Sustainable Solid Waste Management

in the Southern Black Sea Region

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Series 2. Environment Security - VoI. 75

Sustainable Solid Waste
Management
in the Southern Black Sea Region

edited by

Bhaskar Nath
European Centre for Pollut ion Research ,
London , U.K.

in collaboration with

Yontcho Pelovski and Stoyan K. Stoyanov

University of Chemical Technology & Metallurgy,
Sofia, Bulga ria

***
: Jă : EUROPEAN CENTRE FOR POLLUI10N RESEARCH
** * ** London • Barcelona • Padua • UNEP • UNESCO

Springer-Science+Business Media, B.V.

Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on
Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region
Sofia, Bulgaria
27 September - 1 October 1999

A C. 1. P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN 978-0-7923-6681-2 ISBN 978 -94-010-0940-9 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-94-010-0940-9

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 CONTENTS

Foreword ix

The key-note papers (refereed)

Some issues of intragenerational and intergenerational equity and measurement

of sustainable development
Bhaskar Nath

Regional planning and economic sustainability issues of municipal SWM - experience 27

from Greece relevant to the Black Sea countries
Christos D. Panagiotakopoulos and Dem. C. Panagiotakopoulos

Solid waste management in developing countries - a case study of Turkey 47

Gunay Kocasoy

Solid waste priority projects for the sustainable development of south-east Bulgaria 69
Yontcho Pelovski, Stoyan K. Stoyanov and Nikolay Kozarev

Sustainable solid waste management in the former Yugoslav Republic of 81

Macedonia - a NATO initiative
Bhaskar Nath and Lubka Marinova

The National Waste Management Programme of Bulgaria 103

Martin Dishovski, Dimitar Vergiev and Michail Staynov

The sustainable landfill bioreactor - a flexible approach to solid waste management 113
William Powrie and John P. Robinson

Materials recycling - strategic management and conditions for economic viability 141
Bernard De Caevel and Alfons Buekens

The other refereed papers

Municipal investment strategies and national policies in the process of accession 157
to the European Union - impressions from Bulgaria
Paul Dax and Plamena Borisova

Monitoring of waste in Bulgaria for sustainable waste management 171

Nadya Boneva , Keti Iankova, Ekaterina Kulisheva and Siyka Terzieva

Thiourea leaching of gold-bearing mine waste from the Madjarovo processing 181
plant in the south east of Bulgaria
Stoyan Gaydardjiev
VI

A pilot-scale passive system for the treatment of acid mine drainage 189
Stoyan N Groudev, Plamen S. Georgiev, Irena I. Spasova , Anato/i T. Angelov
and Kostas Komnitsas

Treatment of solid waste generated from the manufacture of 195

polyacrylonitrile fibre
Ekaterina I. Terlemesian and Stoyan K. Stoyan ov

Sustainable solid waste management in Turkey 207

Cagla Guresinli

Solid waste management on the Black Sea coast of Turkey 219

Ertugrul Erdin and Sevgi Tokgoz

Separation, collection and transportation of municipal solid waste - a case 227

Study in Turkey
Fadime Taner, Bulent Ha/isdemir and Emrah Odabasy

Solid waste management efforts in Turkey - regional solid waste management 235
In Adana-Mersin
Hunay Ev/iya

A sustainable solid waste management scheme for the eoastal zone of 249
Antalya, Turkey
Balent Topkaya and Bahar Kankanoglu

On the statistical probabilistic modelling of the diffusion of fine solid materials 257
Oleg Maka rynskyy and Dina Makarynska

Urban waste management in Romania - a case study in Iasi City 271

Alexei Atudorei

Problems and prospects of sustainable solid waste management in Romania 285

Aureliu Leca, Mihai Mano/iu and Gabriel-Paul Negreanu

On the management of solid waste generated at the Constanza Shipyard, Romania 299
Nicolae Peride, Paul Hartes cu and Adina Gogan

The abstracts

Importance of waste bio-mass from household, agricultural and industrial waste for 307
A sustainable farming system
M aria Zlateva Doicheva

Prospects for sustainable waste management in Georgia 309

Maka Tzerete/i and Tinatin Tetvadze

Treatment of solid waste in the Municipality of New Orestiada, Greece 311

Angelos Papa eoanu
 VII

High humidity domestic solid waste pyrolysis with a pre-drying system 3 13

Nicolae Antonescu and N icolae N. Antonescu

Name index 3 15

Subject index 3 17
 ix

FOREWORD

The problem in context

The following quotation from an old Jewish scriptural text more or less sums up our
attitude to nature and her bountiful benediction that sustains us in our lives' sojourn:

"We waste what we have - our food, our fuel, our wealth, our gifts,
Then we watch in surprise the destruction of our world.
What we do not explore or gouge out ofthe earth, we pollute.
What we do not pollute, we kill.
We do not see, or wish to see, the damage we do.
Later we regret. "

Despite countless counter-measures and uplifting political rhetoric, degradation of the

environment and life support systems by human activities continues unabated, and it
is becoming harder and harder to find reasons to be optimistic about the long-term.

The growing problem of solid waste is of particular concern. World-wide it is being

exacerbated by two main factors working in concert . First, as a result of their relent-
less pursuit of economic development for greater material prosperity and rising living
standards, all the countries of the world have been generating all kinds of waste in
ever-increasing quantities. Driven by advances in technology, growing consumerism
and intensifying competition in the market place, producers have been seeking ways
in which to make their goods more attractive to consumers than those of their rivals.
A marketing strategy commonly employed for this is to package goods in as attractive
a way as possible, often using packaging materials with complex chemical composi-
tion that are difficult to treat once they become post-consumption waste. More often
than not, much of the packaging used is unnecessary and does little to improve or pre-
serve the quality of the good. This trend, coupled with open-ended demand for con-
sumer goods stoked up by clever and persuasive advertising, is mainly responsible for
the increasingly difficult predicament in which we find ourselves with regard to pro-
per and safe management of solid waste .

The second factor refers to the extent to which society is able or willing to recycle or
reuse the solid waste it generates . In general, the rich developed countries are blessed
with both know-how and financial resources to recycle their solid waste . Mobilising
sophisticated technology , infrastructure and organisation, they can and do produce
marketable economic goods from recovered waste, the extent of recycling being such
that only a fraction of the original quantity of solid waste needs to be finally disposed
to landfills. By contrast , the poorer countries lack financial resources, know-how , in-
frastructure as well as management skills needed for recycling waste in a meaningful
way. And yet, thanks to the pervasive ' throw-away' culture born of a life-style that is
x

quintessentially western, they are consuming more and more driven by the evocative
allure of western 'good life'. In the process they are generating ever-greater quantities
of solid waste which they can seldom manage properly or safely. The problems are
enormous and growing, and solutions to them difficult and often intractable.

In the poorer countries - meaning developing countries and the transition economies
of eastern and central Europe - disposal to landfills has been and continues to be the
common and traditional disposal option for solid waste . Advisedly however, 'landfill'
here is a misnomer in the sense that what goes by this name in those countries is al-
most always an unregulated and uncontrolled site where all kinds of waste, hazardous
and hospital wastes included, are dumped together in a 'do-as-you-like' fashion. They
lack protection of ground or surface water against leachate contamination, leachate
collection or treatment facility, gas collection or flaring facility, and are infested with
vermin and pests. Potential (and manifest) environmental and health risks of such
'landfills' are not hard to imagine. And yet, tens of thousands of poor people eke out
a miserable existence by scavenging these filthy and dangerous rubbish dumps. One
only has to visit the filthy bustess of Bombay, or see the dangerous and very large
rubbish dump in Metropolitan Manila affectionately called the 'smoky mountain', to
realise that life for the scavenging children there is little more than a short and point-
less void between the womb and the grave .

Current situation in the southern Black Sea region

Acting together, the two factors mentioned above constitute an apparently 'no-win'
scenario for the countries of the southern Black Sea region which is thwarting their
wider socio-economic development with serious implications for both health and the
environment.

The situation of the region 's transition countries is of particular concern. Driven by
the need to meet largely artificial production targets set by the central planners of the
erstwhile Socialist regimes, the policy-makers and apparatchiks of those regimes
were imbued with an attitude profoundly disdainful of all matters environmental. It is
only in the last ten years or so, in fact since their democratisation, that the consequen-
ces of this 'devil may care' attitude have been laid bare for all to see, and it is not a
pretty picture. A grossly degraded environment along with associated health and other
problems continues to be an enduring legacy of the socialist past and it does not augur
well for the future .

