ACOUSTICS

INTRODUCTION
The earliest references to the science of sound (acoustics) connected to the buildings are the problems
experienced by the Greeks and Romans in their Open-air Theatres. Vitruvius, the Roman architect of
Emperor Augustus was the pioneer in the field of acoustics and suggested in his book “10 Treatise of
architecture” about the acoustical treatment for good hearing conditions. During Medieval period in
Europe whispering galleries in the churches are the product of acoustical experimentations. But serious
studies on this subject only started in the early years of 19th Cen. , a lot of useful information was
accumulated by experimenting on trial and error basis. The modern acoustics study was mainly
contributed by Joseph Henry ( 1856 – position of reflected surfaces in public buildings), Dr. D. B.
Reid (1935 - about Reverberation time), Wallace B. Sabine ( 1868 – 1919 the father of modern
architectural acoustics, he was a professor in Physics in Harvard University, he made many experiments
to calculate the Reverberation time and found that R.T. is directly proportional to the volume and
reflections and inversely proportional to the absorption and set the formula R.T = 0.16 V/A )

TERMINOLOGIES
1. Wave form – Sine Wave / Simple Harmonic Motion
2. Tone – Pure tone, Mixed tone
3. Harmonics
4. Frequency
5. Amplitude
6. Wave length ( λ)
7. Velocity
8. Pitch
9. Note
10. Timbre
11. Loudness
12. Decibel
13. Threshold of audibility

PROPERTIES
1. Reflection
2. Diffusion
3. Absorption
4. Refraction
5. Diffraction
6. Resonance
7. Reverberation

DEFECTS OF SOUND
1. Excessive Reverberation
2. Echo and Flutter
3. Sound Foci or “hot-spots”
4. Dead spots
5. Resonance
6. Interference
7. Insufficient loudness
8. creep

TERMINOLOGIES
1. Wave form – Sine Wave / Simple Harmonic Motion
 Sound is generated from a vibrating body as wave forms and propagated in the air medium.
 When a tuning fork is struck gently it produces a single frequency wave motion which is called as
Simple Harmonic Motion.
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 When Simple Harmonic Motion is plotted as a function of time and displacement is called as “Sine”
wave.
2. Tone – Pure tone, Mixed tone
 It is the simplest form of continued vibrations. Simple Harmonic Motion or the single frequency
sound wave is known as “Pure tone”
 Human voice and musical instruments can produce “Mixed tones”
 Mixed tones are complex in nature as they are combination of a series of Simple Harmonic Motions
appearing as one complex wave
3. Harmonics
 The lowest frequency from a vibrating body is known as its fundamental frequency
 The higher frequency modes are called as “overtones”
 “overtones” having simple relations to the fundamental frequency are called as “harmonics”
 Example: if 200 hz is fundamental tone then 400 hz is its second harmonic, 600 hz is its third
harmonic
4. Frequency
 The vibrating particles complete one cycle when it makes a complete to and fro displacement about
its mean equilibrium position.
 The number of such cycle per second is known as the frequency of sound
 The unit of frequency is cycles/second or hertz (hz)
 Human ear is capable of detecting frequencies between 20 and 20,000 cycles/seconds
 We can hear higher frequency at lower intensity or lower frequency at higher intensity
5. Amplitude
 Sound originates from a vibrating body, with the continuous outward and inward movements of the
vibrating body, a definite pattern pf compression and rarefaction of layers are generated in all
directions
 The average maximum distance of a particle from its mean position is called as “amplitude”
 A wave of long amplitude carries more energy
6. Wave length
 The waves of sound propagation is spherical in nature
 The wave motion is formed by the layers of compression and rarefactions.
 The distance of one cycle or the distance between two compressions is known as wavelength ( λ)
 The wave length of sound varies from several meters to fraction of a centimeter
7. Velocity
 The speed in a specific direction of propagation of sound
 It is a vector quantity
 The velocity of sound in the air is 343 meter / sec. at 20 C
8. Pitch
 Pitch of sound is the number of vibrations produced at the source of sound per second
 The audible pitch is between 20 and 20,000 c/s
 The unit of pitch is mels
 Though t is determined by the same numeric value of the frequency but it is also a function of
intensity and waveform. It is a complex characteristics
 Pitch is a psychological phenomenon where as frequency is a physical one
9. Note
 A sound consists of a series of tones related in a certain way. The combination is termed as note
 A note can be produced by a musical instrument or a human voice
10. Timbre
 Notes of the same numerical value can be produced on different musical instruments or by different
human voices
 These notes though having the same numerical value, produces differences in quality (how the same
frequency of sound in violin and guitar differs), which is called as timbre
11. Intensity of sound: rate of flow of sound energy per unit area
12. Loudness

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 A subjective response to sound indicating the magnitude of the auditory sensation produced by the
amplitude of the sound
 It is the intensity of sound energy, depends on sound pressure and frequency
 The unit of measurement is phon
13. Decibel
 A unit of expressing the relative pressure of or the intensity of sounds on a uniform scale
 Decibel (db) is measured on a logarithmic scale which is 1/10th of bel (bel came from Alexander
Graham Bel, the inventor of telephone)
 It is not an absolute measurement always a relative one i.e. ratio of two sound pressure.
Sound Pressure Level (SPL) = 20 log P1/P0 db, (where, P1 is the sound pressure after the
particular sound is produced, P0 is the reference sound pressure level which is constant for
measuring all db)
 If the level of sound is more than 80 db, it starts causing serious problems like mental fatigue
hearing loss which is also called as threshold of audibility and 130 db is threshold of feeling or pain
14. Threshold of audibility: Human ear is less sensitive at lower and higher frequency than medium
frequencies. Loud noise hurt the hearing organ. Threshold of audibility is the level of sound audible
without harmful effect to ear and is different at different frequencies. Threshold of pain is the
limiting level beyond which cause permanent damage to the ear. The sensitivity of ear drops at
higher frequency. Different decibel levels are as
 0 -30 db: inaudible
 30 db: whispers and faint sound
 30 – 50 db: audible and harmless
 50 – 70 db: loud
 80 db: threshold of audibility
 80 – 120 db: very harmful
 120 db: onwards: dangerous and causes hearing loss
 130 db: threshold of pain or feeling
15. Units
 Frequency: c/s or hertz
 Intensity level: db,
 Loudness level: phon
 Loudness: sone
 Pitch: mels

PROPERTIES of SOUND
1. Reflection
 Hard, non-porous and smooth surface reflects the sound energy maximum
 Reflectors must be large in relation to the wavelength of sound and sufficiently stiff
 Sound reflection can be either:
 Specular reflection or
 Diffuse reflection
 Specular reflection is similar to light reflection from a mirror, occurs from smooth surfaces
 In Diffuse reflection, reflected sound energy scattered uniformly over a larger area, occurs from
irregular and rough surfaces
2. Diffusion
 irregular shaped surfaces diffuse the sound energy
 convex surface scattered the reflected sound, concave surface converges / focuses reflected sound
 necessary requirement for musical performances
3. Absorption
 The sound or the continued vibrations produce kinetic energy
 If the sound is to be stopped, that energy must be absorbed by a large mass capable of absorbing the
movement without itself moving much
 The acoustical absorbing materials are porous, fibrous and of low-density

