See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/248541993

Influence of recycled concrete aggregates on strength properties of concrete

Article  in  Construction and Building Materials · February 2009

DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2008.06.007

CITATIONS READS

588 7,570

2 authors:

Sami W. Tabsh Akmal Abdelfatah

American University of Sharjah American University of Sharjah
60 PUBLICATIONS   1,100 CITATIONS    39 PUBLICATIONS   927 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Origin-Destination Trip Demand Matrix Estimation from Different Data Sources View project

3rd INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON INFRASTRUCTURE MANAGEMENT, ASSESSMENT AND REHABILITATION TECHNIQUES View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Sami W. Tabsh on 09 February 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached
copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research
and education use, including for instruction at the authors institution
and sharing with colleagues.
Other uses, including reproduction and distribution, or selling or
licensing copies, or posting to personal, institutional or third party
websites are prohibited.
In most cases authors are permitted to post their version of the
article (e.g. in Word or Tex form) to their personal website or
institutional repository. Authors requiring further information
regarding Elsevier’s archiving and manuscript policies are
encouraged to visit:
http://www.elsevier.com/copyright
 Author's personal copy

Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 1163–1167

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Influence of recycled concrete aggregates on strength properties of concrete

Sami W. Tabsh *, Akmal S. Abdelfatah
Department of Civil Engineering, American University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 26666, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Many structures in the middle-east’s Gulf region are now either reaching the end of their design life or
Received 13 May 2006 were not constructed according to the specifications. Demolition or maintenance work on such structures
Accepted 22 June 2008 results in large amount of concrete rubbles. Recycling concrete wastes will lead to reduction in valuable
Available online 8 August 2008
landfill space and savings in natural resources. The objective of this study is to investigate the strength of
concrete made with recycled concrete coarse aggregate. The variables that are considered in the study
Keywords: include the source of the recycled concrete and target concrete strength. The toughness and soundness
Aggregate
test results on the recycled coarse aggregate showed higher percentage loss than natural aggregate,
Compressive strength
Concrete
but remained within the acceptable limits. The compressive and splitting tensile strengths of concrete
Recycled made with recycled coarse aggregate depend on the mix proportions. In general, the strength of recycled
Tensile strength concrete can be 10–25% lower than that of conventional concrete made with natural coarse aggregate.
Waste Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction is not currently a major factor in recycling concrete in all regions of

the world, however, it may become in the future due to the lower
Many structures that were constructed in the Gulf (GCC) region, transportation cost and energy consumption that are commonly
in the middle-east, during the construction boom of the 1970s are associated with recycled materials.
now in need of either major repairs or possible replacement. This is The use of old construction materials in new projects is not a
because some of such structures are now reaching the end of their new concept. Recycling construction waste and demolition debris
design life, may not have been constructed according to the spec- dates back to the time of the Romans, who often reused stones
ifications, or did not receive the required maintenance while in ser- from previous roads in rebuilding newer ones. The industry has be-
vice. New zoning laws in large urban centers have also contributed come well established in Europe since the end of WWII due to
to the premature replacement of adequately performing buildings. depletion in the supplies of high grade natural aggregates [1]. To-
The repair and replacement activities result in large quantities of day, recycling of construction materials is a successful research
construction waste that are usually dumped in the desert. program supported by the European Commission on Management
Concrete rubbles generated from demolition works constitute a of Construction and Demolition Waste. The European Demolition
substantial proportion of the waste quantity. They yields frag- Association estimates that out of the 200 million tons of waste pro-
ments in which the aggregate is contaminated with hydrated ce- duced annually in Europe, about 30% of this quantity is currently
ment paste, gypsum, and minor quantities of other substances. being recycled. Studies in this area, however, show large region dif-
Since aggregate makes up most of the concrete by volume, it makes ferences in the amount of recycled material. Some early adapting
sense to investigate the use of concrete waste as aggregate in new countries, like the Netherlands and Belgium, achieve recycling
concrete. The size fraction that corresponds to fine aggregate usu- rates of about 90%, but in other European countries, like Italy and
ally contains large amounts of hydrated cement and gypsum; Spain, the recycling rate is below 10% [2].
therefore, it is not suitable for making fresh concrete mixtures. In North America, today construction waste and demolition
However, the size fraction that corresponds to coarse aggregate, makes up about 25–45% of the waste stream, depending on the
although coated with cement paste, has been used successfully in region. The Construction Materials Recycling Association (CMRA)
many laboratory investigations and field studies. The advantages of estimates that 25% of this quantity is recycled. The United States’
recycling coarse aggregates from discarded old concrete include Environmental Protection Agency recently performed a study on
lower environmental pollution, reduction in valuable landfill building-related construction and demolition waste that estimated
space, and savings in natural aggregate resources. While economy about 136 million tons of material is generated by building work,
and that does not count the millions of tons coming from road,
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +971 6 515 2957; fax: +971 6 515 2979.
bridge, and airport construction and renovation. The CMRA esti-
E-mail address: [email protected] (S.W. Tabsh). mates that about 100 million tons of concrete from all sources is