On the credit side, a good deal is being done to improve the situation. However, what
is being done pales into insignificance compared to what needs to be done, much of it
to be done as a matter of priority . In some cases grandiose plans are made with little
or no regard for the environmental impacts of proposed projects or their economic
viability, and so such plans are at serious risk of withering on the vine. Perhaps this is
symptomatic of old thinking and attitudes that are so difficult to change, but change
they must if any degree of sustainability is to be achieved.
 XI

Ever since their democratisation, these countries have been re-orienting their econo-
mies to the free-market system. But the process is proving to be difficult and painful.
In most cases there has been economic collapse during this 'transition' characterised
by low or very low industrial activity . As a result and not surprisingly, in many cases
there has been a marked reduction in the amount of industrial solid waste generated .
In reality, however, this is an interregnum - a lull to be precise - before industrial
activity picks up to generate greater amounts of waste, unless appropriate counter-
measures are taken . it would make much sense to seize this interregnum as a window
of opportunity to develop and implement appropriate policies, infrastructure, methods
and practices for proper and safe management of solid waste .

Lack of finance, and lack of know-how in most cases, is a common problem imped-
ing developments in solid waste management in the region. In the main waste treat-
ment and disposal facilities are financed by the state and/or by local governments
with little or no private sector involvement. Know-how is by all accounts the exclu-
sive preserve of higher educational or research institutions with little or no dissemina-
tion to the municipalities where it matters most. Moreover, emphasis appears to be on
the implementation of imported technologies, methods and practices with little scruti-
ny of their appropriateness vis-a-vis local conditions, constraints, culture or tradition .
Also, current or past research on alternative or locally appropriate methods of solid
waste management appears to be woefully meagre.

The NATO Advanced Research Workshop in Sofia

Against the background painted above, an Advanced Research Workshop (ARW) on
Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region was orga-
nised in Sofia, Bulgaria, during 27 September and I October, 1999, with funding pro-
vided by the Scientific & Environmental Affairs Division of the North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation (NATO) . The specific objectives of the ARW were to :

;;. Assess the current status of solid waste management in the countries of the south-
ern Black Sea Region , and
;;. to recommend feasible and economically viable measures to bring about at least a
degree of sustainability in solid waste management in those countries .

Experts in the field were invited from Belgium , Bulgaria, Georgia, Greece, Portugal,
Romania, Turkey and the United Kingdom . Formatted in a series of plenary and para-
llel sessions, the ARW comprised key-note addresses and research papers presented
by specialists, as well as a number of brain-storming sessions with the aim of arriving
at concrete recommendations. The participants included academ ics and researchers
from universities and institutions of higher education and research ; professionals,
experts and policy-makers from municipalities, government ministries and agencies ;
representatives of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) ; and representatives of the
Press (newspapers, radio and television) . The total number of participants was 78.
xii

Outputs ofthe ARW

The ARW was organised essentially in the ' problem-solving' mode. Presentations by
experts from the countries of the region, and the discussions that followed, helped es-
tablish the current status and trends of the region's solid waste management methods
and practices that are grossly unsustainable. Attention was drawn to the serious con-
sequences, especially in terms of health and the environment, that were likely to
follow unless appropriate counter-measures were taken to reverse, or at least arrest,
the deteriorating situation aiming at even a modest degree of sustainability . Presenta-
tions by the western experts focused on feasible methods of alleviating the problems
in the generic context of sustainability . The brain-storming sessions provided a deep
insight into the problems as well as feasible ways in which they could be addressed,
with particular regard to local/regional conditions, constraints, culture and tradition .

A number of recommendations emerged from the ARW for alleviating the problems
of solid waste management in the countries of the region focusing on sustainability .
They were :

)- Dedicated research on sustainable methods and practices of solid waste manage-

ment should be vigorously encouraged focusing on alternative, economically vi-
able and locally appropriate methods, practices and technologies .

)- Central and local governments of the region should be persuaded to put greater
emphasis than hitherto on public participation and involvement in making deci-
sions on projects that have implications for public health or the environment.

)- Effective programmes and campaigns should be implemented in the region for

raising public awareness of the need to generate less waste in order to achieve at
least a modest degree of sustainability . Imaginative educational programmes of
this kind should be developed for school children and young people.

)- Determined efforts should be made to involve the private sector in solid waste
management through private finance initiatives or public-private partnership.

)- Imported technologies, methods and practices should be carefully scrutinised in

advance for their suitability with regard to local conditions, culture and tradition .

)- An effective network of concerned institutions and individual experts from the

west and the region should be created to facilitate transfer of know-how and skills
to the region on the methods and practices of sustainable solid waste manage-
ment, as well as for developing joint research projects in this area.

)- Events such as this ARW provide an important and much-needed platform for the
exchange and cross-fertilisation of ideas. Every effort should be made to organise
such events on a regular basis.
 X1l1

As a permanent record of the event, this book contains most of the papers presented
to the ARW. All the presented papers were rigorously refereed for their suitability,
and only those considered suitable were accepted for publication. The accepted pa-
pers were then subjected to linguistic, technical and typographic editing by profe-
ssionals.

Acknowledgements
The Directors of the ARW, Professors Bhaskar Nath, Yontcho Pelovski and Stoyan
K. Stoyanov, express their deep gratitude to the Scientific and Environmental Affairs
Division of NATO for providing funds for the ARW. Special thanks are due to Mr.
Alain H. Jubier, Director of NATO 's Environmental, Earth Science and Technology
Programme, for his enthusiastic support and concern for the environment. Sincere
thanks are due to Professor Stoyan K. Stoyanov and Mrs. Lubka Marinova for ma-
king local arrangements in Sofia for the ARW, and to the referees who did such a
splendid job. Sincere thanks are also due to the participants without whose participa-
tion and inputs the ARW could not have been the success it was as judged by them.

Bhaskar Nath
London, 12 June 2000
Dedicated to the tens of thousands of poor people who
eke out a miserable existence by scavenging
filthy and dangerous rubbish dumps
SOME ISSUES OF INTRAGENERATIONAL AND INTERGENERATIONAL
EQUITY AND MEASUREMENT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

BHASKAR NATH
European Centre fo r Pollution Research. Crusader House (Unit 2E), 289 Crick/ewood Broadway ,
London N W2 6NX United Kingdom. E-mail: bnatll.ecpr:a13tinternet.com

ABSTRACT

The problems of solid waste should not be seen in isolation from the impacts of oilier antlrropogenic
activities on the environment. Because, like earth 's biogeochemical cycling and resources which
provide the life-support systems that make life on earth possible, the causes and effects of most (and
possibly all) antlrropogenic activities are interrelated in complex ways that are sometimes difficult to
disentangle. Thus, in any serious discussion of sustainable development in its broader context, it is less
than sufficient to look at a particular antlrropogenic aspect independently of the others. In the case of
solid waste, for example , the types and quantities of wastes produced in a given geo-political environ-
ment as well as the options adopted for their management are largely determined by the wider political
and cultural nuances. tradition, as well as socio-economic conditions and constraints of that environ-
ment. Clearly therefore. consideration of only the mechanical issues and problems of management and
disposal is not sufficient. The crucial issue here is society's attitude to nature and how it is valued; or,
to be more precise, society 's ' mind-set' vis-a-vis nature, the environment, and sustainable development
and related issues.

With this in mind. in this paper our purpose is to discuss some of the major issues of sustainable deve-
lopment that are currently provoking bitter debate. In particular. those of intragenerationaI and inter-
generationa l equity including the nature of the prevailing economic system and its implications for
sustainable development. We will also describe a novel method for measuring the level of sustainable
development achieved by an individual local community as a whole via the 'bottom-up' approach
advocated by UNCED 's Local Agenda 21.

Keywords: sustainabl e; development ; intragenerational: intergenerational; equity; quality of life: mea-

surement; 'bottom-up' approach ; economics.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Intrag enerational and intergenerational equity - present versus the future
At its simplest , sustainable development can be portrayed in terms of a ' conflict of
interest' between the present and future generations vis-a-vis the consumption of both
earth' s natural and environmental resources . In this context 'intragenerational and
intergenerational equity ' means fair and equitable allocation of those resources bet-
ween the present (intra) and future (inter) generations.

