Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology, 4th Edition

Martini / Bartholomew

The General and

Special Senses

PowerPoint® Lecture Outlines

prepared by Alan Magid, Duke University

Slides 1 to 106

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The General Senses

Sensory Basics
• Sensory receptors—Specialized
cells or cell processes that monitor
external or internal conditions.
Simplest are free nerve endings.

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The General Senses

More Sensory Basics

• Receptive field—The area monitored
by a single receptor cell
• Adaptation—Reduction in sensitivity
at a receptor or along a sensory
pathway in the presence of a
constant stimulus.

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The General Senses

General versus Special Senses

• General senses—Temperature, pain,
touch, pressure, vibration, and
proprioception. Receptors throughout the
body
• Special senses—Smell, taste, vision,
balance, and hearing. Receptors located
in sense organs (e.g., ear, eye).

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The General Senses
Receptors and Receptive Fields

Figure 9-1
The General Senses

Key Note
Stimulation of a receptor produces
action potentials that propagate along
the axon of a sensory neuron. The
frequency or pattern of action potentials
contains information about the stimulus.
A person’s perception of the nature of
that stimulus depends on the path it
takes inside the CNS.
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The General Senses
Pain Definitions
• Nociceptors—Receptors for tissue damage
to lead to the sensation of pain
• Referred pain—Perception of pain in a part
of the body not actually stimulated
• Fast (prickling) pain—Localized pain carried
quickly to the CNS on myelinated axons
• Slow (burning) pain—Generalized pain
carried on slow unmyelinated axons

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The General Senses

Referred Pain

Figure 9-2
The General Senses

Temperature
• Thermoreceptors detect temperature
change
• Free nerve endings
• Found in dermis, skeletal muscle, liver,
hypothalamus
• Fast adapting
• Cold receptors greatly outnumber warm
receptors

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The General Senses
Touch, Pressure, and Position
• Mechanoreceptors—Receptors that respond
to physical distortion of their cell
membranes.
• Tactile receptors—Sense touch, pressure, or
vibration
• Baroreceptors—Sense pressure changes in
walls of blood vessels, digestive organs,
bladder, lungs
• Proprioceptors—Respond to positions of
joints and muscle
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The General Senses
Tactile Receptors
• Fine touch or pressure receptors
• Highly detailed information about a stimulus
• Crude touch or pressure receptors
• Poorly localized information about a
stimulus
• Important types: root hair plexus, tactile
disks, tactile corpuscles, lamellated
corpuscles, Ruffini corpuscles

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The General Senses
Tactile Receptors in the Skin

Figure 9-3
The General Senses

Baroreceptors
• Provide pressure information essential
for autonomic regulation
• Arterial blood pressure
• Lung inflation
• Digestive coordination
• Bladder fullness

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The General Senses
Baroreceptors and the Regulation of
Autonomic Functions

Figure 9-4
The General Senses

Proprioceptors
• Monitor joint angle, tension in
tendons and ligaments, state of
muscular contraction
• Include:
• Muscle spindles
• Golgi tendon organs

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The General Senses

Chemical Detection
• Chemoreceptors respond to chemicals
dissolved in body fluids that surround
them and monitor the chemical
composition of blood and tissues
• Chemicals that can be sensed include:
• Carbon dioxide
• Oxygen
• Hydrogen ion

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The General Senses
Locations and Functions of Chemoreceptors

Figure 9-5
The Special Senses—Smell

Olfactory Organs
• Olfactory epithelium
• Olfactory receptor cells
• Neurons sensitive to odorants
• Supporting cells
• Basal (stem) cells
• Olfactory glands
• Mucus-secreting cells

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 The Special Senses—Smell
The Olfactory
Organs

Figure 9-6(a)
 The Special Senses—Smell
The Olfactory
Organs

Figure 9-6(b)
The Special Senses—Smell
The Olfactory Pathways
• Axons from olfactory receptors
penetrate cribriform plate of ethmoid
bone
• Synapse in olfactory bulb
• Olfactory tract projects to:
• Olfactory cerebral cortex
• Hypothalamus
• Limbic System

