schools and start a non-threatening
practicum from the very beginning of the program, and they are carefully guided in
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their reflection on practical experiences which aim at developing a set of

competencies necessary for teaching (Korthagen et al., 2001). The focus of the
current study is to examine the importance student teachers attribute to the practical
aspects of their education in comparison to other elements such as subject matter
courses, general education courses, practical pedagogy and extra curricula teaching
experience.

Content of teacher education

Cohran-Smith (2004) discusses ‘the problem’ of teacher education, listing three
major focuses of teacher education in the last five decades. From the 1950s to
the 1980s teacher education was seen primarily as a training problem with the focus
on teaching competencies and skills in which the teacher needed to be trained.
From the 1980s to the early 2000s teacher education was mainly viewed as a
learning problem. Teachers were expected to be knowledgeable and up-to-date in
the subject matters taught, in theoretical and practical pedagogy, and to be
involved in constructing curricula, all of which required an intensive on-going
learning process. Teachers were also expected to consciously engage in continuous
professional development. Learning to teach was not merely the mastery of a list
of competencies or teaching techniques, but more a whole person development
process (Feiman-Nemser, 1983) including knowledge, beliefs, values and experi-
ences. Currently, according to Cohran-Smith (2004), teacher education is viewed as
a policy problem. Teachers are expected to ensure high pupil achievements, and the
present debate focuses on what variables within teacher education ensure the best
results.
Many of today’s teacher education programs reflect the debate, as they try to
produce teachers who will improve student achievements, yet who are knowledge-
able, reflective and actively engaged in professional development activities and who
master the more technical aspects of teaching such as classroom management,
working with children of diversity and good lesson planning. The context of the
current study is such a teacher education program which ambitiously aims to address
all three goals within four years of education.
 The practicum and pre-service teacher education 291

Value of practicum

The overwhelming evidence of a decade of research on teacher knowledge is that

knowledge of teaching is acquired and developed by the personal experience of
teaching. (Munby et al., 2001, p. 897)

Knowledge of teaching differs from knowledge about teaching. Whereas it might be

possible to learn about teaching in theoretical courses, the knowledge of teaching, the
professional content knowledge of teachers (Shulman, 1987) can only be acquired by
active engagement in teaching. Morine-Dershimer refers to Munby et al. (2001) who
claim that the practical part of teacher education programs enjoys ‘a current
reincarnation of the longstanding conflict over the benefits of theory versus practice’
(Morine-Dershimer, 2003, p. 3). The practicum does not only serve as a bridge
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between theory and practice in the learning of teaching, but it is the context in which
student teachers develop a personal teaching competence. Handal and Lauvås (1987)
call this type of practical knowledge teachers’ ‘practical theory: A person’s private,
integrated but ever-changing system of knowledge, experiences and values which is
relevant to teaching practice at any particular times’ (p. 9). In order for teachers-to-be
to develop a personal practical theory, they have to engage in active learning (Simons,
1999), to be guided in how to use practical teaching experiences as starting points for
learning. A major part of teachers’ professional knowledge is tacit, a kind of knowledge
that VanManen (1999) calls non-cognitive knowledge. It is embedded in the teacher’s
being in three domains: the behavioral, affective and cognitive domain (Smith, 2003).
Recently a number of writers have commented on the current move from looking at
teacher knowledge as a kind of episteme (the true knowledge) to teacher knowledge as
phronesis (practical contextual knowledge) (Kessels & Korthagen, 2001; Eisner,
2002; Loughran, 2003). ‘What is important for educational theory, in general, and the
improvement of teaching, in particular, regarding phronesis, is the recognition of the
importance of particularity’ (Eisner, 2002, p. 381). Teaching is not a fixed set of
competencies or a definable theory which can be successfully applied in all situations.
Each context requires a different practical theory (Handal & Lauvås, 1987) or as
Eisner calls it, teaching becomes artistry. Knowledge about teaching means having
productive knowledge; it is like playing jazz (Eisner, 2002). Students of teaching learn
better how to teach by engaging in teaching, and by being guided through their
experiences through reflection and deliberation of this reflection (Eisner, 2002) with
teacher educators, peers and other significant members in their family and social
circles (Murray-Harvey et al., 2000).