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2008.06.007
 Author's personal copy

1164 S.W. Tabsh, A.S. Abdelfatah / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 1163–1167

recycled annually in North America. The finished products are used Olorunsogo and Padayachee [11] investigated the durability of
largely as base material for road products, over which either a con- concrete made with different percentages of recycled concrete
crete or asphalt finish is placed [3]. coarse aggregates (0%, 50%, and 100%). They showed that durability
quality of recycled concrete is reduced with increases in the quan-
tities of recycled aggregate, and the quality improved with the age
2. Literature review of curing. They concluded that this phenomenon is due to cracks
and fissures created within the recycled aggregate during process-
In 1977, Frondistou-Yannas evaluated and compared the ing, which make the aggregate susceptible to ease of permeation,
mechanical properties of conventional concrete and concrete con- diffusion and absorption of fluid.
taining pieces of concrete from demolition waste in the place of
natural coarse aggregate [4]. He found out that recycled concrete 3. Problem statement
best matches the mechanical behavior of conventional concrete
when the recycled concrete is enriched in gravel at the expense In recycled concrete, the reclaimed concrete used to make
of mortar. The recycled aggregate concrete has a compressive coarse aggregate for new concrete may come from different
strength of at least 76% and modulus of elasticity from 60% to sources. It can be obtained through the demolition of concrete ele-
100% of the control mix. ments of roads, bridges, buildings and other structures, or it can
Hansen and Narud [5] found that the compressive strength of come from the residue of fresh and hardened rejected units in pre-
recycled concrete is strongly correlated with the water–cement ra- cast concrete plants. The quality of the recycled concrete aggregate
tio of the original concrete if other factors are kept the same. When will normally vary depending on the properties of the recovered
the water–cement ratio of the original concrete is the same or low- concrete. Variations between concrete types result from differ-
er than that of the recycled concrete, the new strength will be as ences in aggregate quality, aggregate size and texture, concrete
good as or better than the original strength, and vice versa. Later compressive strength, and uniformity [12]. Therefore, there is a
in 1984, Hansen and Hedegkd showed that the addition of a plas- need to investigate the effect of the origin of the recycled concrete
ticizing, an air entraining, a retarding, and an accelerating admix- aggregate on the strength properties of the new concrete. Specifi-
ture to the original concrete had little or no effect on the cally, it is desired to quantify the consequences of using recycled
properties of recycled concrete [6]. concrete coarse aggregate with lower, equal, or higher strength
Test results by Tavakoli and Soroushian indicated that the than the target strength of the new concrete.
strength of recycled aggregate concrete is affected by the strength
of the original concrete, percentage of the coarse aggregate in the
4. Objectives and scope
original concrete, the ratio of top size of aggregate in the original
concrete to that of the recycled aggregate, and the Los Angeles
The objectives of the study are to investigate the quality of
abrasion loss as well as the water absorption of the recycled aggre-
crushed old concrete and determine the factors that influence the