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 The sound absorption capacity of a material is determined by the “sound absorption coefficient” of
the material which is a ratio of the sound energy absorbed to the total incident sound energy on a
unit area and denoted by “ά”
 The value of “ά” depends on the frequency
4. Refraction
 It is the phenomenon of change of direction of sound propagation due to
o Temperature variations in the atmosphere
o Wind direction
5. Diffraction
 Sound propagation gets diffracted
o When passes through an opening
o When gets obstructed by an element
 bending of waves around obstacles (smaller than wavelength)
 spreading out of waves beyond small openings (smaller than wavelength)
 long wavelength sound diffract more easily than high pitch sound which tend to be more directional
and don’t diffract much
6. Resonance
 Sound waves transmit vibrations to the surrounding objects which is called as sympathetic
vibrations due to which the object starts producing sound of same frequency
 Air seal or trapped air acts as good resonator
 Wood is a good resonating material
 Resonance adds to the strength of the original sound intensity
 In music usually resonance is preferred
7. Reverberation
 After any sound is produced it keeps on lingering for sometimes before gradually decays to a
negligible intensity
 This phenomenon is known as reverberation of sound
 The time taken to diminish to one millionth of its original intensity is called as Reverberation time
 The good hearing condition of any space is determined by its optimum Reverberation time
 The reverberation time is measured by Sabine’s formula
t = 0.16 V/ A
where, t = Reverberation time (second),
V = Volume of room cubic meter),
A = Total absorption from all the inner surfaces (∑a. α) (α: coefficient of absorption of
materials)
DEFECTS OF SOUND
1. Excessive Reverberation
 Reverberation time increases by the successive reflections of sound from its inner surfaces and the
volume of the room
 If the Reverberation time is less or more than the optimum Reverberation time the hearing condition
of any interior gets adversely affected
 The optimum Reverberation time for
 Meditation hall, Library: 1.0 sec.
 Lecture hall: 1.5 sec.
 Music hall: 2.0 sec.
2. Echo and Flutter
 Echo:
o The most common acoustical defect is formation of echoes
o These are caused by sound reflection from a surface sufficiently away from the listener to
cause a complete repetition of the sound previously heard through direct waves
o Echoes are noticed when difference between the direct path and the reflected path is more
than 23 m or the time between the two is taken more than 1/15th of a second
 Flutter:

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 o A rapid succession of echoes produced by the reflection of sound waves from two parallel
surfaces with sufficient time between each reflection to cause the listener to be heard as
separate signals
3. Sound Foci or “hot-spots”
 When a number of reflections of the same sound source meet at a point simultaneously, a sound
focus is formed
 Such an occurrence is created from the concave surfaces – circular wall, vaulted and domed roofs
4. Dead spots
 There are some positions in an auditorium where sound is scarcely audible which are called as dead
spots
 These occur due some obstructions or shape of the hall
5. Resonance
 Resonance produced in any interior is not acceptable as it affects the hearing condition of the
interior
6. Interference
 Successive reflections of the sound in an interior cause confusion, which is known as interference of
sound
7. Insufficient loudness
 If the sound volume is less than the volume of the interior, sound may not be heard which needs to
be improved by providing reflectors or amplifiers
8. Creep
 Successive reflections from curve surface are produced and whispers are heard clearly at certain
places when the source is near the curve surface, whereas near the source sound may not be heard
clearly.
COMPONENTS OF DIRECT OR INCIDENT SOUND
 Reflected sound
 Absorbed sound
 Transmitted sound

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NOISE
 Unwanted sound which causes mental fatigue, harmful effect and uneasiness is called as noise
 Noise is produced inside or outside the building, which then travel through air or structure of
building to reach interior.
 It is necessary to cut-off noise in interior in order to achieve good hearing condition.
 The unit of measurement of noise is decibel (db)
 Different decibel levels are as
o 0 – 30 db: whispers and faint sound
o 30 – 50 db: audible and harmless
o 50 – 70 db: loud
o 80 – 120 db: very harmful ( 80db is the threshold of audibility)
o 120 onwards: dangerous and causes hearing loss (130db is the threshold of pain or feeling)
 Two types of noise
o AIR-BORNE NOISE: Outside noises which come through air in an interior from the doors,
windows, ventilators such as traffic noise, industrial noise, playground noise etc.
o STRUCTURE-BORNE NOISE: Noises which are produced in contact with structures by
impact and transmit the vibration through the structural members such as footsteps, furniture
movement, slamming of doors, machines (air-conditioning, pump, etc.)

NOISE CONTROL IN BUILDINGS

Noise could be controlled at the source or at the transmission path. In case of air-borne noise the control
is made at transmission path and in case of structure borne noise, control is made at source as well as at
transmission path.
o AIR-BORNE NOISE: Air-borne noise could be reduced by increasing transmission loss by
providing:
 proper location of quiet and noisy zones in design
 screen of evergreen trees and shrubs
 level difference between road and building
 Sound Proof Constructions for walls, ceiling, door, windows (cavity with air seal, composite
with insulating materials, disconnecting construction)
o STRUCTURE-BORNE NOISE:
a. To control noise at the source: to dampen the noise isolating the source of noise from the
structure. Isolators are used to dampen the sound. Isolators are not good insulators, they
are dense and heavy materials such as rubber, neoprene etc. Isolation is done by providing
 carpets on the floor
 rubber bushing to the furniture
 automatic door closers
 shock absorbers as resilient couplings, pads between machine and floor

b. To control noise at the transmission path:

 sand cushioning under the foundation of building
 Sound Proof Constructions for floors, walls, partitions, ceilings, doors, windows etc.
 Air-conditioning duct, inlets, outlets

ACOUSTICAL MATERIALS
 Fibrous, porous, low density materials which absorb sound considerably are called as acoustical
materials or sound insulators
 The coefficient of absorption of acoustical materials are high (usually more than 0.5)
 Acoustical materials usually have very good thermal insulation property, but the light reflection
quality is very poor. So acoustical materials are pre-painted or factory painted.
 There are natural as well as artificial absorbents of sound as wood, cloth, gypsum, cork, glass wool
etc.
 Absorbing materials should not be applied to the surfaces which might provide useful reflections.
For eg. near the stage of an auditorium.
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 Absorbing materials to be applied to surfaces
o Might produce excessive echo (beyond 23 m: rear wall and furthest part of side walls,
ceiling)
o On long narrow parallel walls which might produce flutter
o The mounting method must follow the manufacturers’ instructions

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ACOUSTICAL MATERIALS:

1. Furnishing materials:
a. Curtains: normal curtains are not very effective for sound absorption treatment, they must
be thick and to be hung making a gap of min. 150mm from the openings.
b. Cushion seats: considerable sound absorption is provided by upholstered (cushion) seats in
large auditorium as compared to wooden or metal seats.
c. Carpets: carpets are used extensively in absorption and diffusion of sound. Carpets have
high absorption coefficient and are effective if laid on hard flooring.
2. Finishing Materials:
a. Pre-fabricated acoustical material: ready made acoustical units in forms of tiles, boards,
slabs, panels, perforated plywood, fabric etc. which are used mainly as finishing surfaces.
These are quite satisfactory in terms of acoustical applications. To make durable usually
protective coatings are necessary.
b. Acoustical Plaster: used for surface finishing with porous plaster of lime or gypsum
applied in two coats. Sometimes fibrous materials are mixed in acoustical plaster. They are
cheap compared to other acoustical materials and used widely. The absorption coefficient
depends on its 1. thickness, 2. surface finish (texture), 3. surface undulation, 4. paint not
reducing the porousity.
3. Filling materials:
a. Resilient Blankets: they are fibrous in nature and available in forms of rolls or pads,
manufactured from mineral wool, glass fibres, asbestos fibres, wood wool. The thickness
may vary from 10mm to 100mm. they are effectively used as internal layers to increase
acoustical as well as thermal insulations.

