‘/CHAPTER 8

GLOBAL MEDIA CULTURES

Learning Objectives:

After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. explain the different Forms and Theories of international communication
2. describe the interrelation and distinctions between Global Culture,
Westernization and Americanization.
3. explain how the process of acculturation or assimilation have shaped the
present global cultural identities..

8.1 Global Ideas and Communication

Public sphere (German Offentlingkeit) is an social life where individuals can

come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion
influence political action. It was originally coined by German Philosopher Jurgen
Habermas who defined "the public sphere as a virtual or imaginary community which does
not necessarily exist in any identifiable space". The public sphere can be seen as "a
theater in modern societies in which political participation is enacted through the medium
of talk" and "a realm of social life in which public opinion can be formed." The ideology of
the public sphere theory is that the government's laws and policies should be steered by
the public sphere and that the only legitimate governments are those that listen to the
public sphere.

Habermas also defined public sphere as a" society engaged in critical public
debate. " The conditions of the public sphere are according to Hebarmas: the formation of
public opinion, all citizens have access, conference in unrestricted fashion (based on the
freedom of assembly, the freedom of association, the freedom of expression and
publication of opinions) about matters of general interest, which implies freedom from
economic and political control, and the debate over the general rules government
relations.

On the other hand, propaganda is information that is not objective and used
primarily to influence and further and agenda, often by presenting facts selectively to
encourage particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded language to produce an
emotional rather than a rational response to the information that is presented. A wide
range of materials and media are used for conveying propaganda messages, which
changed as new technologies were invented including paintings, cartoons, posters,
pamphlets, film, radio shows, TV shows, and websites

The propaganda model is a theory advanced by Edward S. Herman and Noam

Chomsky which argues systemic biases in the mass media and seeks to explain them in
terms of structural economic causes. Although the model was based mainly in the
characterization of United State media, Chomsky and Herman believe the theory is equally
applicable to any country that shares the basic economic structure and organizing the
model postulates as the cause of media bias.

Another theory concerning propaganda is the Epistemic Merit Model conceived by

Sheryl Tuttle Ross. Ross argues that one must consider a threefold communication, the
Sender-Message-Receiver model, which includes the message sender or the persuader
(who made the message out of his personal intention), a channel (where the persuader
will send the message) through the receiver (which is the target for such persuasion). She
also added that there are four conditions for a message to be considered propaganda.
Propaganda involves the intention to persuade. Also, propaganda is sent on behalf of a
socio-political institution, organization, or cause. Next, the recipient of propaganda is a
socially significant group of people. Finally, propaganda is a epistemic struggle to
challenge others thoughts.

8.2 Normative Theories of Communication

8.2.1 Authoritarian Theory

This originated from the philosophy of Plato in Ancient Greece adapted by

European Monarchs in the medieval period exercising full control over the press.

Authoritarian Media Theory basically suppresses press freedom as not to

encourage the people to think and act negatively of the government. All forms of
media or communication are regulated by a governing elite group that regulates
the communication process between the media and the audience. Although this
media theory could help resolve issues since it is the state or the government
that “dictates” what to be done which may guide the press and the people to
support and cooperate. In this theory, the audience usually couls establish
propaganda thru the one and unified thinking since it is only the government
voice that is being heard alone.
 THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSE OPPORTUNITIE THREAT
S S S

1. All forms of In a one-way In an Media

Authoritaria communicatio communicatio authoritarian only
n Media n comes from n process, model, there serves
the governing there is no would be the
elite, a feedback stability, peace interests
monarch or a mechanism so and security in of the
dictator and in the governing the environment ruling
this vertical elite does not media is elite and
and downward know how the controlled to enhances
flow of people think, protect and the power
communicatio feel, and prevent the of a
n, there will be behave toward people from any monarch
more effective the ruling threats. or
decision- power. dictator,
making, which
efficiency will could
be increased lead to
and discipline disconten
will be t or even
maintained. a bloody
and
violent
revolution
.

8.2.2 Soviet Communist Model

This model began in the late 19th century and was used by the former
Soviet Union, now modern Russia, after the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 when
the car was overthrown. The ruling power or the government continued to
control the press but instead of working for the personal interests of rulers, it
serves the interests of the working class but under the guidance of the party in
power. There is no democracy and freedom as there is still censorship and the
press supports the government.

In the modern world, Cuba remained under this model where media is
state- controlled and owned.
 The Soviet – Communist Media Theory controls the media which is
similar to the Authoritarian Media Theory but promotes equality. It is the interests
of the people that are given attention and focus but also gives consideration to
the authority of the government. In this theory, the government may somehow
control the communication process but does not totally suppress press freedom.
The state simply filters the news and information disseminated to complement
the interest of the audience.

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

2. Soviet The model is a The media works The media serves This model
Communist two-way under the the people without puts an end
Media process leadership, any authoritative to private
encouraging promoting blockades, using ownership of
the public to national interests information to media and
provide rather than develop people's journalists
feedback, personal skills and fulfill their support the
which would agendas. basic needs. leadership
create rather serves
interests as a
towards watchdog.
media.

8.2.3 Libertarian Theory

The concept of this model started in the new world, in the United States,
when Englishmen escaped from the tyranny of the monarchy to establish a free
world and liberal thinking. This model is opposed to both Authoritarian and Soviet-
communist theories and promotes freedom and democracy. The press or media is
given liberty or freedom to create public awareness. Any negative news and
information are considered opportunity to guide the people to know the good But,
the press, unrestrained, exceeded their limits by ignoring decency and privacy and
exaggerating its information. Yellow journalism flourished due to competition in
private owned media.

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

3. Press is given There is no It promotes Too much

Libertarian the liberty or freedom of democracy and leniency may
freedom to information and provides checks harm the
reveal the freedom of the and balances to relationship
truth - media press because government, between the
is empowered the government preventing media and the
to present the protects its corruption. government -
 truth be it ill or interest and members of
good.. filters negative the society will
information that be caught
maybe a threat between its
to the state. loyalty to the
government or
getting
influenced by
the
press/media.

8.2.4 Social Responsibility Theory

SRT gives media the right to be owned and operated by a private entity. It is not
governed by a media censorship because the press is guided by a set of ethics.
Sensationalized news and information can be questioned even if there is media
freedom.

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

4. Social Yellow Ethics are The voiceless There are

Responsibility journalism or always vague, and times when
sensationalism ambiguous, and marginalized the press
decreases as differ from case people are able severely
media can be to case so there to raise their damaged
questioned by are no voices due to the
the law and standards in pluralism and reputation of
public as well information and diversification on some
as self- communication. news and politicians
regulation is people involved through
exercised by in it. irresponsible
the press reporting,
leading to
major
conflicts of
society.
8.2.5 Democratic Participant

DPT exercises press freedom and lets the target audience participate or gets
involved in news and information by expressing their own personal viewpoints.

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

5. The model is Communication Criticisms may be Allowing the

Democratic completely reach is limited accepted by the audience
Participant non-political because it is government as widely
and does not only wants local long as these participate
bolster non- presented with media
political institutionalized objectively activities and
control and media provide through the use of consider
encourages the information correct forms of alternative
national relevant to small media without the when
development groups of purpose dissatisfied
and population. encouraging the empowers the
supporting audience to stand audience to be
local culture. against the state. choosy and
inconsiderate.

8.2.6 Development Communication Media

The main idea behind this model is media will play a role for development
of people in a nation or to help the target population. It focuses on issues
disseminated by the media considered as a guide in the development if a country
wherein the target audience participates and gets involved.

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

6. Helps in The socially The concept of Encourages

Developm developmen engineered participation in this the
ent t of local and messages were model encourages audience to
Communi international disseminated for a social change, be too
cation projects - propaganda to uplifting the quality dependent
Media which helps control culture of of life of people not with media
in the growth the poor countries. only economically and the
and but also socially, government
progress of culturally, and since this
a country politically. theory
most promotes
especially and
the small supports
group of developmen
people who t projects.
are unaware
 of the use of
media.