gate [7]. It was shown that the conventional relationships between
compressive and tensile strengths of concrete made with coarse
splitting tensile, flexural and compressive strengths are different
aggregates obtained from crushed old concrete with either prede-
for recycled concrete.
termined or unknown strength. The scope of the investigation cov-
In a study by Sagoe-Crentsil and Brown [8], it was found
ers two different concrete mix designs, one that results in low
that the processing of recycled concrete aggregates commer-
strength and another that yields moderate strength.
cially produces smoother spherical particles than those pro-
duced in the laboratory, which improves concrete workability.
Tests on the compressive and tensile strengths of hardened con- 5. Methodology
crete showed no significant difference between recycled con-
crete and concrete made with natural aggregates. Investigation 5.1. Test method
of the durability indicated that the recycled aggregates caused
a higher drying shrinkage values and reduced the abrasion The experimental program consisted of testing recycled coarse
resistance by about 12%. The water absorption and carbonation aggregates and hardened concrete specimens. The aggregate tests
rates showed little difference between the recycled concrete and included abrasion (ASTM C131) and soundness (ASTM C88) tests.
conventional one. The hardened concrete tests consisted of testing 150 mm by
Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz examined the mechanical prop- 300 mm concrete cylindrical specimens at the age of 28 days in
erties of high performance and high strength concretes made with accordance with the relevant ASTM standards. The compressive
recycled aggregates [9]. In their work, they considered recycled strength test was carried out according to ASTM C39, while the
aggregates produced from concrete with compressive strength tensile strength test was conducted following ASTM C496. All con-
40–70 MPa. They concluded that the water content should be mod- crete cylinders were capped with a thin layer of sulphur to ensure
ified in the recycled concrete mix design to obtain the same work- smoothness of the end surface (ASTM C617). Curing and testing of
ability. The results indicated that the compressive strength the concrete specimens were performed by an independent mate-
dropped by about 10% when using recycled aggregates, while the rial testing laboratory.
bond stress at failure dropped by 8–20%, depending on the type
of fine aggregate used in the concrete. 5.2. Aggregate gradation
The porosity of recycled concrete made with substitution of
recycled concrete aggregate was studied by Gomez-Soberon [10]. The origin of the recycled concrete aggregate came from two
The distribution of the theoretical pore radius, critical pore ratio, different sources. One recycled concrete had a known strength that
surface area of concrete, threshold ratio, and average pore ratio was cast in the laboratory at an earlier time, while the other came
were investigated at 7, 28, and 90 days. The results showed that from a dump site. For consistency, the gradation of the recycled
porosity increases when natural aggregate is replaced by recycled concrete aggregate was the same as that of the natural aggregate.
concrete aggregate. The increase in porosity is accompanied by a At the beginning, the gradation of the natural aggregate was ob-
reduction in compressive and tensile strengths, as well as in mod- tained by sieving, as shown in Table 1. After crushing the hardened
ulus of elasticity. concrete, the recycled coarse aggregates were then sieved. The fi-
 Author's personal copy

