COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

Nayon, Lamut, Ifugao

NOTES ON
QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

___________________________
Student Name

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Instructor

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 QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

I. INTRODUCTION TO QUESTIONED DOCUMENT

An average person cannot easily realize the scope of the words “document
and questioned document” as he/she most commonly envisions only a signature
on a will, a check, or a contract or just merely a piece of paper with writings on it.
Only after careful consideration does he/she realizes that a typewritten letter,
printed materials, encoded information, grocery store receipts, peso bill, love
letters and even the mark on the side of a cow roaming down the road, signs on a
bark of an acacia tree, symbols on the doors of a comfort room can be a document
and a subject of questioned document examination.

On the other hand, the study of handwriting and signature examination is

now a necessity in all aspects of business and social activity especially in
educational institutions offering criminal justice education. Knowledge of
handwriting and signature examination is not only confined to these institutions,
rather it is a must among all people exposed to written and signed documents like
auditors, lawyers, law enforcers, accountants, adjusters, insurance people,
checkers, detail men, managers, payroll masters, storekeepers and even
pawnshops.

In an age of electronic communication, paper documents and signatures,

handwritten with ink are still the way most business is transacted. We find civil and
criminal cases, domestic and business disputes and other controversies hinged on
alleged irregularity in checks, wills, contracts, insurance policies, deeds and other
questioned documents. These are what we term as non-violent and subtler means
and products of crime. They do not bruise, cut or shed blood but they result to
stealing sometimes threaten our security much more than the use of guns, knives
and pry bars. These non-violent and subtle means of committing crime is referred
to pieces of paper which when scrutinized, attacked or questioned under legal
process are termed in forensic business as QUESTIONED DOCUMENT.

DEFINITION OF TERMS:

1. DOCUMENT
o Etymology: Latin word “documentum”, meaning “lesson”, or “example” (in
Medieval Latin “instruction or official paper”). French word “docere”, meaning to
teach.
- Any material containing marks, symbols, or signs either visible, partially
visible that may present or ultimately convey a meaning to someone, maybe
in the form of pencil, ink writing, typewriting, or printing on paper.
- a mere sheet of paper bearing handwriting or computer-generated text that
give information to someone.
- In its plural form, “documents” may mean: deeds, agreements, title, letters,
receipts, and other written instruments used to prove a fact.
Microsoft Encarta Reference Library gives the following definition of document as a
noun:
1. formal piece of writing: one that provides information or that acts as a record
of events.
2. object containing information: an object such as a movie, photograph, or
audio recording that contains information and can be used as evidence.
3. computer file: a file created using an application program, for example, a data
base, spreadsheet, illustration, or text file.

Document as Defined by Laws / Supreme Court

 A document is any written document by which a right is established or an
obligation is extinguished (People vs. Moreno, CA, 338 O.G. 119).
 A document is every deed or instrument executed by person by which some
disposition or agreement is proved, evidenced or set forth (People vs.
Nillosquin, CA, 48 O.G. 4453).
 The term document is said to apply to writings; to words printed, lithographed,
or photographed; to seals, plates, or stones on which inscriptions are cut or

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 engraved; to photographs and pictures; to maps and plans (Frial vs. Fadrigo,
December 26, 1974).
 In relation to Criminal Jurisprudence under the Best Evidence rule, document
is any physical embodiment of information or ideas; e.g. a letter, a contract,
a receipt, a book of account, a blueprint, or an X-ray plate (Black’s Law
Dictionary).

 If the document is offered in evidence, it becomes documentary evidence.

Writings Which DO NOT Constitute Documents (Supreme Court Rulings)

 A draft of a Municipal payroll which is not yet approved by the proper
authority (People vs. Camacho, 44 Phil.484).
 Mere blank forms of official documents, the spaces of which are not filled
up (People vs. Santiago, CA, 48 O.G. 4558).
 Pamphlets or books which do not evidence any disposition or agreement
are not document but are mere merchandise (People vs. Agnis,47 Phil.
945).

2. QUESTIONED - Any material, which some issue has been raised or which is under
scrutiny.

3. QUESTIONED DOCUMENT/DISPUTED DOCUMENT

 One in which the facts appearing therein may not be true, and are contested either
in whole or part with respect to its authenticity, identity, or origin. It may be a deed,
contract, will, election ballots, marriage contract, check, visas, application form,
check writer, certificates, etc.
 A term suggesting that there is an argument or controversy over the document.
“Disputed document” and “questioned document” are used interchangeably to
signify a document that is under special scrutiny. However, all questioned
documents are disputed documents but not all disputed documents are
questioned documents. (Assignment: Let the students explain)

 Document is questioned because its origins, its contents, or the circumstance and
story regarding its production arouse suspicion as to its genuineness or it may
adversely scrutinize simply because it displeases someone. Further, it is said to
be questioned when it is disputed or attacked, either in whole or in part as to its
date or age, as to its source or origin, as to the material used in their production,
and as to its relation in some other documents.

In simple words, questioned document is any material or any document in which

some issue has been raised or that which is under scrutiny or a document which
has a doubtful origin.

4. STANDARD / STANDARD DOCUMENT

 Are condensed and compact set of authentic specimens which, if adequate and
proper, should contain a cross section of the material from a known source. They
are used by the document examiner as the basis for his identification or non-
identification of the questioned document, as for example, the known hand writing
which serves to establish who wrote the disputed letter.
 “Standard” in questioned documents investigation means those things whose
origins are known and can be proven and which can be legally used as examples
to compare with other matters in question. Usually a standard consists of the
known handwriting of the person in such case, “standard “has the same meaning
as is understood by the word “specimen” of handwriting.

Generally, examination of questioned documents is restricted to “Scientific

Comparison” which means that determination of authenticity, genuineness, falsification
or forgery lies on the availability of known standards for comparison. After thorough
comparison, the following PRINCIPLE OF IDENTIFICATION is applied:
“When two items contain a combination of corresponding or similar and specifically
oriented characteristics of such number and significance as to preclude the possibility of
their occurrence by mere coincidence and there are no unaccounted differences, it may
be concluded that they are the same in their characteristics attributed to the same cause.”

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5. QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
 A term used to refer to the act of making a close and critical study of any
document-questioned, disputed or attacked, necessary to discover the facts
about them.
 Also known as Forensic Document Examination or simply Document
examination

6. COMPARISON
 A process or act undertaken in QDE in which two or more items are set side by
side (juxta position) to weigh their identifying qualities. Comparison of items
may not only refer to visual but also the mental act in which the element of one
item is related the counterparts of the other.

7. COLLATION
Means ordering or assembling of detailed results of critical comparison of
questioned documents or unified result of detailed comparison between different
items or forms of information.

8. OPINION
 A technical term used in QDE which may refer to the document examiner’s
conclusion

9. FORENSIC DOCUMENT EXAMINER

 Anyone who examines adequate exemplars of documents and provides
conclusions, reasons and photographic demonstrations in court, so that the
court can make its own determination in giving appropriate decision.

10. FORENSIC SCIENCE

- Application of scientific techniques and principles in order to provide evidence to
legal or related investigations and determinations.
- Science as it pertains to legal problems.

11. CRIMINALISTICS
- Application of Forensic Science to criminal matters.
- Applies science to the solution of crimes through the examination of physical
evidence in the field of crime laboratory.

13. FORENSIC DOCUMENT EXAMINATION (QUESTIONED DOCUMENT

EXAMINATION, SCIENTIFIC EXAMINATION ON QUESTIONED DOCUMENT)
- The practice of the application of document examination to the purposes of law.

KINDS OF DOCUMENTS

1. Public Document - A document created, executed or issued by a public official in

response to the exigencies of the public service, or in the execution of which a
public official intervened. (U.S. v. Asensi, 34 Phil. 765)
 Any instruments authorized by a notary public or competent public official
with solemnities required by law (Cacnio vs. Baens, 5 Phil. 742).

2. Official Document - A document which is issued by a public official in the exercise

of the functions of his office. An official document is also a public document. It falls
within the larger class called public document. (U.S. v. Asensi)
 A document required by a bureau to be filed by its officers for the purpose
of its record and information. (People v. Uy, 101 Phil. 159)
 Any instrument issued by the government or its agents or its officers having
the authority to do so and the offices, which in accordance with their
creation, they are authorized to issue and be issued in the performance of
their duties.

3. Private Document - Every deed or instrument executed by a private person

without the intervention of a notary public or of any person legally authorized, by

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 which the documents some disposition or agreement is proved, evidenced or set
forth (US v. Orera,11 Phil. 596).

4. Commercial Document - Any instrument defined and regulated by the Code of

Commerce (People v. Co Beng, 1913) or any other commercial law.

5. Holographic Document - Any document completely written and signed by one

person; also known as holograph. In a number of jurisdiction a holographic will can
be probated without any one having witnessed its execution.

6. Reference Collection - Material compiled and organized by the document

examiner to assist him in answering special questions. Reference collections of
typewriting, check writing specimens, inks, pens, pencils, and papers are
frequently maintained.

CLASSIFICATION OF DOCUMENTS (According to Distribution)

1) General – Documents receiving full circulation.

Used in basic documents and final meeting records, including agendas, studies and
reports, communication from the Governments, resolutions and other decisions of
concerns.

2) Limited (L)– Documents for which wide circulation is unnecessary because of the
temporary nature of the document, such as draft resolutions, amendments, draft
reports, and other action document.

3) Restricted (R) – Documents whose contents require that they be treated as

confidential or that they be withheld from public circulation.

CLASSES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

1. Documents with questioned signatures.

Signature- Webster defined signature as one’s name written by himself on a
document as a sign of acknowledgement. In criminal law, the term signature
includes two conditions when the person signing (signee) cannot write his name.
First, the signature maybe any mark; and secondly, the act of signing should be
witnessed by another person who writes his own name a s a witness. An exception
is when the signee executes an affidavit or deposition before the judicial officer. In
such case, the attestation of the officer is sufficient.
Classes of Disputed Signature:
 Simple Forgery
 Traced Forgery
 Copied or Simulated Forgery
 Forged signature of fictitious persons
 Genuine signature that the writer is honestly unwilling to accept as genuine
 Genuine signature obtained by trickery
 Genuine signature deliberately written illegibly or in unusual manner to
avoid identification
2. Questioned documents alleged to have been containing fraudulent
alterations.
Ex. mechanical erasures; chemical erasure; additions; interlineations; substitution;
cancellation and obliteration. (to be discussed one by one on the next chapters)
Assignment: Have an extended reading about the examples.
3. Questioned or disputed holographic wills.
a. HOLOGRAPHIC WILL - will entirely written in the handwriting of the
testator.
b. NOTARIAL WILL – signed by the testator acknowledge before a notary
public with 3 witnesses.
4. Documents attacked on the question of their age or date
5. Questioned documents on issues of materials used in their production.
6. Documents or writings investigated because it is alleged that they identify
some persons through handwriting.
a. Anonymous and disputed letters, and
b. Superscriptions, registrations and miscellaneous writings.

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 7. Genuine document erroneously or fraudulently attacked
8. Documents investigated on the question of typewriting/computer prints
Typewriting are Investigated:
a. With view of ascertaining their source.
b. With view of ascertaining their date
c. With view of determining whether or not they contain fraudulent alterations
or substituted pages.
Computer Prints are Investigated:
a. With view of determining their unique identifying characteristics;
b. With view of whether or not they contain fraudulent entries on databases;
c. With view of determining databases, copy toner databases, paper
databases and watermarks;
d. With view of determining type of computers and computer printouts

QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

QDE is a profession since 1870 and frequently found in cases of forgery,

counterfeiting, mail fraud, kidnapping, con games, embezzlement, gambling, organized
crimes, white collar crimes, art crime, theft, robbery, arson, burglary, homicide, serial
number, psychological profiling and deviant sex crimes.

QD Division operates under the PNP Criminalistics Section with the

following crime laboratory functions:

a. Examination of Questioned Signatures such as those appearing in

deed of sale, receipts, marriage contracts, land titles, etc.
b. Handwriting Identification- identifies authorship in: anonymous
letters, ransom notes, threat letters, alleged suicide note, poison
letter.
c. Examination of document suspected to have been altered/erased.
d. Decipherment of secret writings
e. Examination of sequence of entry
f. Paper and ink comparison
g. Typewriting identification/computer prints identification
h. Examination of counterfeit documents such as peso and dollar bills
or other foreign currencies, passports, stamps, labels, crown of
different products, money coins.
i. Conducts lectures to PNP, AFP, and other government agencies
j. Conducts filed laboratory works
k. Conducts court duties

THE QD MISSION and OBJECTIVES OF THE CRIMINALISTICS DIVISION

 Assist the investigating agencies of the government in matters pertaining to
Questioned Documents.
 Objectives: 1. To serve as legal basis in conducting examination
2. To ensure scientific and systematic comparison of questioned
documents with the submitted standard documents

The Five SUBJECTS CONSIDERED IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION:

A. SIGNATURE IDENTIFICATION (FORGERY)
 Whether the signature is simple or spurious forgery
 Traced forgery
 Simulated or freehand imitation
 Genuine, authentic, known signature
B. HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION
 Whether the questioned and standard specimen of handwriting in
question has similarity in handwriting style – block style, cursive writing or
script writing
 Whether the handwriting was written by one and same person or written
by another person
C. TYPEWRITTEN/COMPUTERIZED DOCUMENT
 Whether size and spacing in questioned and standard exemplars are
similar or not, including the type style
 Whether they possess the same unique identifying characteristics

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  Determining the origin of databases, ink databases, copy toner
databases, paper databases, watermarks, computer and computer
printouts of the questioned and standard computer exemplars
D. ERASURES, ALTERATIONS OR OBLITERATIONS, ETC.
 Determine whether or not the changes were made through erasures,
obliterations, intercalations, interlineations, substitution and others
 Whether alterations were done during the preparation of the document or
after the execution of the document
 Whether a different ink or paper was used in altering the document

E. COUNTERFEITING
 Determining the workmanship of each denomination as to whether it is
genuine or counterfeit
 Familiarize basic features of banknotes and coins

A DOCUMENT MAY BE EXAMINED FOR A NUMBER OF PURPOSES INCLUDING:

1. Identify of the author.
2. True contents of the document.
3. Origin of the instrument or paper used in making the document.
4. Alterations or erasure, which has been made.
5. Authenticity of the document.

DIVISIONS OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

 Criminalistics Examination - This involves the detection of forgery, erasure,
alteration or obliteration of documents. The criminalistics examination of
documents similar to other kinds of laboratory works.
 DR. WILSON HARRISON - a noted British Examiner of questioned
documents said that an intelligent police investigator can detect almost 75%
of all forgeries by careful inspection of a document with simple magnifiers and
measuring tools.
 Handwriting Investigation/Analysis - This is more focused in determining the
author of writing. It is more difficult procedure and requires long study and
experience.

SPECIALISTS IN THE DIFFERENT AREAS IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT

EXAMINATION:

1. Questioned Document Examiners - A document examiner analyzes any

questioned document and is capable of more than just questions of authorship
limited only by their access to laboratory equipment
2. Historical Dating - These is work involving the verification of age and worth of a
document or object, sometimes done by a document examiner, and can get as
complicated as Carbon-14 dating
3. Fraud Investigators - This is work that often overlaps with that of the document
examiner and focuses on the money trail and criminal intent
4. Paper & Ink Specialists - These are public or private experts who date, type,
source, and/or catalogue various types of paper, watermarks, ink, printing/copy/fax
machines, computer cartridges, etc., using chemical methods
5. Forgery Specialists - These are public or private experts who analyze altered,
obliterated, changed, or doctored documents and photos using infrared lighting,
expensive spectrography equipment, or digital enhancement techniques
6. Handwriting Analysts - These are usually psychology experts who assess
personality traits from handwriting samples, also called graphologists or graph
analysts;
7. Forensic stylistics - refers to the same purpose but by looking at semantics,
spelling, word choice, syntax, and phraseology.
8. Typewriting Analysts - These are experts on the origin, make, and model used
in typewritten material
9. Computer Crime Investigators - This is an emerging group that relates to QDE
through some common investigative and testimonial procedures.

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THE FORENSIC DOCUMENT EXAMINER

One task of a forensic document examiner is to determine if a questioned

item originated from the same source as the known items, then present his opinion in
court as expert witness. A forensic document examiner examines handwritings and
signatures, typewriters, photocopies, laser printers, fax machines, check writers, rubber
stamps, price makers, label makers, printing process, ink, pencil, paper, alterations
(additions, erasures, obliterations, substitution, etc), indentations, sequence of strokes,
and physical matching.

Other tasks include:

-determining what has happened to a document
-determining when a document was procured
-deciphering information on the document that has been obscured, obliterated or
erased.

Recommended Traits of a Document Examiner

a) Excellent Eyesight – Required in order to see fine details of the material he/she
examines.
b) Pass a Form Blindness Test – In order to ensure he is not suffering from the
condition of being unable to tell apart two similar-appearing, yet different items.
c) Normal Color Perception – In order to differentiate and avoid confusion in color
shades.
d) Bachelor of Science Degree – In order to work in an objective manner
bestowing necessary biological, physical, and chemical knowledge.
e) Training and Apprenticeship – In order to perform with great confidence,
efficiency and effectiveness.

Responsibilities of a QD Examiner Serving as Expert Witness

 A QD Examiner is responsible for proper examination of questioned and standard
specimen. He is expected to perform his task scientifically and without the
influence of parties who have interest in the case. The results of his examination
shall serves as basis of the court in giving resolution to the case, hence; skills,
competence, professionalism, trust and confidence is laid upon him.
 The following are responsibilities of a QD Examiner who serves as an expert
witness in court:
 Strive constantly to improve professional stranding
-by association with others of the same profession, keeping abreast of the
literatures and by engaging in research and development
 Must be certain of his technical conclusion
-validity of a conclusion is affirmed by thorough examination of the data
submitted for examination and additional supporting evidence is uncovered.
Unless our findings meet this test, we should not offer an opinion.
 Must avoid outside influences
-the document examiner must not allow himself to be influenced by the
opinion of over-zealous investigators or over-anxious clients. His
conclusions must be based solely and entirely on the findings deduced
from examination performed.
 Must be fair and impartial on witness stand
-It is his duty to present the facts as they exist. All questions from both
sides of the counsel table must be answered accurately and without
evasion. Cross-examination by opposing counsel should be welcomed,
not feared. More often than not, the competent expert can establish his
position even more firmly during cross-examination.
 Must protect the innocent
- By far most important decisions we make are made in the laboratory, not
in the courtroom. The examiner must never lose sight of the important fact
he must not only work to convict the guilty, but he must strive with equal
vigor to clear the innocent.

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Handling and Preservation of Questioned Documents
 Like all evidence, considerable care is necessary in the handling of questioned
documents to maintain the integrity of the evidence and to satisfy legal chain of
custody requirements.
 The objective is to receive the questioned document in the laboratory in the same
condition in which it was found or received. Failure to do this can prevent certain
technical examination by the document examiner.

PRECAUTIONS FOR THE INVESTIGATOR:

1. Do not fold, cut or tear
2. Do not mark or write on the questioned document
3. Do not use pins, staples, clips, or tape on documents
4. Do not make perforations in documents
5. Do not punch holes
6. Do not make any new folds in document
7. If you have a jig-saw puzzle torn pieces of document, do not paste or tape them
together
8. Do not process for fingerprints until after the document examination
9. Do not submit to an unqualified examiner
10. Do not carry disputed documents loosely in the pocket
11. Do not dust document with fingerprint powder. Documents can be photographed
and chemically processed in the laboratory
12. Do not allow the handling of unprotected document by anyone. Show others only
a photograph or photocopy
13. Send pieces into the document examiner for reconstruction and she/he will
photograph or photocopy the result for you
14. Hand deliver or mail by registered mail
15. Keep accurate chain of custody records (that is, date collected, by whom, date
sent to laboratory), store in locked file to prevent unauthorized access to it 0

PRECAUTIONS FOR DOCUMENT EXAMINER:

1) Preserve integrity of the evidence (do not mutilate, fold, staple, clip etc.)
2) Photograph condition of document upon receipt
3) Initial and date all documents in an inconspicuous location; this provides instant
proof that you examined the documents when providing testimony
4) Do not make any erasure on the document
5) Do not traced over questioned document
6) Do not tear document or make unnecessary repairs
7) Do not underscore or encircle words on questioned document. If notes are
necessary, make a photocopy, place the notations in there
8) Do not touch the document with a pencil, pen or other pointed instrument
9) Do not write or otherwise mark on documents
10) If any writings is to be made on protective cover, it should be written on separate
sheet of paper
11) Prevent unauthorized access by storing in locked vault
12) Prevent undue exposure to light
13) Prevent undue handling
14) Return document by hand delivery or registered mail
15) Keep accurate records

In examining questioned or disputed documents, the examiner does not only

depend upon
his own experience and capabilities, but rather should employ scientific tools, apparatus
and equipment that would aid him/her in his tasks for better and sound results. The
following are the recommended tools, equipment and apparatus that can help the
examiner in his thorough examination of the data.

INSTRUMENTS, APPARATUS, MATERIALS USED IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

a) Microscope – The instrument, which makes it possible to see physical evidence

directly that otherwise, might be impossible. It serves as to discover and show physical
fact by direct view of the thing itself.

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 Stereoscopic Microscope – provides three-dimensional enlargement which is
important when searching for identifying characteristics in typewriting samples, crossed
strokes, erasures, alterations, and other problems that require magnification.
Comparison Microscope (Color Microscope) – Allows side by side
simultaneous comparison of questioned document and known samples under study.
Infrared Conversion Microscope – This microscope provides instant comparison
of inks and their ability to absorb or reflect infrared light and is valuable tool for detection
of alterations and comparisons of inks.

b) Shadowgraph – A machine which enlarges minute details as much as 20x but

with no ocular piece, as in the microscope. It facilitates examination of handwriting and
type writing.

c) Ultra Violet (UV) Lamp Machine – Many documents have a specific look when
viewed under ultra-violet light. Many security papers; for example, show a special design
or tint. Security inks can show a special color under ultra-violet.
The use of ultraviolet light is essential in document which consist several pages
and substitution is being suspected.
The color and intensity of fluorescence reaction is very apparent in case of
substituted page.
In cases of erased documents, either mechanical or chemical erasures, it will
certainly change reflectivity and fluorescence of the area affected

d) Camera with/without Macro Lens (Photographic Examination) – Very

essential in every document examination is the application of photography.
Enlarged photographs of documents to be examined will aid the document
examiner in his/her thorough examination of the same, enabling him/her to view clearly
detailed characteristics of questioned and standard specimens of a handwriting or
signature which will be the basis of interpretation.

e) Handwriting Protractor – It is a special ruled protractor designed for the easy and
accurate measuring of the slant of writing.
This instrument is also made of glass so that the graduations can be brought into
actual contact with the line measured and photographed with it, if necessary.

f) Typewriting Protractor – This is designed to show the exact abnormal slant of

certain letters in typewriting.

g) Uniformed Ruled Squares on Glass, Lettered and Numbers – Another test

glass useful in examination of alleged traced forgery.
This is a glass with uniformed squares that can be placed over an alleged forgery
and a model from, which it was traced or over two alleged tracings from the same original,
to shoe suspicious identities that may exist, or in the small size, may be used to compare
to enlarged typewritten letters.

h) Typewriting Test Plate on Glass for Alignment and Line Spacing Test –
Another useful instrument for typewriting examination, which consists of a glass carrying
accurately, graduated fine line squares.
This glass can be placed over the typewriting to disclose and illustrate abnormal
horizontal or vertical alignment, which is another of the significant individual peculiarities
of typewriting.

i) Angle Measure – An instrument for the purpose of measuring the angles in

handwriting and typewriting.

j) Cheque-Writing Machine – It is a device, which is intended to prevent either

erasure or alteration of entries on cheque-writer.

k) Transmitted Light Table – Light coming from behind the document.