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The Special Senses—Taste
Taste (Gustatory) Receptors
• Taste buds
• Found within papillae on tongue,
pharynx, larynx
• Contain gustatory cells, supportive
cells
• Taste hairs (cilia) extend into taste
pores
• Sense salt, sweet, sour, bitter
• Also sense umami, water
• Synapse in medulla oblongata
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The Special Senses—Taste
Gustatory Receptors

Figure 9-7(a)
The Special Senses—Taste
Gustatory
Receptors

Figure 9-7(b)
The Special Senses—Taste
Gustatory Receptors

Figure 9-7(c)
The Special Senses

Key Note
Olfactory information is routed directly
to the cerebrum, and olfactory stimuli
have powerful effects on mood and
behavior. Gustatory sensations are
strongest and clearest when integrated
with olfactory sensations.

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The Special Senses—Vision

Accessory Structures of the Eye

• Eyelids (palpebra) and glands
• Superficial epithelium of eye
• Conjunctiva
• Lacrimal apparatus
• Tear production and removal
• Extrinsic eye muscles

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The Special Senses—Vision

The Lacrimal Apparatus

• Lacrimal gland produce tears
• Bathe conjunctiva
• Contain lysozyme to attack bacteria
• Tears drain into nasal cavity
• Pass through lacrimal canals,
lacrimal sac, nasolacrimal duct

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 The Special Senses—Vision
The
Accessory
Structures
of the Eye

Figure 9-8(a)
The Special Senses—Vision
The Accessory Structures of the Eye

Figure 9-8(b)
The Special Senses—Vision

Extrinsic Eye Muscles

• Move the eye
• Six muscles cooperate to
control gaze
• Superior and inferior rectus
• Lateral and medial rectus
• Superior and inferior oblique

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 The Special Senses—Vision
The Extrinsic
Eye Muscles

Figure 9-9(a)
 The Special Senses—Vision
The Extrinsic
Eye Muscles

Figure 9-9(b)
The Special Senses—Vision

Layers of the Eye

• Fibrous tunic
• Outermost layer
• Vascular tunic
• Intermediate layer
• Neural tunic
• Innermost layer

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 The Special Senses—Vision
The Sectional
Anatomy of the
Eye

Figure 9-10(a)
The Special Senses—Vision
The Sectional Anatomy of the Eye

Figure 9-10(b)
The Special Senses—Vision
The Sectional Anatomy of the Eye

Figure 9-10 (c)

The Special Senses—Vision
Layers of the Eye
• Fibrous tunic
• Sclera
• Dense fibrous connective
tissue
• “White of the eye”
• Cornea
• Transparent
• Light entrance

PLAY The Eye: Light Path

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The Special Senses—Vision
Layers of the Eye
• Vascular tunic
• Iris
• Boundary between anterior and
posterior chambers
• Ciliary body
• Ciliary muscle and ciliary process
• Attachment of suspensory ligaments
• Choroid
• Highly vascular
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The Special Senses—Vision

Functions of the Vascular Tunic

• Provide a route for blood vessels
• Control amount of light entering eye
• Adjust diameter of pupil
• Secrete and absorb aqueous humor
• Adjust lens shape for focusing

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The Special Senses—Vision
The Pupillary Muscles

Figure 9-11
The Special Senses—Vision

Layers of the Eye

• Neural tunic (Retina)
• Outer pigmented part
• Absorbs stray light
• Inner neural part
• Detects light
• Processes image
• Communicates with brain

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The Special Senses—Vision

Organization of the Retina

• Photoreceptor layer
• Bipolar cells
• Amacrine, horizontal cells
modify signals
• Ganglion cells
• Optic nerve (CN II)

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The Special Senses—Vision
Retinal Organization

Figure 9-12(a)
 The Special Senses—Vision
Retinal
Organization

Figure 9-12(b)
 The Special Senses—Vision
Retinal
Organization

Figure 9-12(c)
The Special Senses—Vision
Chambers of the Eye
• Two cavities
• Ciliary body, lens between the two
• Anterior cavity
• Anterior compartment
Between cornea and iris
• Posterior compartment
Between iris and lens
• Posterior cavity
• Vitreous body
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The Special Senses—Vision
The Aqueous Humor
• Secreted by ciliary processes into
posterior chamber
• Flows into anterior chamber
• Maintains eye shape
• Carries nutrients and wastes
• Reabsorbed into circulation
• Leaves at canal of Schlemm
• Excess humor leads to glaucoma