TRANSMISSION LOSS
 The % of transmission loss of sound through solid wall or floor depends on its weight / unit of
superficial area which indicates the thickness
 Transmission loss could be increased by:
o Excessive thickness
o Cavity construction: Sealed air space is an excellent insulator of sound. To prevent the
resonance in the trapped air, large air space must be broken into smaller ones by loose
packing or dividing members of resilient materials
o Composite construction: To avoid the excessive thickness of wall or floor, composite
constructions are recommended with sound absorbing / insulating / resilient materials
o Discontinuous construction: isolation from structural members with resilient materials/air
seal as floating floor
 sound resilient materials: wood, cloth, cork, felt, glass wool, rubber, foam etc.
 Sound Reduction Factor: The transmission loss of sound though wall, floor , doors, windows are
expressed as a value in decibel which is called as Sound Reduction Factor

ACOUSTICAL CONSTRUCTIONS (sketches)

To increase the sound insulation against air-borne and structure-borne noise,
1. Walls and partitions: Resilient blanket and air space between masonry wall and timber /
acoustical panels or between partition panels for transmission loss to cut-off both air and
structure-borne noise.
2. Floors:
 Floating Floors: isolation from structural floor can completely cut-off mechanical
impacts as well as air-borne noise. Resilient blanket and air space create the isolation for
transmission loss.
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  Floor finishes & covering: carpet over timber / cork / rubber flooring
3. Suspended ceiling: must be air-tight to cut-off air-borne noise, minimum 300mm air gap: more
the air gap better the effect
4. Sound-proof doors:
5. Double windows: two glazing panels with air gap of min. 25mm with sealing all the joints.
Necessary for sound recording studio.
6. Special acoustical arrangements: To satisfy wide range of requirements sometimes flexible or
fixed sound absorbers are designed which are made adjustable depending upon the use and
number of persons in the room. These include a variety of systems such as
 suspended ceiling panels
 adjustable wall panels : sliding panels, hinged panels
 retractable absorbing panel
 rotating panel: cylindrical absorbers or Helmoltz resonators

CO-EFFICIENT OF ABSORPTION
The ratio of the sound absorbed to the total incident sound on the materials measured in different
frequencies as:
Materials Co-efficient of absorption
(500c/s)
01 Brick wall (plain / painted) 0.02
02 Concrete 0.02
03 Floor tiles 0.03
04 Glass (windows) 0.10
05 Glass paneling 0.01
06 Glazed tiles 0.01
07 Polished marble 0.01
08 Plaster 0.02
09 Plaster board (ceiling with space above) 0.10
10 Plywood panel with air space on solid backing 0.15
11 Wood paneling 0.12
12 Wooden boarding on joists and battens 0.10
13 Cork, linoleum, rubber flooring on solid surface 0.20
14 Fibre board 12 mm thick 0.30
15 Cork tile 25 mm thick 0.20
16 Asbestos spray on solid backing 0.50
17 Carpet thin on concrete 0.25
18 Carpet thin on wooden floor 0.30
19 Curtain straight 0.15
20 Curtain heavy folds 0.35
21 Felt 25 mm thick perforated against solid backing 0.70
22 Mineral wool, Glass wool 25 mm thick 0.70
23 Mineral wool, Glass wool 50 mm thick 0.75
24 Panel of 2 layers of bitumen with air space between 0.20
25 Poly urethane flexible foam 50 mm thick on solid backing 0.85
26 Wood wool slab 25 mm thick 0.40
27 Audience in upholstered (seat per person) 0.46
28 Audience in wooden seat (seat per person) 0.40
29 Seat fully upholstered (per seat) 0.28
30 Seat wooden (per seat) 0.15

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MASKING EFFECT OF NOISE:
 It is interfering of one noise to another and is a complex phenomenon
 When the difference of two noise levels is more than 15 db, then the lower frequency (bigger
wavelength) noise covers the higher frequency (shorter wavelength) sound if the lower frequency
sound is louder than the higher frequency one
 This phenomenon elevates our threshold of audibility level
 low frequency sound has considerable effect on high frequency sound if it is louder like soft music
and water fall can easily mask over high frequency unwanted sound.
 It elevates the background noise level
 If the masking sound is not too loud, uninterrupted and non-informative, it acts as good background
noise or “white noise”.

DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR GOOD ACOUSTICS IN AN AUDITORIUM

Requirements for Good Hearing Condition
 Absence of disturbing external noises
 Uniform distribution of sound throughout the room
 Adequate loudness of sound throughout the room
 Optimum Reverberation time
 Background noise level max. 35 db when empty
 Natural Reinforcement near the source
To be achieved by
 Shape of auditorium
 Size of auditorium
 Internal Surface configuration
 Materials (reflective and absorptive)
 Reinforcement
 Stage
To be avoided
 Circular / elliptical shape
 Concave rear wall (Echo)
 Parallel wall
To be recommended
 Fan shape
 Configured parallel walls to direct sound and to reduce flutter
 Slope should not be too steep (1:8 to 1:15)
 Ceiling to be utilized for natural reinforcement: reflection and diffusion
 Dome: radius should be twice the ceiling height or less than half of ceiling height
 Balcony: shallow depth and high opening, max. depth twice the ht. of opening(ht. below balcony),
sloped sofit to enhance sound below balcony area
 Balcony railing: to control reflection
 Rear wall: total absorptive surface

SOUND REINFORCEMENT SYSTEM

When sound is emitted from a source towards an audience, the sound energy received by those in the
rear is reduced by 1. normal decay and 2. absorption by the audience. The Greeks and Romans
minimized this loss by placing the audience at steep slope in open air theatres. Sound reinforcement
could be achieved by two methods:
1. Natural reinforcement techniques:
 utilizing the shape, surface texture, materials to reflect peripheral sound energy in a manner
that will reinforce the direct sound energy
 sound reflectors or sound mirrors could be carefully placed
 configuring the surfaces to redirect the sound towards audience

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  diffusing and mixing direct and indirect sound from reflections. hard, non-porous continuous
surfaces are good reflectors. Hard, non-porous, irregular surfaces diffuses sound energy
 direct sound reaches to the audience when the slope is steep
2. Artificial amplification system:
 Sound amplification is useful
 For large space more than 5000 sqm. or for more than 500 capacity
 Unaided sound is not loud enough
 Speaker does not speak loudly
 to increase sound intensity at the stage
 where background noise level is high
 where general acoustics condition of the room is bad
 to provide announcement or public addressing system
 in sound recording studio
 to transmit to remote location