Clearly, the more the present generation consumes and degrades through its various
activities, the less will remain for future generations to make do with. Thus the crux

B. Nath et al. (eds.}, Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region, 1- 26.
© 2000 Kluw er Academic Publishers.
2

of the issue to be confronted is this: how much of those resources the present genera-
tion ought to consume in order to satisfy its own needs without putting at risk the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs? Here we use the word 'con-
sume' also to include the mounting degradation of natural environmental capital (air,
water, biodiversity, etc.) resulting mainly and inevitably from our wealth-generating
activities . The recognition or acknowledgement of this conflict is not new, however.
It was acknowledged as early as 1913 (and probably earlier) when in an important
article Gray argued that the central issue of conservation was the 'conflict between
the present and the future' (Gray, 1913). Also, conservationists argued long ago for
the ' wise use ' of natural resources and reuse of irreplaceable resources (Brown 1991).

1.2 Sustainable development and its definition

Alarmed by the accelerating depletion of earth's limited natural resources and relent-
less degradation of the environmental capital, the Brundtland Commission Report,
Our Common Future, urges all national governments to adopt the path of sustainable
development which it defines as 'development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs'
(WCED, 1987). We will take the above as the authentic or 'classical' definition of
sustainable development. At present sustainable development is generally accepted as
the only means with which both intragenerational and intergenerational equity of
natural resources and environmental welfare could be secured. It is not surprising,
therefore, that increasingly sustainability is the focus of all human activities.

It is interesting to note that the 'classical' definition is concerned with our ' needs' and
not our ' wants' . While our needs are limited, our wants are open-ended. Indeed, it is
the open-ended nature of our wants that provides the impetus for much of the world 's
industrial and economic activities (Nath and Talay, 1996; Nath and Stepanek, 1999).

The primary focus of the Brundtland Commission Report is on large-scale develop-

ment projects such as multi-purpose hydroelectric projects that have potential for
important and irreversible negative environmental impacts . Essentially the Report is
concerned with present generation 's responsibility to future generations, and, interest-
ingly, the central issues to which it alludes in this regard are similar to those raised by
Gray (1913) about current development versus conservation. Another germane issue
raised by the Report is whether, or the extent to which, man-made capital (investment
in roads, buildings etc. and in knowledge and institutions) could be substituted for
natural environmental capital such as forests, plant and animal species, clean air, etc.
We will discuss this issue in 3.5.

The classical definition of sustainable development given above is also a political

definition, as is the Report Our Common Future in which it is enshrined . And this is
creating serious operational problems, mainly because it is proving to be extremely
difficult to translate this political definition into a unique operational definition for the
 3

practical implementation of sustainable development (Long, 1996; Lesser, Dodds and

Zerbe, 1997). A unique operational definition is needed for two main reasons . First,
policies for sustainable development cannot be designed or developed if there is no
unique and generally agreed operational definition . And second, in the absence of a
generally agreed definition, it is not possible to develop a universal unit of account ,
like the GDP in macroeconomics for example, that can measure whether or not a
country's development is sustainable, or compare the relative levels of sustainability
achieved by different countries at a given point in time. Not surprisingly , this lack has
spawned a whole genr e of laissez-faire definitions of sustainable development that
are often too narrow in scope and/or misleading or even contrad ictory.

Even if there were a unique operational definition of sustainable development along

with necessary policies and practices for achieving it, it is hard to see how unwilling
governments of sovereign nations could be persuaded to adopt or implement them.
Because , they might be unwilling to do so, as many are now, in order to protect their
perceived national self-interest which is nearly always econom ic in nature and often
paroch ial. Moreover, there is no over-arching international authority , like the Security
Council of the United Nations (whose remit is strictly political), to impose such poli-
cies and practices on sovereign nations in a 'top-down' fashion (DeSombre, 1999).

1.3 The 'bottom-up ' approach to sustainable development

In view of the impossibility of the top-down approach, Local Agenda 21 (chapter 28
of Agenda 21) urges all municipalities and local authorities everywhere to develop
and implement their own programmes for local sustainable development in line with
the UNCED slogan of ' act locally and think globally ' (Grubb et aI., 1993). This is the
so-called 'bottom-up' approach in which all the stakeholder groups of the local com-
munity participate in making decisions on issues and problems of their environment
and quality of life within an overall framework of sustainable development. The con-
cept is simple - if each and every municipality of a given country achieves some
degree of sustainability, and if each and every country of the world does the same,
then in due course a certain degree of global sustainability may be said to have been
achieved. Clearly, the strategy here is that of 'from local to global' in line with the
UNCED slogan mentioned above . The bottom-up approach, pioneered by the City of
Seattle in the USA (Metro centre, 1995), has now become popular world-wide.

Accordingly, a given municipality may develop a range of policies for waste manage-
ment, wastewater treatment, conservation of biodiversity, etc., all aimed at achieving
at least a degree of sustainability. Such activities would certainly improve the quality
of life for the present generation . But it is not always clear how the improved quality
of life and better environmental amenities for the present generation could or would
contribute to the environmental capital to be inherited by future generations. For
example, using the Malthusian paradigm a cynic might argue that improved quality of
life for the present generation without a parallel and effective birth control progra-
4

mme could add to world population growth rate, thus increasing pressure on the envi-
ronment and ultimately defeating the objective of the exercise.

What we have said above represents only a small selection of the facets that are
relevant to the discussion of the seemingly intractable issue of intragenerational and
intergenerational equity which is central to sustainable development. Another aspect
deserving serious attention is the measurement of sustainability in terms of its overall
impact on the community in question . For it is one thing to develop and implement
policies aiming at sustainability, either by adopting the sector-by-sector approach
advocated by the OECD (Long, 1996) among others or in a piece-meal fashion as is
the common practice at present, but quite another to measure quantitatively the im-
pact of those policies. Clearly, what the policy-makers really need to know is the
overall impact of those policies over time in terms of meeting people's needs and
aspirations in line with the ' classical' definition of sustainable development .

1.4 Scope and purpose ofthis paper

The problems of solid waste should not be seen in isolation from the impacts of other
anthropogenic activities on the environment. Because, like earth's biogeochemical
cycling and resources which provide the life-support systems that make life on earth
possible, the causes and effects of most (and possibly all) anthropogenic activities are
interrelated in complex ways that are sometimes difficult to disentangle. Thus, in any
serious discussion of sustainable development in its broader context, it is less than
sufficient to look at a particular anthropogenic aspect independently of the others. In
the case of solid waste, for example, the types and quantities of wastes produced in a
given geo-political environment as well as the options adopted for their management
are largely determined by the wider political and cultural nuances, tradition, as well
as socio-economic conditions and constraints of that environment . Clearly therefore,
consideration of only the mechanical issues and problems of management and dispo-
sal is not sufficient. The crucial issue here is society's attitude to nature and how they
value it; or, to be more precise, society's 'mind-set' vis-a-vis nature, the environment,
and sustainable development and related issues.

In consideration of the above, in this paper our purpose is to discuss some of the
major issues of sustainable development that are currently provoking bitter debate. In
particular, those of intragenerational and intergenerational equity including the nature
of the prevailing economic system and its implications for sustainable development.
We will also describe a novel method for measuring the level of sustainable develop-
ment that could be achieved by an individual local community as a whole via the
'bottom-up' approach advocated by UNCED 's Local Agenda 21.
 5

2. THE PREVAILING ECONOMIC SYSTEM AND ITS IMPLICAnONS FOR

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

2.1 'Ecology ' versus 'economy '

There is a perception, especially among the young who work for non-governmental
organisations (NGOs), that idealism and commitment to the environmental cause
alone could or would take us to the ' promised land' of a sustainable world. Of course
idealism is a very desirable and even necessary quality especially in the young . But it
is difficult to see how it alone could deliver a meaningful degree of sustainable deve-
lopment regardless of how deep the commitment or how noble the cause. Because,
irrespective of how idealistic or committed one is to the cause of sustainable deve-
lopment or environmental protection, sooner or later one confronts the reality that it
costs money to implement almost any substantive project for environmental improve-
ment aimed at sustainability .

Indeed, the linkage between ecology and economy is so strong and profound that,
although initially the ecologists and conservationists claimed sustainable development
as more or less their exclusive domain, it has now become very much the domain of
the economist (see Box 1). This is not unexpected, however, because any activity
involving production, consumption and exchange - and most of the activities and
projects on sustainable development or environmental protection involve all three -
must take place within the prevailing economic system characterised by the so-called
' market forces '.