8.2.7 Agenda-setting Media

This model gave rise to the power of global and international news agencies to
set their own agenda, apart from rulers, ruling powers, and governments. The
press makes sure that significant events reach the knowledge of the people

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

7. Agenda- Agenda setting is Media has the Creates impact An agenda may
setting Media the ability of tendency not to over public spark the
media to present/publish a thinking on certain beginning of a
determine news or political, social, or propaganda
salience of information if it economic agenda. through the
issues with news, does not have concept of
through cognitive any notable framing.
process called significance or not
"accessibility", salient to them -
which is the when media sees
process of no value in the
retrieving an news.
issue in the
memory.

8.2.8 Gate Keeping Media

This theory shows the power and influence of traditional and mainstream media in every
day lives of people. Media selects and decides which information is important and
relevant for the people.

THEORY STRENGTH WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

8. Gate Gatekeeping sets There is a Unfiltered news or Filtered news or

Keeping the standard for probability or information can information dies
Media newsworthiness. tendency that help the public to not help the
even factual see the real audience to see
information will situation as to train the real
not be published if them to be in scenario,
the news on-hand flexible responding therefore, it
is not favorable to and adjusting to does not
the government possible crisis. It support
or members of can help the flexibility of the
elite groups. audience to people in
appreciate and/or coping with
probable crisis.
It only makes
 constructively them
criticize the state. dependent on
positive
situations only.

8.3 Global Culture, Westernization and Americanization

Modernization which is normally related to the words change, progress, and

development refers to process of adapting something to the present needs or habits. In a
way, one who opts to modernization is one that is practical and flexible. Westernization,
on the other hand, refers to the process whereby societies adopt or imbibe the Western
culture in areas such a industry, law, politics, economics, and other fields. Americanization
pertains to the action of making a person or thing American in character or nationality.

In the study by Chi-Yue and his co-authors (2011) they carried out two cross-
regional studies to examine lay people's perception of globalization and its related
concepts, as well as lay people's appraisal of the social impacts of globalization. In their
words : "The issues that are commonly perceived to be strongly associated with
globalization fall into one of the five categories: (1) global consumer brands; (2)
information technology that promote global connectivity; (3) geographic mobility (passport,
air travel, immigration); (4) global calamities; and (5) international trade and regulatory
bodies. Lay perceivers in international trade and technology. Lay understandings of
globalization also encompass awareness of the positive consequences (e.g., increase
geographical mobility) of globalization as well as its negative consequences (e.g., global
calamities). Indeed, international trade versus technology, and globalization of
consumption versus its global consequences seem to be the dimension is that organize
lay people's categorization of globalization related issues.

Others accept with open arms the advent of the globalization of the production as
well as the distribution of goods and services for the benefits that they derive from this.
One of which is the access to products which are made available to them. On the other
hand, others are affected by this especially the producers.

8.4 Enculturation, Acculturation and Assimilation in Globalization

Enculturation refer to the process of learning our own (native) culture, whereas,
acculturation is the process of learning and adopting host cultural norms, values and
beliefs. Learning native cultural norms and values of a particular society are essential for
an individual, to function in a society.

Enculturation is anthropological term used for socialization, both terms refer to, the
process of learning through social interaction. However, the term enculturation is only
confined to culture. Whereas, socialization refer to each and every social interaction of an
individual with other people of a society.

Since conception, baby starts interacting with his family members most of all with mother.
Parents teach their children how to eat, drink, walk, play, and behave in different situations.
However, parents teach all those things according to their own culture. For instance,
Middle Eastern families eat food with their bare hands whereas, American families use
fork and knife to eat food. So, children born and raised in Middle Eastern families are
enculturate to eat food with bare hands. Whereas, American children are enculturated to
eat food with fork and knife. Culture can be transmitted from one generation to another.
During the process of cultural transmission, learning a culture by a new generation is
called enculturation.

On the other hand, adopting foreign culture or other cultural norms and values is known
as acculturation. In this new technological era people can interact with other people living
thousands mile away from them. Due to social interaction through technology and with
mass media people learn new values. And if people adopt those learned values of other
culture and modify their own culture, it will come under the category of acculturation.
Mostly, group of people acculturate because they are influenced by the dominant culture
in a given society. For instance, A Pakistani boy SHAHID immigrates to America, during
his first year, he wears, kurta shalwar; which is his native cultural costume but after a year,
he starts wearing, t-shirts jeans, suits and tuxedos, so SHAHID acculturated; for the
reason that, he adopted foreign culture .

When two different cultures becomes similar then we can say that assimilation occurs.
Assimilation is the process in which native culture go through complete change and adopt
all the elements of host culture. In other words, if one can differentiate between the host
culture and native culture after going through a change, then the process is known as
acculturation. Whereas, if one cannot differentiate between the host culture and native
culture after going through a change, the phenomenon will be called Assimilation. In
assimilation process the minority culture get completely absorbed into dominant majority
culture. .(www.sociologylearners.com/)

Video Link:

The Media Industry and Globalization

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=amzcVwKE3Oc

De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David, M.E. (2018).
Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew Publishing House.
 CHAPTER 9
GLOBAL RELIGIONS

Learning Objectives:

After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. know the major religions of the world and their tenets
2. understand Globalization and Religious Pluralism

3. analyze religious conflict and violence

9.1 Definition of Religion

What is religion? Pioneer sociologist Émile Durkheim described it with the ethereal
statement that it consists of “things that surpass the limits of our knowledge” (1915).
He went on to elaborate: Religion is “a unified system of beliefs and practices relative
to sacred things, that is to say set apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices which
unite into one single moral community, called a church, all those who adhere to them”
(1915). Some people associate religion with places of worship (a synagogue or
church), others with a practice (confession or meditation), and still others with a
concept that guides their daily lives (like dharma or sin). All of these people can agree
that religion is a system of beliefs, values, and practices concerning what a person
holds sacred or considers to be spiritually significant.
(https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology)

9.2 Major Religions

9.2.1 Christianity

Christian Philosophy began as a Jewish Sect in Jerusalem proclaiming

Jesus of Nazareth as the Messiah. After Constantine came into power, he
established Christianity as a quasi- official state religion of the Roman Emprire in
Ad 324.

Despite the many different divisions and sects of Christianity, most seem
to agree, with some variations on the following: God is the creator of all things;
Jesus is the Messiah, Christ , son of God; human being is a sinner who requires
redemption; the Holy Trinity includes God the Father, God the Son and the Holy
Spirit; Christ came down to Earth to redeem mankind, the soul is immortal.
9.2.2 Hinduism

It is the major religion in India. Hinduism is the world’s oldest religion,

according to many scholars, with roots and customs dating back more than 4,000
years. Today, with about 900 million followers, Hinduism is the third-largest religion
behind Christianity and Islam. The oldest religion in the world, Hinduism originated
in the Indus River Valley about 4,500 years ago in what is now modern-day
northwest India and Pakistan. It arose contemporaneously with ancient Egyptian
and Mesopotamian cultures. With roughly one billion followers, Hinduism is the
third-largest of the world’s religions. Hindus believe in a divine power that can
manifest as different entities. Three main incarnations—Brahma, Vishnu, and
Shiva—are sometimes compared to the manifestations of the divine in the
Christian Trinity.

Multiple sacred texts, collectively called the Vedas, contain hymns and
rituals from ancient India and are mostly written in Sanskrit. Hindus generally
believe in a set of principles called dharma, which refer to one’s duty in the world
that corresponds with “right” actions. Hindus also believe in karma, or the notion
that spiritual ramifications of one’s actions are balanced cyclically in this life or a
future life (reincarnation). (https://courses.lumenlearning.com)

9.2.3 Buddhism

Buddhism is a faith that was founded by Siddhartha Gautama (“the

Buddha”) more than 2,500 years ago in India. With about 470 million followers,
scholars consider Buddhism one of the major world religions. Its practice has
historically been most prominent in East and Southeast Asia, but its influence is
growing in the West. Many Buddhist ideas and philosophies overlap with those of
other faiths.