S.W. Tabsh, A.S. Abdelfatah / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 1163–1167 1165

Table 1
In order to consider the variability within each mix, ten 150 mm
Gradation of coarse aggregates
by 300 mm cylinders of each of the above mentioned eight mixes
Opening size (mm) Percent retained were cast, cured and tested, for a total of 80 specimens. Five spec-
25 0 imens were tested in compression and the other five were tested in
19 8.9 tension using the relevant ASTM standards.
12.5 48.0
9.5 10.5
6.3 14.9 6. Results
4.75 9.7
2.36 8.0 Toughness and soundness tests were carried out on the recycled
concrete coarse aggregate to investigate the quality of the recycled
nal gradation of the recycled aggregate matched that of the natural product. Also, compressive and tensile strength tests were con-
aggregates. ducted on concrete specimens made with the recycled coarse con-
crete aggregate. The results were compared with those of natural
5.3. Mix proportions aggregates.

In order to compare results objectively, a control mix made 6.1. Aggregate toughness
from natural coarse aggregate is needed to benchmark the results.
Two concrete mixes with different 28-days target strengths were Crushing strength, abrasion resistance, and elastic modulus of
considered: (a) Mix 1 with target cylinder strength fc0 = 30 MPa, aggregate are all interrelated properties that are greatly influenced
and (b) Mix 2 with target cylinder strength fc0 = 50 MPa. All con- by porosity. Experience has shown that natural coarse aggregates
crete mixes were proportioned for a 100 mm slump. Admixtures are generally dense and strong; therefore they are seldom a limit-
were not used in the different concrete mixes. Table 2 shows a ing factor to the strength of concrete. The Los Angeles degradation
summary of the mix proportions for the two considered target test (ASTM C131) is used to evaluate the resistance of coarse nat-
strengths. To achieve the same slump, concrete made with recy- ural and recycled aggregates for possible degradation due to the ef-
cled aggregate required about 10% more water than that made fects of abrasion, wear and impact. The results are presented in Fig. 1.
with natural aggregate due to its higher porosity. They show that the recycled concrete aggregates had on average
30% more losses than the natural aggregate. As expected, the
5.4. Experiment design strength of the crushed concrete affects the abrasion capability of
the aggregate, i.e. stronger concrete results in less loss. Further,
Four different kinds of coarse aggregate were used in the new recycled aggregates from unknown source had the highest per-
concrete. These kinds included: (a) aggregates from natural origin, centage of loss among the all the considered recycled aggregates
(b) recycled from unknown source (dump site), (c) obtained by (34%). This is because the old concrete was of inferior quality. Nev-
crushing 30 MPa concrete (based on Mix 1), and (d) aggregate ob- ertheless, all of the results of recycled coarse aggregates are within
tained by crushing 50 MPa concrete (based on Mix 2). It should be the acceptable limit of 50% for structural applications according to
noted that the source of the recycled coarse aggregate that was ob- ASTM C33.
tained from a dump site was mostly sidewalk curbs and roadway
medians, where low strength concrete is usually used in such 6.2. Aggregate soundness
elements.
Eight different concrete mixes were used in the experimental The soundness test is an indication of the resistance of the
program of this study, as follows: aggregates to weathering. An aggregate is considered unsound
1. Concrete specimens based on Mix 1, with coarse aggregate when the volume changes in aggregate induced by weather (e.g.
from: alternate cycles of wetting and drying, or freezing and thawing) re-
sult in deterioration of concrete. Lack of soundness is related more
(i) Natural origin (denoted as Mix 1-N) to the pore size distribution than to the total porosity of the aggre-
(ii) Recycling of concrete from unknown origin (Mix 1-U) gate. ASTM C88 measures the resistance of the coarse aggregate to
(iii) Recycling of concrete with low strength (Mix 1-L) disintegration by saturated solution of sodium sulfate. The test re-
(iv) Recycling of concrete with moderate strength (Mix 1-M) sults, based on five cycles, are illustrated in Fig. 2. They show a sim-
ilar trend to the toughness test results of Fig. 1. However, only the
2. Concrete specimens based on Mix 2, with coarse aggregate percentage loss of the recycled aggregates from known source (50
from:

(i) Natural origin (denoted as Mix 2-N) 40

(ii) Recycling of concrete from unknown origin (Mix 2-U)
(iii) Recycling of concrete with low strength (Mix 2-L) 30
(iv) Recycling of concrete with moderate strength (Mix 2-M)
% Loss

20
Table 2
Proportions of concrete mixes

Constituent Mix 1a (fc0 = 30 MPa) Mix 2b (fc0 = 50 MPa) 10

Sand 27.3 Kg 20.4 Kg
Coarse aggregate 29.1 Kg 29.1 Kg
0
Cement 9.1 Kg 14.3 Kg
Natural 50 MPa Concrete 30 MPa Concrete Unknown
Watera 5.3 Kg 5.3 Kg
Source of Coarse Aggregate
a
Slump of fresh concrete is 100 mm.
b
This amount is increased by about 10% for the recycled concrete. Fig. 1. Results of aggregate toughness.
 Author's personal copy