The voice of the students

There is a widely documented criticism of the way teacher education institutions
prepare student teachers for teaching (see Korthagen, 2001; Stuart & Thurlow,
2000). Nieme (2002) reports on Finnish student teachers who ‘complain about
passive teaching and lack of active learning methods, and that the contents of the
studies did not have necessary connections to real life’ (p. 770). There is, however,
 292 K. Smith and L. Lev-Ari

also research pointing at the positive impact of the practical experience in the
education for teaching. Smith and Snoek (1996) report that student teachers from
the Netherlands and from Israel saw the practicum as the most valuable part of their
teacher education. Moreover, the practicum strongly influenced the way they
changed their views on the roles of teachers from the first to the fourth year of the
program. Reinolds et al. (2002) found that novice teachers who had spent the
practicum in professional development schools (PDS) expressed a higher satisfac-
tion with their education than those who did not. Furthermore, Hodge et al. (2002),
who examined changes in student teachers’ attitude towards working with children
with disabilities, saw that the practicum had a positive impact on the students’
attitude to their work and to the children themselves. In their study on students’
stress during the practicum, Murray-Harvey et al. (2000) found that the stu-
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dents’ stress decreased significantly during their second practicum.

There seems to be high agreement among educational theorists that the practical
part is a strong and valued component in the education of teachers.

The study
Objective of study
This study focuses on the value student teachers attribute to the practical aspects of
their teacher education. It examines the value of the practical part in comparison to
other elements in their education (subject matter courses and courses in educational
theory). Furthermore, the study seeks to find evidence regarding the roles of the
people in the teacher education institution and in the context of the practicum
(school) from whom students receive assistance and support.

Context of study
Students of teaching involved with the study are all students in a four-year teacher
education program in one of the largest teacher education colleges in Israel. The
institution grants a B.Ed. degree for pre-school, primary school and junior high school
teachers. Students of science receive a B.Sc. degree in their subject matter and a
teaching diploma for secondary school. Some of the students involved with the study
are enrolled in a four-year program which awards a B.A. degree in the humanities and
a teaching diploma for secondary school. Common to all students is the duration of
their studies, four years, and the fact that teacher education is an integral part of the
program from the very first year. This means that the students are introduced to some
form of practicum from the first year of their education. The format of the practical
teaching experience differs from program to program, but all programs increase the
time students spend in schools from year to year, to be completed with a governmental
mandatory independent practicum of at least nine weekly teaching hours in the fourth
and final year. During the first three years, school-based (mentors) and institution-
based teacher educators (Koster et al., 1996) jointly supervise the student teachers’
practice teaching. The main responsibility lies, however, with the institution-based
 The practicum and pre-service teacher education 293

teacher educators. In the fourth mandatory year the school is required to appoint an
experienced teacher to support and guide the independent student teacher. The
assessment of the final practicum is with the school only, an issue which is strongly
opposed by a number of institution-based teacher educators.

Research population
The research population included all students from the last three years in the four-
year teacher education program; 32% from the second year, 32% from the third
year, and 19% from the fourth year. Ten per cent marked the rubric of ‘others’
which means they are taking courses from mixed years. The response rate of the
various years was: 64% in the second year, 63% in the third year and 29% in the
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fourth year. The explanation for the rather low response rate of the fourth year group
is that the questionnaire was sent home to students as they did not attend courses
when the data collection took place. The final number of respondents was 480,
which is about 52% of the total student population in the last three years. Ninety-
three per cent were females and 7% males, which is in agreement with the gender
division of the total student population in the program.

Instruments
A questionnaire consisting of 68 closed items was handed out by research assistants
unknown to the students in the classes of the second and third year students and sent
home to the fourth year students. In the questionnaire the students were asked to
assess, using a 5-point Likert scale, various components of their teacher education
and, more specifically, the practical aspects of their education. The questionnaire
(see Table 1) reflects the major categories in the teacher education program, such as
subject matter courses, general education courses (psychology, philosophy of
education, sociology of education, assessment, learning disabilities, etc.), practical
pedagogy focusing on technicalities of teaching as well as the ethics of the profession.
The practicum is an integrated part of the education from the first year, starting with
observation of master teachers leading to independent teaching for extended periods
of time. Some of the students are involved with teaching in out-of-school contexts
such as giving private lessons or acting as youth leaders and summer camp guides.
The questions were developed in light of the course syllabi and requirements of the
program, and the questionnaire was given to teacher educators and department
chairs for validation purposes several times before the final version was accepted.