2.2 Sustainable development in the laissez-faire economic system - a contradiction?

There is apparently a built-in contradiction between sustainable development on one
hand, and the prevailing laissez-faire (free-market) economic system on the other, as
will be gathered from the following . It has profound implications for sustainable
development and consequently for the issues of intragenerational and intergeneration-
al equity that are central to it.

In the final analysis the achievement of true sustainable development is contingent

upon human societies accepting a more modest, less consumptive and less polluting
life-style that respects nature for her bountiful benedict ion (WCED, 1987; Nath and
Talay, 1996). On the other hand, the prevailing laissez-faire economic system, which
is pervasive and almost universal in its scope today, works only if there is uninterrup-
ted growth in production and consumption of goods and services. In other words,
increasingly greater production and consumption of goods and services over time is a
necessary precondition for the proper functioning of the prevailing laissez-faire eco-
nomic system. But increasingly greater production and consumption of goods and ser-
vices means increasingly greater production of wastes of all kinds to be disposed of,
increasingly greater production and consumption of energy and associated adverse
environmental impacts (e.g. those of CO2 emission), increasingly greater extraction of
6

Box I: A tale of two brothers

(The story narrated below is based on Greek Mythology. It was developed by the author
to demonstrate to Masters degree students the strong links that exist between ecology and
economy. Apologies are due to scholars of Greek Mythology for any inaccuracy).

God Zeus, the God of all Greek Gods, was bewitched by the celestial beauty and charm
of young Europa who was the daughter of Phoenix, the King of Sidon. Inflamed by pa-
ssion, God Zeus undertook a cunning plot to seduce Europa. He transformed himself into
a strong and beautiful white bull, with horns like the crescent of the moon, and appeared
in the field where Europa was playing with her friends. After a while he lay down in
front of her and begged her to ride on him saying that it would be reaIly exciting for her
to do so. Though frightened at first, after a while she climbed onto the bull's back some-
what reluctantly.

As soon as Europa had mounted the buIl, it made swiftly for the waves ignoring her pite-
ous cries and galloped over and across the sea to the island of Crete. There Zeus lay with
her under an enormous plane tree, beside a spring of fresh water, where she conceived
the triplets, Minos, Eeologos and Economos*. God Zeus granted the plane tree, the only
and silent witness to this amorous act, the privilege of never again losing its foliage.

In the prime of their youth Ecologos and Economos came to the Rio Earth Summit where
they saw a beautiful maiden caIled Sustainable Development (SD) (a terrible name for a
beautiful young woman) . The conversation between the two brothers about SD went
something like this:

Economos: "You see that beautiful young woman dear brother? Soon she will be mine".

Ecologos : "This is ridiculous. Just look at yourself. You are crude, greedy and material-
istic. You see everything and everyone in terms of money, benefit and profit. Mammon
is your god and fine sentiments mean nothing to you. How can you even imagine that a
refined and cultured woman like SD could possibly love you? On the other hand, I am
refined and cultured, love music and poetry, and beauty and nature mean much to me.
These fine qualities I have are much more appealing to a refined woman like SD than the
banality of wealth of which you are so proud and covetous . So dear brother, it would be
best for you to forget about SD. She wiIl be mine, I promise you."

Economos: 'That is all very well dear poor brother. But in this material world everyone
and everything needs money - that is me - to survive. Like it or not, that is the way it
is. Love and fine sentiments do not and cannot pay the biIls. She will be mine because
she needs me, as you will see."

SD had no financial means of support and neither had Ecologos. And so it came to pass
that ever since SD and Economos have been cohabiting rather uncomfortabl y in a love-
less union out of sheer necessity.

* Actually Minos, Sarpedon and Rhadamantus according to mythological texts.

 7

raw materials notwithstanding recycling and reuse efforts, and increasingly greater
environmental degradation . Indeed, the modus operandi of the prevailing laissez-faire
economic system are so diametrically opposed to the fundamental requirements of
sustainable development that its achievement within the laissez-faire economic sys-
tem may be likened to trying to ' fit a square peg into a round hole' .

Given this scenario , it may be argued that development and implementation of poli-
cies for sustainable development based on command-and-control and/or demand-side
management is ultimatel y little more than tinkering at the margins. Because, the pre-
vailing laissez-faire economic system, as well as the fundamental conditions for its
proper functioning, would still remain essentially the same.

In fact, the situation is likely to become worse when we consider current globalisation
of trade and commerce whereby the multinationals and corporate giants would pro-
bably reign supreme, and that their main concern is for maximising profit even if it is
at the expense of the environment. An issue of particular concern here is the reloca-
tion of dirty industrial plants by the multinationals in developing countries where
much-needed short-term economic benefits of relocation often transcend medium- or
long-term environmental concerns .

The contradiction mentioned above manifests itself in different ways and in varying
degrees in policy-making for sustainable development. Take, for example, Article 2
of the Treaty of the European Union (TEU, 1992) which extended EC's environmen-
tal policy objectives to include the goals of ' sustainable and non-inflationary growth
respecting the environment' (Artis and Lee, 1995). For the sake of argument , let us
take the current GDP of a macroeconomy such as that of the United Kingdom roughly
as 500 billion US dollars and annual growth rate of GDP as 3 percent. Then, accor-
ding to Article 2, it means that something like IS billion US dollars worth of goods
and services are to be produced and consumed each year in a ' sustained and non-
inflationary ' fashion . But it is difficult to see how this could be accomplished by
' respecting the environment' at the same time. Because, since no precise definition of
' respect' is given, we may reasonably assume that this feat is to be performed by
inflicting little or no damage to the environment. But it is hard to see how 15 billion
US dollars (compounded annually) worth of extra production and consumption each
year (in perpetuity in order for economic growth to be ' sustained' over time) could be
achieved without the use of additional virgin materials, consumption of additional
energy resources, disposal of additional wastes generated , etc., each of which has
potential for adverse environmental impacts with serious implications for environ-
mental sustainability as well as for intragenerational and intergenerational equity.

The implications of this contradiction for intragenerational and intergenerational

equity are obvious to see. Putting it crudely, if we think of the sum total of earth's
natural and environmental resources as ' capital' invested in the money market for
example, ' perfect' sustainability will be achieved if we manage to pay for our needs
and wants only from the interest accruing from that investment . In this case renew-
8

abIes such as food, fibre, etc. constitute the 'interest' . However, if our life-style is
based on open-ended demand for goods and services or on conspicuous consumption
as at present so that the interest alone is not sufficient to pay for it, then we would
need also to spend a certain amount each year from the capital. Clearly, this would
continue to erode the value of the capital invested, thus putting at risk the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs and aspirations.

3. ISSUES OF INTRAGENERATIONAL AND INTERGENERATIONAL EQUITY

3.1 The key questions

Any attempt at resolving the fundamental issues of intragenerational and intergenera-
tional equity is contingent upon a clear understanding of what sustainable develop-
ment is supposed to mean in practice . The 'classical' definition given in 1.2, which is
essentially a political definition, is less than helpful in this regard, and so is the
' bottom-up' approach as we have already pointed out in 1.3. The issues involved are
complex, encompassing as they do a wide range of related issues including those of
ethics, morality and even religion. Superficially what needs to be done appears to be
almost self-evident, but the practical modalities of doing what needs to be done is
proving to be difficult and often impossible.

The central issues here boil down to these two questions: does the present generation
have responsibility for future generations? If so, what are the feasible and practical
ways in which to discharge that responsibility?

The answer to the first question is obviously ' yes' , because we all want and hope for
as good a quality oflife as possible for our children, grand children and their children.
Indeed, procreation and rearing of the young is the fundamental biological instinct
which in the case of humans extends far beyond infancy or childhood.

But, in terms of a time horizon, how far does this responsibility extend or should ex-
tend? Can we really say or feel that we have responsibility for those who will inhabit
the planet in the fourth millennium for example? This is where the issue becomes
blurred . Perhaps it would be more honest to say that we are directly responsible for
our 'close' future generations, namely our children, grandchildren and possibly their
children. An altogether different and stronger argument for sustainable development
would be to acknowledge that our transitory life's sojourn on earth is no more than a
' tenancy', and, as tenants we have no right to degrade or destroy that which we re-
ceive from nature 's bountiful benediction .

The answer to the second question is proving to be intractable, however, for it raises a
number of other difficult questions that are now being bitterly debated, notably the
following :
 9

(a) What level of consumption is sustainable, and who determines that level and
how?

(b) What should be the criteria for the consumption of depletable resources such as
fossil fuels?

(c) Should the rights of individuals to procreate be curbed? If so, by whom, how
and based on what criteria?