 In Artificial reinforcement system, signal can be readily amplified, filtered, recorded and
processed various ways. It consists of
1. microphone: input device, near the sources
2. amplifier: control device
3. loudspeaker: output device, near the listener
Microphones:
 A microphone or transducer is a device that converts sound energy to electro-magnetic signal.
 Microphones are sensitive to frequency and direction.
 Microphones should be placed 500 to 700 mm away from the mouth. If it is too closed speech
frequency gets distorted, if too far it picks up reverberated sound. If more than one microphone are
there, then the one in use would be “live”, otherwise other microphones will receive the signal and
could create confusions.
 It should respond equally well in all audio-frequency range.
 Directivity:
 Microphones are available with either equally sensitive to sound coming either from any
direction or from one or more particular directions.
 A certain amount of directivity is required.
 Microphones are designed with two basic directional types:
1. Directional (one or more directional): they are sensitive to sound coming from one
direction, and are better because it reduces the “Feed Back” effect or howling noise at
particular frequency not at all frequencies
i. one directional: “Cardioid type” microphones sensitive to frontal
direction. It reduces the danger of “Feed Back” effect. Most common type.
ii. More directional: Ribbon microphones are sensitive at front and back
not at sides. It is useful where two talkers are on opposite sides as in
case of interview using same microphone fixed in position.
2. Omni-directional (all directions): equal sensitive in all directions. They produce howling
noise because it catches the amplified sound from back and then again amplify it.
 “Feed Back” effect: howling noise produced due to receiving the amplified sound from back side of
microphone (audience side) and further amplifying it
 Following types of microphones are available:
 Dynamic microphone: a diaphragm vibrates to an incident sound pressure which transmits to
a moving coil and magnetic field. Common type of microphone.
 Condenser microphone: it consists of a light diaphragm spaced a small distance from a back
plate. Used in special purposes as recording studio, etc.

Loudspeakers:
 Loud speakers convert electro-magnetic signal into sound energy
 Loudspeakers are usually cone with dia. between 150 – 300 mm
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 Loudspeaker system is the core of any sound amplification system and performance depends on
basic factors: 1. directional characteristics of sound distribution, 2. arrangement of speakers, 3.
placement of loudspeakers

1. Directional characteristics of sound distribution from speakers: Directional characteristics of

loudspeakers are responsive to Frequency ranges: lower, medium and high. Each range of frequency
transmits in different ways as:
 Lower frequency range (bass) speaker (woofer) (20 – 200 hz): sound emits equally in all
directions 360ْ
 Medium frequency range speaker (squawker) (200 – 1000 hz): sound emits at 180
 High frequency range (treble) speaker (tweeter) (1000 hz above): radiates a beam of sound
towards front

2. Arrangement of speakers: As per the directional characteristics speakers could be arranged

different ways to take care of all frequency ranges and of better clarity as:
 Mono type speaker: single speaker produces sound of all frequencies
 Stereo type speaker arrangements: for producing sound of better clarity, the incident sound
frequencies are grouped into two or more. In two way speakers: woofer and tweeter take care
of mid frequency sound.
 Loudspeaker-cluster: “Column” or “Line” loudspeakers: cluster of several moving-coil
loudspeakers for different frequencies are mounted one above the other for good directional
effect and to cater large audience. Due to interfering effect they emit concentrated narrow
beam on the vertical plane. Longer the column higher the frequency and narrower the beam. It
has two advantages: 1. directs sound towards audience so intensely that reverberated sound
becomes less, 2. fading of intensity of direct sound with distance reduces to some extent.

3. The placement of loudspeaker: must be coordinated with architectural design. Proper placement
of loudspeakers is responsible for good hearing condition. Two types of loudspeaker placement
systems in a hall are:
a. Central loudspeaker system: single higher level loudspeaker- cluster is placed above or side of
the proscenium
b. Distributed loudspeaker system: a series of low-level loudspeakers located overhead uniformly
throughout the space, each one covering a smaller area. Loudspeakers operating at lower level
are effective for distinct hearing. This type of system is necessary where central-loudspeaker
cluster could not be possible. It is useful for public address functions, exhibition area, air
terminals, railway stations, large offices, factories, etc.

Haas Effect: Sound from loudspeaker arrives at the listener before or after the natural / direct
sound, depending on the relative position of the listener. Usually the sound from the loudspeaker is
louder and faster than the natural sound. If more than one loudspeakers are in use, the listener
receives the same sound for several times. If all the repetitions arrive within 35 milliseconds, they
will help in increasing the loudness of sound. If they keep arriving after 100 milliseconds, they
would be heard as echoes. Between the direct and loudspeaker sounds whichever reaches the
listener first apparently provides the directional sense of the source of sound. This is called “Haas
Effect”. It may so happen that the sound from the loudspeaker reaches the listener first and for him
loudspeaker becomes the source of sound. This can be rectified by artificially introduced delay in
sound reaching from the loudspeakers.

Amplifiers:
 When sound of various frequencies at certain intensity is received at the amplifier from
microphones, it amplifies all the incident frequencies by same factor and send to the
loudspeakers.
 The sound reinforcement system could be mono or stereo type.

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REVERBERATION TIME CALCULATION
Example: Reverberation Time for a class room of internal dimension of 16m x 8m and height of 3.5m , 25 wooden benches of 1.2m x 0.3m, one teacher’s table of
1.2m x 0.75m, 51 wooden chairs, one blackboard of glass of 2.4m x 1.2m and a wooden door of 1.2m x 2.1m on one smaller side, three glass-panel windows of
1.2m x 1.5m each on opposite smaller side. All walls and ceiling are plastered, floor is of polished marble stone.
Optimum reverberation time to be made 1.5 sec.
REVERBERATION TIME CALCULATION (Without acoustical Treatment)
Members / Surface Surface Abs. coeff. A= A = a. α
item Material area of surface a. α Condition 1: Condition 2: Condition 3: Condition 4: hall Condition 5: hall Condition 6: hall
(a) material hall full, all Hall full, all hall half full, half full, all empty, all empty, all
(sqm.) (α) windows windows all windows windows open windows closed windows open
closed open closed
1 wall plastered 73.2 0.02 1.464 1.464 1.464 1.464 1.464 1.464 1.464
2 floor Polished 128.0 0.01 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.28 1.28
marble
3 ceiling plastered 128.0 0.02 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56
4 Door wooden 2.52 0.10 0.252 0.252 0.252 0.252 0.252 0.252 0.252
5 Windows glass 5.4 0.01 0.054 0.054 ---- 0.054 ---- 0.054 ---
(closed)
Windows open 5.4 1.0 5.40 ---- 5.40 ---- 5.40 --- 5.40
(open)
6 blackboard glass 2.88 0.01 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028
7 bench wooden 9.0 0.10 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90
8 table wooden 0.9 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09
9 Hall – full 51 nos. 0.40 20.4 20.4 20.4 --- ----- ---- ----
Wooden chair with
audience (all)
Hall – empty 51 0.15 7.65 ---- --- ---- ---- 7.65 7.65
Wooden chair without
audience (all)
Hall – half full 26 0.40 10.4 ---- --- 10.4 10.4 ---- ----
Wooden chair with
audience (half)
Hall – half full 25 0.15 3.75 ---- --- 3.75 3.75 ---- -----
Wooden chair without
audience (half)
Total (A) 27.028 32.374 20.526 25.872 14.026 19.372
Reverberation time t = 0.16 V/ A 0.16 x 448 / 0.16 x 448 / 0.16 x 448 / 0.16 x 448 / 0.16 x 448 / 14.026 0.16 x 448 / 19.372
(Optimum t= 1.5 sec.) 27.028 = 2.65 32.374 = 2.21 20.526 = 3.49 25.872 = 2.77 = 5.11 sec. = 3.70 sec.
sec. sec. sec. sec.
Remarks: Reverberation time is more or less than optimum more than more than more than more than more than optimum more than optimum
optimum r.t. optimum r.t. optimum r.t. optimum r.t. r.t. r.t.