Data-analysis
The current research is based on quantitative data that were analyzed with the help
of SPSS software. The data analysis used is descriptive. Since we were interested in
demonstrating levels of satisfaction and attitudes towards practicum in pre-service
teacher education, frequency analysis was used in order to focus on the main
patterns of the findings.
 294 K. Smith and L. Lev-Ari

Table 1. Importance of program components for acquiring professional teaching knowledge

(in percentages)

Content knowledge Subject General Practical Practicum Out of Others

matter education pedagogy course
courses courses teaching
experience

Subject matter knowledge 45 6 12 30 4 3

Subject matter didactics 20 13 39 21 4 3
Class management 4 4 24 54 9 5
Pedagogical knowledge 5 9 28 41 11 6
Curriculum planning 8 13 51 18 5 5
Application of practical 5 6 28 44 12 5
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knowledge
During teaching (in-action) 5 7 22 41 16 9
decision making
Dealing with unexpected 3 6 12 55 14 10
problems
Developing a professional 6 8 23 41 12 10
vision as an educator
Developing a concept of 2 9 17 46 13 13
myself as an educator
Knowledge about how to work 19 31 17 17 5 11
with children with learning
disabilities
Tools to face discipline problems 7 14 24 35 11 9
Knowledge about to work with 10 21 21 23 9 16
socially divergent children
Belief in values, e.g. respect for 4 21 17 15 5 38
all human beings
Belief in pupils’ ability 5 10 15 40 10 20
Awareness of ethics in teaching 6 18 37 17 7 15
Comprehensive understanding 7 16 22 25 16 14
of the educational system
Personal learning and 8 14 25 27 10 16
professional development
Ability to develop a professional 3 4 9 46 19 19
dialogue with colleagues
Confidence to criticize the 5 8 21 32 17 17
educational system
Encourage pupils to ask questions 8 9 41 31 6 5
Ability to recognize the fact that I 7 7 26 34 9 17
do not have all the answers

Findings
The findings are presented in tables and histograms illustrating the students’
evaluation of the practicum. The students were asked to indicate the components of
the teacher education which they found had contributed to their professional
 The practicum and pre-service teacher education 295

knowledge as teachers. Table 1 presents the students’ evaluation of various

components of the teacher education program. Furthermore, it illustrates the value
student teachers attribute to the practical aspects in comparison to other elements in
their education (subject matter courses and courses in educational theory).
Students rated the practicum highly as the main source of most aspects of
teachers’ professional knowledge. However, other parts of the program were also
found to be of value. Courses in pedagogy, which take place at the teacher education
institution, yet have a practical orientation, were perceived to contribute mainly in
terms of curriculum planning, encouraging children to ask questions, subject matter
didactics and awareness of ethics in teaching. Subject matter courses were found
useful for subject matter knowledge (e.g., knowledge of mathematics when teaching
mathematics) and for knowing how to teach the subject matter (didactics). General
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education courses with a more theoretical orientation were valued in light of the
need to work with special children (learning disabilities and social divergences).
Student perceived that these courses also to contributed to the development of
educational values. Out of course teaching experience (in other educational
contexts) strengthened the professional dialogue with colleagues and confidence to
criticize the educational system (Table 1). Figure 1 presents the students’ evaluation
of the practicum itself.
Most of the students found the practicum very useful in preparation for teaching
(91%). They were satisfied with the days they spent in school and with feedback they
received in the process of searching for improvement (above 60%). More than half
of the students perceived the practicum as an opportunity to apply the theories they
had learned in the theoretical parts of their education. About half of the students
rated highly the fact that they experienced the practicum gradually (from observing
mentor teachers to independent teaching of full classes) (Figure 1).
Figure 2 presents data related to various means of processing the experience
(reflection) from the practicum, for example, through reflective journals, personal
portfolios, professional literature, and feedback sessions. Students in the program
are required to maintain a reflective diary journal which is handed to the teacher

Figure 1. Evaluation of practicum (percentage)

 296 K. Smith and L. Lev-Ari

Figure 2. Satisfaction with processing (reflective) instruments

educator for comments and feedback. Most practical experiences include a personal
portfolio which contains samples of lesson plans, worksheets and other teaching
material, personal reflections on the teaching, and goal setting for future lessons.
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They are also asked to develop and present their personal vision of teaching. Every
teaching session is followed by a feedback session with a teacher educator and the
mentor teacher.
The most useful processing tool for reflection on teaching practice, as perceived by
more than 70% of the students, was the feedback session. More than half of the
students perceived reading of professional literature as highly useful for reflection on
their teaching practice. However, the personal portfolio and reflective diary seem to
be less useful, as only a third of the students reported they found them highly
effective as processing instruments (Figure 2).
Figure 3 presents the students’ evaluation of the support they received from
various sources related to the teacher education institution, such as the supervisors,
other teachers, resource centers and peer students.
Pedagogical supervisors were found to be providing most support during the
practicum (66% claimed that the pedagogical supervisors were highly supportive),
closely followed by student peers as a support group (60%). Support from
counselors, from resource centers which students approach on a voluntary basis, was
also highly appreciated by more than half of the students. Teachers of didactics were
perceived as supportive by 41% of the students while other college professors were
perceived to be even less supportive (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Evaluation of degree of support from institution