• Followers of Buddhism don’t acknowledge a supreme god or deity. They instead

focus on achieving enlightenment—a state of inner peace and wisdom. When
followers reach this spiritual echelon, they’re said to have experienced nirvana.
• The religion’s founder, Buddha, is considered an extraordinary man, but not a
god. The word Buddha means “enlightened.”
• The path to enlightenment is attained by utilizing morality, meditation and
wisdom. Buddhists often meditate because they believe it helps awaken truth.
• Buddhists embrace the concepts of karma (the law of cause and effect) and
reincarnation (the continuous cycle of rebirth).
• Followers of Buddhism can worship in temples or in their own homes.
 • Buddhist monks, or bhikkhus, follow a strict code of conduct, which includes
celibacy. (www.history.com)

9.2.4 Islam

Muslims believe there is the one almighty God, named Allah, who is
infinitely superior to and transcendent from humankind. Allah is viewed as the
creator of the universe and the source of all good and all evil. Everything that
happens is Allah's will. He is a powerful and strict judge, who will be merciful toward
followers depending on the sufficiency of their life's good works and religious
devotion. A follower's relationship with Allah is as a servant to Allah.

Though a Muslim honors several prophets, Muhammad is considered the

last prophet and his words and lifestyle are that person's authority. To be a Muslim,
one must follow five religious duties: 1. Repeat a creed about Allah and
Muhammad; 2. Recite certain prayers in Arabic five times a day; 3. Give to the
needy; 4. One month each year, fast from food, drink, sex and smoking from
sunrise to sunset; 5. Pilgrimage once in one's lifetime to worship at a shrine in
Mecca. At death -- based on one's faithfulness to these duties -- a Muslim hopes
to enter Paradise. If not, they will be eternally punished in hell.

For many people, Islam matches their expectations about religion and
deity. Islam teaches that there is one supreme deity, who is worshiped through
good deeds and disciplined religious rituals. After death a person is rewarded or
punished according to their religious devotion. Muslims believe that giving up one’s
life for Allah is a sure way of entering Paradise. (https://www.everystudent.com)

9.2.5 Confucianism

Confucianism was the official religion of China from 200 B.C.E. until it was
officially abolished when communist leadership discouraged religious practice in
1949. The religion was developed by Kung Fu-Tzu (Confucius), who lived in the
sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E. An extraordinary teacher, his lessons—which were
about self-discipline, respect for authority and tradition, and jen (the kind treatment
of every person)—were collected in a book called the Analects.

Some religious scholars consider Confucianism more of a social system

than a religion because it focuses on sharing wisdom about moral practices but
doesn’t involve any type of specific worship; nor does it have formal objects. In
fact, its teachings were developed in context of problems of social anarchy and a
near-complete deterioration of social cohesion. Dissatisfied with the social
solutions put forth, Kung Fu-Tzu developed his own model of religious morality to
help guide society (Smith 1991).
9.2.6 Taoism

In Taoism, the purpose of life is inner peace and harmony. Tao is usually
translated as “way” or “path.” The founder of the religion is generally recognized to
be a man named Laozi, who lived sometime in the sixth century B.C.E. in China.
Taoist beliefs emphasize the virtues of compassion and moderation.

The central concept of tao can be understood to describe a spiritual reality,

the order of the universe, or the way of modern life in harmony with the former two.
The ying-yang symbol and the concept of polar forces are central Taoist ideas
(Smith 1991). Some scholars have compared this Chinese tradition to its
Confucian counterpart by saying that “whereas Confucianism is concerned with
day-to-day rules of conduct, Taoism is concerned with a more spiritual level of
being” (Feng and English 1972).

9.3 Globalization and Religious Pluralism

Globalization brings a culture of pluralism, meaning religions “with

overlapping but distinctive ethics and interests” interact with one
another.Essentially, the world’s leading religious traditions teach values such as
human dignity, equality, freedom, peace, and solidarity. More specifically, religions
maintain the Golden Rule: “what you do not wish done to yourself, do not do to
others.”Therefore, through such religious values, globalization engenders greater
religious tolerance in such areas as politics, economics, and society.

In political areas, globalization has built global political forums that integrate
cultural, ethnic, and religious differences—ideologies that were once perceived as
dividing the world—through a large number of international organizations such as
the United Nations (UN) and the World Health Organization (WHO), as well
regional organizations like the European Union (EU), the Organization of the
Islamic Conference (OIC), or the African Union (AU). When discussing issues such
as international peace and security, health issues, poverty, and environment, these
organizations generally share many of the same basic commitments as religious
traditions—mainly peace, human dignity, and human equality, as well as conflict
resolution in which they actively engage in negotiation, mediation, and
diplomacy.(Golebiewski,2014)

9.4 Religions, conflict and Violence

Religious violence is a term that covers phenomena where religion is either the
subject or the object of violent behavior.[1] Religious violence is violence that is
motivated by, or in reaction to, religious precepts, texts, or the doctrines of a target or
 an attacker. It includes violence against religious institutions, people, objects, or
events. Religious violence does not exclusively refer to acts which are committed by
religious groups, instead, includes acts which are committed against religious groups.

"Violence" is a very broad concept that is difficult to define since it is used on both
human and non-human objects.[2] Furthermore, the term can denote a wide variety
of experiences such as blood shedding, physical harm, forcing against personal
freedom, passionate conduct or language, or emotions such as fury and passion.[3]

Although not necessarily so, there are some aspects of religion that make it
susceptible to being a latent source of conflict. All religions have their accepted
dogma, or articles of belief, that followers must accept without question. This can lead
to inflexibility and intolerance in the face of other beliefs. After all, if it is the word of
God, how can one compromise it? At the same time, scripture and dogma are often
vague and open to interpretation. Therefore, conflict can arise over whose
interpretation is the correct one, a conflict that ultimately cannot be solved because
there is no arbiter. The winner generally is the interpretation that attracts the most
followers. However, those followers must also be motivated to action. Although,
almost invariably, the majority of any faith hold moderate views, they are often more
complacent, whereas extremists are motivated to bring their interpretation of God's
will to fruition.

Religious extremists can contribute to conflict escalation. They see radical

measures as necessary to fulfilling God's wishes. Fundamentalists of any religion
tend to take a Manichean view of the world. If the world is a struggle between good
and evil, it is hard to justify compromising with the devil. Any sign of moderation can
be decried as selling out, more importantly, of abandoning God's will.
(https://www.beyondintractability.org)

Video Link:

5 Most Powerful Religions In The World

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mayXM4wSJhM

De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David, M.E.
(2018). Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew Publishing House.
 CHAPTER 10
DEMOGRAPHY AND POPULATION

Learning Objectives:

After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Understand the basic concepts and measures of demography.

2. Trace the source and historical growth of the population
3. Critically evaluate the validity of different population theories.
4. Draw a conclusion regarding the underlying relationship between population
growth, food security and development.

October 31, 2011 was considered as the day of the 7 billionth baby. In the
Philippines the 7 billionth baby was awarde to Danica May Camacho born at the Fabella
Hospital in Manila. The UN officers to the Philippines brought a cake and other gifts to
danica May such as scholarship grant and financial support for her parents to start a
general merchandise store.

But the symbolic day of the birth of Danica may is more of a concern than a
celebration. According to the UN Chief Ban Ki-moon, more concern should ne given to
billions of people who go to bed hungry in contrast to those few who enjoy life of luxury.
This is a story of 7 billion people who need enough food, enough energy, good
opportunities in jobs and education, rights and freedom (www.collegenews.com)

Its because of this fact that there is a need to study population. Change in
population size constitutes some of the important features of social transition and change.
Like the introduction of new forms of technology, increase or decrease in population can
also be catalyst for social change.

10.1 Basic Concepts

Demography is the science that deals with the study of population. Three of the
most important components that affect the issues above are fertility, mortality, and
migration. The fertility rate of a society is a measure noting the number of children born.
The fertility number is generally lower than the fecundity number, which measures the
potential number of children that could be born to women of childbearing age. Sociologists
measure fertility using the crude birthrate (the number of live births per 1,000 people per
year). Just as fertility measures childbearing, the mortality rate is a measure of the number
of people who die. The crude death rate is a number derived from the number of deaths
per 1,000 people per year. When analyzed together, fertility and mortality rates help
researchers understand the overall growth occurring in a population. Another key element
in studying populations is the movement of people into and out of an area called migration.