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The Special Senses—Vision
Eye Chambers and the Circulation of
Aqueous Humor

Figure 9-14
The Special Senses—Vision
The Lens
• Supported by suspensory
ligaments
• Built from transparent cells
• Surrounded by elastic capsule
• Lens and cornea focus light on
retina
• Bend light (refraction)
• Accommodation changes lens
shape

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The Special Senses—Vision
Focal Point,
Focal Distance,
and Visual
Accommodation

Figure 9-15(a)
The Special Senses—Vision
Focal Point,
Focal Distance,
and Visual
Accommodation

Figure 9-15(b)
The Special Senses—Vision
Focal Point, Focal
Distance, and Visual
Accommodation

Figure 9-15(c)
The Special Senses—Vision
Focal Point, Focal
Distance, and Visual
Accommodation

Figure 9-15(d)
The Special Senses—Vision
Focal Point, Focal
Distance, and Visual
Accommodation

Figure 9-15(e)
The Special Senses—Vision
Image Formation

Figure 9-16(a)
The Special Senses—Vision
Image Formation

Figure 9-16(b)
The Special Senses—Vision
Visual Abnormalities

Figure 9-17(a)
 The Special Senses—Vision
Visual Abnormalities

Figure 9-17(b)
The Special Senses—Vision
Visual Abnormalities

Figure 9-17(c)
 The Special Senses—Vision
Visual Abnormalities

Figure 9-17(d)
 The Special Senses—Vision
Visual Abnormalities

Figure 9-17(e)
The Special Senses—Vision
Key Note
Light passes through the cornea, crosses
the anterior cavity to the lens, transits the
lens, crosses the posterior chamber, and
then penetrates the retina to stimulate the
photoreceptors. Cones, most abundant at
the fovea and macula lutea, provide
detailed color vision in bright light. Rods,
dominant in the peripheral retina, provide
coarse color-free vision in dim light.

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The Special Senses—Vision
Visual Physiology
• Photoreceptors—Cells specialized to
respond to photons, packets of light energy
• Two types of photoreceptors
• Rods
• Highly sensitive, non-color vision
• In peripheral retina
• Cones
• Less sensitive, color vision
• Mostly in fovea, center of macula lutea
Site of sharpest vision
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The Special Senses—Vision
Photoreceptor Anatomy
• Outer segment
• Discs with visual pigments
• Light absorption by rhodopsin
• Opsin + retinal
• Inner segment
• Synapse with bipolar cell
• Control of neurotransmitter release
• Effect on bipolar cells

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The Special Senses—Vision
The Structure of Rods and Cones

Figure 9-19
 Photon

Retinal changes shape

Retinal and
opsin are
reassembled
to form
rhodopsin

Bleaching
Regeneration enzyme (separation)
Retinal
restored ADP ATP

Opsin Opsin

Opsin
inactivated

Figure 9-20
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 Retinal and
opsin are
reassembled
to form
rhodopsin

Figure 9-20
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 Photon

Retinal and
opsin are
reassembled
to form
rhodopsin

Figure 9-20
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 Photon

Retinal changes shape

Retinal and
opsin are
reassembled
to form
rhodopsin

Figure 9-20
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 Photon

Retinal changes shape

Retinal and
opsin are
reassembled
to form
rhodopsin

Bleaching
enzyme (separation)
Retinal
restored ADP ATP

Figure 9-20
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 Photon

Retinal changes shape

Retinal and
opsin are
reassembled
to form
rhodopsin

Bleaching
enzyme (separation)
Retinal
restored ADP ATP

Opsin Opsin

Opsin
inactivated

Figure 9-20
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 Photon

Retinal changes shape

Retinal and
opsin are
reassembled
to form
rhodopsin

Bleaching
Regeneration enzyme (separation)
Retinal
restored ADP ATP

Opsin Opsin

Opsin
inactivated

Figure 9-20
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The Special Senses—Vision
The Visual Pathway
• Ganglion cells axon converge at optic disc
• Axons leave as optic nerve (CN II)
• Some axons cross at optic chiasm
• Synapse in thalamus bilaterally
• Thalamic neurons project to visual cortex
• Located in occipital lobes
• Contains map of visual field