(d) What modalities should be adopted to ensure effective intergenerational equity?

(e) Do we need to respect nature? If so, how?

3.2 Determination ofsustainable level ofconsumption

Much of the world's economic prosperity continues to derive from the exploitation of
natural and environmental resources. And, because our wants are open-ended in line
with the requirement of the prevailing laissez-faire economic system discussed in 2.2,
in many cases there have been over-exploitation whereby both integrity and avail-
ability of those resources have been compromised to the detriment of future genera-
tions . Depleted fishery stocks , clear-cut forests that look like moonscapes, rivers and
streams choked with industrial wastes are typical examples of this.

But the crucial question here is what level of exploitation is sustainable and who de-
termines that level? In the case of fishing in the ED, for example, the Commission of
the European Communities has allocated fishing quotas to the Member States in an
attempt to promote sustainability. Advisedly , the quotas have been calculated fairly
and equitably based on yield designed to promote sustainable fish stocks that would
replenish themselves through reproduction. The size of the stock must be larger than
what is called the ' critical minimum size ' . Otherwise it may die out without reproduc-
tion. Imagine that there are 10,000 fishes in the stock and that each year the number
increases by 1,000 (10%) through reproduction. Then, in this case sustainable yield
would be 1,000 per annum . According to the investment model described in the last
paragraph of 2.2, the stock of 10,000 represents the 'capital' invested and the sustain-
able annual yield of 1,000 the annual 'interest' accruing from that investment. So, in
this case perfect sustainability will be achieved if each year no more than 1,000 fishes
are harvested.

In this particular case determination of the level of sustainable exploitation has been
relatively straightforward, and the authority of the Commission to make that determi-
nation is not in dispute . Many examples of this kind could be cited. However, in
general , it is difficult and often impossible to make such determination, or to enforce
quotas, especially for common natural resources and non-market environmental goods
because of what is called the ' tragedy of the commons ' (Hardin, 1968) illustrated in
Box 2.
10

Box 2: The 'tragedy of the commons'

Hardin' s 'tragedy of the commons' applies to a property or a resource owned in common

by a group, each member of which has well-defined rights to use it. Air, which is a non-
market economic good, is a typical example of such a resource. We all need good-quality
air to breathe and cannot live without it. But an individual does not feel responsible for
the atmosphere in the same way as he feels responsible for his motor car, for example,
which he looks after well because it belongs to him. This is because air is a common
good (resource) which belongs to no one in particular even though it is vital to us all.

The following example illustrates how the tragedy ofthe commons operates in practice:

Global air pollution can be substantially reduced if all the major air-polluting countries
of the world make a joint international agreement to clean up their domestic industries.
But this objective will only be achieved if all these countries sign a binding agreement
and each strictly complies with its requirements. In other words, each must implement
necessary measures to clean up their domestic industries.

However, a number of the countries decide not to sign the agreement for fear of putting
their respective economies at risk of becoming less competitive. But, at the same time,
they want to be ' free-riders' . That is, although they themselves are not willing to do any-
thing to reduce global air pollution, they want nevertheless to benefit from the improved
air quality resulting from the clean-up actions ofthose that are willing to sign.

But the countries willing to sign the agreement hate the idea of the others benefiting from
their 'sacrifice' without making any effort themselves, and so reject the idea. There is no
agreement as a result, and air pollution continues to increase.

3.3 Criteria for the consump tion of depletable resources

Unqu estionably fos sil fuels are the most important depletable resource. The amount
of fossil fuels remaining is ultimately limited and will be exhausted one day, but it is
difficult to estimate how long the y would last. For the purposes of est imation, the
go verning parameter is what is called ' proven reserves ' that are generally taken to be
' those quantities which geological and engineering information indicate with reason-
able certainty can be recovered in the future from known deposits under existing eco-
nomic and operating conditions ' (BP , 1993). Proven reserves are not fixed or absolute
however, because the y increase as new deposits are discovered through exploration.
For example, the world's pro ven reserves of oil have increased from 540 billion
barrels in 1969 to 1,000 billion barrels in 1992, but this is not to say that potential re-
serves are not unlim ited (Boyle, 1996).

A useful parameter for estimati ng how long a fossil fuel would last is the ' reserve to
production rat io' , defined as the proven reserves remaining at the end of a given year
divided by the production in that year. Th is ratio gives an indi cation of how long the
 II

remaining reserves would last if production were to continue at the current rate. For
oil in 1992 this ratio for western Europe was less than 10 years and about 25 years for
the USA. These figures explain why both western Europe and the USA are so depen-
dent on oil from the Middle East which holds some 60 percent of the world 's oil
reserves and where the same ratio is nearly 100 years.

The situation is more optimistic for both natural gas and coal. In 1992 the ' reserve to
production ratio ' was 65 years for gas and more than 200 years for coal. The former
Soviet Union holds enormous reserves of natural gas, amounting to about 40 percent
of the world 's reserves , while the OPEC region holds another 40 percent. Coal reser-
ves are more evenly distributed throughout the world.

However, since the world 's reserves of fossil fuels and mineral ores of all kind are not
unlimited, strictly speaking the question of sustainability does not apply. Because,
regardless of how prudently they are consumed, one day they will be exhausted . Pru-
dent consumption would merely extend the time horizon of their exhaustion. What,
then, are the prospects for future generations? Prudent consumption must be the gui-
ding criterion for these depletable resources so that the dates of their exhaustion are
postponed as long as possible. This would allow sufficient time for the development
of alternati ve source s of energy, materials and related technologies through research .

3.4 Population growth and its impacts

Growing world populat ion is by far the most intractable problem thwarting attempts
at sustainable development, and it has serious implication s for intragenerational and
intergenerational equity. The following , that are typical of the growing world popula-
tion problem, are sobering and do not fill one with much optimism:

(a) According to the estimates of the United Nations, current world population of
nearly 6 billion will rise to between 7.3 and 10.7 billion in the year 2050 depen-
ding on the assumed fertility trends. It has issued three projections of what low,
medium and high annual growth rates will mean for the population of the world
(UN,1998).

(b) In the last 60 years the population of the USA has increased from 135 million to
more than 270 million (NGS, 1995), and, based on the current growth rate of 1
percent, it is expected to reach 540 million in the next 70 years (USBC , 1996).

(c) China ' s current population of 1.3 billion is still growing at the rate of 1.2 per-
cent in spite of governmental policy of permitting only one child per couple
(SSBPRC , 1990).

(d) India' s current population of nearly one billion lives on approximately one-third
of the land area of the USA or China. With the current growth rate of 1.9%, it is
12

estimated that the country's population would double by the year 2040 (pRB,
1996). The combined population of China and India is more than one-third of
the world's population.

(e) As human populations continue to grow and finite resources are divided among
increasing numbers of people, it will become more and more difficult to main-
tain prosperity and quality of life, and personal freedom will decline (UNFP A.,
1991).

Mounting pressure of a growing world population is impacting adversely on practica-

lly all sectors of the environment such as land, water and energy resources; the atmos-
phere; biodiversity, and so on. In fact, it is difficult to find any part of the natural
environment that is immune to the adverse impacts of the activities of a relentlessly
growing world population.

As we have already remarked in 3.1, in this case (as in many others) what needs to be
done to alleviate matters is clear, namely to reduce the population growth rate. But it
is very difficult to find effective methods for achieving that goal. Even with the dra-
conian policy of permitting only one child per couple - a policy that would be unac-
ceptable in pluralistic democracies quite apart from the moral and ethical objections
- China has only had qualified success in controlling her population. The problem
here is that in free societies it is the couple that decides how many children it wishes
to have, and for others to interfere with that decision is to encroach on moral, ethical,
religious and socio-cultural issues, tradition and sensitivities. The only hope would
therefore appear to lie in persuading couples through effective educational progra-
mmes to realise the benefits of restricting the number of children they have. However,
as experience in many of the developing countries shows, it is a slow and expensive
process that usually brings limited success.

"I will take you to the gates ofParadise lit by a thousand stars
and show you the silvery moon. But, if you are starving my
friend, how you would wish the moon was a loafof bread".
Froma travellers' tale from India

The impact of population growth is most acute in the developing countries whose
financial and skilled human resources needed to deal with their increasingly serious
environmental problems are meagre compared to those of the developed countries .
This is also the case in the transition economies of central and eastern Europe as well
as of the democratised countries of the former USSR . Of necessity, therefore, in many
of those countries the issues and problems of sustainable development and environ-
mental protection are not afforded the priority they deserve. The situation is being
exacerbated by the growing income disparity between the rich ' north' and the poor
 13

'south' as well as by aid and trade arrangements that are skewed in favour of the rich
donor countries. This state of affairs does not augur well for the future, especially
when we consider that poverty alleviation through equitable distribution of wealth
both between and within nations is a necessary precondition for the achievement of
global sustainable development (WCED, 1987; Nath and Talay, 1996).