1166 S.W. Tabsh, A.S. Abdelfatah / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 1163–1167

and 30 MPa) is within the acceptable limit of 12%. The performance crete made with natural coarse aggregate. The concrete made
of recycled aggregate of concrete obtained from a dump site was with recycled aggregates from weak or unknown strength, how-
the worst among all the considered aggregates. ever, resulted in lower strength. For the concrete that has coarse
aggregate produced from 30 MPa concrete, the loss in compressive
6.3. Concrete compressive strength strength is about 30%. The corresponding loss in strength is about
40% when using recycled coarse aggregates from unknown source.
Experience has shown that concrete made with recycled con- A similar pattern is noticed in Fig. 4 for Mix 2 (50 MPa concrete),
crete aggregate has high bonding strength between the coarse with the exception that the drop in compressive strength, for the
aggregate and the surrounding paste. This is because of the angu- concrete made with recycled coarse aggregate from either weak
larity of the coarse aggregate and the residual cementation on the or unknown concrete, is less than that for Mix 1 (30 MPa concrete).
surface of the recycled aggregate. Fig. 3 shows the compressive For the concrete that has coarse aggregate made from 30 MPa con-
strength test results for testing five specimens of each of the Mix crete, the loss in compressive strength is about 10%, while the loss
1 (30 MPa concrete) cases considered in the experiment design in strength is approximately 15% when using recycled coarse
(for a total of 20 cylinders). Fig. 4 depicts the results for Mix 2 cases aggregates from unknown source. Note that Mix 2 concrete in this
(50 MPa concrete). study was achieved by replacing a part of the fine aggregate of Mix
From Fig. 3, it is clear that the strength for the concrete mix 1 with extra cement, while keeping the same amount of coarse
made with recycled coarse aggregates from stronger concrete pro- aggregate in both mixes.
duced almost the same compressive strength as that of the con- The results of Figs. 3 and 4 indicate two important findings.
First, if the amount of coarse aggregate is kept the same in two
mixes, the loss in strength due to the use of recycled aggregate is
15
more significant in the weaker mix than the stronger one. This is
because the strength of concrete is depends on both the coarse
19-12.5 mm
12 aggregate and cement; therefore if more cement is used, then the
12.5-6.3 mm
effect of the coarse aggregate is reduced. Second, the use of coarse
aggregate made from recycled concrete with strength equal to
% Loss

9
50 MPa will result in concrete strength comparable with that
6 achieved when using natural coarse aggregate. While it is not
investigated in this study, this conclusion is obviously valid if the
3 strength of the recycled coarse aggregate is higher then 50 MPa.
As mentioned earlier, about 10% extra water was used in the
0 concrete made with recycled aggregate than in the concrete with
Natural 50 MPa Concrete 30 MPa Concrete Unknown natural aggregate to maintain the same slump. This increase in
Source of Coarse Aggregate water content has an effect on the strength. It is believed that if
admixtures were used to increase workability, while maintaining
Fig. 2. Results of aggregate soundness.
the same amount of water in the two concretes, then the recycled
concrete would have had higher strength than observed.
Compressive Strength (MPa)

40 6.4. Concrete tensile strength

35
30 Tensile strength in this study is measured using the splitting
25 tensile test procedure according to ASTM C496. This test involves
application of diametrically opposite compressive loads acting on
20
the sides of a concrete cylinder. The size of the considered cylin-
15
ders in this study was 100 mm by 200 mm. Figs. 5 and 6 show
10 the results of the tensile strength tests for Mix 1 and 2 (fc0 = 30
5 and 50 MPa, respectively).
0 The tensile strength results for Mix 1 indicate that concrete
Natural 50 MPa Concrete 30 MPa Concrete Unknown
made with recycled coarse aggregate from 50 MPa concrete is as
Source of Coarse Aggregate strong in tension as corresponding concrete made with natural
Fig. 3. Compressive strength results of Mix 1.
coarse aggregate. However, about 25–30% drop in tensile strength
was observed in concrete made with recycled coarse aggregate ob-
Compressive Strength (MPa)

60 5
Tensile Strength (MPa)

50 4
40
3
30
2
20

10 1

0 0
Natural 50 MPa Concrete 30 MPa Concrete Unknown Natural 50 MPa Concrete 30MPa Concrete Unknown
Source of Coarse Aggregate Source of Coarse Aggregates