Documents are subjected to transmitted light examination to determine the
presence of erasures, matching of serration and other type of alterations.

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l) Hand Lens– In almost all questioned document examination, hand lens is
commonly utilized in aid to examination because it is a convenient instrument to handle.
It enlarges the size of the letter or character for clear view of the examiner

m) Oblique Light Examination (Indirect Lightning Equipment) – This is equipment

with controlled illumination. The document is viewed with the source of illumination behind
it and the light coming through the paper.
Oblique light examination is the proper technique to be used in decipherment of
faded handwritings, erased entries in the document, determination of outlines in traced
forgery, embossed impressions, and viewing watermark and other element of characters
in the document.
n) Micrometer Caliper- a gauge that measures small distances or thickness between
its two faces, one of which can be moved away from or toward the other by turning a
screw with a fine thread.
o) ESDA stands for Electrostatic Detection Apparatus- is a specialized piece of
equipment commonly used in questioned document examination to reveal indentations
or impressions in paper which may otherwise go unnoticed.
It is a non-destructive technique (will not damage the evidence in question) thus
allowing further tests to be carried out. It is a sensitive technique capable of detecting
indentations on pages several layers below the top sheet, and many years after the
indentations were created.

p) Video Spectral Comparator – A device for comparing a measurable property or

thing with a reference or standard. It consists of a camera, a video monitor, various light
sources and filters for exciting radiation and reflected or fluorescent light, an image
integrator and comparator, and a video recorder. It uses a variety of lighting conditions to
differentiate inks and paper on a document placed in the cabinet.
Designed to detect the different optical properties of document materials.
They are used in the examination of masked or obliterated txt and watermark. They
can also be used in exposed oblique illumination of indented writing, dry stamps,
embossed features and intaglio script.
They can be an incident visible and infrared light source with variable intensity
controls for ink reflectance.
It is non-destructive and does not alter the appearance or condition of a document.
This is particularly effective in detecting alterations to documents; restoring erased
entries; revealing original writing, that has been obliterated, obscured or overwritten;
differentiating inks that cannot otherwise be distinguished by the naked eye.

II. WRITING AND THE PRODUCTION OF A DOCUMENT

FORERUNNERS OF WRITING
 WRITING – Letters or symbols that are written or imprinted on a surface to
represent the sounds or words of a language. It consists of messages that convey
ideas to others.
 Paleography – (from the Greek words palaois, which means “old” and graphien ,
“to write”). This is the study of early writing (as distinct from calligraphy, which is
the study of handwriting). The study embraces ancient and medieval scripts,
primarily in Greek and Latin. It further focuses on handwriting done on such
materials as papyrus, parchment (sheepskin or goatskin), vellum (calfskin), wax
tablets, or paper.
 BERNARD de MONTFAUCON laid the foundation for Greek studies with
Paleographica Graeca (1708) - the oldest surviving Greek literary papyri which
dated to 300 BC or earlier.
 Jean Mabillon - A French monk, originated Latin paleography in 1861, when he
published De re Diplomatica, a study of forms of official documents.

 Petrograms – “Cave Drawing” drawn or printed on the surface of rocks.

 Petroglyphs – if cut into the rock. Early paintings like those on the ceiling of the
cave at Altamira, Spain, or on the walls of Barrier Canyon, Utah, belong as much
to the history of art as to the history of writing.
 Iconographs - Neolithic man written communication wherein objects and ideas
are represented graphically in drawings on cave walls, 20, 000 years ago. Later
people made their pictures simpler and simpler.

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  Pictographs - The pictures gradually became signs. And each stood for a word or
idea.
 Hieroglyphics - Egyptians picture writing in 3000 B.C.
 Cuneiform – Sumerian system of writing using wedge-shaped symbols
 Phonographs – Refers to word pictures developed into symbols which were then
used to represent sounds and syllables.
 Phonetic Alphabet – Phonetic symbols, an alphabet of characters intended to
represent specific sounds of speech. Consisted of 22 letters and was written from
right to left.
 Greek Alphabet (alpha and beta) – Consisted of 24 letters and included vowels.
 In ancient times, few people knew how to write. Most of the people who wanted to
send letters dictated them to people called Scribes, who made their living writing
for the public.
 Printers use term Italic, for letter that slant to the right, similar to those used in
cursive writing. Printing in italic began in Venice Italy, during the 1500’s. Several
of cursive writing developed at this time.
 Graffiti - (singular graffito, from the Italian graffio, which means ‘a scratch”). It
refers to handwriting or images on the walls or surfaces of a public area, such as
buildings, parks, toilets, and trains. They are usually political or sexual in content:
a lover’s pledge, a proposition, or obscene words.
 This word was originally used by archeologists to describe drawings and
inscriptions scratched on walls and other surfaces in ancient Pompeii and Rome.
 Graffiti are ubiquitous, appearing in many places and times, including the walls
and pillars of medieval churches.

PHILIPPINES:
 Baybayin or Alibata – Originated from Javanese Script (Old Kawi) sometimes
14th century during pre-Hispanic occupation.
 Mangyan Script – Diacritical in marking in marking or severe in execution of
completion strokes with frequent text rotation of 90 degrees counter-clockwise of
reading from the bottom to the top.
 Tagbanwa Script (Apurahuano) – Indigenous writing until the 17th century, found
in the northern part of Palawan.
 A syllabic alphabet wherein each consonant has a vowel.
 It is traditionally written on bamboo in vertical column from bottom to top and left
to right though it is read from left to right in horizontal lines.
 Buhid Script – Closely related with baybayin writings as still presently used by
Mangyans to write their language.

IMPORTANCE OF DOCUMENTS

Documents record man’s life. Officially, his birth certificate signal’s his
existence on earth. Corollary thereto, his death certificate writes finish to his stay
on earth. However, it is not uncommon to note documents other than these two
indicating man’s birth and death. Man’s life does not center alone on his birth or
on his death. The period between opens for us more documents, reams of them.
Take for example the doctor’s notes on the mother’s postnatal visits with the child,
the first inoculation and subsequent visits. Consider too, the notebooks, books,
report cards, excuse slips, followed by an array of diplomas from kindergarten,
primary, elementary, high school, college and perhaps post graduate courses.

The more serious love notes may become cherished documents and, not
too far behind the letter proposing marriage. Finally, there is the inking of the
marriage bond via the marriage contract and certificate. This brings us back to
where we started the conception, pre-natal visits and the birth of a new generation.
Again, life is not all schooling or marriage. Man must find work to feed his family.
Thus, we find him filling up applications for employment. He is accepted by a
company that swears him in, and he receives his appointment papers. At the end
of every week or every fifteenth and thirtieth of the month, man signs the payroll
and receives his paycheck or cash, as the case maybe. The longer he stays, the
more the payrolls and paychecks. As he goes up the ladder of success, the more
papers and documents he encounters.

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 His membership in the Lions or the Jaycees or the Kiwanis or the Knights
of Columbus or the Freemasonry must likewise be accomplished. He must sign
this. Eventually, he receives his pension checks after retirement. As the shadows
of life finally set upon man, the final document testifying to his demise is the death
certificate. After death, other documents follow- the last will and testament, the
obituary and finally the tombstone with the inscribed epitaphs. These, in a nutshell
amplify the importance of documents in man’s life.

MATERIALS USED IN THE PRODUCTION OF DOCUMENTS

Documents are generally prepared with the combination of the following three (3)
elements:
A.) Paper
B.) Ink
C.) Writing Instrument

A. PAPER – A sheet of interlaced fibers usually cellulosed fibers from plants, but
sometimes from cloth rags or other fibrous materials. This is formed by pulping the
fibers and causing to felt, or mat to form a solid surface.
 Papyrus - Came into use about 3,500 BC, a thick paper-like material produced
from the pith (soft sponge tissue of the stem) of the papyrus plant, Cyperus
papyrus a wetland sedge (grass like herb) that was once abundant in the Nile
Delta of Egypt. Used by people of Egypt, Palestine, Syria, and Southern
Europe. The inside of a grass-like plant was sliced into layers and were beaten
and pressed together into sheets. Letters dated A.D 874 have been found in
Egypt and the oldest manuscript in England were scripted on common paper
in the year 1049 A.D. In 1800, straw was used as paper. It is of common
knowledge and belief that paper was invented by the Chinese more than 2,000
years ago.
 Parchment - Skin of animals primarily of sheep, calves or goats which was
used in writing – was probably developed in Middle East more or less
contemporaneously with papyrus. It came into use only in the 2nd Century
B.C. in the city of Pergamum in Anatolia. It is an animal or vegetable
parchment
Vellum - A translucent material produced from the skin, often split, of a young
animal that has been soaked, limed, and scudded (a depilatory process), and
then dried at normal temperature under tension, usually on a wooden device
called a stretching frame. It became the most important writing material for
bookmaking, while parchment continued for special manuscripts.
Note: The common (probable) questioned on paper is its AGE, whether the actual age
of the paper corresponds with the alleged date of preparation of the questioned
document.

DEVELOPMENT OF PAPER MANUFACTURING

 Cai Lun (Tsai Lun) – Chinese Court Official, claimed the invention of paper in
about A.D. 105.
- the first to succeed in making paper from vegetables fibers, tree barks, rags,
old fish nettings
- The art of papermaking was kept secret for 500 years; the Japanese
acquired it only in the 7th century A.D.
- In A.D. 751, the Arab city of Samarkand was attacked by marauding Chinese
and some Chinese taken as prisoners were skilled in papermaking and were
forced by the city Governor to build and operate a paper mill and Samarkand
soon became the papermaking center of Arab world.
 Xativa - first European paper mill at the province of VALENCIA, Spain.
 16th century, paper was manufactured throughout most Europe.
 Chlorine – was introduced in the 9th century for bleaching and colored linen could
already manufactured for paper
 Esparto – A grass grown in Libya, Spain and North Africa was first introduced in
England in 1861
 Straw– was used to make paper in 1880
 Sulphite – paper from wood was not attempted until 1886 and paper called
sulphite (modern type) was first used between 1880 and 1890
 1450 – invention of the printing press

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  Benjamin Tilgham – American Chemist who found out that the fibers in wood
could be separated by treating them with sulfurous acid
 Carl Dahl – 1883; German inventor who discover that adding of sodium sulfate
to the soda process will produced a very strong pulp
 Becky Shoeder – Invented the paper with phosphorescent material used in
writing in the dark
 Bette Graham – Invented the liquid paper, used to correct typing errors
 Nicholas Louis Robert – Before 1798, he constructed the first paper-making
machine
 Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier – Improve the work of Robert
 John Dickinson – 1809, invented the cylinder machine
 1840 – start of paper making from pulp

WATERMARKS - figure or design incorporated into paper during its manufacture

 appears lighter than the rest of the sheet when viewed in transmitted light
 the earliest way of identifying the date of manufacture of the paper
 a brand put on the paper by the manufacturers.

TYPES OF PAPER
1) Newsprint – The least expensive paper manufactures; composed mostly of
ground wood, causing it to discolor easily; high opacity is a result of the impurities
of the wood.
2) Offset – Uncoated paper that usually contains fillers and additives; bleached and
sized to resist water; more expensive than newsprint; used for the publications of
books, catalog sheets, loose-leaf inserts and tablet paper.
3) Bond Paper – Originally used to print stocks and bonds; popular in the modern
business office; the higher the rag content, the more expensive the paper.
4) Lightweight, Uncoated Paper – Example is the onionskin, which comes in
smooth cockle finishes and snap-out forms, which are frequently made with
manifold papers from wood fibers; another example is Bible paper.
5) Specialty Paper – Includes carbonless paper, which is coated on both sides to
transfer data from one page to another; which contains special finishes that must
come in contact with each other to transfer the writing or typing to the subsequent
page.
6) Gummed Paper – Used primarily for labels; curl-proof.
7) Text Paper – The most expensive, uncoated paper because of its superior grade;
comes in antique, vellum, or smooth finishes; used for promotion pieces,
announcements, invitations, greeting cards.
8) Coated Paper – Goes to several layers of coatings, some of which are dull-
coated to cut down the glare; used primarily in textbooks publications.
9) Bristol – Used to make index cards and tag papers, which is used for file folders;
strength is its most important features.
10) Kraft Paper – Coarse, unbleached, heavy paper, noted for strength; used for
paper bags, package wrapping, corrugated boxes.
11) Tyvek – New paper strengthened with plastic filaments; repels most inks;
principally used in the manufacture of large mailing envelopes.
12) Safety Paper – Designed to reveal alterations; used principally for checks.
13) Stationeries, colored and perfumed- commonly used for special letters

B. INK - a fluid viscous marking material used for writing or printing

***Some authorities consider that the earliest ink was a form of vegetable
varnish.
CLASSES OF INK
1. Printing ink- made by grinding carbon in the form of vegetable char with a varnish
made of natural gums and drying oils.
2. Indian Inks (Carbon Ink )- Consisted of a suspension of carbon black (soot or
lampback) in water to which glue or vegetable gum was added; The glue or gum
is replaced by a solution of shellac in a borax or ammonia.
 not affected by oxidants; it is practically impossible to remove the last traces
of the carbon from the paper without causing damage to it
3. Log Wood Inks - used extensively about a century ago but are no longer
manufactured, it corrodes the tip of the pen
 made from an aqueous extract of logwood chips and potassium chromate
 found only on old documents

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 4. Iron Gallotanate Inks/ Iron-tannin inks- used as writing ink for over a thousand
years
 was made of a fermented infusion of gall nuts to which iron salts were added
 Composed of suspension of the almost insoluble ferric tannate; the particles
were kept in suspension by adding glue or gum Arabic; coloring agent is added
to prevent growth of molds and bacteria in the ink. This dark liquid was found
to be more suitable for use with the contemporary invented type of pen, the
quill.
5. Record ink- this is the term applied to ink of high quality which are assured of long
life under reasonable conditions of storage of the document. Following the
recommendations of Schuttig and Neumann, it is laid down in most government
specifications that a record ink should contain between 0.5 to 0.6% of iron with the
minimum concentration of acid which is consistent with the good performance of
the ink.
6. Dyestuff Inks - composed of aqueous solutions of synthetic dyestuff to which a
preservative and a flux are added
 improved by addition of substances such as glycerol, glucose or dextrin
 the dark blue and black inks are often composed of four or more dyes
7. Fountain Pen Inks - consists of ordinary iron gallotannic inks with a lower iron
content but with a higher dyestuff content than normal inks
 placed on the market under the name of “blue-black permanent”
8. Alkaline Writing Inks - penetrate quickly into the paper
 consists of acid dyes
 not much in demand because they are expensive and because they affect
the material of many fountain pens
 The best known of these inks are the Parker super chrome inks which in
the colors black, blue-black, blue, red and green. The super chrome inks were
already obtainable since 1950 which fact maybe of importance for the
determination of the age of a document.
9. Stamp Pad Inks - Made with the acid of substances such as glycerol, glycol,
acetone, alcohol and water. Alkaline dyes are added as coloring matter. For quick
drying stamp pad inks, more volatile (substance that easily vaporize) organic
solvents are used such as acetone. Dextrine, gum arabic, or tannin is sometimes
added.
 Tannin is added to make the stamp impression water resistant after drying.
10. Hectograph Inks - These inks very much resemble stamp pad inks and are
exclusively made with basic dyes.
11. Typewriter Ribbon Inks - Composed of a blend of aniline dyes, carbon black and
oil such as olein or castrol oil.
12. Skrip Ink - manufactured by W.A Chaffer Pen Company since 1955
 Contain a substance which is colorless in visible light and has a strong affinity
for the fibers of the paper and yet is not bleached by hypo chlorite ink
eradicators or washed out by soaking on water.
 If obliterated with ink eradicator, the original will produce a characteristic
fluorescence and can be deciphered by reviewing under filtered ultra-violet.
13. Liquid-lead Pencil Ink – is an ordinary ballpoint pen with a fluid containing finely
divided carbon substituted for the usual dyestuff containing ink
14. Nigrosine Ink – A nearly black dye ink made from reacting aniline and
nitrobenzene; now used infrequently due to its water solubility and weathering
effects.

C. PEN - A tool for writing or drawing with a colored fluid, such as ink. The rise and
spread of Christianity increased the demand for permanent written religious
documents. Pen came from the Latin word “PENNA”, meaning feather.

 Writing Instruments –implements or manual devices used to make alphanumeric

marks on or in a surface; usually controlled by movement of the fingers, wrist, and
arm of the writer.

Ancient Writing Instrument

The invention of ink paralleled the introduction of paper. The Egyptians,
Romans, Greeks and Hebrews used papyrus and parchment papers. One of the oldest
pieces of writing on papyrus known to us today is the Egyptian “Prisse Ppayrus” which
dates back to 2000 BC.

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1. Reed Pens / Swamp Reed - came from especially selected water grasses found in
Egypt, Armenia and along the shores of the Persian Gulf
 prepared by leaving them under dung heaps for several months
 first writing tool that had the writing end slightly frayed like a brush
 First used in the middle east on papyrus (mud) and later on parchment
(animals / plants) at about 2,000 B.C.

2. Quill Pen - can be made from the outer wing feather of a goose, swan, crow, and
even turkey
 introduced by Spanish Theologian ST. ISIDORE of SEVILLE
 Made from a wing feather that is hardened by heating or drying, then cut to
a broad edge with a special pen knife.
 Writing instrument made of horn, tortoise shell, and gemstones were also
tried.
3. Steel Point/Nib Pens (Brazen Pens) - may have been known first to the Romans
 first mentioned in 1465
 JUAN DE YCIAR mentions brass pens for very large writing in his 1548
writing manual
 BRYAN DONKIN English engineer who first patented steel pen point in 1803.
 WILLIAM JOSEPH GILLOT, WILLIAM MITCHELL, JAMES STEPHEN
PERRY - the leading 19th century English pen manufacturers.
4. Fountain Pens - contains its own ink reservoir
 patented by LEWIS WATERMAN a New York insurance agent in 1884
 was the chief writing instrument in the west in 1920s and remained so until
the introduction of the ball point pen
5. Ball Point Pen - appear on the European market before 1945 during the WORLD
WAR II
 JOHN LOUD, in 1888, patented the first ball point writing tool.
 It has in its point, a small rotating metal ball that continually inks itself as it
turns; the ball is set into a tiny socket. The ball is made of steel while the
more expensive are made of sapphire. In the center of the socket is a hole
that feeds ink to the socket from a long tube (reservoir) inside the pen.
 LADISLAO and GEORG BIRO (Hungarian brothers) invented a viscous, oil-
based ink that could be used with such a pen in 1938. Hence, they are
attributed for the invention of the first practical ballpoint pen.
6. Fiber Tip Pens (pentle pen) - introduced into the U.S. market in 1963
 YUKIO HORIE of Japan invented the first practical fiber tip pen in 1962.
 was ideally suited to the strokes of Japanese writing
 uses dye as a writing fluid
 can produce a wide range of colors unavailable in ball point and fountain pen
inks
 its tip is made of fine nylon or other synthetic fibers drawn to a point and
fastened to the barrel of the pen. Dye is fed to the point by elaborate capillary
mechanism.
7. Felt-Tip Markers (coloured markers) - made of dense or artificial fibers impregnated
with a dye
 can be cut to a variety of shapes and sizes, some up to an inch in width.
 introduced in the U.S. from Japan in 1973.
8. PENCIL – A hand-held device for writing, marking, or drawing; it consists of a core of
solid marking substance contained in a holder. Graphite is the marking substance
used in “lead” pencils.
Mechanical Pencils – allow new lead to be exposed w3ithout cutting away
the holder.
Colored Lead – are essentially mixtures of a coloring material, clay, a wax or
fatty acid that serves as a lubricant, and a water-absorbing material such as
gum tragacanth
9. Crayons and Marking Pencils – A wax type of writing pen nib instrument and entail
diminishing tips as a result of continues writing executions.

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 III. SCIENTIFIC HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION

What is Handwriting?
 It is the result of a very complicated series of acts being used as a whole, a
combination of certain forms of visible mental and muscular habits acquired by
long continued painstaking efforts. It is a neuromuscular process that originates in
the brain. Some defined handwriting as “visible speech”.
 Handwriting is a skill useful to a person because a person who has learned to write
can put thoughts on paper for others to read. The art and practice of writing is
known as penmanship or calligraphy.
 According to Huber, Handwriting is an acquired skill and clearly one that is a
complex perceptual motor task, sometimes referred to as the neuro-muscular task.
Accordingly, our hand contains 27 bones controlled by more than 40 muscles.

DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING

Before there was writing, there was only verbal communication, with cultural
norms, rituals and stories passed on orally from one generation to the next. As language
and cultures evolved, so did the need for communication. Simple drawings became
pictographs became standardized within each culture.

The following are the different steps in the development of a person’s handwriting:
a) When a person first begins to learn the art of handwriting, penmanship
copybook form or blackboard illustration of the different letters is placed before
him. His first step is more of imitation only or a process of drawing; painstaking,
laborious and slow copying of the letter forms. The forms of each letter, at first,
occupy the focus of his attention.
b) As the person progresses, the matter of forms recedes, and the focus of
attention is centered on the execution of various letters, that is, they are actually
writing instead of drawing.
c) The manual operation in the execution of letters, after more progress, is
likewise soon relegated to the subjective mind and the process of writing
becomes more or less automatic. As the person attains maturity in writing by
many repetitions, writing becomes an unconscious coordinated movement that
produces a record. Attention is no longer given to the process of writing itself
because the subject matter to be written now occupies the focus of attention.