12
REVERBERATION TIME CALCULATION ( after acoustical treatment) Acoustical Treatment Recommendation: 1. Carpet on Floor, 2. Cushioned Chair
Members / Surface Surface Abs. A= A = a. α
item Material area coeff. of a. α Condition 1: Condition 2: Condition 3: Condition 4: Condition 5: Condition 6: hall
(a) surface hall full, all Hall full, all hall half hall half full, hall empty, all empty, all windows
(sqm.) material windows windows full, all all windows windows open
(α) closed open windows open closed
closed
1 wall plastered 73.2 0.02 1.464 1.464 1.464 1.464 1.464 1.464 1.464
2 floor CARPET 128.0 0.25 32.00 32.00 32.00 32.00 32.00 32.00 32.00
3 ceiling plastered 128.0 0.02 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56
4 Door wooden 2.52 0.10 0.252 0.252 0.252 0.252 0.252 0.252 0.252
5 Windows glass 5.4 0.01 0.054 0.054 ---- 0.054 ---- 0.054 ---
(closed)
Windows open 5.4 1.0 5.40 ---- 5.40 ---- 5.40 --- 5.40
(open)
6 blackboard glass 2.88 0.01 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028
7 bench wooden 9.0 0.10 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90
8 table wooden 0.9 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09
9 Hall – full 51 nos. 0.46 23.46 23.46 23.46 --- ----- ---- ----
CUSHIONED chair
with audience (all)
Hall – empty 51 0.28 14.28 ---- --- ---- ---- 14.28 14.28
CUSHIONED chair
without audience (all)
Hall – half full 26 0.46 11.96 ---- --- 11.96 11.96 ---- ----
CUSHIONED chair
with audience (half)
Hall – half full 25 0.28 7.00 ---- --- 7.00 7.00 ---- ----
CUSHIONED chair
without audience (half)
Total (A) 46.974 66.154 56.308 61.654 51.628 56.974
Reverberation time t = 0.16 V/ A 0.16 x 448 / 0.16 x 448 / 0.16 x 448 / 0.16 x 448 / 0.16 x 448 / 0.16 x 448 / 56.974
(Optimum t= 1.25 -1.5 sec.) 46.974 = 66.154 = 56.308 = 25.872 = 51.628 = = 1.25 sec.
1.52 sec. 1.08 sec. 3.49 sec. 1.27 sec. 1.38 sec.
Remarks: Reverberation time is more or less than optimum r.t. less than more than optimum r.t. optimum r.t. optimum r.t.
optimum value optimum r.t. optimum r.t.

13
Construction Techniques in Acoustic Planning of a Building
Noise control inside a building can be achieved by following construction techniques
while construction of a building. The construction techniques of walls, windows, doors and
floors and selection of appropriate building materials are discussed for better acoustic
control in buildings.

The discomfort of noise within the building goes on increasing if the structural elements
within the building too don’t show any resistance against the noise. It is found that the noise
transmission is intercepted when it passes through the walls, floors, windows, ceilings and
the building doors.

The Sound Transmission Class (STC)

A certain parameter has to be used in order to compare the performance of different
construction materials. One such parameter is the sound transmission class(STC).

The sound transmission class can be defined as the numerical value equal to the number
of decibels in terms of reduction of sound when it passes through a material, which is
intended to have some insulating property.

This can make one understand that a high value of STC implies the material possess a
high insulating property. It basically works on the influence of external frequencies of the
areas of the partition where the sound originates and where the receiving of the sound
takes place.

This can be explained by an example. Let us assume the desired level of sound internally
is 45 decibels and the external level of noise is 85decibels, then we require a partition
material that has a sound transmission class value of 40 STC for adequate acoustic
comfort.

STC is a sound transmission class rating which is put forward by the American society of
Testing and Measurement. This acts as a parameter to guide an architect to know which

14
material would suit the most, to have an essential acoustic feature by the reduction of
noise.
Construction Techniques in Acoustic Planning of a
Building
The structural elements and their construction for controlling noise in buildings are
mentioned below.

Construction of Walls for Noise Control in Buildings

Wall are an important structural element in all kind of buildings, that provides protection
from the noise externally as well as internally. The usage of different wall materials or the
usage of different design for the wall would bring variation in the insulating properties of the
element.

The figure below shows the difference in sound attenuation with variation in wall design.

The methods employed for noise control in buildings are explained in the following:

1. Wall Mass and the Thickness are Increased

The massiveness of a material is an efficient parameter that resists noise. Hence concrete
walls are more insulating than wooden walls. Another way of increasing the insulating
property is to add more thickness for the walls.

The increase of thickness of walls would result in more mass which in turn increase
insulation. A reduction of 6 decibel sound happens by this method of construction. But the
techniques must be carried out keeping in mind the cost and economy.

Wall construction that undergoes vibration under huge frequencies of sound has to be
avoided.

15
 Fig.1. Different Wall Design Techniques Showing the Variation of Sound Attenuation
2. Use of Cavity Partition in Buildings for Noise Control
The sound transmission can be resisted by the usage of airspace between the two partition
walls. The air space can also be placed in between two or more layers. This concept is
more effective than a single wall of equal weight, which is found to be more economical.

3. Increase Airspace Width of Walls

The increase in airspace will obviously increase the noise insulation property. But the huge
increase in the width of air space is difficult to design and consumes more space.

4. Increasing the Stud Spacing

It is found by a study that the spacing between the studs would increase the sound
transmission capacity of the room. Say an increase of 2 to 5 decibel STC is determined for
a stud spaced 24 inches than those spaced at 16 inches.

5. Usage of Studs in a Staggered Manner

The arrangement of studs in a staggered manner as shown in figure-1, where studs are
placed alternatively would help in noise absorption, thus reducing noise intensity.

16
 Fig.2. Figure Shows Variety of Wall Types, their Cost Comparison and STC Values
6.Studs and Panels held together by Resilient Materials
Making use of inexpensive resilient layers like glass or fiber board, or semi-resilient
attachments which are inert in nature, will help in reducing the STC rate by two to five
decibels.

7. Panels Used are Dissimilar

Using different thickness and materials for panels would help in reduction of noise, thus
increasing the sound insulating quality of walls.

8.Sound Absorbing Blankets Used in the Airspace

The sound absorbing blankets are also called as isolation blankets which are placed in the
airspace arrangement, that are provided between the panels. This blanket enables an
increase in sound attenuation.