3.5 Modalities ofintergenerational equity

Currently the method (or methods) to be adopted for ensuring fair intergenerational
equity is provoking bitter debate. The fundamental issue here is concerned with the
necessary and sufficient conditions for achieving sustainable development and it boils
down to this question: how do we compensate the future for the damage our current
activiti es are causing to earth 's natural and environmental capital?

Although the question might appear deceptively simple, the answer to it is anything
but. Even a cursory analysis would reveal that the answer has to be 'through the trans-
fer of capital bequests '. In economic terms it means that the present generation ought
to make sure that it leaves behind for the next generation a stock of capital whose
discounted value is greater than or equal to that enjoyed by the present generation.
Current debate is substantially about the precise definition of ' capital' and the way in
which it is to be transferred to the next generation equitably and fairly.

Probably the most controversial definition of fairness, known as the ' organicist' posi-
tion (Toman, 1994), raises difficult ethical issues that have implications for equity
and the nature of capital bequests. The 'organicist' position does not focus on the
rights of future individuals per se, but on obligations to the whole of humanity . And
the reason why it does so is because it is difficult to assign rights and standing to
future potential individuals whose existence depends on the actions of individuals
today. As a typical illustration , consider a couple that has made a conscious decision
to remain childless . Is the couple being unfair to the children they could have by not
having them? Are the consumption decisions of the couple unfair to the children they
could have? If not, can their decisions today be unfair to someone else's future chil-
dren? These are questions to which there is no precise or objective answer.

The second issue is concerned not only with the welfare of future generations but also
the welfare and integrity of the entire ecosystem . It requires us to balance our welfare
against that of other species. Some believe this balance has already been tipped and
that the only way to restore it would be for humans to become extinct as soon as
possible! This view reflects the extreme position of the 'deep green ' movement in the
USA and elsewhere .

In the generic sense ' capital' provides the capacity to generate wellbeing through the
production and consumption of goods and services on which human welfare depends
(Turner, Pearce and Bateman, 1994). But the question to be addressed is this: how is
14

capital to be interpreted in this context, and how it is to be passed on to the next

generation?

According to one school of thought , for the purposes of capital bequest it is not nece-
ssary to distinguish between environmental capital (such as clean air, clean water,
etc.) and man-made capital (such as buildings, roads, bridges, etc.). Instead, the two
should be aggregated to calculate the discounted value of the capital bequest subject
to the condition that the aggregated value of the capital transferred must not be less
than the value of that which now exists . This is called the weak sustainability cons-
tant capital rule. The main criticism of this rule is that it assumes perfect substituta-
bility between natural and man-made capital.

As a typical example, according to this rule the removal of an ecosystem by the pre-
sent generation could be compensated for by building a dam that would also benefit
future generations. But there are two main problems with this. First, how does one
establish the equivalence (in economic terms) between the benefits of an ecosystem
and those of a dam? And second, whereas future generations could build dams them-
selves, if they deemed it necessary so to do, it is hard to see how they or anyone else
could re-create the destroyed ecosystem in the way nature intended . Following this
rule, an extreme scenario would be one in which future generations would inherit vast
concrete jungles of roads, bridges, buildings, etc. and little of the natural environment
that supports life on earth.

Another school of thought , known as that of strong sustainability, does not accept the
assumption of perfect substitutability on which weak sustainability discussed above is
based. The reason is because, although there could be limited substitutability between
natural and made-made capital, some of the natural systems that perform vital func-
tions (such as biogeochemical cycling) to support life on earth cannot be replaced
with man-made things or systems.

3.6 Respect for nature

Our economic, scientific and technological activities in pursuit of material benefits
through ' development' are to blame for much of the environmental degradation being
caused. In the process we have been degrading and denuding the very resource base
that makes possible the material benefits we seek.

Given the central and increasingly pervasive role of science and technology in prac-
tically all socio-economic activities and especially their environmental impacts, it is
necessary first to trace their underlying philosophy in order to understand how the
attitude of human societies to nature and the environment has evolved through the
ages. Ethical and moral philosophy, which provides the rationale for science and tech-
nology, has largely been responsible for how we perceive nature and relate to it. And,
by so doing it has shaped, and still continues to shape, our attitude to nature and her
abundant benediction without which life on earth cannot exist.
 15

In the Occidental context the philosophical world-view of Aristotle may be taken as

the starting point of what eventually became the foundation of modern science and
technology . According to Aristotle, nature has no intrinsic value; it is of value only if
it benefits humans (Al1an, 1970; Lesser, Dodds and Zerbe, 1997). Thus, for example,
a rare plant in the trop ical rain forest is valuable and worth preserving only if some
useful drug could be made from it, or if it serves a useful purpose to benefit the hu-
mankind. Clearly, it is a highly utilitarian and exploitative attitude to nature ; it is also
profoundly anthropocentric and does not acknowledge the right of nature to exist for
its own sake. Historical1y this attitude, which is al1 too common in pervasive western
cultures, has driven the evolution of both science and technology and still continues
to do so.

In the Seventeenth Century this utilitarian and exploitative attitude to nature was rein-
forced by Bacon (Anderson, 1948) and DesCartes (Clarke, 1982), among others,
whose thesis was that nature and everything within it was for the sole benefit, well-
being and pleasure of man. In other words, man had the carte blanche to exploit na-
ture as he pleased for his own benefit and pleasure. However, as it has now become
clear, this attitude more than any other factor has been responsible for the continuing
degradation of earth's environmental capital, thus bringing us to the cross-roads of
history where our long-term survival as a species is put at risk vis-a-vis the environ-
ment and life-support systems.

The Platon ic world-view, on the other hand, acknowledges the intrinsic value of na-
ture for its own sake (Lesser, Dodds and Zerbe, 1997). That is, nature and all things
within it have their intrinsic value (which we may not know about or understand be-
cause of our own limitations, ignorance or selfishness) independently of humans and
regardless of what humans thought those values might be. Clearly, it is an ecocentric
world-view which is benign to nature at the very least. It is tempting to speculate on
how human societies would have evolved with the Platonic world-view as the foun-
dation of science and technology rather than the Aristotelian world-view which pre-
vailed.

We cannot escape from the fact that we need to use nature as well as to kil1 in order to
survive. Every breath we take kills countless microbes. What, then, is the meaning of
' respect' for nature or the environment as in 'respecting the environment' in Article 2
of the Treaty of the European Union for example (Artis and Lee, 1995)? A reasonable
answer to this question could be to take from nature only that which we need and no
more, and to minimise our kil1ing activities including the slaughter of innocent ani-
mals for food . But it is difficult to see how this could be achieved in practice, given
our open-ended demand for goods and services in line with the requirements of the
prevailing laissez-faire economic system discussed in 2.2.
16

4. MEASURING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Measurement of sustainable development in economic terms, especially with regard

to intragenerational and intergenerational equity, is proving to be difficult. The issues
involved are diverse as they are complex . A number of methods have been proposed,
however, but all are deficient in varying degrees and in different ways.

The main problem here is this. If we adopt the definition of sustainable development
as development whereby every future generation must have the option of being as
well off as the preceding generation, then this would call for a discount rate that must
not be less than the rate of technological progress (Solow, 1992). Maintenance of a
constant potential for generating wealth is contingent upon maintaining a constant
means of production that includes man-made capital, natural resources, technology
and the human capital (status of the knowledge-base).

Also, by definition, not only that the productive capacity must remain constant along
the path of sustainable development, but also that at each point in time we must know
how much of the productive capacity could be used up without detriment to future
prospects. Data on this could be obtained from environmentally adjusted net national
product (NNP), defined as the total annual income of a macroeconomy minus allow-
ances for the depreciation of man-made capital. But the main problem here lies in the
difficulty in calculating NNP correctly, and also that NNP fails as a measure of sus-
tainable development since many aspects of natural resource depletion are ignored by
the system of national accounts (SNA) (Henley, Shogren and White, 1997).