KINDS OF WRITINGS

1. Cursive or Conventional (Junction Connection or Ductus Link) - means

running; connected; writing in which one letter is joined to the next
2. Script (Junction Broken or Ductus) - separated or printed writings.
3. Block- all capital letters.
4. Mixed- combination of any of the kinds of writing

BASIS OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

a. Environment, education and occupation affect individuals so variously in the

formation of these muscular habits that finally the act of writing becomes an
almost automatic succession of acts simulated by these habits. Thus, a person’s
style of writing in most details becomes as fixed as the habit and serves as a
continuous inseparable mark of that one person.
b. The manner in which writing is produced is shown by itself, that is, the
appearance of the writing strokes will indicate where attention was focused in
the writing process. Where the writing is more or less automatic or unconscious,
as attention was focused on the subject matter and not on the writing process
itself, the careless abandon in the writing process will be shown by free,
coordinated strokes. On the other hand, a forgery of simulated or copied class
is produced by a method similar to that employed by a person learning to write
(a pupil in following a copy).

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 c. The imitation of the style of writing by another person becomes difficult because
the other person cannot by mere will power reproduce in himself all the muscular
combination from the habit of the first writer.
 Is handwriting/signature identification an “exact science”? In the hand of a
qualified examiner operating under proper conditions, identification by means
of handwriting/ signature is certain. Proper conditions include:
1. Sufficient questioned writing
2. Sufficient known writing
3. Sufficient time use of scientific instruments

PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HANDWRITING

The impulse to form a letter begins in the brain’s writing center in the cerebral
cortex. This center is akin to brain areas that control visions, hearing and walking, and
guides the muscle as they weave the complex movements that make the words. Since
writing in the mind, emotion and attitudes both path of the mind influence how we write
just as they influence how we walk and talk.
In writing, the pen functions as an extension of the hand. The fingers transmit to
the paper, the directive impulse and the variation in muscular tension that according to
the nature of the writer’s nervous organization occurs during the act or writing.
Hence, as each writer has his own way of holding his hand, manipulating the pen
and exerting pressure, the same pen in different hands will produce entirely different
strokes.
This center in the motor area of the cortex is responsible for the finger movement
involved in handwriting. The importance of this center is that when it becomes diseased
as in graphic, one losses the ability to write although could still grasp a fountain pen,
ballpen or pencil. Thus, the ability or power to hold a fountain pen or pencil to form a
symbol and words can be said to emanate from its cortical center.
The hands contain two kinds of muscle, which function in the act of writing. A group
of extensor muscles push up the pen to form the upward strokes and ease the tension
produced as a result by a group of muscle called the flexor muscles that push the pen
to form a downward stroke. This flexor and extensor muscles combined with numerical
muscle, lumbricals, to form lateral / horizontal strokes.
Generally speaking, four groups of muscles are employed in writing – those that
operate the joints of the finger, wrist, elbow and shoulder. The delicate way in which the
various muscles used in writing work together to produce written form is known as motor
coordination.

PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

No two writers write exactly alike

This is the basis of all handwriting identification. Early workers in the field who
pioneered in the scientific identification of handwriting assumed that “no two writers write
exactly alike.” When the numerous problems have been submitted to document
examiners throughout the years, there has never been found an example of two identical
handwritings. Even a single writer cannot perfectly duplicate his own handwriting. As no
two persons write exactly alike, one cannot perfectly produce a geometrically perfect
handwriting.
Each writer had a handwriting which is personal and peculiar to him alone. Each
writer has his own habit. The manner of holding the pen and the mental capability of the
person, including the process of transmitting through the nerves the impulse to produce
a writing, constitute a characteristic which are unique to a writer.
The characteristic of a person’s handwriting are acquired through a long process
by many repetitions. This constitutes a habit in the handwriting process. Habits are those
elements of handwriting that repeatedly appear. The mental and physical condition of a
person as well as his emotional aspect affects the process of handwriting. However, it
does not fully destroy temporarily the habit which is identical to a single writer.

The physical writing condition and position of the person including his writing
instrument may affect the handwriting characteristics but they do not confine all
its identifying elements.
Deterioration in writing results from less accurate coordination of the highly
complicated interrelated factors which go into the writing process. Thus, one would not

18
expect only one or two identifying characteristics to be altered while the others will
continue to be reproduced exactly as before.
Both illness and old age may be reflected in handwriting. Not every serious illness,
however, causes a lessening in writing ability. Rather, those that weaken the person so
that he is unable to perform skillful operation are most likely to affect his handwriting.
Diseases such as heart ailments, high blood pressure, and the like, normally, are not
accompanied by deterioration in handwriting, although a layman may attempt to explain
away a poorly forged signature by this type of illness. Writing during sickness in which the
patient is confined to bed probably reflects more strongly the effects of adverse writing
conditions than the illness itself.
What applies to physical conditions brought about by severe illness also applies to
old age. There are many individuals well advanced in years whose handwriting hardly
betray their age. But those older writers who have suffered general physical deterioration
are very apt to write with less vigor and skill. It is that the converse to the corollary does
not hold.
A transitory change maybe injected into handwriting by temporary physical and
mental conditions such as, fatigue, nervous tension and intoxication or severe illness,
from which the writer ultimately recovers. In these cases, handwriting reverts to its normal
qualities after the causes of deterioration are removed.

A writer cannot exceed his maximum writing ability or skill without serious effort
and training applied over a period of time.
The preceding principle says that no writer can spontaneously exceed his best
handwriting. Disguise, for the most part, is completely unpracticed and even if it has been
practiced, it will never develop to the point that the person’s writing ability and habit are
bound to bring about a less fluent and less skillful mode of writing. Even if practiced,
disguise hardly enables the writer to achieve his best writing.
Disguise is seldom rehearsed. It is an unnatural form of writing. In its execution,
the writer must concentrate his attention on eliminating personal identifying details and at
the same time devise and execute a new style of writing. This task cannot be
accomplished on the spur of the moment. The end result is that the page of disguise
contains inconsistencies and irregularities. In contrast, uniformity throughout and
extended specimen of writing is the mark of an undisguised skillfully executed writing.
Our handwriting was developed not by a couple of years but through the years of
our maturity. A writing habit ingrained in our personality cannot be eliminated in just a
short time. When we try to disguise our personality, we cannot fully change our personal
characteristics. The real us will always prevail. This is also the same in the handwriting of
a person. Only those identified characteristics are being changed leaving those other
details which are focal to identification.

The combination of handwriting characteristics including those derived from form

and writing movements are essential elements of identification.
Handwriting characteristics serve as parts of the ultimate identification and a sound
scientific conclusion that two specimens are by a single writer which cannot be based
only on one or two points of agreement. Of course, the wrong properties which are most
personal and group characteristics also contribute to the ultimate conclusion.
The elements of movements such as skill, rhythm, writing pressure, emphasis and
shading, location and quality of starts and stops, pen lifts and the like, are reflected in the
finished specimen. The combination of these and other elements describes the
fundamental writing movement.

Individuality in handwriting can only be determined through comparative

examination with the standard written or prepared under comparable conditions.
Writing standards are necessary to establish the individual’s normal writing habit
and to show the degree of variation common to his writing. This principle actually defines
adequate and proper standards. Unless they completely fulfill these conditions, their
usefulness in any examination is limited. In fact, standards which do not comply with these
requirements, may lead to erroneous conclusion especially in the elimination of a writer
who actually prepared the specimen in question.
The best standard includes writing that was prepared for a comparable purpose
and under similar writing conditions to the matter under investigation. With standard
consisting of a relatively small sample of a person’s total writing, it is well to select them
carefully. Statistical studies have shown that a small sample properly selected and
controlled may give a more accurate picture of the whole than the substantially larger but

19
uncontrolled sample. The problem is one of selection and control; thus, in writing,
standards and all influencing factors should be kept as much as those of the questioning
material. This means that writing with similar instrument prepared under comparable
condition at or about the same time should be sought. It does not mean, however, that
writing a very different purpose may not permit an accurate identification. If the two
writings contain the same identifying elements, then certainly the identification is valid. It
does mean, however, that the best procedure is to seek writing prepared for a similar
purpose, as reference has shown that writing generally leads to the best identification and
requires far less interpretation by the experts.

Similarity does not mean identity

Many people resemble one another, some in greater detail, others in less. But even
persons, who are said to be “doubles”, are not the same in appearance in every detail.
There are always differences. Some of those differences are gross and easily discernible;
while others may be subtle and discernible only upon close examination.
Just as there are people who “look alike” but are not the “same” so are many
handwritings which are similar to each other in appearance, especially in common
formation of letters, but no identical in individual writing characteristics, especially with
regard to subconscious unique writing characteristics and distinctly individual writing
habits.
Two similar handwritings may appear to be the same, but when the two specimens
are placed under close scrutiny, what appeared to be the same or identical handwriting,
proves to be similar but not identical.
Since forgery is imitation, the forger sets out to imitate handwriting or a signature
with all the skill he possesses. He will do this either by practicing the signature, or by
tracing, or by carefully coping it. His aim is a perfect likeness of the signature or writing.
Expert examination can reveal when writing is seemingly identical but different in
characteristics. There are the so-called primary controlling characteristics, being the
result of subconscious habits, unrealized by the writer which make it possible to establish
the identity of the writer or to determine whether the two writings or signature of the same
name, were written by one person or two.

Complete identity means definite forgery.

If a signature is geometrically identical with another, it points almost inevitably to a
tracing; for neither the forger nor the owner of the signature himself can produce such a
perfect copy. No person writes his signature precisely the same twice in succession. The
precise imitation, like a rubber stamp of a signature, is quickly detected as forgery.
If a signature, for example, looks, on first impression, different from other authentic
signature, that fact alone may indicate genuineness. A forger cannot afford to present an
obviously different signature. Only the owner of the name can safely permit himself that
leeway.
A) A writing was written by one person when there is a sufficient number of identical
writing habits and identical primary controlling characteristics and addition, the
absence of divergent characteristics.
B) A writing was not written by one person when there is a sufficient number of divergent
writing characteristics and the absence of identical primary controlling characteristics.

The conclusion of identity or difference depends upon the combination of identical

or different writing characteristics. The weight of such characteristics against each other,
as facts and evidence for or against identity or for or against difference, are the
determining factors.
A specimen writing is written by a particular person if all its identifying elements
are a part of his handwriting and furthermore, the variation within the specimen falls within
range of writing variation. And in reverses a specimen of writing was not written by a
particular person if there is a significant difference between its identifying elements and
those of the suspected writer.
In identifying the writer of the unknown material, the standard must contain all the
identifying elements present in the questioned specimen. These elements include
personal writing habits, the manner of execution and quality and extent of variation. The
known writing may contain elements not found in the unknown. In the process of
identification, the examiner should look for the individuality and not for the difference.
Therefore, if both specimens of handwriting are having characteristics which are
individual and identical to a single person, then it is the handwriting of one person.

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 Differences between the known and the unknown writing become significant due
to their clear fundamental nature or to the repeated occurrences to the same unconscious
element. It is the converse rule that governs, and the writing is by different writers.
Fundamental differences must be clearly distinguished from variables, which are a part
of every writer’s handwriting.

ILLNESSES THAT MAY AFFECT HANDWRITING OF AN INDIVIDUAL

1. Agraphia- refers to the inability to write in an orderly fashion, but can still be able
to manipulate writing materials. This may be due to brain lesions such as tumors,
brain infections, injuries or head injuries.
2. Aphasia- refers to the impairment of the power to use and understand words in
communicating.
3. Dyslexia- Refers to the disability to read and misspell words. (ex.: from Read to
Red.)
4. Paragraphia- The inability to write the correct words when dictated, but ability to
copy text is retained.
5. Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s Disease- Alzheimer is due to old age a
person who is above 60 years of age, due to senility he reverts to childhood and
loses memory and ability to read and write. Parkinson’s is due to old age as well
but uncontrolled tremor is present.
6. ALS (Amyotropic Lateral Sclerosis) - or LOU GEHRIG DISEASE, which includes
weakening of muscles.
7. Arthritis- affects the CNS which includes muscles, ligaments and joints or writing
hand.
8. Cerebral Palsy - an abnormal alteration of movement or motor function arising
from defect, injury or disease of the nerve tissues in the cranial cavity.
9. Graphomania (from writing, insanity), also known as scribomania, refers to an
obsessive impulse to write.
10. Graphorrhea - used in a specifically psychiatric context, it labels a morbid mental
condition which results in writing rambling and confused statements, often
degenerating in a meaningless succession of words or even nonsense.
11. Typomania – obsession with seeing one's name in publication or with writing for
being published, excessive symbolism or typology
12. Hypnosis- a trance-like condition or an induced state that resembles sleep in
which the subject experiences diminished will power and very responsive to the
suggestions of the hypnotizer.
Does It Affect Handwriting? ..the person is more relaxed. Thus, interest
in the task was lost.

SCHOOL COPYBOOK FORM (SCHOOL MODEL)

The standard of handwriting instruction taught in particular school. Classes of
copybook depend on the standard copy adopted by a writer.
EARLY FORMS OF COPYBOOK FORM
 Spencerian Script is a script style that flourished in the United States from
1850 to 1895.
 Platt Rogers Spencer, whose name the style bears, was impressed with
the idea that America needed a penmanship style that could be written
quickly, legibly, and elegantly to aid in matters of business correspondence
as well as personal letter-writing.
 The Spencerian Script was gradually replaced with the simpler and less
elegant method developed by Austin Norman Palmer.
1. Palmer Copybook- commonly used in the United States prior to 1980.
2. D’Nealian Copybook- commonly used in the United States since 1980.
3. British Copybook
4. French Copybook
5. German Copybook
IMPORTANCE OF THE DESIGN OF THE LETTERS (SYSTEM OF WRITING)
May point:
1. to the nationality of the writer
2. the system learned
3. the date when the writing was acquired
4. to some of the influences that have surrounded the writer

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ELEMENTS OF HANDWRITING
A) STROKE – It refers to the series of lines or curves written in a single letter. It is the
path traced by the pen. It should be observed whether the course of the strokes is
continuous or broken. The pen stroke is the visual record of the writing movement.

QUALITIES OF STROKES:
1. Expansion – whether the movement is extended or limited in its range with respect
to both vertical and horizontal dimension.
2. Coordination – whether the flow of movement is controlled or uncertain, smooth
or jerky, continuous or interrupted.
3. Speed – whether the movement has been rapid or slow and whether the pace has
steady or variable.
4. Pressure – whether the pressure exerted in the movement ha been heavy or light,
flexible or rigid.
5. Direction – leftward and rightward trend of the movement and its upward and
downward reach.
6. Rhythm – in the sequence of movements that weave the total pattern, certain
similar phases recur a more or less regular intervals.

STROKE STRUCTURE
~ Letter by letter comparison
1. Initial stroke – This refers to the starting stroke.
Formation:
a. upward initial stroke
b. initial stroke with a beard stroke
c. downward initial stroke
d. initial stroke with a spur stroke
e. curved upward initial stroke
f. initial stroke with flourishes
2. Connecting Stroke – Stroke that connects letters in cursive writing.
a. Rounded connecting stroke – the connecting stroke is rounded in
appearance, an almost copybook form way of writing.
b. Elliptical or Oval connecting stroke – kind of connecting stroke wherein
the stroke are rounded but closer. Note the lateral spacing length of the
signature is shorter than the rounded connecting stroke.
c. Angular connecting stroke – stroke shows an angle formation showing a
signature that is shorter in length or a short lateral spacing.
3. Terminal Stroke – The last stroke in a signature.
Formation:
a. upward tapering terminal stroke
b. downward blunt terminal stroke
c. blunt horizontal terminal stroke
d. tapering curved downward terminal stroke
Kinds:
a. Flying or tapering terminal strokes – kinds of terminal stroke wherein the
width of the stroke diminishes in size as the momentum of writing ends.
b. Blunt terminal strokes – this terminal stroke diminishes abruptly
4. Loops – An oblong curve such as found in small “f”, “g”, “l”, “h”, and “j”. A loop may
be formed at the upper or lower part of the letter. It can be blind or open loop. A
blind loop is usually the result of the ink having filled open space.
5. Eyeloop/Eyelet/Eye – a minute or small or curved formed inside the letter
6. Diacritic – An element added to complete certain letters.
7. Arc or Garlanded – a curve formed inside the top curve or loop
8. Beard – a rudimentary curved initial strokes
- a preliminary embellish initial stroke which usually occur in big letters
9. Blunt Ending/Beginning – blunt ending and initial strokes are result of the
drawing process in forgery
10. Buckle knot – the horizontal and looped strokes that are often used to complete
such letters
- a loop made as flourish which is added to the letters as in small letters “k”,
“f” or in capital letter “A”, “k” and “H”
11. Central part or Body – The part of a letter ordinarily formed by a small circle that
usually lies on the line writing

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 - The main portion of the letter which remain when the upper and projection,
upstrokes and terminal strokes and diacritics are removed.
12. Foot of the letter – the lower part which rests on the baseline
13. Hitch/ Tick – it is a minute curve or angle which often occurs at the end of the
terminal stroke
- a minute involuntary talon-like formation often found at the
commencement of the initial stroke or a terminal stroke
14. Hook or through – the bend, crook, or curve on the inner side of the bottom loop
or curve of a small letter
15. Hump/Shoulder – the rounded outside top of the bend, crook, or curve in a small
letters
16. Spur – Short, horizontal beginning stroke
17. Knob – rounded appearance at the beginning or ending stroke
18. Main stroke or shank stem – downward strokes of any letter
19. Oval – The portion of a letter which is oval in shape. The small letter “a”, “d”, “g”,
and “q” contain oval; the portion of the letter which form an oval design
20. Whirl- the upstroke of looping ascender.
21. Staff- any major long downward stroke of a letter that is the long downward stroke
of the letter “b,g”.
22. Descender- opposite of ascender, the lower portion of a letter.
23. Embelishment

B) RHYTHM IN HANDWRITING
 Rhythm is a succession of connected, uniform strokes working in full coordination.
This is manifested by clear-cut accentuated strokes, which increase and decrease
in width like perfect cones. Pressure is always in a state of change moving from
light to heavy or from heavy to light.
 harmonious recurrence of stress or impulse or motion; flowing succession of
motions that are recorded in the written record
 Lack of Rhythm – it is characterized by a succession of awkward,
independent, poorly directed and disconnected motions
 Importance of Rhythm - By using the rhythm of the succession of strokes,
one can determine if the writer normally and spontaneously or write with
hesitation as if he is attempting to forge another’s signature.
C) LETTER OF CONNECTIONS - Determine the essential expression of the writing
pattern. It is a main indicator of the neuromuscular function. Words are formed by
connecting letters to one another. Even letters are formed by the joining of the upward
and downward strokes.
Types of Connections:
1. Arcade – a rounded stroke shaped like an arch. It is a slow mode of
connection resulting from controlled movements.
2. Garland – links the downward stroke to the upstroke with a flowing curve
swinging from left to right. It is an easy, effortless mode of connection,
written in speed.
3. Angular connective form – where the downward strokes and upward
strokes meet directly, angular connection are formed. This type of
connection imposes a check on the continuity of movement characterized
by an abrupt stop and start at each turning point.
4. Thread-like connective form – the joining of downward and upward
strokes is slurred to a thread-like tracing or where rounded turns used at
both top and bottom produce a double curve. These forms appear both in
the shaping of letters within the word.

D) FORM - This is the most basic of individual characteristics which is referred to as the
pictorial representation of a letter or writing movement. A highly visible dissimilarity in
the form of the same letter found in both the questioned and standard material is an
inherent difference in handwriting.
 Form is the first of the individual characteristics that will receive the document
examiner’s close scrutiny. It is the lamppost that lights the way for the rest of
the handwriting comparison.

E) MOVEMENT - This is the manner in which the pen moves in order to form a letter.
The element of handwriting which embraces all the factors which are related to the

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 motion of the writing instrument, skill, hesitation, rhythm, emphasis, tremors and the
like.
KINDS OF MOVEMENT
 These four movements are employed and combined at greatly differing degrees
of speed and skill by different writers and all together make an extended variety
of movement habits.
1. Finger Movement- the thumb, the first, the second and slightly the third
finger are in actual motion. Most usually employed by children and
illiterates.
2. Hand Movement- Produced by the movement or action of the whole hand
with the wrist as the center of attraction.
3. Forearm Movement- the movement of the shoulder, hand and arm with
the support of the table.
4. Whole arm Movement- action of the entire arm without resting i.e.,
blackboard writing.
Speed of Movement:
1) Slow and Drawn
2) Deliberate
3) Average
4) Rapid

F) MOTOR COORDINATION - It is the special or delicate way in which the various

muscles used in writing work together to produce written forms. Generally speaking,
four groups of muscles are employed in writing. Those which operate respectively are
the joints of the finger, wrist, elbow, and shoulder. Poor motor coordination is more
likely to occur when the finger muscles are used chiefly for the movement of the gross
arm muscles which tends to swing the arm in smoother curves.

Characteristics of a Good Motor Coordination

1. Free, smoothly rounded curves
2. Gradual changes of directions
3. Pressure is always in a state of change, moving from light to heavy or heavy
to light
4. Speed
5. The shading impulse is distributed over a considerable length of the line
whereas in writing produced with a slow motion as in the finger movement,
the shading often has a “bunchay” appearance, in which the maximum width
of the shaded line is attained abruptly.

G) ALIGNMENT - It is the relation of parts or the whole line of questioned document

writing or line of individual letters in words to the baseline. It is the adherence of the
writing to either a performed (printed) or imaginary baseline.
Alignment maybe:
 Straight
 Irregular
 Sloping Upward
 Sloping Downward
Relationship of Alignment to Movement in Writing
 Ascending Alignment – the line of writing has the tendency of rising upward
 Descending Alignment – line of writing which descends
 Even Alignment – handwriting regularly proceeds straight without the
guidance or ruled lines
 Irregular Alignment – characterized by ascending and descending
combinations
 Arched Alignment – the lines rise and fall in the shape of arches

H) HEIGHT RATIOS - A comparison or correlation of the height of one letter or letter

segment to another letter, usually within the same word or signature.
Two Groups of Letter:
1. Short – these are the letters written entirely between the lines
Example: a, c, s, e, m, n, v, x. e. w. o. r, u
2. Tall – these are letters with upper or lower loop or with the projected portions
Examples: d, f, g, h, j, k, l, q, t, y, p, b
 MAJUSCULE/Upper Case – a capital letter.
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  MINUSCULE/Lower Case – a small letter

I) THE “I” DOT

 A portion of writing as small and innocuous as an “I” dot may at times become a
prominent identifying characteristic. “I” does not come in all sizes and shapes.
They may be horseshoe shaped with the open end to the right, up, or down or
left, or be simply dots, circles, or dashes inclined up or down. In many teenage
girls, they may be made in the shape of hearts.

J) THE “T” CROSSING

 “T” crossing occupy much the same weight, or more, for the document examiner
as the “I” dot does. A “t” crossing may go from right to left, left to right, it may
incline up, incline down, or be perfectly horizontal. It may be heavily shaded on
the right or heavily shaded on the left. The “t” may be crossed at the top of the
letter, near the bottom, or in the middle. It may be connected to, an exit stroke
from a terminal letter of a word in a hasty attempt by an individual to cross the “t”
without lifting the pen from the paper.