Mineral or rock wool, wood fibers or fiberglass are some the materials used to make these
blankets. These blankets have an attenuation capability up to 10 decibels. The method is
more effective where lightweight construction is more prominent.

9.The Cracks and Edges are Sealed

The full advantage of a high-performance wall can be brought out only when it is properly
sealed and crack free. The perimeter of the wall must be properly sealed.

Formation of cracks or holes would affect the insulation property of the wall. It has been
observed that a hole of the 1-inch square will result in a reduction of STC of the wall by 10.

17
 Fig.3. Depicts Before and After the Sealing of Cracks
Construction of Windows for Acoustic Control in Buildings
Windows are one of the weakest elements of a building. Their inappropriate position or
open condition would affect the performance of insulating walls. Therefore, it is
recommended to have acoustical consideration in the arrangement of windows.

The graph below shows the variation of STC values of the wall, for the different area
occupied by the windows which are shown in percentages.

The following measures can be employed to reduce the noise entering the building through
the windows:

1.Windows can be Closed

Permanent sealing or closing of the windows are the best measures to reduce the direct
effect of noise. Permanent sealing becomes essential when an air conditioning system
must be enabled. So, sealing acts as a constant solution for noise.

The masking of noise is an effect that is facilitated by the air conditioning system, which is
discussed in the following topics.

18
2. Windows Size can be Reduced
The loss of contribution of total partitions can be reduced by making the window size to
small. Small windows do have certain other advantages like:

 Expensive acoustic windows can be excluded

 Usage of glass is reduced
The method faces certain disadvantages too. The decrease of window size is limited, as
the window size should follow certain rules and regulations. Its decrease by, say from 50 to
20 % would only bring up a change of 3 decibels.

3. Glass Thickness can be Increased

The more thickness the glass gains, the more resistant towards the noise. If sealing is not
desired, the glass thickness can be increased. Further, the glass can be laminated with a
tough plastic, which is transparent in nature. This is both shatter and noise resistant.

Construction of Doors for Acoustic Control in Buildings

Doors are considered very difficult to handle than windows, acoustically. Replacing a
hollow core door by a solid door is one of the solutions. This is found relatively expensive.

The sound insulation can be increased if at the bottom and at the top, a drop bar or gasket
stops are installed. Another solution is to reduce their use in walls facing noise directly.
Install doors on the wall that is shielded.
Construction of Floors for Acoustic Control in Buildings
Special acoustical treatment is the only way to reduce the vibration of floors due to heavy
noise. Installing a heavy concrete floor or using a floating floor is some of the treatment
methods.

Floating floor involves using a concrete or wooden slab over the existing one, which is
separated by a resilient material.

Noise Control in Buildings by use of Masking

This method involves the drowning of noise with the help of a background noise. This is
effective during noise fluctuations. Masking can be created by soft music, electronic
devices or air conditioning systems and heating systems.

19
Noise Control in Buildings through Architectural Acoustic
Design Techniques
A proper architectural design helps in noise control in buildings to a great extent. It helps in
minimizing many costly techniques of noise control in buildings.
The arrangement of elements like window placing, door, the position of the bedroom,
balcony, courtyard by proper acoustical planning help in reduction of unwanted noise within
the building.

Fig: Sources of Noise in Buildings

Focus must be given to certain main elements that are explained briefly as follows.

Techniques for Noise Control in Buildings through

Architectural Acoustic Design
Noise in the building can be control by following methods
 Room arrangement
 Use of solid walls
 Planning for single story houses
 Proper arrangement of balconies
 Having courtyards
Room Arrangement in Buildings for Noise Control
Considering the rooms in a building based on sensitivity, we can divide into less sensitive
rooms and more sensitive room. Now less sensitive rooms are the kitchen, bathroom etc.
More sensitive rooms are bedrooms, living rooms.

The arrangement of rooms must be made in such a way that more sensitive rooms are
away from the noise and the less sensitive rooms are toward or closer to the noise source.
20
The arrangement of rooms for noise control is shown in figure-1. This planning was applied
widely over a 100-acre land which comprises of residential buildings. The building was near
to a planned expressway.

As per the concept of arrangement the kitchens and bathrooms were placed near to the
expressway and the bedrooms, living rooms where keep way from it. Thus, more sensitive
rooms get a shielding effect.

Fig.1: Room Arrangement in Buildings for Noise Control through Architectural Acoustic
Design
Use of Solid Walls in Buildings for Noise Control
The use of solid walls means, to use a wall with fewer openings. Mostly walls used in
building construction are masonry. When it comes to high-rise, concrete walls are used.
Whatever be the material chosen, both behave massive and resist noise in a very efficient
manner.

Now having an opening in walls will reduce its efficiency in noise control. The openings in
the forms of windows or doors that are facing directly towards the noise, would welcome
noise into the building.

The efficiency of walls can be explained in figure-2. Here the wall barrier between the
building and the noise is not at an adequate height, but the lower floors must feel
comfortable with less noise. This is possible because the barrier has no opening.

To have the complete role of a barrier, opening in walls facing the direct noise must be
planned accordingly and if possible, eliminated. In a case where elimination is not possible,
reduction in the size of openings is recommended.

21
 Fig.2: Use of Solid Walls in Buildings for Noise Control
Planning for Single Story Houses
This is an architectural planning step taken before planning the design of the building. For
example, consider that we have a land where the construction has to be conducted, but we
have a noise source at a particular distance from the site.

The plan is to construct a two-story building. We also have a barrier in between the site and
the noise source. The situation is that the reduction of noise from the source is efficient only
when the building is a single story as shown in figure-3. When a more story building is
planned the barrier, height will be insufficient.

Under such situation, it is always recommended to compromise with the plan and go for an
economical and quality construction. Another option is to adopt a split-level design for the
building, that would meet all the requirements.

22
 Fig.3: Use of Single Story Houses to Reduce Noise Impacts
Proper Arrangement of Balconies for Noise Control
Balconies provide access to the external environment as well as ventilation in the form of
light and air. But the improper arrangement of balconies would give complete discomfort,
hiding all its advantages through noise.

Balconies have higher exposure to outside environment. If the building is faced towards a
highly traffic prone area, with balcony facing the same side, it would promote the intensity
of noise entering the building, as shown in figure 4.

Fig.4: Balcony Facing the Road

attracts Noise into the Building
The problem is mainly seen in highly populated cities, where high rise building facing the
highway is constructed. In such cases, measures to reduce direct impact of noise must be
carried out. Balconies can be placed in a shielded area than direct open area.

23
Having Courtyards for Noise Control
Having courtyards helps in reduction noise control in buildings. This can be an added
measure of noise reduction in architectural planning and design.

The Proper architectural design may also provide for noise reduction in an area outside of
the building. They provide an acoustical privacy. A shielding effect is provided by these
courtyards. It is constructed in residences, schools, hospitals, colleges etc..

Fig.5: Courtyards for Noise Control in Buildings

How to Plan for Better Acoustic Control in Building?