Clearly, it is also necessary to adjust national accounts to reflect the consumption or

degradation of natural resources resulting from wealth-generating activities . Although
this topic has been widely debated in the literature, a generally accepted methodology
for it is still to emerge.

Pearce and Atkinson have proposed an indicator of weak sustainability based on the
neo-c1assical assumption of perfect substitutabil ity between man-made and natural
capital (see 3.5) (Pearce and Atkinson, 1993). This indicator, known as the Pearce-
Atkinson measure (PAM) of economic sustainability, is expressed as

(1)

in which (SlY) denotes the gross savings ratio to GDP; (OM/Y) depreciation of man-
made capital as proportion of GDP; and (ONlY) depreciation of natural capital as pro-
portion of GDP . A given economy is judged to be sustainable if its PAM > O. The
authors of this measure argue that it is a useful rule in the sense that if a given mecro-
economy fails this test, and is therefore judged to be unsustainable, it is unlikely to
pass a stronger and more rigorous test. But there are two main criticisms of this indi-
cator : first, it assumes perfect substitutability between man-made and natural capital;
 17

and second, it is based on reliable estimates of natural capital depreciation, data on

which either do not exist or incomplete if they do.

5. A NOVEL SURROGATE INDICATOR FOR MEASURING SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT

5.1 Quality oflife

Sustainable development may be seen as a 'process' whose expected outcome is
improved and improving ' quality oflife' that could be sustained over time . Therefore,
measurement of quality of life can be considered a reasonable surrogate or alternative
to the measurement of sustainable development. This alternat ive recommends itself
because ultimately what really matters is the overall outcome - the desired goal -
and not so much the process or tool(s) delivering it. The method described below is
one such that is holistic in nature, based on the 'bottom-up' approach to the sustain-
able development of local communities described in 1.3.

What is the purpose of development anyway? Since we all want a good and impro-
ving 'quality of life' both for ourselves and our children, clearly the purpose of any
socio-economic development must be to deliver a good and improving quality of life
that could be sustained over time in the interests of both present and future genera-
tions. Next question : what are the parameters that define quality of life? An examina-
tion would show that for any given community the key parameters are educational
attainment, level of income, longevity (health) , and quality and quantit y of environ-
mental resources (such as air, water, natural beauty, etc.) needed for environmental
welfare . Then, heuristically we could define quality of life in terms of the following
functional relationship:

Quality oflife = f(8 , $) (2)

in which 8 =f(education, income, longevity) (3)

and $ = f (quality and quantity of existing environmental resources) (4)

In the above f denotes functional relationships, the precise forms of which are yet to
be determined.

The constraint on 8 is that it must increase over time and that income, on which both
educational attainment and longevity depend , must derive from sustainable economic
growth (as per Article 2 of the TEV for example (Artis and Lee, 1995)). The cons-
traint on $ is that it (i.e. size and quality of the existing environmental stock) must
18

increase over time (through protection and restoration measures) in the interests of
present and future generations. Since improving quality of life, defined by equation
(2», is the raison d'etre of sustainable development, it follows that achievement of
sustainable development is contingent upon achieving and maintaining acceptably
high levels of both e and <1> .

In theory, a country could achieve a high or very high income by undertaking socio-
economic activities that cause serious degradation or even destruction of its natural
and environmental resources (e.g. rain forests, water quality and resources , air qua-
lity, etc.). In this case the value of e would be high or very high (in terms of GDP)
and that of <1> small. But this would be contrary to the core requirements of sustain-
able development or intragenerational and intergenerational equity. At the other ex-
treme, in primitive societies whose demands on the natural environment are almost
totally self-sustaining, the value of e would be low and that of <1> high or very high. In
contemporary societies, however, the key to achieving sustainable development lies
in striking a balance between e and <1> so that an acceptably high quality of life could
be achieved and sustained over time .

Unfortunately, in neo-classical economic theories the performance of a macroecono-

my is measured only with its GDP (or GNP) which does not take into account the
environmental consequences of how wealth is generated. Accordingly, a macroecono-
my is said to be performing well even if it achieves a high GDP by seriously degra-
ding its environmental resources . In other words, these theories are concerned only
with e and not <1>. This environment-denying 'mind-set', which is detrimental to any
notion of sustainable development, typically manifests itself in UNDP's Human
Development Index (HDI) which is exclusively concerned with e and makes no refer-
ence to <1> (UNDP , 1992; UNDP, 1995; UNDP, 1999).

Clearly, monitoring with an indicator based on e would indicate the socio-economic

development of a given community over time in terms of its educational attainment,
income and longevity, while parallel monitoring with another indicator based on <l>
would indicate the environmental sustainability or otherwise of that development. In
5.2 we will describe a novel indicator, called the Local Sustainable Human Develop-
ment Indicator (LSHDI), to indicate the overall progress or otherwise a given local
community makes over time in terms of its quality oflife as defined by equation (2).

5.2 Local sustainable human development indicator

At its simplest, for a local community the functional form of equation (2) may be ex-
pressed in terms of a quantitative quality of life indicator. Since both human develop-
ment (in terms of educational attainment, income and longevity) and environmental
sustainability of a local community are included in equation (2), we will call this indi-
cator the Local Sustainable Human Development Indicator (LSHDI) . We can then
write equation (2) as
 19

(5)

in which ci and C2 are weights representing the importance the community in question
attaches to e and lD, respectively. For example, depending on its priorities and attitude
to nature , a given community may give a lower weight to e than to lD and vice versa.

Calculation ofe

Essentially 8 is a measure of the human development of a local community in terms

of educational attainment, longevity and income . The quantitative functional form of
8 can be expressed as (Nath, Talay and Tanrivermis, 1998)

(6)

in which S denotes years of schooling, L longevity and DI disposable income; a., a,

and a, are weights whose values are still to be determined (see Table 1).

This definition of8 (1.0 2: e 2: 0), which indicates the level of human development of
the community, is similar to that ofUNDP 's IIDI (UNDP , 1992). But there are three
important differences. First , 8 refers to a local community following the 'bottom-up '
approach, discussed in 1.3, and it is not in the macroeconomic sense of the lID!. Thus
data on Sand L are to be gathered for the local community. Second, in the HDI
knowedge (education) is taken as weighted aggregate ofliteracy and schooling, while
S in equation (6) is the number of years spent in schools and institutions of higher
education. And third , in IIDI income is taken as the elasticity of the marginal utility
of income over income in the macroeconomic sense . In equation (6), on the other
hand, income (DI) is taken as disposable income (gross income less income tax and
national insurance contribution) which is more relevant and meaningful because it
gives a better indication of the purchasing power ofa local community.

Data on S, Land DI are obtained from the face-to-face questionnaire survey (Table 1)
ofa statistically valid random sample of the community's population. With reference
to the questionnaire of Table 1,

S = Sraw/Smin (7)

and DI = Dlraw/gross income (8)

in which Smindenotes the minimum number of years a person has to spend to be edu-
cated up to and including the Bachelor's degree level. The normalised value of L is
expressed as the ratio : (maximum life expectancy in the community)/(maximum life
expectancy in the country).
20

Raw data from the questionnaire survey are processed as per equation (6) and a fre-
quency distribution of e is plotted using the processed data. The schematic of such a
distribution is shown in Figure 1 (in practice the frequency distribution is discrete, not
continuous) . The value of P is calculated using Pearson's coefficient of skewness or
the quartile coefficient of skewness. Point 'A' in Figure 1 is the centre of area of the
distribution.

Year-on-year changes in the value of Pindicate the progress or otherwise the commu-
nity as a whole makes towards human development. Clearly, annual surveys of the
same sample would need to be conducted for this.

Values of 0

Figure 1 Schematic frequency distribution of 0

Calculation of <I>

The value of <I> indicates whether, or the extent to which, the community is making
progress towards environmental sustainability. To develop the concept of <I> in line
with the ' bottom-up' approach described in 1.3, we will invoke the Retail Price Index
(RPI) from macroeconomics (Nath, Talay and Tanrivermis, 1998).

The RPI is calculated from the average retail price of a 'basket' of essential goods
every household must have to live, such as bread, butter, cooking oil, eggs, meat,
vegetables, clothes, medicine, etc. In practice the basket may contain up to 50 or more
such items, and the prices of some of the items, such as vegetables for example, may
vary seasonally requiring seasonal adjustment.