Changing fertility, mortality, and migration rates make up the total population
composition, a snapshot of the demographic profile of a population. This number can be
measured for societies, nations, world regions, or other groups. The population
composition includes the sex ratio, the number of men for every hundred women, as well
as the population pyramid, a picture of population distribution by sex and age. Currently,
the world has around 7.8 billion population.

Top 20 Largest Countries by Population (live)

1 China 1,440,693,002

2 India 1,383,374,953

3 U.S.A. 331,482,161

4 Indonesia 274,242,900

5 Pakistan 221,972,409

6 Brazil 212,933,346

7 Nigeria 207,436,111

8 Bangladesh 165,097,066

9 Russia 145,949,803

10 Mexico 129,269,597

11 Japan 126,382,002

12 Ethiopia 115,686,202

13 Philippines 109,945,187

14 Egypt 102,820,053

15 Vietnam 97,555,899
16 D.R. Congo 90,258,053

17 Turkey 84,564,816

18 Germany 83,849,877

19 Iran 84,261,143

20 Thailand 69,843,043

https://www.worldometers.info

10.2 Demographic Theories

Sociologists have long looked at population issues as central to understanding

human interactions. Below we will look at four theories about population that inform
sociological thought: Malthusian, zero population growth, cornucopian, and demographic
transition theories.

10.2.1 Malthusian Theory

Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) was an English clergyman who made dire

predictions about earth’s ability to sustain its growing population. According to Malthusian
theory, three factors would control human population that exceeded the earth’s carrying
capacity, or how many people can live in a given area considering the amount of available
resources. Malthus identified these factors as war, famine, and disease (Malthus 1798).
He termed them “positive checks” because they increase mortality rates, thus keeping the
population in check. They are countered by “preventive checks,” which also control the
population but by reducing fertility rates; preventive checks include birth control and
celibacy. Thinking practically, Malthus saw that people could produce only so much food
in a given year, yet the population was increasing at an exponential rate. Eventually, he
thought people would run out of food and begin to starve. They would go to war over
increasingly scarce resources and reduce the population to a manageable level, and then
the cycle would begin anew.

Of course, this has not exactly happened. The human population has continued to
grow long past Malthus’s predictions. So what happened? Why didn’t we die off? There
are three reasons sociologists believe we are continuing to expand the population of our
planet. First, technological increases in food production have increased both the amount
and quality of calories we can produce per person. Second, human ingenuity has
developed new medicine to curtail death from disease. Finally, the development and
widespread use of contraception and other forms of family planning have decreased the
speed at which our population increases. But what about the future? Some still believe
Malthus was correct and that ample resources to support the earth’s population will soon
run out.
10.2.2 Zero Population Growth

A neo-Malthusian researcher named Paul Ehrlich brought Malthus’s predictions

into the twentieth century. However, according to Ehrlich, it is the environment, not
specifically the food supply, that will play a crucial role in the continued health of planet’s
population (Ehrlich 1968). Ehrlich’s ideas suggest that the human population is moving
rapidly toward complete environmental collapse, as privileged people use up or pollute a
number of environmental resources such as water and air. He advocated for a goal of
zero population growth (ZPG), in which the number of people entering a population
through birth or immigration is equal to the number of people leaving it via death or
emigration. While support for this concept is mixed, it is still considered a possible solution
to global overpopulation.

10.2.3 Cornucopian Theory

Of course, some theories are less focused on the pessimistic hypothesis that the
world’s population will meet a detrimental challenge to sustaining itself. Cornucopian
theory scoffs at the idea of humans wiping themselves out; it asserts that human ingenuity
can resolve any environmental or social issues that develop. As an example, it points to
the issue of food supply. If we need more food, the theory contends, agricultural scientists
will figure out how to grow it, as they have already been doing for centuries. After all, in
this perspective, human ingenuity has been up to the task for thousands of years and
there is no reason for that pattern not to continue (Simon 1981).

10.2.4 Demographic Transition Theory

Whether you believe that we are headed for environmental disaster and the end
of human existence as we know it, or you think people will always adapt to changing
circumstances, we can see clear patterns in population growth. Societies develop along a
predictable continuum as they evolve from unindustrialized to postindustrial. Demographic
transition theory (Caldwell and Caldwell 2006) suggests that future population growth will
develop along a predictable four-stage model.

In Stage 1, birth, death, and infant mortality rates are all high, while life expectancy
is short. An example of this stage is the 1800s in the United States. As countries begin to
industrialize, they enter Stage 2, where birthrates are higher while infant mortality and the
death rates drop. Life expectancy also increases. Afghanistan is currently in this stage.
Stage 3 occurs once a society is thoroughly industrialized; birthrates decline, while life
expectancy continues to increase. Death rates continue to decrease. Mexico’s population
is at this stage. In the final phase, Stage 4, we see the postindustrial era of a society. Birth
and death rates are low, people are healthier and live longer, and society enters a phase
of population stability. Overall population may even decline. For example, Sweden is
considered to be in Stage 4.
 The United Nations Population Fund (2008) categorizes nations as high fertility,
intermediate fertility, or low fertility. The United Nations (UN) anticipates the population
growth will triple between 2011 and 2100 in high-fertility countries, which are currently
concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa. For countries with intermediate fertility rates (the
United States, India, and Mexico all fall into this category), growth is expected to be about
26 percent. And low-fertility countries like China, Australia, and most of Europe will actually
see population declines of approximately 20 percent. The graphs below illustrate this
trend.( https://courses.lumenlearning.com)

Video Link:

Joel Cohen: An Introduction to Demography

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2vr44C_G0-o

De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David, M.E.
(2018). Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew Publishing House.
 CHAPTER 11

GLOBAL MIGRATION

Learning Objectives:

After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Understand the basic concept of migration, and theories of migration.

2. Distinguish the various types of migrants, their patterns and their

special needs.
3. Know the consequences of migration

11.1 Basic Concepts In Migration

As discussed in the previous chapter, migration is one of the processes that influence the
demographic structure of the country. To reiterate, migration pertains to the act or process
of crossing the boundary of a political or administrative unit for certain minimum period
(Boyle et; 1998 as quoted by Dicolen, 2013). It comes from the Latin word “Migratio” which
means physical movements by people from one area to another, sometimes over long
distances or in large groups (Dicolen, 2013:55). The concept of migration usually involves
the “detachment from the organization of activities at one place and the movement of total
round of activities to another”, although admittedly, this is not always the primary
consideration of migration.

Not all types of change in one’s residence are called migration. For a change of
residence to be considered migration, it must cross a certain political or administrative
unit. Otherwise, it is merely a movement. An example of the movement is when there is a
change of residence within the same barangay. Furthermore, such movement must also
be for a well-defined period, which may be as temporary as six months, or as permanent
as a lifetime abode. Hence, any brief change in residence, say for two months, is just
merely a vacation, and not migration.

An individual who moves from one area or region to another is called a migrant.
He/She is also known as emigrant from the point of view of the place of origin and an
immigrant from the point of view of the place of destination. Migrants may be permanent,
long term or short term according to the length of the stay in the place of destination. It is
permanent if the migrant does not return to his or her place of origin; long-term if the usual
stay extends to more than 12 months; and short –term if it falls below 12 months.

Migration can also be classified according to choice. It is classified as voluntary if

the migrant decides to move by his choice. Most of these migrants are labor-related such
as the case of temporary labor migrants, who migrate for a limited period as guest-workers
or overseas contract workers from a few months to several years in order to take up
employment and send home money (Remittances); highly-skilled and business migrants,
who are hired as managers, executives, professionals, technicians and similar, who move
with the internal labor markets of transnational corporations and international
organizations, or who seek employment through international labor markets for scarce
skills; irregular migrants, who enter a country, usually in search of employments without
the necessary documents and permits; and return migrants, who return to their countries
of origin after a period in another country.