Fig. 4. Compressive strength results of Mix 2. Fig. 5. Tensile strength results of Mix 1.
 Author's personal copy

S.W. Tabsh, A.S. Abdelfatah / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 1163–1167 1167

5 (3) The percentage loss in compressive or tensile strength due to

Tensile Strength (MPa)

the use of recycled aggregate is more significant in a weak

4 concrete than in stronger one.
(4) The use of coarse aggregate made from recycled concrete
3 with strength equal to 50 MPa will result in concrete com-
pressive and tensile strengths comparable with that
2
achieved when using natural coarse aggregate.
(5) Recycled concrete mixes require more water than conven-
1
tional concrete to maintain the same slump without the
0 use of admixtures. This affects the quality and strength of
Natural 50 MPa Concrete 30 MPa Concrete Unknown the concrete, resulting in lower concrete strength.
Source of Coarse Aggregate
Acknowledgements
Fig. 6. Tensile strength results of Mix 2.

This research was supported by an AUS Research Grant. The

tained from concrete with a target strength based on Mix 1
authors would like to thank the American University of Sharjah
(fc0 = 30 MPa) or coarse aggregate obtained by crushing concrete
for the support. Mr. Salam Abdallah and Fadi Abu-Houssa helped
from unknown source.
in the processing and testing of the natural and recycled aggregates
The test results for Mix 2 show a similar trend to that of Mix 1,
and concrete samples. Their help is greatly appreciated.
except for the drop in the strength, which is smaller. The concrete
made with recycled coarse aggregate produced from Mix 2 shows
References
almost the same tensile strength as that of concrete made with
natural coarse aggregate. A drop of about 10–15% is observed when [1] Buck AD. Recycled concrete as a source of aggregate. ACI J 1997;74(5):212–9.
using concrete made with recycled coarse aggregates obtained [2] Collepardi M. Letters to the Editor. Concrete Int 2002;24(12):19–21.
[3] CMRA 2004, <http://www.cdrecycling.org>.
either from concrete proportioned according to Mix 1 or obtained
[4] Frondistou-Yannas S. Waste concrete as aggregate for new concrete. ACI J
from an unknown source. 1977;74(8):373–6.
[5] Hansen TC, Narud H. Strength of recycled concrete made from crushed
concrete coarse aggregate. Concrete Int 1983;5(1):79–83.
7. Conclusions [6] Hansen TC, Hedegkd SE. Properties of recycled aggregate concretes as affected
by admixtures in original concretes. ACI J 1984;81(1):21–6.
The results obtained in this study lead to the following [7] Tavakoli M, Soroushian P. Strengths of recycled aggregate concrete made using
field-demolished concrete as aggregate. ACI Mater J 1996;93(2):182–90.
conclusions: [8] Sago-Crentsil KK, Brown T, Taylor AH. Performance of concrete made with
commercially produced coarse recycled concrete aggregate. Cement Concrete
(1) The aggregate toughness test results, based on the Los Ange- Res 2001;31:707–12.
[9] Ajdukiewicz A, Kliszczewicz A. Influence of recycled aggregates on mechanical
les degradation test, indicate that the percentage loss of the
properties of HS/HPC. Cement and Concrete Comp 2002;24:269–79.
recycled concrete aggregate is within the acceptable limit of [10] Gomez-Soberon JMV. Porosity of recycled concrete with substitution of
50% for structural applications, irrespective of its origin. recycled concrete aggregate – an experimental study. Cement Concrete Res
2002;32:1301–11.
(2) The aggregate soundness test results, based on five cycles in
[11] Olorunsogo FT, Padayachee N. Performance of recycled aggregate concrete
saturated solution of sodium sulfate, show that the percent- monitored by durability indexes. Cement Concrete Res 2002;32:179–85.
age loss of the recycled aggregates made from concrete with [12] Yrjanson WA. Recycling of Portland cement concrete pavements. National
minimum strength of 30 MPa are within the acceptable limit cooperative highway research program synthesis of highway practice No.
154. Transportation Research Board, National Research Council; 1989. p.
of 12%. 46.

View publication stats