 The practicum and pre-service teacher education 297

The fourth and final figure illustrates the students’ evaluation of the support they
received from people in the schools in which the practicum took place.
The most supportive factor in schools was found to be the school mentor, as
perceived by 67% of the students. Other teaching staff in the school where the
practicum took place were perceived as supportive by 44% of the students. Only
24% evaluated the school principal as supportive (Figure 4).

Discussion
Knowledge of teaching is multifaceted. The main components are curriculum
knowledge, planning of learning, teaching strategies, assessment of learning,
management of learning environment, and self-evaluation of teaching performance
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(reflection) (Murray-Harvey et al., 2000, p. 24). Knowledge and skills related to

the above points are acquired in different frameworks during teacher education,
discipline courses (e.g., mathematics, history, biology), educational theory (e.g.,
philosophy of education, sociology of education, ethics of teaching, learning
disabilities,) pedagogical/didactical courses (e.g., lesson-planning, curriculum
design, assessment, didactics of teaching) and the practicum. Data from the
present study indicate that student teachers clearly differentiate among the
various frameworks. Discipline knowledge was mainly learned in subject matter
courses, however, to a large extent also during the practical teaching experience.
The process of translating academic discipline knowledge into a form that fits
the school curriculum and the level of the pupils seems to be a personal learning
process of the discipline recognized by student teachers. Knowing ‘what’ is not
the same as knowing ‘how’, and the latter is needed in teaching others about the
‘what’.
Theoretical education courses in the teacher education institution were found to
be the main provider of knowledge about how to deal with learner disability and
children from difficult social backgrounds. Students value the fact they have some
knowledge about different types of learners when confronting the challenge of
teaching. Knowledge acquired in theoretical education courses is related to the
episteme of teaching.
Students perceived the main source for pedagogic and didactic knowledge to be
the institution-based teacher educators and learning about how to teach (ethics of

Figure 4. Evaluation of degree of support from school

 298 K. Smith and L. Lev-Ari

teaching, lesson planning, course planning). Such courses of a more practical

character offered in the teacher education institution and given by professional
practitioners with an academic background are highly valued by student teachers
and serve as a bridge between the theoretical knowledge about teaching and the
practical knowledge of teaching, between episteme and phronesis.
The more tacit components of knowledge of teaching, such as handling
spontaneous problems, decision making, developing a professional vision, class
management, are best acquired during the practicum when student teachers are
engaged in active learning, learning by doing.
Shoam and Eylam (1997) found that novice teachers in their first year of practice
used informal experiential knowledge (tacit knowledge) when analyzing and
discussing cases. They did not base their analysis and learning on formal knowledge
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from academic aspects of their education. Findings in this study show, however, that
students recognize there is place for subject matter courses (teachers have to master
the subjects they teach) and also for education courses grounded in theories
(philosophy of education, psychology, sociology of education). These courses must
be relevant to today’s school and not rest only on pure theory (episteme). The
question is, how big a part of teacher education program is dedicated to the science
of education, and what part is played by experiential learning and guided reflection
on the experiences? Students considered the practicum the most significant part in
the preparation for teaching (90% strongly agreed) and the findings support
Silberstein’s (1998) claim that it is time Israeli teacher education rethink the
emphasis we put on the theory of teaching with a view of increasing the practical
part. More theoretical aspects of the education should design a bridge enabling
student teachers to make sensible links between theory and practice or episteme and
phronesis (Kessels & Korthagen, 2001; Eisner, 2002).

Support
Murray-Harvey et al. (2000) found that the practical teaching experience was the
most stressful part of the preparation for teaching, and that student teachers are in
need of practical and emotional support during the practicum. From the findings in
the present study we learn that the most important institutional support resources
for the students during their teaching were teacher educators supervising the practice
teaching, and feedback sessions students had with this person. More than half of the
respondents strongly agreed that reading professional literature provided support.
Student teachers actively integrate academic information when learning to teach.
Only a third of the students found the personal portfolio and the reflective diary to
be of support during practice teaching, and about 40% did not find it useful at all.
Whereas this last finding does not agree with recent findings from Norway where
Hauge and Wittek (2003) found that student teachers highly valued the portfolio as
a learning tool during their practical experience, the present findings align with the
value attributed to portfolios and reflective diaries as professional development tools
for Israeli teacher educators (Smith, 2003).
 The practicum and pre-service teacher education 299