The acoustic feature of a building can be taken care at the initial stages of planning of the
project. The ignorance at the initial stage would force us to make use of costly techniques
at later stages.
The site planning initiates to arrange the building in such a way that minimum exposure to
noise is there. When a project has been proposed to initiate a noise sensitive activity, then
acoustic planning would help in reduction of noise impact to a far extend.

24
Construction Site Planning for Better Acoustic Control
in Building
Hence based on the land details and project plan, following methods can be employed to
decrease noise impact:

1. Setting up Distance
2. Placement of non-residential elements as buffers
3. Buildings acting as shields
4. Building orientation away from noise
The above-mentioned techniques are explained in the following:
1. Setting up the Distance
The distance between the noise source and the noise receiving building is an efficient
parameter that can be increased to reduce the intensity of noise reaching the receiver. As
the distance increases the intensity of the noise decreases.

Wherever there is an option to place a building far away from the noise source, we must
adopt this. Because this method alone can solve many noise impact problems.

This method is more applicable for high-rise buildings, as it is very difficult to provide them
with acoustic shield, due to their height as shown in figure-1.

25
 Fig.1: The Noise Barrier only Shields Lower Floors
For example, it is better to build the structure at an appreciable distance away from the
highway, to reduce the impact of noise formed from high traffic.

2. Placement of non-residential elements as buffers

Another method is making use of noise compatible land areas, which is to be located in
between the noise source and the receiver. These land areas may have non-residential
elements.

proper planning is done to arrange this element between the two units, say the highway
(noise source) and the residential units (receiver). It should be kept in mind that the
compatible unit should be near to the source.

Figure-2 shows a real arrangement of acoustic planning. Here the parking garage behaves
as the noise compatible area. The main sources of traffic are Fitzgerald Expressway and
Callahan Tunnel as shown in figure-2.

Fig.2: Parking Garage for Better Acoustic Control in Building

26
The garage not only behaves as a compatible area but also act as a convenience for the
occupants residing to park their vehicle. So, the planning method chosen is compatible with
everything surrounding it.

3. Building acting as shields

This planning makes use of already existing buildings as barriers for buildings located
parallel but far away, from the former. If a row of buildings (B1) are located near to a
highway, buildings (B2) can be constructed in the back of this row such a way that, B1
shields B2 from the traffic noise.

When the barrier buildings are subjected to high noise, acoustic shielding is provided.
When a situation arises, where this method does not work, we plan the kitchen and
bathroom as facing towards the noise and the other rooms away from the noise. Under the
extreme situation, the windows and door facing the noise are shielded.

4. Building orientation away from noise

Special planning in the orientation of the building or the activity area would help in reducing
the impact of noise on it. Buildings that have openings or rooms facing towards high noise
source will have high discomfort.

So, it is better to arrange it in such a way that it is more exposed to certain natural features.
If we lack such features certain artificial features can be created that give a better beauty
as well as reduces direct exposure to the noise.

Examples of Acoustic Planning Techniques

1. An example showing the location of noise-compatible uses near a highway (West Street)
in Springfield, Massachusetts. It is clear from the plan that parking spaces, ends of
buildings, and a baseball diamond are located near to the highway.

A berm is constructed shielding the residential units. Trees are planted to shield residences
from traffic noise.

27
 Fig.3: Acoustic Control for Residential Buildings
2. As shown in figure-4, the residential units are covered by the high traffic noise impact by
means of commercial buildings, that is not a part of residential units. These commercial
buildings act as compatible areas, shielding the residential units.

Fig.4: Commercial Buildings Shielding Noise for Residential Buildings

28
Acoustic Properties of Building Materials for Noise Control

Acoustic property of building is based on acoustic nature of building materials and how
sound is transmitted through the adjacent structural elements.
Noise is unwanted sound, that is considered as a nuisance in buildings for residential or
domestic purposes. The buildings must possess good sound insulation property to have
good acoustic feature.

Sound insulation of buildings is a property that must be considered in the initial stages of
planning. Planning for the structural elements, to make them sound proof is one of the
consideration. And the other one is the planning of the area, where the building should be
located.

A building planned near to a roadway, which is highly traffic prone, would result in high
inconvenience to the occupants residing there. More detailed view on the subject and its
considerations are explained below.

Sound Insulation in Buildings

The sound insulation property of building materials is the ability in the reduction of sound
across a partition. For a good conventional office building construction, the sound insulation
is experienced good when it is in the range of 45dB.

This value can be explained as follows. If the room creates a sound of 65dB, then the
receiver sitting in the adjacent room receives the sound at 20dB. This value is barely
audible. Now if the level increase to 75dB, which is a raised voice, then the sound levels at
the adjacent room will be 30 dB, which is clearly audible.

We must keep in mind that sound insulation gives the property of how much sound is lost
and not the sound regained within the room. The unwanted and unexpected sound is
always considered to be a noise and that really is a question of the acoustic property of the
building.

29
Techniques to Reduce Unwanted Sound in Buildings
Certain physical techniques that are employed by engineers, architects, and builders to
reduce noise impacts are explained under this section. Due to the scarcity of land as well
as increasing population, the engineers are forced to undertake the available land and treat
it as per our need.

So, major four actions which can be employed to reduce noise impacts, that are compatible
with any type of land, activity or use are:

 Site Planning
 Design
 Methods in Construction
 Barriers in Construction
Building Site planning
The site planning method in acoustic property of buildings is to arrange the buildings on a
zone of land, that would minimize severe noise impacts. This is done by capitalizing the
natural shape as well as contours of the site.

One such step is to shield the residential area or other non-sensitive activities from noises
by non-residential land, or an open space or by barrier buildings.

Building Design
The architecture design method implements the noise reduction concepts in the details of
the individual building elements. This stage is more concerned about the height, the room
arrangement, the placement of balconies and the window.

Method of Construction
The individual elements of buildings can be improved by the variation of structural element
materials or internal design to facilitate good sound insulation. This would reduce the noise
transmission through wall, windows, doors, ceiling and floors. New soundproofing concepts
have been developed which are related to this stage.

Barriers for Construction

Barriers for resisting noise, which is placed in between the noise sensitive areas and the
source of noise. Different types of barriers are possible, like walls, fences made of different
materials, planting trees and shrubs in thick, making berms out of earth and combination of
individual elements.

Acoustic Properties of Building Materials

In many cases help from an acoustic designer is required after the building construction is
complete and is occupied to high level of sound. The discomfort faced by the occupant
residing or using it, have to go for redesigning the building for noise insulation.

So, it is always necessary to have a pre-planning, mainly for the building constructions that
are prone to noise disturbances.

30
Now being aware of the acoustic properties of building materials to some extent would help
us to have a right choice on the what material to be selected when acoustics is a
concerned factor. Some of them are explained below:

Acoustic Properties of Masonry, Concrete or Stone Materials

Mass and rigidity property are the two factors that make a material to be highly noise
resistant. The concrete wall is highly efficient than masonry. Masonry material made floor
or wall do perform appreciably.

Massive materials like stone, concrete can stop high sound waves that are less resistant to
less massive materials. Concrete slabs do perform good in the sound insulation activity.

Acoustic Properties of Wood and Related Products

These are less dense than masonry. They have a smaller performance in sound isolation.
MDF woods are more massive that are added to certain interior walls to increase the
massiveness. The most common material plywood, which is used in multilayer in interiors,
to make it sound proof.