K) PEN LIFT - It is an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing instrument

from the paper.

L) HIATUS (PEN JUMP) - A gap occurring between continuous strokes without lifting the
pen which may occur due to speed and may also be caused of defective writing
instrument. It may also be regarded as “special form of pen lift.”

M) SPEED - Pen speed is often an essential element of examination process. A fast and
fluid pen movement is difficult to duplicate by a forger.
Comparison between fast and slow writing:
Fast
1.) Smooth writing movement
2.) Elongated and misplaced “i” dots and “t” crossings
3.) Words and initials connected
4.) A flattened appearance. Lessened legibility
Slow
1.) Hesitation, tremor, more angular writing
2.) “I” dots and “t” crossings in correct position
3.) Sharp delineation between separate pen movements
4.) Blunt stops and starts
5.) Writing is made of individual letters and legible
6.) Movements may be ornamental

N) HESITATION - This refers to the irregular thickening of the ink line when the writing
slows down or stops while the writer takes stock of the position.
 When a writer concentrates his attention on the movement of his pen point, reflex
movement of the hand and arm muscles are retarded and the fingers control the
pen. Writing in this manner will lack fluency, the line is irregular and there will be
no smoothness and continuity of the instrument.

O) EMBELLISHMENTS/RUBRIC - These are most often located at the beginning of

letter, but may be throughout the written material. They usually take the form of an
added movement that decorates the writing, such as swirls, added loops, concentric
circles, flourishes, etc.

P) RETRACING/RETRACTING - This is the process wherein the pen re-inks a written

portion of the line, usually in the opposite direction, such as downward movement over
the existing line. While it is usually a natural part of writing experience, but if it occurs
as a form of patching to correct the form of a letter, it may be indicative of forgery.

Q) RETOUCHING/PATCHING - retouching or going back over a defective potion of a

written stroke. Careful patching is common defect on forgeries

R) SPELLING - The simple act of misspelling words can of themselves be individual, in

combination, to a specific individual. Take for example the case of a Lithunian seaman

25
 who in the body of a questioned document spelled: “because” into “b-cause,” “shoes”
- ”schoes,” “sweater” – “sweather,” and “pajamas” – “pygemas.”
 These same spelling errors were found in standard material that had been dictated
to the suspect. Without looking any further, the examiner already had a pretty firm
grasp on the identity of the writer of the disputed document, due to the similar
misspellings.

S) CASE - On occasion, a writer will use an upper case form of a letter in a place usually
reserved for the lower case from, or vice versa.
 Ascent – a font’s maximum distance above the baseline.
 Baseline – it is the line upon which the letter of a font rest.
 Cap height – the height of uppercase letters.
 Cap Line – the imaginary line, which represents the uppermost part of capital
letters and some characters’ ascenders.
 Descender Line – the lowest line that a character’s descender extends to, like
the line beneath the lower case “j” and “y”.
 X-height – The height of a face’s lowercase letters, or the size from main line
to baseline of the lowercase ‘x’. The lowercase ‘x’ is for measurement since it
usually sits squarely on the baseline and has no ascenders or descenders.
 Waist line – the guideline showing the correct position for the upper boundary
of the x-height

T) PEN POSITION, PEN-PRESSURE AND SHADING IN WRITING

 Pen positions in writing show variations but vary in three principal ways:
1.) in the angle of the pen to the surface of the paper;
2.) in the angle of the pen to the line or direction of the writing; and
3.) in the uniformity of pressure on the two nibs of the pen.
 Pen Pressure - Weight of the hand or muscles on the pen during the act of
writing, the following are the classification:
 Light
 Heavy
 Medium
 Even or Uniform
 Shaded
 Shading – the difference between the thickest and the finest or thinnest strokes
Classification of Shading
 Continuous
 Graduated
 Occasional
 Rough
 Irregular

U) PEN EMPHASIS – the periodic increase in pressure of intermittently forcing the pen
against the paper surface with increased pressure

V) ARRANGEMENT, SIZE, PROPORTIONS, SPACING AND SLANT OF WRITING

 Arrangement - The habits of arrangement of the parts of a writing as finally
developed are undoubtedly largely governed by the artistic ability, or sense or
proportion of the writer and like all of the most significant writing habits, are in
considerable part at least, developed and grown into rather than consciously
acquired.
 Habits of arrangement in writing and general habits of neatness undoubtedly
reflect certain individual characteristics that are likely to be shown in whatever
is done.
 Size in Writing - It is a characteristic that may have little significance when applied
to only one example, or to a small quantity of writing like a signature, unless the
divergence is very pronounced. But if a number of signatures alleged to have been
procured at different times are in question or even two or three are under suspicion,
and they are same in the matter of size in which they differ from all admitted
standards, then this divergence becomes significant in proportion to its extent, the
number of divergent examples an the number of standards.

26
 Spacing of Writing - The spacing of writing is mainly changed by a change in the
slant, and the length of the retracing of the upward, or connecting strokes. Different
systems of writing vary in the proportion of height to width of letters.
 Slant or Inclination - It refers to the angle of inclination of writing or a letter of
writing form from the baseline line of that writing. It may be forward and leaning to
the right, or “backhand” if it leans to the left. The slant of writing may change from
the beginning of a word to the end of a word, or from the beginning of a sentence,
paragraph, or page to the end of that sentence, paragraph or page. If this change
in slant is reproduced habitually,

Questioned Document History

 Need grew for people that could distinguish the authenticity of a document.
 Attorneys would look toward penman for help in these cases.
 They testified that they could tell the difference in handwriting.
 Accepted in court because they used scientific methods. (example: side by side
comparison)
 Dreyfus case, setback the discipline.
 Alfred Dreyfus, French army officer, accused of treason through letters found
attempting to sell French secrets to Germany.
 Later found that Dreyfus did not write the letters.
 Albert Osborn, American handwriting expert, noticed that there needed to be a
basis of handwriting knowledge.
 Did this through inviting penman, throughout the country, to share their
experiences and expertise in handwriting cases.
 Osborn is considered the pioneer of the question document field because he
published a book, Questioned Documents.
 Widely excepted because of his extensive use of scientific techniques.
 Albert Osborn and Lindbergh Baby Case
 Result of his work and national attention, the QD field was included in many
Federal and State Agencies.
 Now called Questioned Document Examiners
Graphologist VS QD Examiner
 Graphologist
◦ Profiles character or personality by drawing conclusions from certain types
of characteristics in the handwriting sample.
◦ They do not compare handwriting to determine authenticity or origin.
Remember, most of graphology lack scientific proof.
◦ On the other hand, some of the principles of graphology are correct like:
 Handwriting can be effected by illness, old age, etc…
◦ Have many different “systems of graphology”.

Graphology Examples

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Question Document Examiner
 Studies scientifically the whole document in order to recognize the source or other
evidence that can determine authenticity of the document in question.
 The first QDE where called “handwriting specialists” because that was the primary
means of agreements or contracts.

PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

No two writers write exactly alike

This is the basis of all handwriting identification. Early workers in the field who
pioneered in the scientific identification of handwriting assumed that “no two writers write
exactly alike.” When the numerous problems have been submitted to document
examiners throughout the years, there has never been found an example of two identical
handwritings. Even a single writer cannot perfectly duplicate his own handwriting. As no
two persons write exactly alike, one cannot perfectly produce a geometrically perfect
handwriting.
Each writer had a handwriting which is personal and peculiar to him alone. Each
writer has his own habit. The manner of holding the pen and the mental capability of the
person, including the process of transmitting through the nerves the impulse to produce
a writing, constitute a characteristic which are unique to a writer.
The characteristic of a person’s handwriting are acquired through a long process
by many repetitions. This constitutes a habit in the handwriting process. Habits are those
elements of handwriting that repeatedly appear. The mental and physical condition of a
person as well as his emotional aspect affects the process of handwriting. However, it
does not fully destroy temporarily the habit which is identical to a single writer.

The physical writing condition and position of the person including his
writing instrument may affect the handwriting characteristics but they do not
confine all its identifying elements.
Deterioration in writing results from less accurate coordination of the highly
complicated interrelated factors which go into the writing process. Thus, one would not
expect only one or two identifying characteristics to be altered while the others will
continue to be reproduced exactly as before.
28
 Both illness and old age may be reflected in handwriting. Not every serious illness,
however, causes a lessening in writing ability. Rather, those that weaken the person so
that he is unable to perform skillful operation are most likely to affect his handwriting.
Diseases such as heart ailments, high blood pressure, and the like, normally, are not
accompanied by deterioration in handwriting, although a layman may attempt to explain
away a poorly forged signature by this type of illness. Writing during sickness in which the
patient is confined to bed probably reflects more strongly the effects of adverse writing
conditions than the illness itself.
What applies to physical conditions brought about by severe illness also applies to
old age. There are many individuals well advanced in years whose handwriting hardly
betray their age. But those older writers who have suffered general physical deterioration
are very apt to write with less vigor and skill. It is that the converse to the corollary does
not hold.
A transitory change maybe injected into handwriting by temporary physical and
mental conditions such as, fatigue, nervous tension and intoxication or severe illness,
from which the writer ultimately recovers. In these cases, handwriting reverts to its normal
qualities after the causes of deterioration are removed.

A writer cannot exceed his maximum writing ability or skill without serious effort
and training applied over a period of time.
The preceding principle says that no writer can spontaneously exceed his best
handwriting. Disguise, for the most part, is completely unpracticed and even if it has been
practiced, it will never develop to the point that the person’s writing ability and habit are
bound to bring about a less fluent and less skillful mode of writing. Even if practiced,
disguise hardly enables the writer to achieve his best writing.
Disguise is seldom rehearsed. It is an unnatural form of writing. In its execution,
the writer must concentrate his attention on eliminating personal identifying details and at
the same time devise and execute a new style of writing. This task cannot be
accomplished on the spur of the moment. The end result is that the page of disguise
contains inconsistencies and irregularities. In contrast, uniformity throughout and
extended specimen of writing is the mark of an undisguised skillfully executed writing.
Our handwriting was developed not by a couple of years but through the years of
our maturity. A writing habit ingrained in our personality cannot be eliminated in just a
short time. When we try to disguise our personality, we cannot fully change our personal
characteristics. The real us will always prevail. This is also the same in the handwriting of
a person. Only those identified characteristics are being changed leaving those other
details which are focal to identification.

The combination of handwriting characteristics including those derived from form

and writing movements are essential elements of identification.
Handwriting characteristics serve as parts of the ultimate identification and a sound
scientific conclusion that two specimens are by a single writer which cannot be based
only on one or two points of agreement. Of course, the wrong properties which are most
personal and group characteristics also contribute to the ultimate conclusion.
The elements of movements such as skill, rhythm, writing pressure, emphasis and
shading, location and quality of starts and stops, pen lifts and the like, are reflected in the
finished specimen. The combination of these and other elements describes the
fundamental writing movement.

Individuality in handwriting can only be determined through comparative

examination with the standard written or prepared under comparable conditions.
Writing standards are necessary to establish the individual’s normal writing habit
and to show the degree of variation common to his writing. This principle actually defines
adequate and proper standards. Unless they completely fulfill these conditions, their
usefulness in any examination is limited. In fact, standards which do not comply with these
requirements, may lead to erroneous conclusion especially in the elimination of a writer
who actually prepared the specimen in question.
The best standard includes writing that was prepared for a comparable purpose
and under similar writing conditions to the matter under investigation. With standard
consisting of a relatively small sample of a person’s total writing, it is well to select them
carefully. Statistical studies have shown that a small sample properly selected and
controlled may give a more accurate picture of the whole than the substantially larger but
uncontrolled sample. The problem is one of selection and control; thus, in writing,
standards and all influencing factors should be kept as much as those of the questioning

29
material. This means that writing with similar instrument prepared under comparable
condition at or about the same time should be sought. It does not mean, however, that
writing a very different purpose may not permit an accurate identification. If the two
writings contain the same identifying elements, then certainly the identification is valid. It
does mean, however, that the best procedure is to seek writing prepared for a similar
purpose, as reference has shown that writing generally leads to the best identification and
requires far less interpretation by the experts.

Similarity does not mean identity

Many people resemble one another, some in greater detail, others in less. But even
persons, who are said to be “doubles”, are not the same in appearance in every detail.
There are always differences. Some of those differences are gross and easily discernible;
while others may be subtle and discernible only upon close examination.
Just as there are people who “look alike” but are not the “same” so are many
handwritings which are similar to each other in appearance, especially in common
formation of letters, but no identical in individual writing characteristics, especially with
regard to subconscious unique writing characteristics and distinctly individual writing
habits.
Two similar handwritings may appear to be the same, but when the two specimens
are placed under close scrutiny, what appeared to be the same or identical handwriting,
proves to be similar but not identical.
Since forgery is imitation, the forger sets out to imitate handwriting or a signature
with all the skill he possesses. He will do this either by practicing the signature, or by
tracing, or by carefully coping it. His aim is a perfect likeness of the signature or writing.
Expert examination can reveal when writing is seemingly identical but different in
characteristics. There are the so-called primary controlling characteristics, being the
result of subconscious habits, unrealized by the writer which make it possible to establish
the identity of the writer or to determine whether the two writings or signature of the same
name, were written by one person or two.

Complete identity means definite forgery.

If a signature is geometrically identical with another, it points almost inevitably to a
tracing; for neither the forger nor the owner of the signature himself can produce such a
perfect copy. No person writes his signature precisely the same twice in succession. The
precise imitation, like a rubber stamp of a signature, is quickly detected as forgery.
If a signature, for example, looks, on first impression, different from other authentic
signature, that fact alone may indicate genuineness. A forger cannot afford to present an
obviously different signature. Only the owner of the name can safely permit himself that
leeway.
C) A writing was written by one person when there is a sufficient number of identical
writing habits and identical primary controlling characteristics and addition, the
absence of divergent characteristics.
D) A writing was not written by one person when there is a sufficient number of divergent
writing characteristics and the absence of identical primary controlling characteristics.

The conclusion of identity or difference depends upon the combination of identical

or different writing characteristics. The weight of such characteristics against each other,
as facts and evidence for or against identity or for or against difference, are the
determining factors.
A specimen writing is written by a particular person if all its identifying elements
are a part of his handwriting and furthermore, the variation within the specimen falls within
range of writing variation. And in reverses a specimen of writing was not written by a
particular person if there is a significant difference between its identifying elements and
those of the suspected writer.
In identifying the writer of the unknown material, the standard must contain all the
identifying elements present in the questioned specimen. These elements include
personal writing habits, the manner of execution and quality and extent of variation. The
known writing may contain elements not found in the unknown. In the process of
identification, the examiner should look for the individuality and not for the difference.
Therefore, if both specimens of handwriting are having characteristics which are
individual and identical to a single person, then it is the handwriting of one person.
Differences between the known and the unknown writing become significant due
to their clear fundamental nature or to the repeated occurrences to the same unconscious
element. It is the converse rule that governs, and the writing is by different writers.

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Fundamental differences must be clearly distinguished from variables, which are a part
of every writer’s handwriting.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HANDWRITING
Two Categories of Handwriting Characteristics:
1. Class/Common/General Characteristics
 Those common to a number of writers and may result from such influences
as the writing system studied, family associations, trade training, or foreign
education as well as carelessness and haste in execution.
 National Characteristics- this refers to the extent that writing system within a country
share common features and induce class characteristics in the writing of its people,
different from other countries.
Example of Common Characteristics:
 Ordinary Copy-Book form
 Usual systematic slant
 Ordinary scale of proportion ratio
 Conventional spacing
2. Individual Characteristics
 Those which are highly personal or peculiar and unlikely to occur in
combination in other instances.
 They are characteristics which are the result of the writer’s muscular control,
coordination, age, health, nervous, temperament, frequency, personality and
character. They are found in the following:
a) writing movement
b) form and design of letters
c) muscular control or motor control
a. Loose Writing- this is characterized by too much freedom of movement and
lack of regulation. This is noticed most especially in tall letters forms.
b. Restrained Writing- there is lack of freedom and inhibited movements. It gives
you the impression that every stroke was made with great difficulty. This writing
is small. There is distortion of letter forms which may lead to illegibility.
a) motor coordination
b) shading
c) alignment
d) pen pressure
e) connection
f) pen hold
g) skill
h) rhythm
i) disconnections or pen lifts between letters
j) speed
k) slant as a writing habit
l) proportion of letters as an individual characteristics or habit
m) quality of stroke or line quality
n) variation

 Accidental Characteristics - These are isolated, brief or temporary digression from

normal writing practices observed in writing standards.

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN EXAMINING EXTENDED WRITING

 Extended Writings- are any writing by an individual other than their own signature or
initial. Signatures are just that, the name of a person or something representing his/her
name. (anonymous, threat, poison letters)
 Signatures of an individual may become stylized over time because the person
tends to write his/her name over and over. Therefore, often it is not possible to use
the extended writing of a person to identify a signature of that individual.
 To identify questioned signatures, it is best to have contemporaneous signatures
of the subject for comparison.
1. uniformity- does the questioned writing have smooth, rhythmic and free
flowing appearance?
2. irregularities- does the questioned writing appear awkward, ill-formed
slowly drawn.

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 3. size & proportion- determine the height of the over-all writing as well as the
height of the individual strokes in proportion to each other.
4. alignment- are they horizontally aligned, or curving, uphill or downhill.
5. spacing- determine the general spacing between letters, spacing between
words. Width of the left and right margins, paragraph indentations.
6. degree of slant- determine the general spacing between letters, spacing
between words. Width of the left and right margins, paragraph indentations.
7. degree of slant- are they uniform or not.
8. formation and design of the letters- “t”, (-) bars, “i” dots, loops, circle
formation.
9. initial, connecting and final strokes.

VARIATION IN HANDWRITING

A more or less definite pattern for each is stored away in the subjective mind but
the hand does not always produce a stereo type of the pattern. The hand ordinarily is not
an instrument of precision and therefore we may not expect every habitual manual
operation to be absolutely uniform. The greater this skill in the art of penmanship, the less
the variations there will be in the form of individualized letters as well as in the writing as
a whole.
A. CAUSES OF VARIATIONS
1. Function of some external factors i.e. influence of the available space.
2. Abnormal conditions such as physical injury, toxic effects, inebriations,
emotion and deception.
3. Position of letter- all the letters are to be found initially, medially, and finally.
The fact of the different position, especially in combination with another and
particular letter, may modify any of them in some way or another.
B. IMPORTANCE OF VARIATION
1. Personal variation encountered under normal writing conditions is also a
highly important element of identification. The qualities of personal variation
include both its nature and its extent. It becomes necessary to determine the
amount, extent, and exact quality of the variations.
2. It is improbable that the variety and extent of the variation in handwriting will
be exactly duplicated in two individuals that such a coincidence becomes
practically impossible and this multitude of possible variations when
combined is what constitutes individuality in handwriting.
3. With a group of signatures of a particular writer, certain normal divergence in
size, lateral spacing and proportions actually indicate genuineness. Variation
in genuine writing is ordinarily in superficial parts and in size, proportions,
degree of the care given to the act, design, slant, shading, vigor, angularity,
roundness’ and direction of the stroke.

Individual Variation in Handwriting

It has been said that any two objects than molecular size contain variation, and so
it with handwriting. We never write anything exactly the same. Every time we write, we
write slightly different. Sometimes a little larger, sometimes smaller, faster, slower, more
angled, less angles, etc. our individual characteristics will be slightly different each and
every time we pick up a pen.

External Variation in Handwriting

Some individual’s handwriting will display little difference in individual
characteristics from the time that their handwriting had matured (usually in the late teens
or early 20’s), until the time they go to the grave. Most individual’s handwriting will undergo
moderate to radical changes throughout a lifetime. These changes whether seemingly or
pictorially extreme, are brought about by any number of factors. Age and infirmity,
medication, changing eyesight, or perhaps even a change in occupation can be a catalyst.

 Tremor - Rhythmic movement of part of the body caused by involuntary rhythmic

muscle contractions. Deviations from uniform strokes, ordinarily called tremors, which
are perfectly apparent without magnification, are due to the following:
1. lack of skill on the part of the writer;
2. self-consciousness of the writing process; or to the
3. hesitation which is the result of copying or imitating

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  Lack of smoothness-tremor - may be due to uncontrollable nervousness on the
part of the writer or, in illiterate writing, to clumsiness partly due to a lack of clear
mental impression of the form which is being made.
 Tremors of age, of illiteracy, and of weakness are not always distinguishable
from each other, but can usually be distinguished from tremor of fraud.
 Benign essential familial tremor – it is a condition which is characterized by an
accentuated tremor of the hands and sometimes the head. It affects handwriting
to some extent, making it untidy; unless the sufferer’s occupation requires steady
hands (e.g. a surgeon or watchmaker), it is not normally serious. This condition is
a genetically inherited and may start at any age.
 Intention tremor - is one, which worsens upon movement. It can be
demonstrated when a person attempts to touch his or her nose with a finger. This
type of tremor is seen in diseases of the brainstem (cerebellum) and multiple
sclerosis.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION:

1. Recognition of handwriting Characteristics (Analysis) - Properties of

characteristics, observed or measured. The process of recognizing handwriting
characteristics takes time and ability of the examiner to distinguish what are the
style and individual characteristics. Sufficient time element is required to gain
familiarization – mentally and visually, the individual characteristics of the writer.
Familiarization offers ability in distinguishing characteristics which are normal and
disguised.
2. Comparison of Handwriting Characteristics – In comparing questioned with the
standard exemplars, point of similarities and points of dissimilarities are noted for
later evaluation. In comparison, make allowance for the presence of natural
variations in handwriting.
3. Evaluation of Handwriting Characteristics for Opinion Purposes – After
comparison, evaluate or weight the significance and number of points or similarities
and points of dissimilarities of handwriting characteristics as it will become the sole
basis of conclusion.
4. Findings/Conclusion – The examiner should offer findings or conclusions based
on the results of the examined documents together with photographic presentations

SYSTEMATIC EXAMINATION OF HANDWRITING

1) Preliminary Procedures:
 Determine whether the material is of good quality and contains sufficient
characteristics of handwriting that can be compared.
 Determine if exemplars are suitable for comparison with the questioned
material. The exemplars must be representative of the writer and written
under similar conditions as the questioned material within a reasonable time
frame.
 Make certain that all of the exemplars are genuine and can be authenticated
for the benefit of the court.
 Have enough comparable material to draw conclusions about the
questioned documents.
2) Initial Examination:
 Search for obvious signs of forgery in the questioned material.
 If there are no obvious signs of forgery, determine if there is any evidence
of self-disguise. Disguised writing is any conscious or deliberate attempt to
alter the normal characteristics of one’s handwriting to prevent recognition.