Deliberation of experience
Findings indicate the value of feedback and deliberation of the experience during the
practice teaching. Teacher education programs need to create opportunities for
deliberation of reflection, meaningful feedback and constructive criticism of teaching
performance (Eisner, 2002). Experiences can act as the starting point for learning
(Korthagen & Wubbels, 2001) only if they are accompanied by a reflective dialogue
with significant others (Smith & Tillema, 2003).
The significant others for student teachers in this study were found to be people in
the two settings in which teacher education takes place, the institution and the school.
In the teacher education institution most support was sought from teacher educators
supervising the practice teaching and from peers. This is in agreement with previous
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findings in other studies (Smith & Snoek, 1996; Murray-Harvey et al., 2000). The
findings support frameworks of practicum, which involve a number of students in the
same school. Student teachers appreciate collaborative learning (Hauge & Wittek,
2003) and value opportunities for deliberation of reflections on experience (Eisner,
2002) as long as they feel confident in speaking about their experiences.
A supportive community is particularly important if learners are to risk public discourse
of problems associated with their teaching practices, beliefs about teaching and learning
that differ from those of their peers or instructors. (Morine-Dershimer, 2003, pp. 1–2)

Another source of support in the teacher education institution was found to be

pedagogical resource centers equipped with teaching material and resources, and
which are run by experienced practitioners. About half of the students strongly
agreed that these centers were helpful during their practicum.
When looking at the school context, the mentor, the school-based teacher
educator, was found to be the most highly valued support and resource for the
student teacher. Less than half of the students found other teachers in school
helpful, whereas only a quarter found the school principal helpful and supportive
during practice teaching. There seems to be little contact between student teachers
and school principals during the practicum: the school as a whole is not engaged in
the preparation of future teachers; it seems to be the task of specific people within
the school, mainly the mentor. The findings in the present study suggest there is not
a shared responsibility between the field and teacher education institutions in
preparing a new generation of teachers.

Conclusions
The focus of this paper has been the value attributed by student teachers to the
practical component of their teacher education in comparison to other elements
such as subject matter courses, general education courses, practical pedagogy and
extra curricula teaching experience.
The view that comes out strong and loud is that the practical aspects of the
preparation for teaching are more highly valued than other elements of the
programme. The views of the students as expressed in the findings support the claim
 300 K. Smith and L. Lev-Ari

that teaching is best learned by actually teaching. Yet it is not that simple. Students
of teaching in this study also express appreciation of more theoretical aspects of
teacher education such as becoming knowledgeable in the subject matter; mastering
the skills of teaching (pedagogy and didactics); and being able to handle children
with diversity; to better understand their problems and being equipped to help. They
seem to accept the fact there is an essential core body of knowledge essential for
teachers best acquired at the teacher education institution. They are, however, in
need of guidance and support when actually engaging in teaching, and the practical
aspects of the education empower student teachers with techniques and confidence
when walking the bridge between theory and practice. Feedback on teaching
practice is, for these students, as for more experienced professionals (Smith &
Tillema, 2003), a highly appreciated component of professional development.
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Furthermore, the findings show that student teachers seek and find support from
their peers. This indicates the advantage of having groups of student teachers in
schools instead of individual students. However, if school principals accept groups of
student teachers into their schools, they have undertaken to engage in school-based
teacher education, and they need to see this as a commitment and to offer student
teachers practical as well as emotional support. It is a professional responsibility to
prepare new members for the profession. Based on findings from this study school
principals do not provide sufficient support.
The focus of this study has been to listen to the views of student teachers during
their teacher education. It would be interesting to examine if their views change after
years of experience in teaching; in other words, if experienced teachers still find the
practicum during pre-service education the most significant part in learning how to
teach. That is the topic of another study.

Acknowledgment
This study was carried out with the support of the Research and Evaluation Unit at
Oranim Academic College of Education.

Notes on contributors
Kari Smith is Professor of Pedagogy and Education at Oranim Academic College of
Education, Tivon, Israel and at the University of Bergen in Norway. Her main
research interests are in the areas of educational assessment, teacher education
and professional development.
Lilach Lev Ari is a senior lecturer in Oranim Academic College of Education, Tivon,
Israel and a lecturer in Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel. Her current
research focuses on gender, migration and multicultural education.

Note
1. Shoam and Eylam’s (1997) article is written in Hebrew. This also applies to Silberstein
(1998).
 The practicum and pre-service teacher education 301

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