There is also migration by involuntary choice. This includes refugees, people

residing outside of their country of Nationality, who is unable or Unwillingly to return
because of a well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality,
membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. It also includes asylum-
seekers, or those people who moves across borders seeking protection, but who may not
fulfill the strict criteria laid down by the 1952 Convention. Further, this also includes the
forced migrants, or those forced to move by environmental catastrophes or development
projects such as new factories, road or dams.

Finally, migration is generally classified into internal and international migration.

Internal migration refers to a move from one area (a province, district or municipality) to
another within one country. Intenational migration on the other hand refers means crossing
the frontiers which separates one of the world’s approximately 200 states from another
(Castles, 2000:169)

11.2 Reasons of Migration

11.2.1 Neo-Classical Theory

According to Neo-Classical theory, migration is usually associated with

individual’s efforts to maximize their income my moving from low-income to high wage
economies (Borjas, 1989 as quoted by Castles, 2000:272). This is the most common
reason for migration especially the migration of one coming from a developing nation to
a developed one with high proportion of underemployment in the country of origin. The
current pattern of migration is an empirical data of this theory.

11.2.2 Labor Migration Theory

This theory is a new economic approach in explaining migration. It argues that

migration cannot simply be explained by income differences between two countries, but
also by factors such as chances of secure employment, availability of capital for
entrepreneurial activity, and the need to manage risk over long periods. Migration
decisions are made not just by individuals but most often represent family strategies to
maximize income and survival chance (Hugo, 1994 as quoted by Castles, 2000:272) (
11.2.3 Migration System Theory

This theory is argued as an outcome of collaboration of two countries where the

migration system is constituted by two or more countries which exchange migrants with
each other. In this system, it is necessary to examine both ends of the flow and study the
linkages (economic, cultural, political, military, etc.) Between the places concerned.
Migratory movements generally arise from the existence of prior links between sending
and receiving countries based on colonization, political influence, trade, investment, or
cultural ties (ibid; 2000:272)

While this is the most prevailing reason for migration, this does not capture other
reasons of migration. As already mentioned, there are some reasons of migrations which
are not economic or income-related especially those who are driven away from their
place residence

11.2.4 Push-Pull Theory

The Most Popular theory explaining the causes of migration is one propounded by
Ravenstein (1889) known as the Push-Pull Theory. This theory states that some people
move because they are pushed out of their former location (push factors), or because they
have been pulled or attracted to some places elsewhere (pull Factor) Examples of the
push factor are scarcity of Job Opportunity, Poor medical care, death threats, poor
housing, natural disasters, famine, loss of wealth and discrimination. Pull Factors on the
other hand are the opposite Better Job Opportunities, Improved Living conditions, Political
and/or Religious freedom, attractive climates, better Education, ect. Ravenstein further
opined that pull factors were more important than the push factors because in most
instances, people move in order to improve themselves in material respects, but they
would rather endure the conditions in their current residence unless attached by the
above-mention pull factors. To do this however, a potential migrant usually weighs the
cost-benefit of migration.

Most of movement or migration has been considered as an “implementing

strategy” in order to attain the goal of migration. The goal can be in terms of advancement
in education, better jov, a nicer house, a more pleasant environment, etc. It is in this
implementing strategy that migration is selective and more apparent at a certain age of
the life cycle because there is a specific age-group of population that is more prone to
migration (Weeks, 1986:179-180).

11.3 Trends in Migration

Based on the statistics provided by the International Organization for Migration,

Mobility of people is increasing over time, either internal or international, migaration. In
2009, a

n estimated 740 Million migration happen without crossing national borders. In 2015,
there are about 244 million people living in a country other than their country of birth.
These figures however remain a slim proportion of the world population, as these
movements constitute only around 12% of the world population (9% for internal
migration and 3% for international migration)

In terms of international migration, the increase in mobility is notable for the past
4 ½ decades. In 1970, international migrants were estimated at 84 Million while in 1990
they increase at around 153 million people

Migrants as a % of the
Year Number of migrants
world’s population
1970 84,460,125 2.3%
1975 90,368,010 2.3%
1980 101,983,149 2.3%
1985 113,206,691 2.3%
1990 152,563,212 2.9%
1995 160,801,752 2.8%
2000 172,703,309 2.8%
2005 191,269,100 2.9%
2010 221,714,243 3.2%
2015 246,700,236 3.3%

Europe and Asia catered around 75 million migrants each in the year 2015. This
constitutes 62% of the total global international migrants. In 2017, it is estimated that there
were around 80 Million international migrants residing in asia, while 78 million Europe.
North America, on the other hand hosted around 54 million international migrants (58
million in 2017), which constitute 22 % of the total international migrants, Africa 9 % (25
million in 2017), Latin America and the Caribbean at 4 % (9.5 million in 2017), and Oceania
at 3% (8.4 million in 2017) (IOM, IOM 2018:18). In most countries of Europe, Northern
America and Oceania, international migrants compromised more than 10% of the total
population of 2017.

For about 45 years until now, United States of America has been the main country
of destination for international migration. In 1970, there are around 12 million migrants to
the USA. In 2015, it quadrupled to 46.6 million migrants. Since 2005 onwards, Germany
became the second top destination for migrants, accommodating around 12 million
migrants in 2015. Some other top destination for migrants include Russian Federation,
Saudi Arabia, United Kingdom, UAE, Canada, France, Australia, and Spain

According to IOM’s World Migration Report 2015, nearly 1 in every 5 migrants in

the world lives in the top 20 largest cities which include Sydney, Auckland, Singapore,
London, Amsterdam, Frankfurt, and Paris.

Expectedly, migrant distribution is skewed to high-income countries. About 2/3 of

international migrants resided in high-income countries, around 157 million as of year
2015. Around 77 million migrants resided in middle-income countries, while only 9 million
migrants resided in low-income countries (IOM, 2018:20). In 2017, these high income
countries accommodated nearly 165 million of the total number of international migrants
worldwide. According to region, the south to south migration (migration within developing
countries) continued to grow compared to South-North migration is estimated at 90.2
million, while the south to north migration is calculated at 85.3 million

In 2017, Asia and Europe were the regions of origin with the largest numbers of
international migrants – 106 million and 61 million, respectively. Latin American and the
Caribbean followed with 38 million and African with 36 million.

Between 2000 and 2017, African experienced the largest relative increase in the
number of international migrants who had originated in that region (+68%), followed by
Asia (+62%), Latin American and the Caribbean (+52%) and Ocean (+51%)

India has the largest number of person born in the country who are now living
outside its borders. The number of Indian-born persons residing aboard number 17 million
in 2017, ahead of the number of Mexican-Born persons living outside Mexico (13 million).
The Russian Federation, China, Bangladesh, Syrian Arab Republic, Pakistan and Ukraine
also have large migrant populations living abroad, ranging from6 to 11 million each
(International Migration Report, 2017)

Pattern of Migration

Statistics shows that the bulk of Migrants belong to the working population, i.e.
those belong to the ages 15-64. Based on the estimates of the International Organization
for Migration, 72% of the international migrants belong to the working population (IOM,
2018:17). This is not surprising because as mentioned above, labor is the primary reason
for migration. It is also in the age group when Individual trend to separate from their
parents, have their own lives, and/or look for their own fortune.

11.4 Special Types of Migrants

Irregular Migrants

As defined above, irregular migrants, also known as undocumented or illegal

migrants, are those who enter a country, usually in search of employment, without the
necessary documents and permits (Castles, 2000:270). The is usually the case of Labor
migration flows. It is illegal because it does not go through the process of documentation
from country of origin to the country destination. There are countries, however, which
tolerate this country of destination. There are countries however, which tolerate this
practice of migration because in a way, it “allow Mobilization of labor in response to
employer demands without social costs or measure for protection of migrants (ibid)”. The
evil side of this practice however, lies on the fact that most of these irregular migrants are
at a high risk of abuses committed by host country, without the necessary protection from
the sending country.
Migrant in Human Trafficking

Trafficking in Persons, also known as “Human Trafficking”, is defined as the

recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by means of threats,
force, coercion, abduction, deception, abuse of power, etc. For the purpose of exploitation.
The End-goal of these exploitation can be in various manners. Examples are, Prostitution,
Force Labor and slavery, Sex tourism, sexual exploitation, debt bondages, or
pornography. More recent additions to the list are Force Marriages (How?), and Black
Market Organ Harvesting.