3) Detailed Examination
 Compare the questioned to the known handwriting. Consider the various
factors that affect handwriting and take into consideration all of the
characteristics of writing.
 Determine if differences are the result of natural variation or different writers.
4) Making an Identification
 List the similarities and differences between questioned and known
documents.

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  Determine if there are enough similar identifying characteristics without any
significant fundamental divergences to make identification.
5) Elimination
 To eliminate a writer, one must know all of the different ways a writer can
write. This requires much larger samples of known handwriting before
elimination can be made.

STANDARDS
1. Standard - A known writings which indicate how a person writes. A writer
manifests fixed habits in his writing that identify him. This fact provides the basis
for an opinion or conclusion regarding any writing identification problem.
2. Exemplar- specimen of the writing of suspects.

Note: The term standards is a general term referring to all authenticated writings of the
suspects while exemplars refers more especially to a specimens of standard writing
offered in evidence or obtained or requested for comparison with the questioned writing.
Brief History
Federal Statute (Title 28, U.S Code, Section 1731) – addressed the question of
admissibility of handwriting standards, stating that, “The admitted or proved handwriting
of any person shall be admissible for the purpose of comparison to determine
genuineness of another handwriting attributed to such person.”
Gilbert v. California (1976) – settled one argument by ruling that the handwriting
exemplar is an identifying physical characteristic outside Fifth Amendment provisions
against self-incrimination.
Lewis v. U.S. – answered the Sixth Amendment challenge, that of right to counsel
during the taking of exemplars.

General Classes of Handwriting Standards:

A. Non-Request Standards (sometimes referred to as “gathered or collected”)
 These are quite simply writings, which were indisputably prepared by the
accused when he had no reason to think that they would be used for a
handwriting comparison. They are, therefore, inherently devoid of any attempt
to disguise
 Those known (genuine) handwritings of an individual such as signature and
endorsements on canceled checks, legal papers, letters, commercial, official
and private document and other handwriting such as letters, memoranda, etc.
written in the course of daily life, both for business and socials.
Disadvantage of Non-Request Standard
It may difficult to find samples that fit the criteria of repeating the format and
context of the questioned writing.
Advantage of Non-Request Standard
The elimination of any possibility of disguise often outweighs the possible
disadvantages.
B. Request Standards
 Those in which the subject is asked to write specific material, usually through
dictation. These standards will be used for the express purpose of conducting
a handwriting comparison.
 Signatures or handwritings written by an individual upon request for the
purpose of comparison with other handwritings or for specimen purposes.
Advantage of Request Standard
The format and content of the questioned writing can be followed closely
under the examiner’s direction and control.
Disadvantage of Request Standard
This class of standard allows the subject to have knowledge that his writing
will be used for a comparison that may well be adverse to his best interests.
Consequently, writers will often attempt to alter their normal writing or otherwise
disguise their writing so as to foil or confuse the pending examination.

SOURCES OF SIGNATURES WRITTEN IN THE COURSE OF DAILY AFFAIRS

1. Cancelled checks
2. Signature cards for saving, checking and charge accounts and safe deposit boxes.
3. Signed receipts for telegrams, special delivery or registered letters, express and
store packages, etc.
4. Business and personal letters

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 5. Credit application and cards
6. Signature on sales slip’ on job order slips, requisition slips and purchase slips.
7. Lease, mortgages, agreement, bill of sale, contract, deeds, notes stock certificates
and transfers and other legal or business documents.
8. Court records and affidavit, such as naturalization papers, bankruptcy
proceedings, divorce papers. Probated wills and state files, powers of attorney,
etc.
9. Passport, marriage applications, license and affidavits.
10. Driver automobile chauffeur, and other types of licensee applications.
11. Application for gas, electricity, water and telephone services.
12. Loan application and receipts
13. Tax return of affidavits
14. Insurances and license applications
15. Records from currency exchanges, check-cashing agencies and pawnshop
16. Time sheets, payroll, pay receipts and personal forms
17. Barangay registration, petitions
18. Relief, unemployment and old age compensation records
19. Signature for certain drug purchases, hotel registrations
20. Church, club and professional record
21. Veteran records
22. Fingerprint records
23. School or university class records and cards
24. Application for clearance like in the office of the municipal and city courts, city
fiscal’s office, police departments, office of the NBI and other government and
private offices.
25. Application for fire arms and licenses
26. Application for commission and enlistment in the AFP and foreign armed forces
offices
27. Application for export and import and dollar allocations
28. ID cards
29. Application for right like water rights, copyrights, patients, franchises, etc.

HOW TO PREPARE AND COLLECT HANDWRITING STANDARDS

Factors to consider in the selection of standards

A. The Amount of Standard Written- Good writing standards should be sufficient to
define accurately the identifying habits as well as the kind and extent of variation
typical of the writer’s handwriting under any specific writing condition. (Hilton)
a) At least ten to twenty - five signatures
b) Writing- usually four or five pages of natural writing.

B) Similarity of Subject Matter - The style of writing contained in the standard or

exemplars should be similar to the style of the questioned writings. If the
questioned writings are hand printed, then get hand printed standard or exemplar.
a) Compare conventional copy book from conventional to the copy-book
form of standard; and compare highly individualized questioned signature
with highly individualized standard signatures.
b) Extended writing- determines whether the questioned writing is purely
cursive, or script or block or combination of three or two styles of writing.

C) Relative Dates of the questioned and the standards – writing standard

signatures or writing must be those written five years before or five years after
(Contemporaneous document) the date of the questioned signature or writing.
The ideal standards are those before, on and after the date of the questioned
writing.

Importance of Contemporaneous Standards

1. Helps to determine or trace gradual changes on one’s hand writing or signature.
2. Aids in tracing the development of any writing variation
A. CONDITION UNDER WHICH BOTH THE QUESTIONED AND THE
STANDARD ARE PREPARED. If the questioned handwriting is executed
under abnormal conditions, it is necessary to look for standards prepared
under comparable circumstances such as; paper rested on the knee;
standing; sitting; lying down; and/ or while on moving vehicle

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 B. WRITING INSTRUMENT AND PAPER. Same instrument used in the
preparation of the questioned document must be obtained in the standards.
If the signature was written by ballpen in ruled paper and above a type
written name, standard prepared under similar conditions should be
selected. If the questioned handwriting was written by a pencil, then
standard written should be contemporaneous with the standard exemplars.

Steps in Obtaining Dictated (Requested) Known Writing:

1. The subject should be seated in a comfortable or natural position in a desk or with
a table having smooth writing surface.
2. Furnish or supply the subject with whatever instrument used in the preparation of
the questioned document (similar writing instrument used in the execution of
document under scrutiny).
3. Dictate the material to be written at a rate of speed, which will produce the subject’s
natural writing habits.
4. Each specimen should be removed immediately out of his sight while preparing
the succeeding one. The investigator should be calm and look unconcerned during
the whole proceeding in order to induce naturalness in the writing of the standards.
5. If questioned writings include a street address, municipality, provincial or city,
telephone number, identification number, etc., the subject should be requested to
include such particulars in his standards.
6. Request standards should be written at several different times during a single
interview rather than having them prepared in one continuous writing operation. A
desirable plan is to ask routine questions for 10-15 minutes at several points in the
interview to divert the subject’s attention temporarily from writing them. This is to
determine the qualities of personal variations that include its nature and extent.
7. All standards should be signed and dated. Have the subject state in his handwriting
that these handwriting specimens or standards are being given of free will for
purposes of examination and comparison.
8. Study the slant, speed, and general appearance of the collected writings so you
can determine whether the dictated writings are being written in a normal fashion
during the interview. If not take measures to prevent the subject from distorting or
disguising his/her handwriting.
9. You may instruct him/her on when to write or print, or when to capitalize.
10. Number the exemplars in the sequence in which they were written.
11. Make notes of the instructions given to the writer and provide that information with
the laboratory examination request.

Special Procedure for taking Request Handwriting Standards where Check Forgery
is Suspected:
a.) The subject should be furnished with comparable blank checks, or of paper of
corresponding size and with appreciate spacing and rulings (similar to the
questioned check/s).
b.) He should be asked to fill in all the particulars on the standard checks in his usual
manner of preparing checks.
c.) Dictate the entries to be made on the specimen as shown in the questioned check:
the date, payee’s name, amount, and other particulars of issuance. The subject
should affix his signature on the check he accomplished.

DON’Ts in Taking Dictated Known Writings:

1) Do not coach the writer on how to make the letter forms
2) Never allow the subject to see the questioned writing
3) Do not show him/her any handwriting or even typewriting and tell him/her to copy
4) Give no assistance in spelling or arrangement on page.

Factors/circumstances to Consider in Obtaining Known Comparison

Signatures:
1. Genuine signatures written in date to the date of questioned signature.
2. Genuine signatures written on similar material (checks, unlined stationary, similar
printed forms, etc.)
3. Genuine signatures written under the same alleged or known circumstances.
4. Genuine writing written with a similar writing instrument (ball point pen, roller ball
pen, fountain pen, pencil, etc.)

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Possible Sources of Handwriting for Comparison Purpose (Non-Request
Standards)
1.) Account books 26.) Corporation papers
2.) Affidavits 27.) Credit applications
3.) Assignments 28.) Credit cards
4.) Autographs 29.) Criminal records
5.) Automobile insurance application 30.) Deeds
6.) Automobile license applications 31.) Deeds of trust
7.) Automobile title certificates 32.) Depositions
8.) Bank deposit slips 33.) Diaries
9.) Bank safe deposit entry slips 34.) Dog license applications
10.) Bank savings withdrawal slips 35.) Drafts
11.) Bank signature cards 36.) Drive-it-yourself applications
12.) Bank statements, receipts for 37.) Driver’s licenses and
13.) Bible entries applications
14.) Bills of sale 38.) Druggists’ poison registers
15.) Bonds 39.) Employment applications
16.) Books, signatures of owner in 40.) Envelopes
17.) Building, “after hours” registers 41.) Fishing licenses
18.) Business license applications 42.) Funeral attendance registers
19.) Charity pledges 43.) Gas service applications
20.) Check book stubs 44.) Gasoline mileage records
21.) Checks, including 45.) Gate records at defense plants
endorsements 46.) Greeting cards, Christmas
22.) Church pledges cards, etc.
23.) Convention registration books 47.) Hospital entry applications, etc.
24.) Contracts 48.) Hotel and motel guest registers
25.) Cooking recipes 49.) Hunting licenses
50.) Identification cards 85.) Rental contracts
51.) Inventories 86.) Reports
52.) Leases, real property 87.) Retail store sale slips
53.) Letters 88.) School and college papers
54.) Library insurance applications 89.) Social security cards/papers
55.) Light card applications 90.) Sport and game score cards
56.) Life insurance applications 91.) Stock certificate, endorsement
57.) Loan applications 92.) Surety bond applications
58.) Mail orders 93.) Tax estimates/returns
59.) Manuscripts 94.) Telegram copy
60.) Marriage records 95.) Telephone service application
61.) Membership cards 96.) Time sheets
62.) Memoranda of all kinds 97.) Traffic tickets
63.) Military papers 98.) Voting registration records
64.) Mortgages 99.) Water company service
65.) Newspaper advertise, copy application
66.) Occupational writings 100.) Wills
67.) Package receipts 101.) Workmen’s computation
68.) Parents sign on report cards papers
69.) Partnership papers
70.) Pawn tickets
71.) Passports
72.) Payroll receipts
73.) Pension applications
74.) Permit applications
75.) Petitions, referendum, etc.
76.) Photograph albums
77.) Pleadings
78.) Postal cards
79.) Probate court papers
80.) Promissory notes
81.) Property damage reports
82.) Receipts for rent, etc.
83.) Registered mail return receipts
84.) Releases of mortgages

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Admissibility of Standard Writings:
Standard used by the document examiner in identification writings on which he
based his conclusion cannot be introduced, the document examiner may not be able to
provide convincing opinion or his testimony may be weakened.

Classes of Standard writings which are Admissible for Comparison:

1. Standard writings witnessed
a.) Un-contradicted testimony of an eyewitness as to the execution of a writing
is sufficient to permit the use of certain writing as standard to be compared
with other writings.
b.) Writings voluntarily prepared by a party in the presence of an investigator
(known as Requested standard)
2. Standard writings admitted
If the party whom a handwriting standard is admitted the genuineness of the
standard and he holds that further proof of genuineness is unnecessary.
3. Record maintained in regular course of business as standard writings
4. Government documents as standard writings
Signatures of government officials on document treated as authentic and
produced from official archives may be admitted in evidence as standard of
comparison whether being as issue, as to the forgery of the signature of the same
persons on other documents.
5. Ancient writings (written in Latin, Spanish, Arabic, Greek, etc.)
6. Other standard writings (such as appearance bond, in which further proof of
genuineness before it is used as standard is not needed)
7. Familiarity sometimes establish standard writings
Testimony as to the genuineness of a collection of writing standards by
witness who are familiar with a person’s handwriting.
8. Opinion evidence
9. Genuineness of standard decided by court
Sufficiency of the proof of genuineness of a standard or exemplar should
be ascertained by the court.

HANDWRITING /SIGNATURES THAT ARE DIFFICULT TO SOLVE - some problems

are complicated and harder to solve. This includes the following:
1. Signature of the careless or highly erratic writer----collected standards
2. Receipt signature---------------------------------------other receipt signatures
3. Near- illiterate writer------------------------requested standards if writer is still living
4. Signatures of physical impaired writer
5. Signature of intoxicated person------------collect standards written in the same
situation
6. Old age deterioration-----------------collect two or three times more standards
7. Signature of bedridden person---------------- similar to the old age deterioration.
8. Disguised signature or writing---------Specimen written in normal condition could
not be used therefore consider collected and requested standards

EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL IN HANDWRITING

A. PHYSICAL AND MENTAL EFFECTS. Intoxication affects the physiological
being of an individual; the manner of handwriting is also affected.
B. EVIDENCE OF ALCOHOLIC INTOXICATION IN HANDWRITING
1. Bizarre letter forms

38
 2. Greatly enlarged writing
3. Illegible forms and writing generally
4. Uneven baseline
5. Meaningless blobs or extraneous strokes in the writing
6. Inconsistency in slant of writing
7. Inconsistency in the form of repeated letters

FORGERY IN GENERAL
Forgery
 Fraudulently altering a written document or seal with the intent of injuring the
interests of another person or of fraudulently obtaining governmental revenue.
(Criminal Law)
 It is the act of falsely making or materially altering, with intent to defraud, and writing
which, if genuine, might be of legal efficacy or the foundation of a legal liability.
Forgery includes the following:
a. signing the name of a person who cannot write
b. any material alteration, however slight, such as the unauthorized use of
another’s signature
c. transferring a genuine signature to a document for which it was not intended
d. fabrication of an entire document
 To secure a conviction for forgery it is necessary to prove intent to defraud, but
not that the purpose should have been actually effected; it is sufficient to show
that the forgery would have proved injurious another’s interests had it gone
ahead

NOTE: The offense is not limited to the fabrication of writing, but includes the
fabrication of printed or engraved instruments, such as railway and airplane
tickets, stock certificates, and bonds. Moreover, the false document must have an
apparent legal efficacy.

HISTORY OF FORGERY
a) 80 BC – Romans prohibited the falsification of documents that transferred land to
heirs.
b) Middle Ages – Forgery become prevalent in Europe.
c) 1562 – England passed a statute prohibiting forgery of publicly recorded and
officially sealed documents, specifically those pertaining to titles for land.
d) 1726 – False endorsement on an unsealed private document became a crime
punishable by pillory, fines, imprisonment, and even death.
e) 1819 – England issued one pound bills inscribed on ordinary white paper with
simple pen and inks, resulting in massive forgeries and arrest of 94,000 people,
7,700 of which are were sentenced to death.
f) 1823 – The United States enacted the principal federal forgery statute that
prohibited false making, forgery, or the alteration of any writing for the purpose of
obtaining financial gain.
g) 1962 – The American Law Institute’s Model Penal Code simplified and defined the
elements of forgery and became the standard for defining the crime of forgery.
Expert Witnesses and Pioneers of Document Examination
 539 AD in Rome – Justinian Code permitted judges to appoint experts to give
testimony in court regarding the genuineness of a writing based on a comparison
with other admitted genuine writings.

39
 English – Followed the Justinian Code, but only allowed witnesses to testify
regarding the authenticity of signature if they had knowledge of or had seen the
disputed signature written.
 1854 – English Parliament, allowed the introduction of genuine writing that was not
part of the court case for the purpose of comparing.
USA
 1812 – The earliest record of expert comparison testimony in America was in
Sauve V. Davidson, where a signature on a promissory note was proven
genuine.
 19th Century – Handwriting identification become popular.
 1814 – In Homer v. Wallis, 11 Mass. 309, the court permitted the submission
of writings and the evidence of witnesses on the comparison of a disputed
writing.
 1914 – Congress enacted the Statute of 1913, which accepted such
comparisons to be used as competent evidence in court to prove or disprove
the genuineness of a person’s handwriting.
 1867 – The significant forgery case was tried in Massachusetts involving the
traced signature of Sylvia Ann Howland of New Bedford. The most significant
testimony came from Dr. Benjamin Piece, a mathematician from Harvard who
testified on the mathematical probability of identical strokes being made in two
different signatures, He claimed that the likelihood of 30 strokes occurring in
two separate signature could only occur once in 931,000,000,000,000,000,000.
His methodology was subsequently proven to be inaccurate.
 1894 – Handwriting identification became sufficiently well-known that two New
York experts published books on the subject: William E. Hagan (Disputed
Handwriting) and Persifor Frasher published (A Manual for the Study of
Documents) re titled Bibliotics or the Study of Documents.
 1900 – Daniel Armes wrote Ames on Forgery, one of the first books on
document examination. Around this time, handwriting experts who were mostly
calligraphers began to testify in court as expert witnesses.
 1900 – Roland B. Molineux was convicted for the first degree murder. He
mailed a bottle labeled Emerson’s Bromo-Seltzer’ but had powder containing
cyanide of mercury. It was ingested by an innocent victim who died by
poisoning. The landmark case involved at least 17 handwriting experts,
including Albert Osborn, the Father of Document Examination.
 1902 – Albert T. Patrick was convicted for conspiring to murder hi millionaire
client, William Marsh Rice. The Rice Will Case required handwriting testimony
to prove that Patrick forged Rice’s name on several cheque and a will after he
had murdered Rice. Albert Osborn testified in this case to the fact that the
cheque and will were traced forgeries. He was allowed to use photographs on
transparent paper to show that the checks and will were traced forgeries. He
was allowed to use photographs on transparent paper to show that the four
questioned signatures were identical.
 1904 – John H. Wigmore wrote The Law of Evidence, which revolutionized
the legal profession regarding expert testimony.
 1910 – Albert Osborn published his seminal book Questioned Document,
the first comprehensive book on the subject and considered as the “bible” of
document examination. The principle of handwriting identification that he
described is still the basis for the comparison of handwriting today.
 1930 – The first scientific police laboratory was established.

40
  1932 – The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) opened their laboratory with
a document examiner.

Historical Cases of the 20th Century

1) The Dreyfus Affair in 1894
2) The Bobby Franks kidnap and murder in 1924
3) The Lindbergh Kidnapping Trial in 1935
4) The Clifford Irving and the Howard Hughes Biography in 1972
5) The Mormon Will in 1978
6) The Hitler Diaries in 1983

SIGNATURE
 It is the name of a person written by him/her in a document as a sign of
acknowledgment. Or, it is name or a mark that a person puts at the end of a
document to attest that he is its author or that he ratified its contents.
 Many persons who have done a lot of writing transform their name. Letters
become simplified or condensed, complex movement appears. This is now a
signature.
 It is mark but this mark is now personal. It is a personal combination of strokes in
which it is possible to recognize the writer.
 Signatures should be considered not just from the point of view whether there is
any difference whatever. The problem is to form a judgment first about the normal
range of variation in the standard and then to consider whether the questioned
signature has significant similarity and whether any difference you observe is
within the range of normal variation established by the standards or whether
variations shown by several signatures.
 It refers to any design or pattern written by a person in a document as a
representation of acknowledgment. (This definition accepts both the personalized
and the conventional type of signature).

Kinds/Types of Signature:

1. Conventional or Ordinary Copy-Book Form (Formal) - The letters are legible.

This is considered as the complete and correct signature for an important
document such as will.
2. Highly Individualized or Personalized - This is characterized by a series of
intertwining stroke, ornamentation and flourishes.
3. Informal (Cursory) - It is usually for routine documents and personal
correspondence.
4. Careless Scribble -This is often used for the mail carrier, delivery boy or the
autograph collector.

Classification of Suspect Signatures

 Seven Classifications of suspect signatures (according to “Suspect
Documents” Harrison):
1. forged signatures where no attempt has been made to make a copy of the
genuine signature of the person purporting to sign the document;
2. forged “signatures of fictitious persons”

41
 3. forged signatures which closely resemble the genuine signature since they
have been produced by a tracing process;
4. forged signatures which resemble the genuine signature, written freehand
to produce what is known as a “simulated forgery”;
5. genuine signatures which have been obtained by trickery;
6. genuine signatures which the writers are honestly unwilling to accept as
genuine;
7. genuine signatures which have been deliberately written illegibly or in an
unusual manner, so as to afford the signatories some plausible grounds for
disclaiming them should they deem it expedient

Suggested Steps in the Examination of Signatures

1) Place the questioned and the standard signatures in a juxtaposition (side by
side) for simulation viewing of the various elements and characteristics.
2) Find elements o be considered on the movement employed or manner of
execution (slow, deliberate, rapid, etc.). The fundamental difference existing
between a genuine signature and an almost perfect forgery is the manner of
execution.
3) Second element to examine is the quality of the line: smooth, fluent, presence
of tremor or hesitant. Defect in line quality is only appreciated when
simultaneous viewing is made.
4) Examine the beginning and ending lines; they are very significant. Determine
whether the appearance is blunt, club-shaped, tapered, or vanishing.
5) Examine the design and structure of the letter. Determine roundness,
smoothness, angularity and direction. Each individual has a different concept
of letter design.
6) Look at the presence of patching and retouching.
7) Examine the connecting stokes, ratio, size, and lateral spacing.
Do not rely so much in similarity or differences of the capital letters, for these
are often changed according to the whim and caprices of the writer.

CLASSES OF FORGED SIGNATURES (CATEGORIES OF FORGERY OF

SIGNATURES)
1. Simulated or Freehand Imitation Forgery – It is a fraudulent signature which
was executed purely by simulation rather than by tracing the outline of a genuine
signature. It also refers to the free-hand drawing in imitation of model signature.