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The Special Senses—Vision
The Visual Pathway

Figure 9-21
Equilibrium and Hearing

Sensory Functions of the Inner Ear

• Dynamic equilibrium
• Static equilibrium
• Hearing

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Equilibrium and Hearing
Overview of the Ear
• Chambers, canals filled with fluid
endolymph
• Bony labyrinth
• Surrounds membranous labyrinth
• Surrounded by fluid perilymph
• Consists of vestibule, semicircular canals,
cochlea
• External, middle ear feed sound to cochlea

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Equilibrium and Hearing
Anatomy of the Ear
• External ear
• Pinna (auricle)
• External acoustic canal
• Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
• Middle ear
• Auditory ossicles
• Connect tympanic membrane to inner ear
• Auditory tube
• Connection to nasopharynx
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Equilibrium and Hearing
Anatomy of the Inner Ear
• Vestibule
• Membranous sacs
• Utricle
• Saccule
• Receptors for linear acceleration,
gravity
• Semicircular canal with ducts
• Receptors for rotation
• Cochlea with cochlear duct
• Receptors for sound
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Equilibrium and Hearing

Receptors of the Inner Ear

• Hair cells
• Mechanoreceptors
• Stereocilia on cell surface
• Bending excites/inhibits hair cell
• Information on direction and strength
of mechanical stimuli

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Equilibrium and Hearing
The Anatomy of the Ear

Figure 9-22
Equilibrium and Hearing
The Structure of the Middle Ear

Figure 9-23
Equilibrium and Hearing
The Anatomy of the Ear

Figure 9-24(a,b)
 Equilibrium and Hearing
The Anatomy
of the Ear

Figure 9-24(c)

PLAY The Ear: Ear Anatomy

Equilibrium and Hearing
Equilibrium
• Semicircular ducts
• Connect to utricle
• Contains ampulla with hair cells
• Stereocilia contact cupola
• Gelatinous mass distorted by fluid
movement
• Detects rotation of head in three planes
• Anterior, posterior, lateral ducts

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Equilibrium and Hearing

Equilibrium (continued)
• Saccule and utricle
• Hair cells cluster in maculae
• Stereocilia contact otoliths
(heavy mineral crystals)
• Gravity pulls otoliths
• Detect tilt of head
• Sensory axons in vestibular
branch of CN VIII

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Equilibrium and Hearing
The Vestibular Complex

Figure 9-25(a-c)
Equilibrium and Hearing
The Vestibular Complex

Figure 9-25(a, d)
 Head in horizontal position
Gravity

Head tilted posteriorly

Gravity

Otolith
moves
Receptor “downhill,”
distorting
output increases hair cell
processes

Figure 9-25(e)
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 Head in horizontal position
Gravity

Figure 9-25(e)
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 Head in horizontal position
Gravity

Head tilted posteriorly

Gravity

Otolith
moves
“downhill,”
distorting
hair cell
processes

Figure 9-25(e)
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 Head in horizontal position
Gravity

Head tilted posteriorly

Gravity

Otolith
moves
Receptor “downhill,”
distorting
output increases hair cell
processes
PLAY The Ear: Balance Figure 9-25(e)
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Equilibrium and Hearing
Overview of Hearing
• Sound waves vibrate tympanic membrane
• Ossicles transfer vibration to oval window
• Oval window presses on perilymph in
vestibular duct
• Pressure wave distorts basilar membrane
• Hair cells of organ of Corti press on
tectorial membrane

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Equilibrium and Hearing
The Cochlea and the Organ of Corti

Figure 9-26(a)
Equilibrium and Hearing
The Cochlea and the Organ of Corti

Figure 9-26(b)
 External Cochlear branch of
acoustic Incus Oval cranial nerve VIII
canal
Malleus Stapes window

Vestibular duct
(perilymph)
Movement Vestibular membrane
of sound
waves Cochlear duct
(endolymph)
Basilar membrane
Tympanic duct
(perilymph)

Tympanic Round
membrane window

Sound waves Movement of Movement of the The pressure waves Vibrations of the Information about the
arrive at tympanic tympanic membrane stapes at the oval distort the basilar basilar membrane region and the intensity
membrane. causes displacement window establishes membrane on their causes vibration of of stimulation is
of the auditory pressure waves in way to the round hair cells against relayed to the CNS over
ossicles. the perilymph of window of the the tectorial the cochlear branch of
the vestibular duct. tympanic duct. membrane. cranial nerve VIII.