Diaspora and Transnationalism

Typically, migratory chains are started by an external factor, such as recruitment

or military service, or by an initial movement of young people pioneers. Once a movement
is established, the migrants mainly follow ‘beaten paths’ (Stahl, 1993; Castles, 2000:272),
and are helped by relatives and the friends already in the area of immigration. Networks
based on family or on common place of origin help provide shelter, work, assistance with
bureaucratic procedures and support in personal difficulties.

Diaspora refers to “people, and often their descendants, from a specific country
who are living abroad” (IOM, 2018:20) It is used interchangeably with transnational
communities, where “migrants may establish and maintain connections with people in their
home communities or migrants in other countries”. The distinguishing characteristics of
diasporas from other migrant groups in the presence of strong cultural, historical, religious
and affective ties with the country or community of origin, or a sense of identity and
belonging (Vertovec and Cohen, 1999, as quoted by IOM, ibid; 304)

Refugees and Asylum Seekers

Refugee pertains to any person who, “Owing to well-founded fear of being

persecuted for reason of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group
or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality, and is unable or, owing to such
fear, is outside the country of his nationality, and is unable or, owing to such fear, is
unwilling to avail himself of the protection of the country; or who, not having a nationality
and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events,
is unable to, owing to such fear is unwilling to return to it (1951 UNCHR Convention
Relating to the status of Refugees to be a Refugee).

11.5 Consequences of Migration

Migration Brings forth multiple Benefits. On an Individual’s case it gives the migrant
the chance to work and enhance their skills and productivity, while giving them a sense of
accomplishment and a sense of purpose. In Familial side it increases the living standards
of the family and/or relatives. This is the usual migration strategy especially among
Filipinos, they may also send a petition to the country of destination’s government to allow
his family to join them there. On International Scale, this increases productivity as well as
increase trade and other relations between the nations.
 The only few consequences of Migrations, in Personal and Familial standpoint, are
the likelihood of stress and/or disorganization of daily life. It may also strain Familial bonds
because of the distance between, even thou modern technology lessened the strain there
are some still there. On National Scale, the Home country would have lessened pool of
workforces while the country of destination gets an increase of workf

Video Link

Migration and Globalization

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l69CZFCPCp8

De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David, M.E. (2018).
Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew Publishing House.
 CHAPTER 12

SOCIAL ISSUES AND PROBLEMS OF URBANIZATION IN A GLOBAL WORLD

Learning Objectives:

After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. differentiate the concepts of social issue and social problem
2. identify emerging social problems in a global world and determine their
causes.
3. Analyze the effects of these social problems and issues to globalization

A social problem is any condition or behavior that has negative consequences

for large numbers of people and that is generally recognized as a condition or behavior
that needs to be addressed.

A social issue is a problem that influences many citizens within a society. It is a

common problem in present-day society and one that many people strive to solve. It is
often the consequence of factors extending beyond an individual's control. Social issues
are the source of a conflicting opinion on the grounds of what is perceived as morally
correct or incorrect

Four factors have been outlined that seem to characterize a social issue or
problem. These include:

> The public must recognize the situation as a problem.

>The situation is against the general values accepted by the society.

>A large segment of the population recognizes the problem as a valid concern.

>The problem can be rectified or alleviated through the joint action of citizens and/or
community resources.

12 Common Social Problems and Issues in Globalization

12.1 Global Health Issues including HIV and AIDS

In recent years, cities around the world are seriously disturbed with communicable
health risks such as but not limited to Ebola fever, SARS, AH1N1, and many others. Just
recently added to this is the spread of the New Corona Virus (NCOV2) which became a
Pandemic that locked down almost all countries all over the world. State monitoring
particularly on returning nationals from abroad was found to be effective mechanism to
prevent the spread of such viruses. But then in the process of Globalization as people
move about so as these health threat move also thus creating Health problems and social
issues among many countries.

The World Health Organization has released a list of 10 threats to global health in
2019. They include:

• Air pollution and climate change

• Noncommunicable diseases
• Threat of a global influenza pandemic
• Fragile and vulnerable settings, such as regions affected by drought and conflict
• Antimicrobial resistance
• Ebola and high-threat pathogens
• Weak primary care
• Vaccine hesitancy
• Dengue
• HIV/AIDS

This year the Novel Corona Virus (NCOV 2) is added to the above threats because it
has evolved already into a worldwide pandemic and continue to wreak havoc not only on
health infrastructures but on Economic infrastructures as well because of lock downs
imposed by countries in order to contain its spread.

12.1.1 WHAT IS HIV?

HIV stands for HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS is a virus that attacks cells
that help the body fight infection, making a person more vulnerable to other infections and
diseases. Without treatment, HIV can gradually destroy the immune system and advance
to AIDS.

AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. AIDS is the most advanced
stage of HIV infection.

The spread of HIV from person to person is called HIV transmission. HIV is spread
only in certain body fluids from a person who has HIV. These body fluids
include:Blood,Semen, Pre-seminal fluid,Vaginal fluids,Rectal fluids, and Breast milk.

In the United States, HIV is spread mainly by having anal or vaginal sex with
someone who has HIV without using a condom or taking medicines to prevent or treat HIV

Sharing injection drug equipment (works), such as needles, with someone who
has HIV, The spread of HIV from a woman with HIV to her child during pregnancy,
childbirth, or breastfeeding is called mother-to-child transmission of HIV.

On the other hand, you can’t get HIV by shaking hands or hugging a person who
has HIV.You also can’t get HIV from contact with objects such as dishes, toilet seats, or
doorknobs used by a person with HIV. HIV is not spread through the air or in water or by
mosquitoes, ticks, or other blood-sucking insects.
 Within 2 to 4 weeks after infection with HIV, some people may have flu-like
symptoms, such as fever, chills, or rash. The symptoms may last for a few days to
several weeks. During this earliest stage of HIV infection, the virus multiplies rapidly.

After the initial stage of infection, HIV continues to multiply but at very low levels.
More severe symptoms of HIV infection, such as signs of opportunistic infections,
generally don’t appear for many years.

A person can reduce the risk of being infected with the following guidelines:

>Use condoms correctly every time you have sex

>Limit your number of sexual partners

>Never share injection drug equipment.

>HIV medicines, given to women with HIV during pregnancy and childbirth and to their
babies after birth, reduce the risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV

Infection with HIV/AIDS leads to numerous bodily, mental and social issues that
affect the individual and impacts on their families and communities at large. The impact of
the HIV treatment is further aggravated by other factors such as worry about employment,
sexuality, the prospects of relationships, and the social reactions of other community
members. Another impact of HIV is the stigma and discrimination against persons living
with HIV/AIDS. Apart from having to endure treatment with severe side-effects, they
constantly have to cope with rejection and social discrimination.
(https://nursinganswers.net)

Video Link:

Positive/Negative: HIV & AIDS in the Philippines

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SQmysmzZvVw
12.2 Sex and Gender Discrimination

The distinction between sex and gender differentiates a person's biological

sex (the anatomy of an individual's reproductive system, and secondary sex
characteristics) from that person's gender, which can refer to either social roles based on
the sex of the person (gender role) or personal identification of one's own gender based
on an internal awareness.

Sex often refers to what doctors (and society) assign a person at birth based on
their genitals. So the division become binary referring to being Male or Female. While
sex is often based on biology, gender is a social construct.

According to the World Health organization, Gender as a social construction

includes norms, behaviours and roles associated with being a woman, man, girl or boy,
as well as relationships with each other. As a social construct, gender varies from
society to society and can change over time. Because there are more than two genders,
it therefore not binary but instead it is a spectrum. Below are the most popular gender
description in this spectrum.

Gender or sex as classification is hierarchical and produces inequalities that

intersect with other social and economic inequalities. Gender-based discrimination
intersects with other factors of discrimination, such as ethnicity, socioeconomic status,
disability, age, geographic location, gender identity and sexual orientation, among
others.
 Gender or sex discrimination occurs when a person is subjected to different or
unequal treatment ("discrimination") in any number of situations, when that treatment is
based on the person's gender.