Simulated with The Model Before The Forger – The forger makes an effort to
obtain a reproduction of the model signature. He works slowly, stroke after stroke.
a) Direct Technique – forger works directly with ink.
b) Indirect Technique – forger works first with pencil and afterwards
covers the pencil strokes with ink.
Two Basic Classes of Simulation:
a. Copied - This is the most common type of simulation in which, a model
document is placed near the document to be forged, and the forger copies
with pen or pencil, his conception of the form of the genuine signature
model; in the manner of the artist sketching from a live model.
 The forger makes an effort to obtain a model signature then he works slowly,
copying the stroke after stroke.
b. Freehand - The forger has no actual model document at hand. He must
rely on inspiration of his collection from past observation of the genuine

42
 signature he intends to imitate. If such a forger has a unique photographic
memory, he may be able to compose a simulation from his mental image
about as readily as if he was copying from an actual model signature.
Usually, however, simulations from memory are grossly inaccurate in some
particulars of form, which the forger is unable to recall with precision.

2. Traced Forgery (Traced Signature) – Any fraudulent signature which was

executed by actually following the outline of a genuine signature with a writing
instrument.
 It is the result of an attempt to transfer to a fraudulent document an exact
facsimile of a genuine writing by same tracing process.
a) Direct Tracing – tracing is made by transmitted light.
b) Indirect Tracing – forger uses a carbon paper and place document on
which he will trace the forged signature under the document bearing
the model signature with a carbon paper between the two.

Methods of Tracing Signatures / Traced Forgery

a. Carbon Process - the forger places the document to be forged on the
bottom, inter-leaves a piece of carbon paper and places on top a document
containing the genuine signature. The forger then traces over the genuine
signature with a pencil, pen stylus, or other sharp pointed instrument. The
pressure of this over-tracing against the carbon paper imprints the
signature pressure of this over-tracing against the carbon paper imprints
the signature outline in carbon on the bottom of the document. This type
could be easily detected by the smattering of carbon remnants on the
forged document.

b. Indentation Process – The document containing the model signature is

placed on top of the forged document. The forger traces with considerable
pressure over the genuine signature using pencil, pen stylus or similar
sharp pointed instruments and creates an indented signature outline on the
document being forged. Later, this impression outline is overwritten using
pencil, or directly with a fountain pen or any other similar writing
instruments.

c. Transmitted / projected Light Process – The document to be forged is

placed on top of the document containing the genuine signature. The two
documents are superimposed over a light source on a transparent flat
surface. The forger traces the signature outline, with either pencil or
fountain pen following the design (outline) of the genuine signature set in
bold relief by the light in back of it.

d. Tracing Paper Techniques - An alternative to the carbon paper method

for applying a carbon outline of the genuine signature on the false
document. Tracing paper is laid over the signature to be traced and an
outline is created on it by running a soft pencil or pen over the lines of the
signature that can be seen through the tracing paper. Following, the back
of the tracing paper is given graphite rubbing with the side of the sharp
pencil and the tracing is laid over the spurious document. Overwriting the
outline of the signature on the observe with a suitable instrument will then

43
 transfer graphite on the reverse to the document beneath in the outline of
the signature that is then overwritten in ink to create the final product.

3. Spurious Signature (Simple Forgery) – A Fraudulent signature in which there

was no apparent attempt of simulation or imitation. Forger does not try to copy a
model but writes something resembling what we ordinarily call a signature. For
this, he uses a false (spurious) name and makes a rapid stroke, disturbing his
usual writing by adopting a camouflage called disguise.

4. Forgery by means of a Stamped Facsimile of a Genuine or Model – Some

individuals very often use a stamped facsimile of their signature.

5. Auto-Forgery – Forgery of one’s signature created by oneself.

6. Transferred or Transposed Forgery – Most traditional ballpoint pen inks employ

the ethylene glycol medium as the base ingredient. A signature made by employing
a pen using this ink may be “transferred” to another document by using ordinary
waxed paper or freezer paper. By placing this form of medium over a genuine
signature and robbing the top of the paper vigorously, the wax absorbs some of
the ethylene glycol-based ink line. The paper now containing a mirror image of the
genuine signature is placed rubbed briskly, melting the wax and ink composite.

7. Photocopy Forgery (Cut and Paste Photocopy)

8. Desktop Forgery – Use of modern computer software, flatbed scanner, imaging

software and Adobe Photoshop.

9. Electronic Signature – Produced through digitized tablet with the use of a digital
pen which is using signing electronic document for transactions.

*As genuine signature, especially done by good writer exhibits fluency and smoothness
of the strokes. While simulated or traced forgeries, the motion of the pen is slow and
careful. The beginning and ending lines are usually blunt or club-shaped appearance.

CHARACTERISTIC PRINCIPLES THAT SUPPLY MOST CASES:

 Pen pressure
 Movement
 Proportion
 Unusual distortion of the forms of letters
 Inconspicuous characteristics
 Repeated characteristics
 Characteristics written with speed
INDICATION OF GENUINENESS
 Carelessness
 Spontaneity
 Alternation of thick and thin strokes
 Speed
 Simplification
 Upright letters are interspersed with slanting letters
 The upward strokes to a threadlike tracing
 Rhythm

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  Good line quality
 Variation
INDICATIONS OF SIMULATED (Direct & Indirect Techniques) and TRACED
FORGERIES
 Tremulous and broken connecting strokes between letters, indicating points at
which the writer has temporarily struck.
 No rhythm
 Carefulness or unusual care and deliberation
 No contrast between upward and downward strokes
 Slow writing – angular writing
 Blunt beginning and endings
 Placement of diacritical marks just over the stem of letters
 Absence of spontaneity – lack of smoothness of letters
 Restrained writing – there is lack of freedom or “inhibited” movements. It gives the
impression that every stroke is made with great difficulty. This writing is small.
 No variation

INDICATIONS OF SIMPLE OR SPURIOUS FORGERY - Writing habits of the writer

(forger) which include his general and individual characteristics is evident in the forged
signature.

INDICATIONS OF FORGERY BY MEANS OF STAMPED FACSIMILE OF A GENUINE

SIGNATURE
o flat strokes
o no contrast between upstrokes and down strokes
o deposit of ink at the junction of two strokes or where two strokes cross each other
o no variation – All signature will superimpose over each other.

FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF ALTERATION

ALTERATION
 Any changes which give the document a different effect from that which is
originally possessed.
 (Legal term) An act purposely done on an instrument by a party thereto or one
beneficially interested therein which effects a change in the sense or language of
the instrument.
Spoliation – Change made accidental or unintentionally, or by having no beneficial
interest in the instrument in the instrument. It does not invalidate the instrument or change
the rights and liabilities of the parties.

Kinds of Alteration
a) Interlineations (Insertion) - Includes the addition of writing and other material
between lines or paragraph or the addition of whole page to a document.
b) Superimposition – overwriting or overlapping
c) Cancellation
d) Erasures
 These refer to the changing of documents by removing certain parts.
 The removal of writings, typewriting or printing from a document.
Two Forms of Erasure:

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 1) Mechanical erasure (appropriately called as erasure by abrasion) - This
is the most common and clumsy form of erasure. In this method, the surface
of the paper itself containing the ink is actually removed, taking the ink with
it. Commonly used instrument is a rubber eraser.
 Examination by transmitted or ultra-violet light will show signs of
much erasure.
2) Chemical erasure (also known as chemical eradication) - It is the form
of erasure that involves the use of chemicals such as white ink. This usually
method usually affect the document in such a way as to show clearly that it
has been tampered with but when skillfully made, they are not discernible
by ordinary observation. All of the chemical preparations used in this kind
of erasure have tendency to produce on white paper, after the lapse of time
a pale yellow stain

e) Obliteration - This is the blotting out or smearing over the writing to make the
original invisible or indecipherable. (e.g. a person spills ink on a document for
the purpose of hiding the parts he does not want to be seen).
 Process of writing over txt with the intention of hiding or destroying the
original information.
 Obliteration by ink can be uncovered by the laboratory with the use of infra-
red photography or ultra-violet light.
 Obliteration is done with color inks – the laboratory can show this with the
use of colored filters.

ALTERATION/ OBLITERATION AND INK EXAMINATION

Ways/methods to decipher or determine an alteration or obliteration and the ink
differentiation:
1. naked eye or low magnification visual examination
2. the use of selective colored filters or colored filters combinations - (this is the
method of choice when dealing obscured, blood stained documents)
3. the use of stereomicroscope - (this may reveal subtle differences within the
questioned material such as a slight change in shading or hue)
4. the use of selective portions of the light spectrum – this is a more in-depth
examination of the questioned document which can be accomplished either of the
following:
a.) photographically
b.) by the use of a process known as Video Spectral Comparison (VSC)
c.) by chemical analysis of the ink (TLC)

 Video Spectral Comparator (VSC) - An equipment which is used in infrared

examination. Through infrared, ink can be observed to glow, be transparent, or
appear unchanged depending upon its chemical properties. This infrared
examination may consist of using specialized light filters and films for
photographic imaging or by the use of equipment specifically designed for infrared
imaging.

 Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC) - It is another highly selective process,

which is usually used in conjunction with ink comparisons rather than obliteration.
When used in conjunction with the other methods (such as the Video Spectral

46
 Comparison), TLC affords the examiner the most frequent opportunity to issue
conclusive opinions concerning two or more inks on one document.
 the most common and principal method of chemical ink examination.
 for comparison of the dyestuffs in the ink
 for identification of one or more of the components of the dyes

 Ink Line Striae

 Another method for differentiating between different writing (usually limited
to ball-point pens), which involves the microscopic observation of the striae
– left in the ink line by imperfections in the ball or ball housing of the writing
pen.
 Combinations of 2 or more of the different techniques may allow extremely
definitive opinions concerning alterations and obliterations, or ink and pen
differentiation.

THE EXAMINATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF INK

 to examine whether the ink of some writing or alterations in a police blotter is
identical with the ink found in the possession of the suspect.
 It is necessary then that before a chemical examination is attempted, which results
in a partial destruction of writing, an exhaustive examination by non-destructive
methods (visual & photographic examination) be carried out.
 Know the composition and developmental history, method of manufacture of the
types of ink most commonly used.
 Antedating can only be proven by identifying a component of the ink which was not
yet included in inks at the alleged date of the document.

DETERMINATION OF THE AGE OF THE INK

To determine the age of writing or the difference in the ages of different writings, the
document examiner makes use of a property of the ink writing which changes in the
course of time. This selection of properties (physical “changes”; chemical “present
substances / chemicals) will be determined by the composition of ink and the
circumstances under which the writing ages.

DISGUISED HANDWRITING
 It is one in which the person has made a deliberate attempt to remove or modify
all or some of his normal writing habits
 It must be realized that it is relatively simple to sufficiently change one’s writing
habits for one or two words to avoid identification. However, the problem of
maintaining an effective disguise grows more difficult with each additional word.
Some of the methods employed by an individual attempting to disguise are
easily recognized:
1. Writing very large or very small
2. Writing very fast or very slow
3. An exaggerated slant of the writing
4. Writing with the offhand
5. Embellished, unnatural or unnecessary additions to letters
6. Grotesque letter forms
7. Heavy pen pressure (easily gauged visually by indentation depth)
8. Combinations of any of the preceding

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INDENTED WRITING
 It is also called as “second page writing.”
 This is the impression from the writing instrument captured on sheets of paper
below the one that contains the original writing. It most often manifests itself when
pads of paper are used.
 Indented writing can be a source of identification in anonymous note cases
and is an invaluable investigation procedure when medical records are
suspected of containing alterations. Often, a writing addition to a record or
file can be revealed by an impression that has been transferred to the page
below. Indented writing on subsequent pages may not be in agreement with
what appears on the surface of the document. Writing found to be out of
position, missing, or added after the fact can be, demonstrated by
recovering and preserving indented writing from other pages.
 The method to “read” indented writing from suspect pages was to rub a soft
lead pencil or carbon paper over the surface of the document. The
indentations would be highlighted in relief. This technique is one way to ruin
or destroy what might be valuable evidence and should serve as a warning
against amateur examinations.
Methods used to recover indented writing:
1. Photography by using oblique (glancing) light
2. Use an Electro-static Detection Apparatus (commonly known as ESDA)

GUIDED-HANDWRITING OR ASSISTED SIGNATURES

 A signature that is produced by the cooperation of two hands and two minds will
usually show evidence of unnaturalness in the signature itself that is inconsistent
with forgery.
 A signature that is executed while the writer’s hand or arm is steadied in any way.
Under the law of most jurisdictions such a signature authenticates a legal
document provided it is shown that the writer requested the assistance. Guided
signatures are most commonly written during a serious illness or on a deathbed.
Types:
a. Inert hand- refers to completely involuntary; incapability of motor activity
and signatory may be conscious or even unconscious. (Illiterate persons).
b. Guided-hand- situation is one in which the person providing the guidance
usually dominates the writing process and provides greater portion of
control. (partial incapacitation).
c. Forced Hand- signatory is forced to write against his will, by threats,
constraints and the like.
d. Assisted-hand- one in which the person assisting (co-adjutant) provides
help to a lesser degree, perhaps only to the point of steadying a tremulous
arm or hand, without actually directing the movement of the writing
instrument.

AGE OF DOCUMENTS
A question of the age of document may arise in connection with papers such as
wills or contracts. Documents, which impose an obligation, given a title, or grant a benefit,
may depend for their effectively or validity on date. Therefore, they are susceptible to the
work of a forger. A document can be treated by a skilled forger so as to make it appears
to be fifty years older than it actually is. A skilled document examiner can often detect the
falsity of such document.

48
 The earliest date a document could have been prepared can sometimes be
determined by examining watermarks, indented writing, printing, and typewriting.

Methods of Aging
To give the document an appearance of age, it is subject to chemical and physical
treatment.
Techniques Employed to Alter the Age of a Document:
A. Heating – this is one technique wherein the document may be heated in an
oven, or a hot stove to give it the brittleness and discoloration of age.
B. Sunlight – exposure to sunlight produces the yellow color of age. Carbon arc
and ultraviolet lamps can be used for the same purpose.
C. Abuse – the paper may be crumpled, smeared, or discolored to give it the
appearance of neglect that is associated with age.
D. Chemical Treatment – the document can be subjected to one or more of the
many chemical processes that will stimulate the appearance of age.

DISCOLORATION
 A change in the physical characteristics of the paper after a passage of time due
to environmental factors such as moisture, temperature, dust, etc.
 Papers out of wood pulp start to discolor at their edges from 2 to 3 years.
 RUG-SHIP QUALITY papers are very old before discoloration starts.

CAUSES OF DISCOLORATION
 Oxidation brought about by natural means
 Production of molds that are very obvious characteristics
 Exposure to dust and dirt
 Occasional staining of fruit juice or greases
 Heating, partial burning, etc.

DETAILED EXAMINATION OF WRITING MATERIAL

 Collect standard document from the issuing institution, company or individual and
compare.
 Consider the physical characteristics of both questioned and standard documents
such as the size, the thickness, the surface (glossiness, opacity, etc.) and the general
texture of the paper.
 Check with the issuing institution, company or individual about the dissimilarity of
writing material used in the questioned document.
 Conduct further physical or chemical examination such as folding endurance test,
folding test, bursting test, etc.

TYPEWRITER AND TYPEWRITING EXAMINATION

History of Forgery by Typewriter

Levy v. Rust (1893) – the first typewriting case that went to a court for review.
(Levy v. Rust, 49 Atl. 1017 – New Jersey). The court in this case stated: “An expert in
typewriting is brought here and that expert sat down by my side at the table here and
explained his criticism on this typewriting, and I went over it with him carefully with the
glass….it appeared very clearly. I was very much struck by his evidence. If you compare
the typewriting work, it contains precisely the same peculiarities which are found in the
typewriting in these seven suspected papers.”

49
 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1891) – he wrote about typewriter identification in his
Sherlock Holmes story “A Case of Identity.”
62nd Congress – enacted the United States Statue of 1913, Chapter 79, which
allows for the introduction of admitted or proven handwriting exemplars for comparative
purposes.
People v. Werblow, 209 N.Y.S. 88 (1925) – it was stated that: “The law is well
settled that such specimens of typewriting are properly received in evidence for the
purposes of comparison.”
State v. Swank, 99 Ore.571, 195 Pac 168 (1921) – J.F. Wood, document
examiner, testified clear, analytical and convincing terms the reasons for his brief that the
two notes were prepared by the same person on the same typewriter.

EVOLUTION OF TYPEWRITERS
A. Several typewriters like machines were develop during the latter part of the 17th
century. The first patent, however, was granted by QUEEN ANNE of England to
HENRY MILL in 1714 for a machine designed to reproduce a letter of the alphabet.
B. Within the next 100 years, however, at least 50 attempts were made by various
inventors to develop a typing machine.
C. IN 1829, WILLIAM AUSTIN BURT the Detroit, invented the TYPOGRAPHER.
D. In 1833, a French patent was given to the French inventor Xavier Progin for a
machine that embodied for the first time one of the principles employed in modern
typewriters: the use for each letter or symbol of separate typebars, actuated by
separate lever keys.
E. In 1843, American inventor Charles Grover Thurber invented a typewriter which
prints through a metal ring that revolved horizontally above the platen and was
equipped with a series of vertical keys or plungers having pieces of type of the
bottom. The machine was operated by revolving the wheel until the correct letter
was centered over the printing position on the platen, and then striking the key.
F. Several other inventors attempted to produce machines designed to make
embossed impressions that could be read by the blind. One such machine,
developed by the American inventor Alfred Ely Beach in 1856, resembled the
modern typewriter in the arrangement of its keys and typebars, but embossed its
letters on a narrow paper strip instead of a sheet.
G. A similar machine created by the American inventor Samuel W. Francis, and
patented by him in 1856, had a circular arrangement of typebars, a moving paper
holder, a bell that rang to signal the end of a line, and an inked ribbon. The
keyboard arrangement of Francis’s machine resembled the black and white keys
of a piano.
H. The development of the first practical typewriter begun in 1866 by CHRISTOPHER
LATHAM SHOLES and was patented in 1868. He developed the first practical
typewriter in cooperation with two fellow mechanics, CARLOS GLIDEN and
SAMUEL SOULE.
I. Six years later (1874), Christopher Latham Sholes entered an agreement with
ELIPHALET REMINGTON AND SONS, GUNSMITHS & SEWING MACHINES
MANUFACTURERS, the company produced the REMINGTON MODEL I.
J. Four years later, REMINGTON MODEL II was introduced having both the lower
and upper case of the alphabet.
K. MARK TWAIN (Samuel Clemens) was among the first to buy a typewriter and the
first to submit a typewritten manuscript of a publisher.
L. GEORGE BERNARD SHAW recognized the importance of typewriter when he
became the first playwright to use it as a stage prop in Candida in 1897.

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 M. When THOMAS EDISON visited Sholes to see his machine, he forecasted that
typewriters would one day be operated by electricity.
N. Soon afterwards, Edison built such a typewriter. He used a series of magnet, which
made the machine cumbersome and too expensive to be marketed.
O. The first practical electric typewriter was invented in 1914 by JAMES F.
SMATHERS of Kansas City.
P. In 1933, the International Business Machines, Inc. (IBM), introduced the first
commercially successful electric typewriter to the business world.
Q. The latest development in electric typewriter is one which not only eliminates type
bars and movable carriages but can use six interchangeable type of typefaces.
R. A much more efficient arrangement was devised in 1936 by AUGUST DVORAK.
S. The first basic change in typewriting appeared in 1961. Despite of the revolutionary
advances in typewriting capabilities, one essential element has remained
unchanged since the first Remington. The keyboard arrangement, nicknamed
QWERTY for the top line of letters, was designed to make it easier for salesmen
to use the machine.

IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION OF TYPEWRITTEN QUESTIONED

DOCUMENTS
A. The earliest comment in writing by a document examiner on typewriting
identification was made by HAGAN in 1894. He wrote that all typewriter machines
even when using the same kind of typewriter become more or less peculiar by use
as to the work done by them. These peculiarities positively connect them with the
printing done by the machine.
B. This exposition of the principles of typewriting identification was followed in 1900
by AMES who wrote that the identity of writing by different operators as well as
that done on different machines can be done with considerable degree. Different
operators have their own peculiar methods which differ widely in the location of
date, address, margins, punctuation, spacing, signing, as well as, impressions
from touch.
C. In several articles written between 1901 to 1907, ALBERT S. OSBORNE, the
foremost document examiner of the early 20th century, defined the principles of
typewriting identification used today. He called it” THE LANDMARKS IN
TYPEWRITING IDENTIFICATION.”

THE LANDMARKS IN TYPEWRITING IDENTIFICATION:

1. The typefaces used by the different type writer manufacturer can be differentiated
on the basis of design and have dating significance.
2. Through usage, typewriters develop individuality which can serve to identify the
typewriting of a particular typewriter.
3. The gradual development of typewriting individuality plus ribbon condition and
typeface. Cleanliness can be used to date a document if it was written a period of
time.
4. Horizontal and vertical alignment, tilting characters, lack of uniformity of impression
(off-footedness); typeface scar, breadths, defects and deformities all serve to
identify the type writing of a particular machine.
5. Peculiar habits of striking the type writer keys, spacing, arrangement, punctuation,
mistakes, corrections, can be used to identify a typist or differentiate typists.
6. A sheet of paper cannot be reinserted in a typewriter in exact register with previous
typing done on the sheet of paper.

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TYPES OF TYPEWRITERS:

A. CONVENTIONAL TYPEWRITERS USING TYPE BARS

1. Pica Type – 10 letter/inch
2. Elite Type – 12 letters/inch
3. 6 letters/inch
4. Teletype machine
5. 14-16 letter/inch – specials typewriters

B. TYPEWRITER USING A PRINT WHEEL (ELECTONIC TYPEWRITER) – This is

a typewriter equipped with a disc type device called a print wheel, the printwheel
contains all of characters represented on the typewriter keyboard. This machine
has the capability of typing 10, 12 and 15 letters per inch.

CLASSIFICATION OF TYPEWRITERS BASED ON LETTER DESIGNS

A. The small “w” – depending on the presence or absence of a center serif, height of
central peak and design of the two central diagonals.
1. w-1 – central peak is the same height as the top of the outside stroke and
is capped by serif.
2. w-2 – same with w-1 but has no central serif.
3. w-3 – central joining is below the top of the sides.
4. w-4 – low center but the two central diagonals join the sides well above the
base of the letter
B. Crossbar of small letter “t” – cross bar is either longer on the right or on the left
side and or equidistant on each side. The curved lower extension of the “t” is either
turn upward at a point the left of, to the right of, or about even with the right terminus
of the crossbar of the “t”.
C. The small letter “g” – upper oval is either much smaller or the same and/or different
or the same in shape than the lower oval. Upper and lower ovals are either very
closely spaced or not.
D. Small letter “r” – right arm is either long with very small curve at its end or a long,
right arm with full curve at the end and/or the right arm is short with its curve
moderate to full.
E. Small letter “y” – has three distinctive designs:
1. lower stroke has a broad turn which forms a very shallow trough.
2. lower stroke has a deep full curve which clearly curves right ward.
3. lower stroke turns sharply upward like forming a narrow trough.
F. Smaller letter “i” – has to distinctive designs:
1. center of the dot is set aligned with the central line of the vertical staff.
2. center of the dot is set off to the left of the central line of the vertical staff
G. Upper and Lower Strokes of Capital Letter “E” – maybe equal or the bottom stroke
maybe longer than the upper stroke. The serif either vertical or oblique. The small
“e” may have its straight either horizontal or oblique.
H. Figure “7” – downward stroke is either straight or curve.
I. Figure “5” – downward stroke is either straight or slightly or fully curve.
J. The comma “,” – tail may extend to the left of the dot or only very slightly to the left
of the dot. (,)
K. Parenthesis – may vary in curvature.