Figure 9-27
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 External
acoustic
canal

Movement
of sound
waves

Tympanic
membrane

Sound waves
arrive at tympanic
membrane.

Figure 9-27
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 External
acoustic Incus
canal
Malleus Stapes

Movement
of sound
waves

Tympanic
membrane

Sound waves Movement of

arrive at tympanic tympanic membrane
membrane. causes displacement
of the auditory
ossicles.

Figure 9-27
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 External
acoustic Incus Oval
canal
Malleus Stapes window

Movement
of sound
waves

Tympanic
membrane

Sound waves Movement of Movement of the

arrive at tympanic tympanic membrane stapes at the oval
membrane. causes displacement window establishes
of the auditory pressure waves in
ossicles. the perilymph of
the vestibular duct.

Figure 9-27
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 External
acoustic Incus Oval
canal
Malleus Stapes window

Movement
of sound
waves

Tympanic Round
membrane window

Sound waves Movement of Movement of the The pressure waves

arrive at tympanic tympanic membrane stapes at the oval distort the basilar
membrane. causes displacement window establishes membrane on their
of the auditory pressure waves in way to the round
ossicles. the perilymph of window of the
the vestibular duct. tympanic duct.

Figure 9-27
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 External
acoustic Incus Oval
canal
Malleus Stapes window

Vestibular duct
(perilymph)
Movement Vestibular membrane
of sound
waves Cochlear duct
(endolymph)
Basilar membrane
Tympanic duct
(perilymph)

Tympanic Round
membrane window

Sound waves Movement of Movement of the The pressure waves Vibrations of the
arrive at tympanic tympanic membrane stapes at the oval distort the basilar basilar membrane
membrane. causes displacement window establishes membrane on their causes vibration of
of the auditory pressure waves in way to the round hair cells against
ossicles. the perilymph of window of the the tectorial
the vestibular duct. tympanic duct. membrane.

Figure 9-27
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 External Cochlear branch of
acoustic Incus Oval cranial nerve VIII
canal
Malleus Stapes window

Vestibular duct
(perilymph)
Movement Vestibular membrane
of sound
waves Cochlear duct
(endolymph)
Basilar membrane
Tympanic duct
(perilymph)

Tympanic Round
membrane window

Sound waves Movement of Movement of the The pressure waves Vibrations of the Information about the
arrive at tympanic tympanic membrane stapes at the oval distort the basilar basilar membrane region and the intensity
membrane. causes displacement window establishes membrane on their causes vibration of of stimulation is
of the auditory pressure waves in way to the round hair cells against relayed to the CNS over
ossicles. the perilymph of window of the the tectorial the cochlear branch of
the vestibular duct. tympanic duct. membrane. cranial nerve VIII.

PLAY The Ear: Receptor Complexes Figure 9-27

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Equilibrium and Hearing
Auditory Pathways
• Hair cells excite sensory neurons
• Sensory neurons located in spiral
ganglion
• Afferent axons form cochlear branch of
vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII)
• Synapses in cochlear nucleus in medulla
• Neurons relay to midbrain
• Midbrain relays to thalamus
• Thalamus relays to auditory cortex
(temporal lobe) in a frequency map
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 Equilibrium and Hearing
Pathways for
Auditory
Sensations

Figure 9-28
Equilibrium and Hearing
Key Note
Balance and hearing both rely on hair
cells. Which stimulus excites a particular
group depends on the structure of the
associated sense organ. In the
semicircular ducts, fluid movement due to
head rotation is sensed. In the utricle and
saccule, shifts in the position of otoliths
by gravity is sensed. In the cochlea,
sound pressure waves distort the basilar
membrane.
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Aging and the Senses
Impact of Aging on Sensory Ability
• Gradual reduction in smell and taste
sensitivity as receptors are lost
• Lens changes lead to presbyopia
(loss of near vision)
• Chance of cataract increases
• Progressive loss of hearing
sensitivity as receptors are lost
(presbycusis)

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