Sex discrimination - refers to discrimination based on the biological differences

between male and female

Gender discrimination - refers to discrimination based on social behavior such as

nonconformance of gender roles including sexual orientation and gender identity
discrimination

Gender and sex discrimination can take place in many different settings, but
typically occurs most often in the following situations:

a. Workplace- Gender discrimination may be direct or indirect. Direct gender

discrimination is when an employee is treating unfavourably because of
their gender. Indirect gender discrimination can occur if employers or
managers hold assumptions about what sort of work women and men are
capable, or not capable, of doing.
b. Education - When a child is treated less favourably on the grounds of
gender, sexual orientation. Sometimes they are not given equal
opportunity and treatment because of the sex or gender. In some regions,
boys’ educational opportunities are limited by gender roles that force
them to work rather than attend school. These financial responsibilities
are often increased in boys’ adolescent years, making it difficult for them
to complete secondary school in some regions. However, in many parts
of the world, girls are most often the victims of gender discrimination as
they pursue an education.
c. Household – when male children are given more opportunities than their
sisters. Sometimes this takes the form of giving more household chores
to female children while those having other genders such as gays or
lesbians are looked down upon or totally become unaccepted.

Gender stereotypes is a generalized view or preconception about attributes or

characteristics, or the roles that are or ought to be possessed by, or performed by
women and men. A gender stereotype is harmful when it limits women’s and men’s
capacity to develop their personal abilities, pursue their professional careers and make
choices about their lives.

Gender equality is a human right, but our world faces a persistent gap in access
to opportunities and decision-making power for women and men.

Globally, women have fewer opportunities for economic participation than men,
less access to basic and higher education, greater health and safety risks, and less
political representation.
 Guaranteeing the rights of women and giving them opportunities to reach their
full potential is critical not only for attaining gender equality, but also for meeting a wide
range of international development goals. Empowered women and girls contribute to the
health and productivity of their families, communities, and countries, creating a ripple
effect that benefits everyone.

Video Link:

Gender Stratification: Crash Course Sociology #32

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yb1_4FPtzrI

12. 3 Climate Change

Weather, state of the atmosphere at a particular place during a short period of

time. It involves such atmospheric phenomena as temperature, humidity, precipitation
(type and amount), air pressure, wind, and cloud cover.

Climate describes the average weather of a particular part of the world at

different times of the year.

Climate change is the long-term shift in average weather patterns across the
world. Since the mid-1800s, humans have contributed to the release of carbon dioxide
and other greenhouse gases into the air. This causes global temperatures to rise,
resulting in long-term changes to the climate. (Met College, 2016)

12.3.1 What are the causes?

a. SOLAR VARIABILITY- The luminosity, or brightness, of the Sun has been

increasing steadily since its formation. This phenomenon is important to Earth’s
climate, because the Sun provides the energy to drive atmospheric circulation
and constitutes the input for Earth’s heat budget. Low solar luminosity during
Precambrian time underlies the faint young Sun paradox, described in the
section Climates of early Earth.
b. HUMAN ACTIVITIES- Recognition of global climate change as an environmental
issue has drawn attention to the climatic impact of human activities. Most of this
attention has focused on carbon dioxide emission via fossil-fuel combustion and
deforestation. Human activities also yield releases of other greenhouse gases,
such as methane (from rice cultivation, livestock, landfills, and other sources) and
chlorofluorocarbons (from industrial sources). There is little doubt among
climatologists that these greenhouse gases affect the radiation budget of Earth;
the nature and magnitude of the climatic response are a subject of intense
research activity.
 c. GREENHOUSE GASES- It is a gas that contributes to the greenhouse effect by
absorbing infrared radiation, e.g., carbon dioxide and chlorofluorocarbons. When
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide build in the atmosphere, they act like
a blanket around the earth. When sunlight (ultraviolet radiation) hits this blanket,
it passes straight through and continues until it reaches the surface of the planet.

12.3. 2 Effects of Climate Change

Global climate change has already had observable effects on the environment.
Glaciers have shrunk, ice on rivers and lakes is breaking up earlier, plant and
animal ranges have shifted and trees are flowering sooner.

12.3.3 Possible Solutions

United Nations legal instruments

A. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCC)

-"International environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), informally known as the
Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992."
 - It has no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual
countries.No enforcement mechanism.
-The treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international
treaties (called "protocols") that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases.

B. Kyoto Protocol
-Is an international agreement that called for industrialized nations to
reduce their greenhouse gas emissions significantly.
-"Kyoto" because it was adopted in Kyoto, Japan in 1997, when
greenhouse gases were rapidly threatening our climate.

C. Paris Agreement
“At COP 21 in Paris, on 12 December 2015, Parties to the UNFCCC
reached a landmark agreement to combat climate change and to accelerate and
intensify the actions and investments needed for a sustainable low carbon future.”
“The Paris Agreement’s central aim is to strengthen the global response to
the threat of climate change by keeping a global temperature rise this century well
below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit
the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius. Additionally, the
agreement aims to increase the ability of countries to deal with the impacts of
climate change, and at making finance flows consistent with a low GHG emissions
and climate-resilient pathway. To reach these ambitious goals, appropriate
mobilization and provision of financial resources, a new technology framework and
enhanced capacity-building is to be put in place, thus supporting action by
developing countries and the most vulnerable countries, in line with their own
national objectives. The Agreement also provides for an enhanced transparency
framework for action and support.” (https://unfccc.int)

Video Link:

What is Climate Change? | Start Here

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dcBXmj1nMTQ&t=41s
 CHAPTER 13

GLOBAL CITIES

Learning Objectives:

After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Define and enumerate the concept and indicators of urbanization.
2. Trace the development of the cities as well as the process and pacing of
urbanization.
3. Differentiate world class cities, multicultural cities, and cities of the
developing world.

13.1 Concept of Urbanization

Urbanization is defines as the process of gradual shift from agricultural society to

the industrial society with a wide access toinformation, government and other

institutions, means of transportation, and other manifestations of a city or urban life.

Generally however, it means the process or rate of concentration or migration of a
population in a particular area.

According to the World Cities Report (2016), more than half of the world’s
population today resides in urban areas. Expectedly, this is the result of the continuing
industrialization, as more and more segment of the population migrates to urban areas
for non-agricultural sources of living. Cities create wealth, generate employment and
drive human progress by harnessing the forces of agglomeration and inductrialization.
(Farooq, 2013).

Although only 48 percent of its areas are urbanized, Asia has by far the highest
number of people living in urban areas. This is perhaps expected considering that Asia
is the home of 2.11 billion population. Following Asia are Europe, Africa and Latin
America.

Because of the unprecedented increase in urban growth rate, large and mega
cities subsequently emerged. Large cities are those with 5 to 10 million inhabitants while
megacities are those with more than 10 million inhabitants.

13.2 Indicators of Urbanization

 a. Continuing industrialization – By industrialization, it means the proliferation of
industries that are basically non-agricultural in nature, but surely the expansion of
establishment aimed at increasing services for agricultural and non agricultural
production.
b. Expanded employment opportunity – This means employment opportunities bot
in formal and informal sectors. Particularly cities are responsible for generating
new private sector jobs. According to World Cities Report (2018:33), “the 750
cities in the world created 87.7 million private sector jobs, or 58 percent of all new
private sector jobs in 129 countries.” This is between 2006 to 2012.
c. Access to information and communication technology – The fact-paced
environment in the cities of highly urbanized areas is usually driven by high
powered technology to hasten production. Since the goal is mass production,
technology is obviously an important tool to meet the need of industries and the
mass of people.
d. Better infrastructure facilities –In an effort to provide efficient social services to
urban dwellers , and in order to boost economic production, infrastructure
improvement is a must in the urban environement.