Two typewritten documents are said to be typed from one and the same
typewriter if they agree in type face style, design, spacing, alignment and three or
four scars or damaged type faces.
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TYPEFACE MISALIGNMENTS

1. Horizontal Misalignment - A character printing above or below its proper position.

Possible causes are:
 a character soldered too high or too low on the type bar;
 an unsoldered character;
 a type bar having lost its correct curvature;
 a type bar having an oval of axis bearing;
 misalignment of the type bar guide to the right or to the left; and
 disorder of the capital letter shift lock.
2. Vertical Misalignment - An alignment defect in which the character prints the right
or left of its proper position.
3. Oblique Misalignment — the character leans towards the right or towards the left

TYPEWRITING STANDARDS OR EXEMPLARS - the procurement of typewriting

exemplars are grouped as follows:
A. Study of the questioned document by the investigator;
B. Procurement of the regular course of business typewriting;
C. Preparation of exemplar typewriting by the suspected typist;
D. Preparation of typewriting exemplar by the investigator on suspected typewriter;
and
E. The procurement of the suspected typewriter itself by the investigator.

OBTAINING KNOWN TYPEWRITTEN EXEMPLARS - Properly prepared known

typewriting samples not only facilitate the examination in the laboratory but they aid
immeasurably in the demonstration in the court room

THE DEFECTS OF A TYPEWRITER

1) Off its Feet – The condition of a typeface printing heavier in one side or corner
than over the remainder to its outline.
2) Permanent Defect – Any identifying characteristics of a typewriter which cannot
be corrected by simply cleaning the typeface or replacing the ribbon. This term is
not absolutely accurate since all defects in typewriters undergo modification and
change in time.
3) Proportional Spacing Typewriter – Modern form of typewriting which resembles
printing in that all of the letters, numerals and symbols do not occupy the same
horizontal space as the conventional typewriter.
4) Rebound – A defect in which a character prints a double impress on with the lighter
one slightly off act to the right or left.
5) Transitory Defects – An identifying typewriter characteristic which can be
eliminated by cleaning the machine or replacing the ribbon. A clogged typeface
against the ribbon and paper makes the typewritten impression.
6) Typeface Defects – The real clincher of most typewriting identifications, which
includes broken serifs(font that has short cross-strokes that project from the top
and bottom of the main stoke of a letter), scarification, flattened and damaged
portions of typefaces.
7) Twisted Letter – Each letter and character is designed to print at a certain fixed
to the baseline. Due to wear and damage to the type bars and the type block, some
letters become twisted so that they lean to the right or left of their correct slant.
8) Warp – Those threads that run horizontally toward the length of the ribbon.

53
 9) Woof – Threads that run vertically or close-over the warp form the “woof” or filling
of the ribbon.

Procedures for Obtaining Known Typewriting Exemplars

1. If the typewriter has a carbon film ribbon, remove it from the typewriter and submit it
to the laboratory. Submit also the correction tape. Insert a new ribbon in the
typewriter prior to obtaining exemplars.
2. If the typewriter has a fabric ribbon, remove it from the typewriter and put the
typewriter in the stencil position. Place a sheet of carbon paper over a sheet of blank
paper and insert both into the typewriter. Allow the typeface to strike the carbon
paper. Submit the fabric ribbon strike and the carbon paper strike exemplars to the
laboratory.
3. Obtain two full word-for-word texts of the questioned text and type the entire
keyboard (all symbols, numbers, and upper and lower case letters) two times.
4. Record the make, model, and serial number of the typewriter on the exemplars.
Record also the date when the exemplars were obtained and the name of the person
who directed the exemplars.
5. Obtain the typewriter service and/or repair history.

Typewriting Identification and Comparison

3 Main Questions Asked by Document Examiners in Relation to Typewriting:
1.) Were the documents typed on the same typewriter?
2.) What make and model of typewriter was used to prepare the documents?
3.) When was the typewritten document prepared?
Evidence Submission
1. In the case of typewritten material such as a typewritten letter, the original of the
questioned document is almost a basic necessity.
2. Specific suspect machine is to be submitted to the laboratory.
3. If the typewriter is not serviceable, no attempts should be made to effect repairs.
4. Care should be taken during transportation so as to not damage or further damage
the typewriter.
5. If the submission of any suspect typewriter is not practical, the submitter can place
a clean sheet of paper in the suspect machine/s and type the material in question.
6. If the questioned letter is several pages long, it may not be possible to type all of
it.
7. If the questioned material is only a few lines, it may be necessary to type it several
times.

MAKING OF PAPER MONEY

1) Engraving – It is the process by which the line to be printed are cut into pieces of
metal by hand or with a machine. Ink is rubbed over the plate to fill the cuts in the
metal and extra ink wiped-off the top. The pressure of the paper on the plate
caused the ink in the holes to be lifted on the surface of the paper. The ink lines
will be felt to be raised above the surface. The engraving process is used for the
production of all genuine bank notes.
2) Letterpress Printing – is the most common form of printing books, magazine,
letterheads and the usual printing in common uses. In the process, the letters are
made on raised pieces of metal which covered with ink and then impressed upon
the paper in the same form as a rubber stamp. The serial numbers of a bank note
are usually added by this letterpress process after the note has been produced by
an engraving.

54
 3) Offset Printing – is the method a photograph is taken of the desired material and
a print is made on a specially prepared aluminum plate. The plate is kept wet with
water. When ink is applied, it sticks only these parts of the plate where printing is
desired. The aluminum plate is then put in contact with rubber roller which transfers
the ink to the papers. The offset process is quite used in small printing plants.
Because it was photographic process, it is the most common modern used by
counterfeiter to make false paper money.

BANK NOTE PAPER

Paper bank notes get a lot of handling. If a good grade of paper is not used, they
would soon wear out and have to be replaced. Even with the best paper, the old two peso
bill usually wears out and has to be replaced at the end of thirty days. Government buys
the very best grade of paper they can get, in order that the paper will last as long as
possible. Special paper also makes it difficult for the counterfeiter to duplicate it. It is
usually the use of wrong paper that causes the counterfeited banknotes to be detected
by ultraviolet light.

NOTE. In most modern printing, papers have chemicals added

to make look whiter. These chemicals cause brilliant fluorescence
under ultraviolet light.

Evolution of the Philippine Currency

 Pre-Hispanic Era – Trade among the early Filipinos and with traders from the
neighboring islands was conducted through barter. The inconvenience of barter
later led to the use of some objects as medium of exchange. Gold, which was
plentiful in many parts of the islands, invariably found its way into these objects that
included the PILONCITOS, small bead-like gold bits considered by the local
numismatists as the earliest coin of the ancient Filipinos, and gold barter rings.

 Spanish Era – At the end of the Spanish regime, Philippine money was a
multiplicity of currencies that included Mexican pesos, Alfonsino pesos, and copper
coins of other currencies.
Cobs or Macuquinas of colonial mints were the earliest coins brought in by
the galleons from Mexico and other Spanish colonies.
Silver Dos Mundos or Pillar Dollar considered one of the world’s most
beautiful coins.
Barilla a crude bronze or copper coin worth about one centavo, was the
first coin struck in the country
Pesos Fuertes, issued by the country’s first bank (El Banco Espanol
Filipino de Isabel II) were the first paper money circulated in the country.

 Revolutionary Period
The Philippine Republic of 1898 under General Emilio Aguinaldo issued its
own coins and paper currency backed by the country’s natural resources.
1 and 5 Peso notes printed as Republika Filipina Papel Moneda de Un
Peso and Cinco Pesos, were freely circulated. 2 centimos de peso copper was
also issued in 1899.

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  The American Period (1900-1941)
The American instituted a monetary system for the Philippine based on gold
and pegged the Philippine peso to the American dollar at the ration of 2:1. The US
Congress approved the Coinage Act for the Philippines in 1903.
The coins issued under the system bore the designs of Filipino engraver
and artist, Melecio Figueroa. Coins in denomination of one-half centavo to one
peso were minted. The renaming of the bank to Bank of the Philippine Islands
in 1912 paved the way for the use of English from Spanish in all notes and coins
issued up to 1933. Beginning May 1918, treasury certificates replaced the silver
certificates series, and a one-peso note was added.

 The Japanese Occupation (1942-1945)

Two kinds of notes circulated in the country during this period. The
Japanese Occupation Forces issued war notes in big denominations. Provinces
and municipalities, on the other hand issued their own guerrilla notes or
resistance currencies, most of which were sanctioned by the Philippine
government in-exile, and partially redeemed after the war.

 The Philippine Republic

Having gained independence from the United States following the end of
World War II, the country used as currency old treasury certificates overprinted
with the word “VICTORY”.
- Central Bank of the Philippines (1949), the first currencies issued were:
 English series notes printed by Thomas de la Rue and Co.,
Ltd. In England
 Coins minted at the US Bureau of Mint
- The Filipinazation of the Republic coins and papers money began in the late
60’s and is carried through to the present.
- In the 70’s, the Ang Bagong Lipunan (ABL) series notes were circulated,
which were printed at the Security Printing Plant starting 1978.
- A new wave of change swept through the Philippine coinage system with the
flora and fauna coins initially issued in 1983. These series featured national
heroes and species of flora and fauna.
- The New Design Series (NDS) banknotes issued in 1985 replaced the ABL
series. Ten years later, a new set of coins and notes were issued carrying
the logo of the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas.

Philippine Peso Banknotes: The New Generation Currency (NGC) Series

 December 16, 2010, the BSP launched a New Generation Currency (NGC) series
banknotes to replace the NDC, which has been in circulation for over twenty-five
years.

COINS
 These are pieces of metal stamped by government authority, for use as money or
collectively referring to metal currency.
 CASTING is the most common method of making gold coins. Plaster molds
bearing an image of gold coins are filled (within a low temperature) with alloy
made with lead or tin. Some molds are used for high temperature metal such
as copper or silver alloy.
 ENGRAVING

56
  STRIKING OR STAMPING is the making of an impression of a coin or metal
blank by pressure

CHARACTERISTICS
 Genuine coins show an even flow of metallic grains. The details of the profile,
the seal of the Republic of the Philippines, letterings and numerals are of high
relief, so that it can be readily felt distinctly by running the fingers on these
features. The beadings are regular & the readings are deep & even.
 Counterfeit coins feel greasy & appear slimy. The beading composed of tiny
round dots surrounding the genuine coin appear irregular & elongated
depressions & are not sharp & prominent as in the genuine. The letterings &
numerals are low / worn out due to the lack of sharpness of details. The
readings are uneven & show signs of filing.

COUNTERFEIT METAL MONEY OR COIN

 Coin made of gold was too widely used but are not now often seen.
Government kept their gold in the form of heavy bars called bullions and
then issue papers for the value of gold.
 Metal coins issued nowadays are mostly in amount for less than its face
value. In most countries, the possession of gold coins is now forbidden
except for coin collectors.
EXAMINATION OF COUNTERFEIT COINS – the suspected counterfeit coin should be
examined by a magnifying lens or comparing it with a known coin
DEFECTS IN COIN ARE USUALLY CAUSED BY:
 formation of air bubbles, or
 removal of small parts of the sole along with the coin
 The best place to examine a counterfeit coin is on the edge since there are usually
special milling marks or designs which are added to a genuine coin by
machinery.
** A cast will have a faint joining mark caused by the parts of the molds. It will be
necessary for the counterfeiter to file the edge to destroy the rim. Evidence of this
filing can be detected with magnification.
** The counterfeiter will also try to remove various defects and blemishes by hard
works and this can usually be detected in the form of the scratches or toolmark.

COUNTERFEIT PASSPORT
Passports are rarely counterfeit, because they are quite complicated in design and
manufacture. The most usual method of forgery is to steal a genuine passport and make
change in it. Many safety features are incorporated in passport and are easily detected
by close inspection. Ultraviolet light is very useful in this type of examination.
The investigator should look particularly at the photograph in any passport as
identification card. This is always necessary because sometimes forgers remove and
change or substitute the picture. Hence, the position of perforation caused by staples and
another pasting device should be studied carefully.

LEGAL ASPECT OF FORGERY, COUNTERFEITING AND FALSIFICATION –

(Pursuant to Title Four, Chapter One, Revised Penal Code – Crimes Against Public
Interests)

57
TYPES OF FORGERIES
1) Forging the seal of the government, signature or stamp of the chief Executive
(Art. 161).
2) Counterfeiting coins (Art. 163)
3) Mutilation of coins (Art. 164)
4) Selling of false or mutilated coin, without connivance (Art. 165)
5) Forging treasury or bank notes or other documents payable to bearer (Art. 166).
6) Counterfeiting instruments not payable to bearer (Art. 167).
7) Falsification of legislative document (Art. 170).
8) Falsification by public officer, employee or notary or ecclesiastical minister (Art.
171).
9) Falsification by private individuals (Art. 172).
10) Falsification of wireless, cable, telegraph and telephone messages (Art.
173).
11) Falsification of medical certificates, certificates of merit or service (Art. 174)

WHEN IS A COIN FALSE OR COUNTERFEITED? A coin is false or counterfeited, if it is

forged or if it is not authorized by the Government as legal tender, regardless of its intrinsic
value.
Counterfeiting means the imitation of a legal or genuine coin. It may contain more
silver than the ordinary coin. There is counterfeiting when a spurious coin is made. There
must be an imitation of the peculiar design of a genuine coin. (U.S. vs. Basco, 6 Phil.
110).

NEW PHILIPPINE PESO BILL

Features:
1) The new generation Philippines bank notes incorporates the latest available
technology in banknotes security. The new Philippine banknotes or peso bills are
smooth but a little bit rough.
2) The serial numbers of the new Philippine Peso bills are composed of one or two
prefix letters and six to seven digits in asymmetric.
3) Red and blue fibers embedded in the banknote paper glow under ultra violet light.
4) The watermark shows the shadow image of the portrait and the banknote's
denomination on the blank space when viewed against the light from either side of
the note.
5) The word Filipino written in Philippine ancient "Baybayin" alphabet can be seen in
its complete form when banknote is viewed against the light.
6) When the banknote is rotated in 45 degrees and tilted downwards, a concealed
denominational value can be seen super-embossed on the smaller version of the
portrait.
7) Viewed against the light, both the 20 peso and the 50 peso notes have embedded
2mm wide Security Threads that can be seen with the banknote is held against the
light.
8) A 4mm wide stitch-like metallic security thread can be seen in 100, 200, 500 and
1000 peso notes.
9) Viewed from different angles, the color of the 4mm wide metallic security thread
changes from red to green.
10) The front of the thread carries in clear text the initials of the BSP together with the
numeric denomination in repeated series.

58
 11) Likewise at the back of the security thread is printed the initials of the BSP in
repeated series.
12) The 500 and 1000 peso bank notes now have the optically variable device patch,
reflective foil.
13) For the 500 peso, the reflective coil bares the image of the small BSP logo and the
Blue-naped Parrot.
14) While the 1000 peso bill, the reflective coil carries the image of the small BSP logo
and the south-sea pearl.

Philippine Peso Bill Security Features

a) 20 Peso Bill
 Obverse: President Manuel L. Quezon; Filipino as National Language
(1935); Malacañan Palace; Seal of the Republic of the Philippines; New
BSP Seal
 Reverse: Banaue Rice Terraces (UNESCO World Heritage Site); Palm
Civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus philippinensis), Weave design from the
Cordilleras
 Security Features: (1) embossed prints, (2) serial number, (3) security
fibers, (4) watermark, (5) see-through mark, (6) concealed value, (7)
security thread
b) 50 Peso Bill
 Obverse: President Sergio Osmeña; First National Assembly 1907; Leyte
Landing; Seal of the Republic of the Philippines; and the New BSP Seal
 Reverse: Taal Lake; Maliputo (Caranx ignobilis); embroidery design
handcrafted in Batangas province
 Security Features: (1) embossed prints, (2) serial number, (3) security
fibers, (4) watermark, (5) see-through mark, (6) concealed value, (7)
security thread
c) 100 Peso Bill
 Obverse: President Manuel A. Roxas; Central Bank of the Philippines
(1949); Inauguration of the Third Republic (4 July 1946); Seal of the
Republic of the Philippines; and the New BSP Seal
 Reverse: Mayon Volcano; Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus); Indigenous
textile from the Bicol Region
 Security Features: (1) embossed prints, (2) serial number, (3) security
fibers, (4) watermark, (5) see-through mark, (6) concealed value, (7)
security thread
d) 200 Peso Bill
 Obverse: President Diosdado P. Macapagal; EDSA People Power II
(January 2001); Independence House; Barasoain Church; Seal of the
Republic of the Philippines; and the New BSP Seal
 Reverse: Bohol Chocolate Hills; Tarsier (Tarsius syrichta); handcrafted
design from the Visayas in Central Philippines
 Security Features: (1) embossed prints, (2) serial number, (3) security
fibers, (4) watermark, (5) see-through mark, (6) concealed value, (7)
security thread
e) 500 Peso Bill
 Obverse: Icons of Democracy - President Corazon C. Aquino, Senator
Benigno Aquino Jr. ; EDSA People Power I February 1986; Benigno S.
Aquino, Jr. Monument; Seal of the President; New BSP Seal

59
  Reverse: Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park (UNESCO
World Heritage Site); Blue-naped Parrot (Tanygnathus lucionensis), woven
cloth from Southern Philippines
 Security Features: (1) embossed prints, (2) serial number, (3) security
fibers, (4) watermark, (5) see-through mark, (6) concealed value, (7)
security thread, (8) optically variable device
f) 1000 Peso Bill
 Obverse: War Heroes - Josefa Llanes Escoda, Vicente P. Lim, and Jose
Abad Santos; Centennial of Philippine Independence (1998); Medal of
Honor; Seal of the Republic of the Philippines; and the New BSP Seal
 Reverse: Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park (UNESCO World Heritage Site);
South Sea Pearl (Pinctada maxima), Tinalak or Ikat-dyed abaca woven in
Mindanao in Southern Philippines
 Security Features: (1) embossed prints, (2) serial number, (3) security
fibers, (4) watermark, (5) see-through mark, (6) concealed value, (7)
security thread, (8) optically variable device, (9) optically variable ink

Protecting the Philippine Currency

1) Article 163, Revised Penal Code – Making and importing and uttering (issuing or
circulating false coins
2) Article 166, Revised Penal Code – Forging treasury or bank notes or other
documents payable to bearer; importing, and uttering such false or forged notes
and documents
3) Article 168, Revised Penal Code – Illegal possession and use of false treasury
or bank notes and other instruments of credit
4) Article 178, Revised Penal Code – Manufacturing and possession of instruments
or implements for falsification
5) PD No. 247 – Prohibits the defacement, mutilation, tearing, burning or destruction
of Central Bank (BSP) notes and coins
6) Chapter II, Circular 61, Series of 1995 – Reproduction and/or use of facsimiles
of legal tender Philippine currency notes
7) Chapter II, Circular 61, Series of 1995 - Reproduction and/or use of facsimiles of
legal tender Philippine currency coins

METHODS OF PRINTING DOCUMENTS

A. RELIEF PRINTING (LETTERPRESS)

- the image characters are raised above the level of the non-printing areas.
- ink is applied to a raised surface which in turn is applied, to paper
- considered as the oldest of all printing procedures.
- prints with cleaner and sharper letters.

B. INTAGLIO (GRAVURE PRINTING)

- ink in recessed or sunken letter drawn out or sucked out under pressure
- printing is done from large copper covered cylinders on presses of two kinds;
sheets-fed gravure presses and web-fed rotogravure presses for longer runs. The
copper plates or cylinders are produced by making film positives of the art work
to be reproduced.

60
C. PLANOGRAPHIC (LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING)
- the image characters are in the same general plane as the non-printing areas.
The ink is applied to a dead level plate which has been chemically treated such as
lithograph and offset.

D. STENCIL
- process where the letters or image are holes cut in a sheet or a sheet is made
more porous in the area of the letters and ink is applied to paper through the holes
or porous areas such as mimeograph.

E. HALFTONE BLOCK PRINTING

- used for the reproduction of pictures and illustrations in little covers.
- model is photographed and its image is transferred to a metal surface by photo-
printing
- reproduction of the tonal values is obtained by disintegrating the picture into a
large number of exceedingly small sized dots.
- includes the process of etching and engraving which will differentiate one block
from another even though each one of them may have been produced from the
same model.

IDENTIFICATION OF PRINTING

A. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS
1. Body Size of a typeprint/font — responsible for the width of a line and depth of a
column
2. Unit measurement — six picas making an inch.
3. The body .size in metallic type — varies from six points up to seventy points,
larger ones being made mainly in wood.
4. According to the type face — there are eight main designs

B. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. Defective setting in relative space positioning, slant and weight of type laces; or
2. Due to mutilations and imperfections in the type faces.

OTHER FORMS OF PRINTING (MODERN METHODS)

A. COMPUTER PRINTING
1. Dot matrix - considered as the earliest form; uses also a ribbon similar to typewriters
2. Bubble Jet
3. Ink Jet
4. Laser printing

B. PHOTOCOPYING (a.k.a. Xerox copying)

PROCEDURES FOR OBTAINING KNOWN PHOTOCOPY EXEMPLARS

1. Obtain at least ten exemplars with no document on the glass plate, with the cover
down.
2. Obtain at least ten exemplars with no document on the glass plate, with the cover
up.

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 3. Obtain at least ten exemplars with a document on the glass plate, with the cover
down.
4. Record on exemplar the date the exemplar were obtained, the name of the
person who directed the exemplars, and the conditions under which the
exemplars were made.
5. Record the make, model, and the serial number of the photocopy machine,
information about the toner supplies and components, whether the paper supply
is sheet or roll fed, and the options such as color, reduction, enlargement, zoom,
mask, trim, or editor board.
6. Do not store or ship photocopies in plastic envelopes.