Mainly wood is used in rooms where perfect sounding is required. It can reflect sound
which can be considered as an important property for sound treatment. It resonates easily
which promotes absorption of sound, some of which pass through the material and some
reflects. Therefore, these are used in making of instruments.

Acoustic Properties of Steel

Based on performance and structure, steel is one of the best material for sound insulation.
Because of high cost, it has less application. It is highly dense and massive in nature.

Steel carries the sound through vibration within the material. This sound transfer is called
as the structure-borne vibration. The normal case is airborne vibration which is not
appreciable.

Acoustic Properties of Glass & Transparent Materials

The glass is massive in nature. There is a new development of absorptive glass-like
materials that have the property to absorb more sound waves instead of reflecting. The
material is made from Plexiglas or transparent foil thinner in nature with tiny holes. Their
application comes in sound studios.

Acoustic Insulating Materials

Foam, fiberglass, rock wool etc. can be considered as the insulating materials we are
familiar. The fiberglass material gains higher sound absorption property.

These materials absorb sound by reducing the velocity of particles that carry the sound
waves in the air. Under low velocity, the pressure is high. Now wood materials absorb more
sound at high pressure.

31
Sound waves gain higher pressure at room boundaries. So, care must be taken in the
arrangement of boundaries or walls. For multiple boundaries like dihedral or trihedral walls,
the sound waves are at higher pressures.

Acoustic Properties of Rubber and Plastic

The known materials are vinyl, neoprene etc. These materials are used to make low cost
economical acoustical devices. But their use is almost considered limited. They can be
used as mechanical isolators for floating glass, by preventing vibrations of the diaphragm to
be transmitted to the walls.

Acoustic Properties of Building Materials for Noise Control

Acoustic property of building is based on acoustic nature of building materials and how
sound is transmitted through the adjacent structural elements.
Noise is unwanted sound, that is considered as a nuisance in buildings for residential or
domestic purposes. The buildings must possess good sound insulation property to have
good acoustic feature.

Sound insulation of buildings is a property that must be considered in the initial stages of
planning. Planning for the structural elements, to make them sound proof is one of the
consideration. And the other one is the planning of the area, where the building should be
located.

A building planned near to a roadway, which is highly traffic prone, would result in high
inconvenience to the occupants residing there. More detailed view on the subject and its
considerations are explained below.

ound Insulation in Buildings

The sound insulation property of building materials is the ability in the reduction of sound
across a partition. For a good conventional office building construction, the sound insulation
is experienced good when it is in the range of 45dB.

This value can be explained as follows. If the room creates a sound of 65dB, then the
receiver sitting in the adjacent room receives the sound at 20dB. This value is barely

32
audible. Now if the level increase to 75dB, which is a raised voice, then the sound levels at
the adjacent room will be 30 dB, which is clearly audible.

We must keep in mind that sound insulation gives the property of how much sound is lost
and not the sound regained within the room. The unwanted and unexpected sound is
always considered to be a noise and that really is a question of the acoustic property of the
building.

Techniques to Reduce Unwanted Sound in Buildings

Certain physical techniques that are employed by engineers, architects, and builders to
reduce noise impacts are explained under this section. Due to the scarcity of land as well
as increasing population, the engineers are forced to undertake the available land and treat
it as per our need.

So, major four actions which can be employed to reduce noise impacts, that are compatible
with any type of land, activity or use are:

 Site Planning
 Design
 Methods in Construction
 Barriers in Construction
Building Site planning
The site planning method in acoustic property of buildings is to arrange the buildings on a
zone of land, that would minimize severe noise impacts. This is done by capitalizing the
natural shape as well as contours of the site.

One such step is to shield the residential area or other non-sensitive activities from noises
by non-residential land, or an open space or by barrier buildings.

Building Design
The architecture design method implements the noise reduction concepts in the details of
the individual building elements. This stage is more concerned about the height, the room
arrangement, the placement of balconies and the window.

Method of Construction
The individual elements of buildings can be improved by the variation of structural element
materials or internal design to facilitate good sound insulation. This would reduce the noise
transmission through wall, windows, doors, ceiling and floors. New soundproofing concepts
have been developed which are related to this stage.

Barriers for Construction

Barriers for resisting noise, which is placed in between the noise sensitive areas and the
source of noise. Different types of barriers are possible, like walls, fences made of different
materials, planting trees and shrubs in thick, making berms out of earth and combination of
individual elements.

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Acoustic Properties of Building Materials
In many cases help from an acoustic designer is required after the building construction is
complete and is occupied to high level of sound. The discomfort faced by the occupant
residing or using it, have to go for redesigning the building for noise insulation.

So, it is always necessary to have a pre-planning, mainly for the building constructions that
are prone to noise disturbances.

Now being aware of the acoustic properties of building materials to some extent would help
us to have a right choice on the what material to be selected when acoustics is a
concerned factor. Some of them are explained below:

Acoustic Properties of Masonry, Concrete or Stone Materials

Mass and rigidity property are the two factors that make a material to be highly noise
resistant. The concrete wall is highly efficient than masonry. Masonry material made floor
or wall do perform appreciably.

Massive materials like stone, concrete can stop high sound waves that are less resistant to
less massive materials. Concrete slabs do perform good in the sound insulation activity.

Acoustic Properties of Wood and Related Products

These are less dense than masonry. They have a smaller performance in sound isolation.
MDF woods are more massive that are added to certain interior walls to increase the
massiveness. The most common material plywood, which is used in multilayer in interiors,
to make it sound proof.

Mainly wood is used in rooms where perfect sounding is required. It can reflect sound
which can be considered as an important property for sound treatment. It resonates easily
which promotes absorption of sound, some of which pass through the material and some
reflects. Therefore, these are used in making of instruments.

Acoustic Properties of Steel

Based on performance and structure, steel is one of the best material for sound insulation.
Because of high cost, it has less application. It is highly dense and massive in nature.

Steel carries the sound through vibration within the material. This sound transfer is called
as the structure-borne vibration. The normal case is airborne vibration which is not
appreciable.

Acoustic Properties of Glass & Transparent Materials

The glass is massive in nature. There is a new development of absorptive glass-like
materials that have the property to absorb more sound waves instead of reflecting. The
material is made from Plexiglas or transparent foil thinner in nature with tiny holes. Their
application comes in sound studios.

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Acoustic Insulating Materials
Foam, fiberglass, rock wool etc. can be considered as the insulating materials we are
familiar. The fiberglass material gains higher sound absorption property.

These materials absorb sound by reducing the velocity of particles that carry the sound
waves in the air. Under low velocity, the pressure is high. Now wood materials absorb more
sound at high pressure.

Sound waves gain higher pressure at room boundaries. So, care must be taken in the
arrangement of boundaries or walls. For multiple boundaries like dihedral or trihedral walls,
the sound waves are at higher pressures.

Acoustic Properties of Rubber and Plastic

The known materials are vinyl, neoprene etc. These materials are used to make low cost
economical acoustical devices. But their use is almost considered limited. They can be
used as mechanical isolators for floating glass, by preventing vibrations of the diaphragm to
be transmitted to the walls.

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