13.3 City Dwellers

Sociologist Herbert Gans as quoted by Ullman (2002:2) identified Five types of

people who lives in the city. The first three types live in the city by choice, finding in it a
valued sense of community.The last two have little choice about where they live.

a. Cosmopolites –these are the students, intellectuals, professionals, artists and

entertainers. They have been drawn to the city because of its conveniences and
cultural benefits.
b. Singles – young unmarried people who come to the cities seeing jobs and
entertainment. Businesses and services such as singes bar, single apartment
complexes, high rise condominiums cater to their needs.
c. Ethnic villagers – United by race ethnicity and social class, these people live in a
tightly knit neighborhoods that resemble villages in a small town. Moving within
close circle of family and friends, the ethnic villagers try to isolate themselves
from what they view as the harmful effects of the city life.
d. Deprived- They live in blighted neighborhoods more of like an urban jungles than
urban villages. Consisting of the very poor, they represent the bottom of society
in terms of income, education, social status, and work skills.
e. Trapped – they consist of people who could not afford to move when their
neighborhood is invaded by other migrant groups.
13.4 Development of Cities

“Why did cities form in the first place? There is insufficient evidence to assert what
conditions gave rise to the first cities, but some theorists have speculated on what they
consider pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that could explain the rise of cities.
Agriculture is believed to be a pre-requisite for cities, which help preserve surplus
production and create economies of scale. The conventional view holds that cities first
formed after the Neolithic Revolution, with the spread of agriculture. The advent of farming
encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and settle near others who
lived by agricultural production. Agriculture yielded more food, which made denser human
populations possible, thereby supporting city development. Farming led to dense, settled
populations, and food surpluses that required storage and could facilitate trade. These
conditions seem to be important prerequisites for city life. Many theorists hypothesize that
agriculture preceded the development of cities and led to their growth.

A good environment and strong social organization are two necessities for the
formation of a successful city. A good environment includes clean water and a favorable
climate for growing crops and agriculture. A strong sense of social organization helps a
newly formed city work together in times of need, and it allows people to develop various
functions to assist in the future development of the city (for example, farmer or merchant).
Without these two common features, as well as advanced agricultural technology, a newly
formed city is not likely to succeed.

Cities may have held other advantages, too. For example, cities reduced transport
costs for goods, people, and ideas by bringing them all together in one spot. By reducing
these transaction costs, cities contributed to worker productivity. Finally, cities likely
performed the essential function of providing protection for people and the valuable things
they were beginning to accumulate. Some theorists hypothesize that people may have
come together to form cities as a form of protection against marauding barbarian armies”.
(https://courses.lumenlearning.com)

13.5 The Process of Urbanization

Urbanization is the process of a population shift from rural areas to cities. During
the last century, global populations have urbanized rapidly:

13% of people lived in urban environments in the year 1900

29% of people lived in urban environments in the year 1950

One projection suggests that, by 2030, the proportion of people living in cities
may reach 60%.
 Urbanization tends to correlate positively with industrialization. With the promise
of greater employment opportunities that come from industrialization, people from rural
areas will go to cities in pursuit of greater economic rewards.

Another term for urbanization is “rural flight. ” In modern times, this flight often
occurs in a region following the industrialization of agriculture—when fewer people are
needed to bring the same amount of agricultural output to market—and related agricultural
services and industries are consolidated. These factors negatively affect the economy of
small- and middle-sized farms and strongly reduce the size of the rural labor market. Rural
flight is exacerbated when the population decline leads to the loss of rural services (such
as business enterprises and schools), which leads to greater loss of population as people
leave to seek those features.

As more and more people leave villages and farms to live in cities, urban growth
results. The rapid growth of cities like Chicago in the late nineteenth century and Mumbai
a century later can be attributed largely to rural-urban migration. This kind of growth is
especially commonplace in developing countries.

Urbanization occurs naturally from individual and corporate efforts to reduce time
and expense in commuting, while improving opportunities for jobs, education, housing,
entertainment, and transportation. Living in cities permits individuals and families to take
advantage of the opportunities of proximity, diversity, and marketplace competition. Due
to their high populations, urban areas can also have more diverse social communities
than rural areas, allowing others to find people like them.
(https://courses.lumenlearning.com)

Some cities have grown so large and have such influence over a region that the
termy “city” is no longer adequate to describe them. The term metropolis is used
instead. This term refers to a central city surrounded by smaller cities and suburbs.

Another consequence of urbanization is the convergence of people with diverse

cultural background. Sociologists most often call it multi-culturalism or cultural pluralism,
which pertains to a situation where various ethnic groups converged in amixed ethnic
community area resulting to the existence of multi cultural traditions, these are called
Multi cultural cities.

Challenges and Issues in urbanization

a. Growth of Slums

b. Provision of adequate basic services and infrastructures

c. Climate change

d. Increasing urban divide between the rich and the poor

13.5 The Global City

A global city or world city sometimes called Alpha cities, are a concept which
postulates that globalization can be broken down in terms of strategic geographic locales
that see global processes being created, facilitated and enacted. The most complex of
these entities is the "global city", whereby the linkages binding a city have a direct and
tangible effect on global affairs through more than just socio-economic means, with
influence in terms of culture, or politics. The terminology of "global city", as opposed to
megacity, is thought to have been first coined by Saskia Sassen in reference to London,
New York and Tokyo in her 1991 work The Global City.( https://www.cs.mcgill.ca)

It has been argued that global cities are those sharing the following characteristics:
(https://www.cs.mcgill.ca)

International, first-name familiarity; whereby a city is recognised without the need for a
political subdivision. For example. although there are numerous cities and other political
entities with the name Paris or variations on it, one would say "Paris", not "Paris, France".

Active influence and participation in international events and world affairs; for example,
New York City is home to the United Nations headquarters complex and consequently
contains a vast majority of the permanent missions to the UN.

A fairly large population (the centre of a metropolitan area with a population of at least
one million, typically several million).

A major international airport (for example, London Heathrow Airport) that serves as an
established hub for several international airlines.

An advanced transportation system that includes several freeways and/or a large mass
transit network offering multiple modes of transportation ( rapid transit, light rail, regional
rail, ferry, or bus).

In the West, several international cultures and communities (such as a Chinatown, a

Little Italy, or other immigrant communities). In other parts of the world, cities which attract
large foreign businesses and related expatriate communities; for example, Singapore,
Shanghai, Hong Kong, Tokyo, and Moscow.

International financial institutions, law firms, corporate headquarters (especially

conglomerates), and stock exchanges (for example the London Stock Exchange, the New
York Stock Exchange or the Tokyo Stock Exchange) that have influence over the world
economy.
 An advanced communications infrastructure on which modern trans-national
corporations rely, such as fiberoptics, Wi-Fi networks, cellular phone services, and other
high-speed lines of communications.

World-renowned cultural institutions, such as museums and universities.

A lively cultural scene, including film festivals (for example the Toronto International
Film Festival), premieres, a thriving music or theatre scene (for example, West End theatre
and Broadway); an orchestra, an opera company, art galleries, and street performers.

Several powerful and influential media outlets with an international reach, such as the
BBC, Associated Press, Reuters, The New York Times, The Times, or Agence France-
Presse.

A strong sporting community, including major sports facilities, home teams in major
league sports, and the ability and historical experience to host international sporting
events such as the Olympic Games, Football World Cup, or Grand Slam tennis events.

To some, London, New York City, Paris, and Tokyo have been traditionally considered the
'big four' world cities – not coincidentally, they also serve as symbols of global capitalism.
However, many people have their own personal lists, and any two lists are likely to differ
based on cultural background, values, and experience.

In certain countries, the rise of suburbia and the ongoing migration of manufacturing jobs
to these countries has led to significant urban decay. Therefore, to boost urban
regeneration, tourism, and revenue, the goal of building a "world-class" city has recently
become an obsession with the governments of some mid-size cities and their constituents.

The phenomenon of world-city building has also been observed in Buenos Aires,
Santiago, Frankfurt, Montréal, Sydney, Mexico City and Toronto: each of these cities has
emerged as large and influential.

Video Link:

What is a Global City?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dJekil09KA8
Global Cities: Introduction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bfUH2DKUoeI
New Clark City
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bjuqAH4cf5E