C. RISOGRAPH PRINTING — process is like a combination of mimeographing and

photocopying

D. TELEFAX COPIER (Fax machines)

N.B. Principle of identification applied is similar to other form of printings. First

consider the class characteristics of each suspected source of printing as specified
by the manufacturer, then look for possible individuality such as density of ink,
damage on the printing head and other peculiar markings during printing
ELECTRONIC RELATED CRIMES

COMPUTER TERMINOLOGIES IN RELATION TO QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

1. Computer - machine that performs tasks, such as calculations or electronic

communication, under the control or a set of instructions called a program.
Programs usually reside within the computer and are retrieved and processed by
the computer’s electronics. The program results are stored or routed to output
devices, such as video display monitors or printers. Computers perform a wide
variety of activities reliably, accurately, and quickly.

2. Hacking- The first type of computer network break-in it is not the practice as a
criminal gain, and can therefore be considered more mischievous than malicious.
Nevertheless, network intrusions have been made illegal by the U.s. federal
Government. A hacker’s reward is being able to tell peers that he/she has managed
to break into a network, demonstrating superior computing ability, especially the
ability to bypass security measures.
The second type of break-in is the one done for illegal purposes. A criminal
might break into a network to steal data or sensitive information. Other criminal acts
include computer vandalism, whereby individuals break into a system, alter its
operating structure, delete important files, change password, or plant viruses that
can destroy operating system. Software programs, and data.

3. Cyber Spies- A kind of industrial espionage, where he can be hired to break into
a competitor’s computer system and gather secret information, often leaving no
trace of the intrusions.

4. Mail Bombings- Mail bombs are the products of computer programs that instruct
a computer to literally bombard another computer with information, often irrelevant
electronic mail (e-mail). Mail bombs are capable of shutting down computers, and

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 even entire networks, if the amount of information is too large for receiving computer
to digest.

5. Password Sniffers - refers to programs that carefully record the names and
passwords of network users as they log in. With such confidential information,
unauthorized users are able to gain unlawful access to the computer and the
information it contains. Password can also be sold for illegal purposes.

6. Credit Card Fraud- Computers and the internet are used to conduct business.
Merchandise is ordered on-line, and so with the payment.

2 types of credit card fraud:

a. A conventionally stolen credit card can be used to order merchandise
on line and because no time is wasted going from store to store, a
perpetrator can maximize his/her gain before the card is inactivated.
Detection is also reduced since there is no physical contact with sales
staff who might alert authorities.
b. Credit card numbers can be stolen from the Internet as a customer is
making a legitimate purchase. Programs that are similar to those that
are designed to steal passwords from unsuspecting users are often used
for this purpose.

7. Morphing - Refers to a practice that involves using computers to digitally

alter pictures. This technique had become a tool for child pornographers to
evade prosecution.

QUESTIONED COMPUTERIZED DOCUMENTS

A. CONCEPT - As personal computers (PCs) slowly replace manual writing and type
writing, forgery, falsification, and counterfeiting of documents is already common.
Certificates, diplomas, records, personalized cards, and office forms are some of
the documents that can be printed thru a computer. One can easily copy or
counterfeit a document with the including of computer. And with the invention of
computer scanning, one can easily counterfeit documents including banknotes.
With these, it is a must for every questioned document examiners to be abreast
with the latest programs and technologies of computerized writings.

B. PRINCIPLE OF IDENTIFICATION. Since computerized documents are prepared

by printing, identification of computerized documents is similar to type writing
identification such as the determination of the class characteristics of the
computer’s printer, defects on the printer head, the type of printer’s ink, and the
personal style of the writer or author.

PREPARATION FOR COURT EXHIBIT

After the document examiner has completed his examination and the
laboratory report has been submitted, the document examiner prepares the photographic
exhibits for court demonstrations and illustrations.

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FINDINGS/ CONCLUSION
A detailed examination and comparison between the questioned material and the
adequate standards is the prime duty of a document examiner. He follows the
internationally accepted procedures and principles in document examination.
With his acquired knowledge and scientific expertise in the science and art, he
surely recognizes, properly interprets and correctly reasons out the basis of his
conclusion, which an ordinary individual fails to appreciate the significance.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HIGH-TECH CRIMINAL

While all the crimes and the deviant acts rely heavily on technology, there are still
human offenders behind them. It is true that modern technology is so widespread that
virtually anyone is capable of high-tech crime, but it also remains a fact that most high-
tech offenders, especially computer hackers, fit a rather unique profile. These individuals
are usually young (14-19 years old) males from middle-class background. They often
possess superior levels of intelligence (IQ over 120). In a way they perceive themselves
as modern Robin Hood.

CALLIGRAPHY AND CACOGRAPHY TERMS

1. Calligraphy (from a Greek word meaning “beautiful writing”) - It is the art of fine
writing.
 It may refer to letters, words, pages or even whole documents to which
aesthetic principles and skilled penmanship have been applied.
2. Ascender – the top portion of the letter that rises above the waistline
3. Ascender line – the guideline showing the height of an ascending letter
4. Base line – the writing line that the body of a letter sits upon
5. Branching stroke – the stroke which connects an arch to the down stroke of a letter
6. Cap line – the guideline showing the height of a capital letter
7. Counter – it is the white surface inside a letter
8. Cross bar – horizontal stroke forming part of a letter such as “t” or “H”
9. Descender – portion of a letter that falls below the base line
10. Downstroke – a stroke directed downward towards the base line
11. Ductus – the number, direction and sequence of the strokes which make up a letter
12. Flourish – a non-structural embellishment added to a letter
13. Hairline – refers to a very thin line
14. Majuscule – capital letter or upper case letter
15. Miniscule – lower case letter or small letter
16. Nib – the pen point
17. Nib width – width of any broad-edged tool. A letter written at four nib widths high will
appear twice as heavy as one written at eight nib widths high with the same pen.
18. Pen angle – the angle at which the nib meets the paper, relative to the base line
19. Serif – a small stroke which begins or ends a letter or a part of a letter
20. Slant – the slope of a letter measured from the vertical
21. Slant line – the guideline showing the correct slant
22. Counter space – space inside a letter
23. Interletter space – space between letters
24. Interword space – space between words
25. Interlinear space – space between lines of writing
26. Thick – refers to a heavy or blunt stroke
27. Thin – a fine stroke sometimes called as hairline

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28. Waist line – the guideline showing the correct position for the upper boundary of the
x-height
29. x-height - height of a letter or the portion of a letter that sits between the base line
and the waistline (the height of the lower case “x”).
30. Cacography (derived from the Greek word graphos, which means “writing” and
prefixed with kakos, “bad”)
 It is defined as bad handwriting or bad spelling.

DEFINITION OF TERM:

1. Addition/ Insertion or Interlineation – refers to the part of the document that is

added after its original preparation
 The term “insertion” and interlineations” include the addition of writing and
other material between lines or paragraphs or the addition of whole page to a
document.
2. Airstroke- the movement of the pen as it is raised from the paper and continues in
the same direction.
3. Alignment – the relation of the successive characters of a word, signature, or a line
of writing, to an actual or imaginary base line.
4. Alteration – an unauthorized operation performed on a document after it has been
validated that changes its language or legal meaning, specifically the terms in a
negotiable instrument, without the knowledge or consent of the parties involved.
5. Ambidextrous – persons who could write both right and left hands.
6. Angular Forms- sharp, straight strokes that are made by stopping the pen and
changing direction before continuing.
7. Anachronism – something wrong in time and in place. (The forger has trouble
matching the paper, ink, or writing materials to the exact date it was supposed to have
been written.)
8. Arcade – the rounded top stroke formed in letters like “m” or “n” in cursive writing.
9. Ascender – the top portion or loop of a tall letter such as “b”, “d”, “f”, etc.
10. Baseline – the ruled or imaginary line upon which the writing rests. It is also
sometimes termed as “reading line.”
11. Body size – this is the point size obtained from the highest ascender to the lowest
descender plus additional white space to the descender line.
12. Bowl – the oval within the round curves of letters such as “d”, “g”, “b”, and “o”.
13. Buckle knot – horizontal end loop stroke that is often used to complete a letter.
14. Cap line - imaginary line that goes on top of all capital letters.
15. Character – any letter, numeral, punctuation mark, symbol, or ornament.
16. Characteristics – marks or properties of writing such as letter formations, relative
size and heights of letters.
17. Charred Document – any document that has become darkened and brittle through
exposure to fire or excessive heat.
18. Class Characteristics – these are the characteristics common to a group of writers.
19. Collation – critical comparison or side-by-side examination.
20. Comparison – the act of setting two or more items side by side to weigh their
identifying qualities. It infers not only a visual but also the mental act in which the
elements of one item are related to the counterparts of the others.
21. Conclusion- results from observed facts by logical, common-sense reasoning in
accordance with established rules of laws. The document examiner’s conclusion, in
legal term is referred to as “opinion”

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22. Copy pencil – one whose marking substance consists of mixture of graphite and an
aniline dye.
23. Covering Stroke- a stroke that unnecessarily covers another stroke in a concealing
action.
24. Cursive Writing - writing in which the letters are mostly connected or joint together.
25. Descender – the lower loop or lower portion of a tall letter for instance “p”, “j’, “g’, and
“y”.
26. Dextral – right hand writer
27. Disguised Writing- A writer may deliberately try to alter his usual writing habits of
hiding his identity.
28. Document – any material substance bearing a representation of the thoughts of man
by means of a mark or symbol.
 any material which contains marks, symbols, or sign either visible partially
visible or invisible that may convey a meaning or message to someone.
29. Document Examiner/ Handwriting Identification Expert - One who studies
scientifically the details and elements of the documents in order to identify their source
or to discover other facts concerning them. Document examiners are often referred to
as handwriting identification experts, but today the works has outgrown this latter title
and involves other problems than merely examination of handwriting.
30. Double-Length Letters- are those few letters that extend a distance vertically both
above and below the linear letters. (f, y, z)
31. Down Strokes- the movement of the pen toward the writer
32. Drop cap – an oversized capital letter used as the start of a paragraph.
33. Erasure- the removal of writings, typewriting, or printing from a document. A chemical
agents (e.g. liquid ink eradicator); and an abrasive erasure is where rubbing with a
rubber eraser or scratching out with knife or other sharp tools with implement effaces
the writing.
34. ESDA (Electrostatic Detection Apparatus) – used to detect indented impressions
left from writing an overlying page.
35. Evidential Signature – it is a signature signed at a particular time and place under
particular conditions, while the signer is a t a particular physical and mental condition
using particular implements and with a particular reason and purpose for recording his
name.
36. Examination – The act of making a close and critical study of any material. Various
types are undertaken which include microscopic, visual photographic, chemical,
ultraviolet and infrared examinations.
37. Exemplars - “request writings. Writings produced by an individual for and as a result
of an investigation. These are produced as a result of subject writing specific
information in connection with certain questioned documents.
38. Expert Witness- A legal term used to describe a witness who by reason of his special
training or experience is permitted to express an opinion regarding the issue, or a
certain aspect of the issue, which is involved in a court action. His purpose is to
interpret technical information in his particular specialty in order to assist the court in
administering justice. The document examiner testifies in court as expert witness.
39. Final Stroke - the ending stroke of a letter when it is at the end of a word.
40. Foot – the lower part of a letter which rests on the baseline. (“m” has 3 feet; “n” has
2)
41. Form- the writer’s chosen writing style. The way the writing looks, whether it is
copybook, elaborated, simplified, or printed. This refers to the shape or design of the
individual letters

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42. Garland Forms- A cup-like connected form that is open at the top and rounded on
the bottom.
43. Graphology or Grapho analysis – the act of attempting to interpret the character or
personality of the individual based on his handwriting or signature.
44. Graphology- the art of determining character disposition and amplitude of a person
from the study of handwriting. It also means the scientific study and analysis of
handwriting, especially with reference to the forgeries and questioned documents.
45. Graphometry- analysis by comparison and measurement.
46. Guided or assisted signature – signature actually produced by the co-operation of
two hands and minds.
47. Habit – any repeated element of detail which may serve to individualize writing.
48. Hand Lettering- any disconnected style of writing in which each letter is written
separately; also called hand printing.
49. Handwritten item – an item containing something written by hand (cursive writing,
hand printing, and signatures).
50. Hesitation – the term applied to the irregular thickening of ink which is found when
writing slows down or stop while the pen take a stock of the position.
51. Highly probable did – a qualified opinion in which the examiner is virtually certain
that the questioned writing and known writing were written by the same person.
52. Highly probable did not – a qualified opinion in which the examiner is virtually certain
that the questioned writing and known writing were not written by the same person.
53. Holographic Document – any document which is completely written and signed by
a person.
54. Identification – a definite conclusion that the questioned writing and known writing
were written by the same person.
55. Identifying characteristics – marks or properties which serve to individualize writing
such as letter formations and relative size and height of letters.
56. Indented Writing – refers to the impressions left on papers positioned under a piece
of paper that has been written upon.
57. Indications did – a qualified opinion in which the evidence suggests that the
questioned writing and known writing may have been written by the same person. This
opinion is often used for investigative assistance.
58. Indications did not – a qualified opinion in which the evidence suggests that the
questioned writing and known writing may not have been written by the same person.
This opinion is often used for investigative assistance.
59. Individual Characteristics – Characteristics which are highly personal or peculiar
and is unlikely to occur in other instance.
60. Infralinear- Letters are those that extend a distance vertically below the baseline of
the writing or of the linear letters. (g,j,p,q,y,z).
61. Item – an object or quantity of material on which a set of observations can be made.
62. Left hand writing – any writing executed with opposite hand from what normally used
(wrong handed writing).
63. Letter Space- the amount of space left between letters.
64. Linear Letters- lower case letters having no ascending loops or stems, or descending
loops or stems sometimes called minuscule. No capital letters.
65. Line Direction- movement of the baseline, may slant up, down, or straight across the
page.
66. Line Quality- the overall character of the ink lines from the beginning to the ending
strokes. There are two classes: a. Good line quality b. Poor line quality
67. Line Space- the amount of space left between lines.

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68. Manuscript Writing- a disconnected form of script or semi-script writing. This type of
writing is taught in young children in elementary schools as the first step in learning to
write.
69. Margins- the amount of space left around the writing on all four sides.
70. Microscopic Examination – any study or examination which is made with the
microscope in order to discover minute physical details.
71. Model Signature – a genuine signature which has been used to prepare an imitated
or traced forgery.
72. Movement- it is an important element in handwriting. It embraces all the factors which
are related to the motion of the writing instrument, skill, speed freedom, hesitation,
rhythm, emphasis, tremors and the like. The manner in which the writing instrument is
moved that is by finger, hand, forearm or whole arm.
73. Naturally written – any specimen of writing executed normally without an attempt to
control or alter its identifying characteristics and its usual quality of execution.
74. Natural Variations – normal deviations found between repeated specimens of an
individual’s handwriting or any printing devices.
75. Non-Identification (Non-identity) – means that the sources or authorship of the
compared questioned and standard specimens is different.
76. Non – Request Writing – “Standards” or “Course of Business Writing.” These are
handwriting specimens that can be proven to be written by a specific subject, written
in the course of normal to day living. These writing are not necessarily written as a
direct result of the present investigation. (may be found on cancelled checks, letters,
personal diaries, recipe cards, etc.)
77. Oblique or Side Light Examination – an examination with the illumination so
controlled that it grazes or strikes the surface of the document from one side at a very
low angle.
78. Obliteration – the blotting out or smearing over of writing or printing to make the
original unreadable.
79. Opinion- In legal language, it refers to the document Examiner’s conclusion. Actually
in Court, he not only expresses an opinion but demonstrates the reasons for arriving
at his opinion. Throughout this text, opinion and conclusion are used synonymously.
80. Original writing – first generation writing which is not a mechanical/chemical
production.
81. Patching – the retouching or going back over a defective portion of written stroke.
Careful patching is common defect on forgeries.
82. Pen Emphasis- the act of intermittently forcing the pen against the paper surfaces.
When the pen-point has flexibility, this emphasis produces shading, but with more rigid
writing points heavy point emphasis can occur in writing without any evidence of
shading; the act intermittently forcing the pen against the paper with increase
pressure.
83. Pen Hold-The place where the writer grasps the barrel of the pen and the angle at
which he holds it.
84. Pen Position - Relationship between the pen point and the paper. The orientation of
the writing instrument.
85. Pen Pressure – The average force with which the pen contacts the paper. Pen
pressure as opposed to pen emphasis which deals with the usual or average force
involved in the writing rather than the period which increases.
86. Photostat – reproduction of a document through a sensitive paper in lieu of film.
87. Print Script- A creative combination of printing and cursive writing.
88. Proportion- Individual characteristics in relative proportion of letters or proportion of
a part of a letter or relative height of one letter to another letter.

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89. Qualification- refers to the professional experience, education, and ability of a
document examiner. Before he is permitted to testify as an expert witness, the court
must rule that he is qualified in his field.
90. Quality- a distinct or peculiar character; v used in describing handwriting to refer to
any identifying factor that is related to the writing Movement itself.
91. Questioned Document – material associated with the matter under investigation
about which there is some question.
92. Range of Variation – the union of all normal or usual deviations found between
comparable characteristics of any individual’s writing.
93. Ratio- The relation between the tall and short letters is referred to as the ratio of the
writing.
94. Reprographic Examination- refers to examination of documents which includes
photocopies, facsimile, photographs and the like.
95. Rhythm – a harmonious recurrence of stress or impulse or motion, and handwriting
can be classified by the quality or the perfection of its rhythm.
96. Rubric or Embellishment- refers to the additional unnecessary strokes to legibility of
letterforms or writings but incorporated in writing for decorative or ornamental
purposes. Embellishment is usually added to signatures to enhance, what is to the
writer, their “pleasing appearance.” This serves as security to make a signature more
difficult to imitate or forge.
97. Shading- Is the widening of the ink strokes due to the added pressure on a flexible
pen point or to the use of a stub pen.
98. Sequence of Strokes- the order in which writing strokes are placed on the paper.
99. Signature – one’s name written by himself on a document as a sign of
acknowledgment (by Webster).
100. Significant Writing Habit- Any characteristic of handwriting that is sufficiently
uncommon and well-fixed to serve as a fundamental point in the identification.
101. Skill- In any set there are relative degrees or ability or skill and a specimen of
handwriting usually contain evidences of the writers proficiency; degree, ability, or skill
of a write proficiency.
102. Similarity – a characteristic in common between the questioned and known
writing.
103. Simplification- eliminating extra or superfluous strokes from the copybook model.
104. Simulated writing – one in which the attempt is made to copy or imitate the writing
of another as is done in an ordinary signature forgery.
105. Sinistral – left handed person
106. Slope or Slant- the angle or inclination of the axis of the letters relative to the base
line.
107. Speed of Writing- the personal pace at which the writer’s pen moves across the
paper.
108. Sufficient Quantity – the amount of writing required to assess the writer’s range
of variation based on the content of the questioned document.
109. Supported Strokes- upstroke partially covering the previous down strokes.
Originally taught in European schools.
110. Supralinear- letters that extend a distance vertically above the linear letters, (b,
d,h,k,l and t)
111. Size- May refer to the overall size of the writing or the proportions between zones.
112. Trait Stroke- a school of handwriting analysis that assign personality trait manners
to individual writing strokes.
113. Transmitted Light Examination – in this kind of examination, the document is
viewed with the source of illumination behind it and the light passing through the paper.

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84.Typeface – a set of characters which share a similar appearance.
1. Type of Writing (style of writing) – refers to hand printing, cursive writing, or
combinations thereof and signatures.
2. Upstroke- movement of the pen away from the letter.
3. Variation – normal or usual deviations found between comparable characteristics of
any individual’s writing.
4. Water mark - translucent design used to mark a certain paper, impressed in them
during the course of manufacture.
5. Writing – the result of a very complicated series of acts, being as a whole, a
combination of certain forms, which are the visible result of mental and muscular
habits acquired by long continued, painstaking effort.
6. Writing Conditions- both the circumstances under which the writing was prepared
and the factors influencing the writer’s ability to write at the time of execution. It
includes the writer’s position (sitting, standing, abed, etc.), the paper support and
backing, and the writing instrument; writing ability may be modified by the conditions
of the writer’s health, nervous state, or degree of intoxication.
7. Wrong-Handed Writing- any writing executed with the opposite hand that normally
used; a.k.a. as “with the awkward hand”. It is one means of disguise.

Terminologies in Typewriting Examination

1. Alignment Defect – includes characters which are written improperly in the
following respects: twisted letters, horizontal mal-alignment, vertical mal-
alignment, and character “off its feet.” These defects can be corrected by special
adjustments of the type bar and type block. This is also termed as “Mal-Alignment.”
2. Carbon Impression – any type of writing produced by action of the typefaces
striking through carbon paper. Generally termed as “carbon copies” but sometimes
original typewriting is made directly through a carbon paper.
3. Character – includes letters, symbols, numerals, or punctuations.
4. Clogged (dirty) Typeface – typefaces will be filled with lint through continuous
use which when allowed to progress without cleaning, the written impression
actually printed with the clogged areas shaded on a solid block.
5. Defects – refers to any abnormality or maladjustment in typewriter which is
reflected in its work that leads to its individualization and identification.
6. Horizontal Mal-alignment – an alignment defect in which the character prints
either on the right or left of its proper position.
7. “Off its Feet” – the condition of a typeface printing heavier on one side or corner
than the remainder of its outline.
8. Permanent Defect – any identifying characteristics of a typewriter which cannot
be corrected by simply cleaning the typeface or replacing the ribbon.
9. Platen – the cylinder that serves as the backing of the paper which absorbs the
blown typeface.
10. Proportional Spacing Typewriting – a modern form of typewriting which
resembles printing in that all of the horizontal space as they do with the
conventional typewriter.
11. Rebound – a defect in which a character prints a double impression with the lighter
one slightly offset to the right or left.
12. Ribbon Condition – state of typewriter ribbons which may gradually deteriorate
13. Ribbon Impression – typewriting which is made directly through a cloth ribbon.
14. Transitory Defects – identifying typewriter characteristics which can be
eliminated by cleaning the machine or replacing the ribbon.

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 15. Type Face – the printing surface of the type block. With most modern typewriters,
this block is attached at the end of a movable arm or type bar, which propels the
typeface strikes the ribbon and paper to make the typewriter impression.
16. Type face defects – any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to the
typeface. These may include actual break in the outline of the letter where the
metal has been chipped away (broken type) or they may be misruled outlines of
the letters where the type face metal has become bent or smashed. They can only
be corrected by replacing the type block.
17. Twisted letter – each letter and character is designed to print a certain fixed angle
to the baseline, due to wear and damage to the type bars and the type block, some
letters become twisted so that they lean to the right or left of their correct slant.
18. Vertical Mal-Alignment - an alignment defect in which the character prints either
above or below its proper position.

“For I Know the Plans I Have for You,” Declares the Lord, “Plans to Prosper You
and not to Harm You, Plans to Give You Hope and a Future.”

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