Every year the average market price of the entire basket is calculated from the retail
prices of the goods bought from a randomly selected and statistically valid sample of
retail outlets. The seasonally-adjusted average market price of the entire basket of
goods, called the RPI, is then calculated and compared with the corresponding prices
of the same basket of goods in the preceding years, usually by taking RPI = 100 for a
past ' base year' .
 21

Table I: Questionnaire for data on schooling (S), disposable income (DI), and weights

LOCAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDICATOR SURVEY FORM

(to be completed for each respondent in the random sample)

Respondent number:

ame of interviewer: I
Basic dat a on resp ond ent
First name: I Family name: I
Address:
Age: I Sex: I MALE I FEMALE
Married: YES I NO I Number of non-adult children: I
Single or di vorced: SINGLE I DIVORCED
Profess ion:

chooling dat a on resp ond ent

umber of vcars s cnt in rimarv school:
I umb er of vca rs s icnt in scconda rv school:

umber of vcars sent in univcrsitv:

umb er of yea rs spent in other higher
educational institut ion s :
Total vcars of schoolinc Srlw) :

Income data on respo nde nt

Annual income after personal income tax and national insurance
contributions (DI,",,)

If you give the importance of your income the value of 1.00 in the context of your human
development, how would you rate the importance of your educational achievement and
longevity? Plea e give value for each relative to 1.00 for your income.
Your cducational achicvcmcnt (a ,) : #i;~I%ifRl: , ;:' , _DW2~t1;'01
Your longevity (.11):
Your income (a .): 1.00

Data on c. and C1
Compared to your per onal human development in tcnn s of education, income and
longevity. how would you rate the sustainable development of your community. especially
environmental sustainability. Give a value to sustainability relative to 1.00 for your personal
human development.
Sustainabilitv (CI): I
Personal human development (C2): I 1.00
22

Clearly, such a comparison indicates changes in RPI over time, and this forms the
basis for calculating the year-on-year price inflation or deflation in a macroeconomy.

Conceptually <I> is an analogue of the RPI, because it is also based on a 'basket' of

diverse indicators such as economic indicators, social indicators, environmental indi-
cators and so on. Suppose that for the local community in question we consider the
following indicators which refer to its diverse and priority problems

Then , <I> will be defined as

<I> = Ib#Ibi i = I, 2, .. ...N (9)

in which b, denotes weights reflecting the relative importance of the problems, to

which the respective indicators refer, as perceived by the community. For example,
the community may attach greater importance to the supply of potable water than to
the restoration of cultural monuments. A typical list of indicators for a local commu-
nity is given in Table 2. Year-on-year changes in the value of <1>, given by equation
(9), would show whether, or the extent to which, the community's overall situation is
moving towards or away from sustainability. Increase in the value of <I> indicates pro-
gress and vice versa. This would need annual monitoring of all the indicators of Table
2 using standard methods (e.g . LGMB, 1995; Hatcher, 1996). The maximum possible
value of <I> is 1.00 representing perfect sustainability.

Calculation ofLSHDI and a practical application

The community's LSHDI can now be found by substituting the calculated values ofe
(as Pfrom Figure 1) and <I> into equation (5) . Clearly LSHDI indicates human deve-
lopment of the community by taking environmental sustainability into account, unlike
UNDP 's HDI which is concerned only with human development and not with the
environmental consequences of that development.

In 1997 the LSHDI of the Chankay a District Municipality of Ankara, Turkey, was
calculated using the method described above . With a total land area of 20,300 ha and
a population of 712,300 according to the Census of 1990, this municipality is consi-
dered to be typical of Metropolitan Ankara in terms of life-style, population mix and
income distribution. The sample size was determined as 218 for a 95% confidence
level, and the respondents were chosen randomly from the electoral register. The
questionnaire of Table 1 was used . The values of'B and <I> were found to be 0.639 and
0.558, respectively. Taking CI = C2 = 1.0, equation (5) gave LSHDI = 0.599 for that
community in 1997. Lack of space prohibits a fuller description of that project here .
Complete description is given in (Nath, Talay and Tanrivermis, 1998).
 23

Table 2: A typical list of sustainability indicators for calculating (IJ

Indicator Description of indicator

Economic indicators
II Number of unemployed adults per 1000of population.
h Number offamilies living in sub-standard housing.
13 Percentage of children living in poverty.

Environmental indicators
4 Number of good air quality days per year.
Is Percentage of contaminated land.
16 Biodiversity in the region (specific indicator species to be identified and indi-
cator to be developed).
17 Quantity of water consumed per capita.
Is Quantity of solid waste produced per capita.

Social indicators
19 Number of reported crimes per 1000 of population.
110 Percentage of infants born with low birthweight (including disaggregation by
ethnicity).
III Percentage of households connected to potable water supply.
112 Number of reported traffic accidents.

6. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Given the escalating degradation of earth's environmental capital and depleting natu-
ral resources, the consensus view is that the methods and practices of sustainable
development must be adopted in all human activities, for it is only by doing so that a
meaningful degree of intragenerational and intergenerational equity could be secured.
However, as we have pointed out, the problems and issues involved are complex and
intractable, and, perhaps most importantly, a fundamental change in our 'mind-set'
vis-a-vis nature and the environment is needed for the resolution of those problems
and issues . Science and technology have an important role to play in this, but what is
needed as a matter of priority is a radical re-think of our attitude to nature and how
we ought to relate to it in the interests of achieving sustainability in its true sense .

The plight of the developing countries merits special attention in this regard, not least
because pollution does not recognise national boundaries. Regional and even national
pollution can in time become global pollution. Considering that high birth rate in
those countries is by far the most serious problem thwarting attempts at sustainable
development, determined efforts based on imaginative educational programmes are
needed in order at least to arrest any further deterioration of the problem. Growing
disparity of income distribution both within and between nations is another serious
problem to which no one seems to have an answer despite uplifting but ultimately
24

hollow political rhetoric. To quote Gro Harlem Brundtland, Chairman of World Com-
mission on Environment and Development, "it is an insult to tell the poor that they
should remain poor. .. ." (WCED, 1987) . But the fact remains that the poorer nations
are becoming poorer while the rich are becoming richer (UNDP , 1999), and that the
poor are often forced to degrade their environment for sheer survival.

The environmental debate has moved on since the Earth Summit of 1992 when the
need for making determined efforts at all levels to achieve global sustainability within
the framework of Agenda 21 and a number of important conventions was emphasised
on the global forum . It appears, however, that the urgency for taking effective mea-
sures and concerted actions to halt continuing environmental degradation aiming at
sustainability, which was so loudly proclaimed and so obvious to see in that remark-
able gathering in Rio, has now dissipated somewhat. But degradation of the natural
environment continues unabated. Current debate appears to have shifted to the econo-
mic imperatives of development to be achieved by 'respecting the environment' . But
this is akin to a contradiction in terms, given the fundamental requirements of the pre-
vailing laissez-faire economic system .

One has no wish to put on the mantle of the proverbial ' Prince of Darkness ', but, to
quote an eminent Hungarian Professor, whose views on the matter are not untypical ,
"only the uninformed or the ignorant can be optimistic about the future " (Vida, 1996).
One begins to understand the purport of this when one considers the social and eco-
nomic impacts of environmental degradation now taking place, especially in the vast
developing world where in many instances it is now becoming rather ' academic' to
speak of quality of life issues .

Let us hope that future generations will have greater wisdom and intelligence as well
as attitudes conducive to the realisation of a better world .

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 REGIONAL PLANNING AND ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES OF
MUNICIPAL SWM: EXPERIENCE FROM GREECE RELEVANT
TO THE BLACK-SEA COUNTRIES

CHRISTOS D. PANAGIOTAKOPOULOS* and OEM. C. PANAGIOTAKOPOULOSt

* Department ofCivil Eng ineering, McMa ster University, Hamilton, Canada.
t Professor, Laboratory ofProje ct Management, Department of Civil Engineering, Democritus Uni-
versity of Thrace, 67100 Xanth i, Greece. E-mail: dpanag CiV.xanthLcc.duth .gr

ABSTRACT
Some important solid waste management issues at the strategic regional planning level are presented
in this paper, based on specific experience gained from the Thrace region of northern Greece whose
population is approximately 300,000 . In doing so, a regional SWM model is outlined with 50 avaiable
candidate facilities (such as transfer stations, landfills , sorting and composting plants) spread over an
existing road network .

The model chooses a combination that minimi zes total system cost over a planning horizon by mak-
ing trade-offs between economies of scale of regional central facilities and transportation costs. Criti-
cal ranges of unit transport cost and revenue per unit of the recovered material are established. The
setting-up cost of the infrastructure facilities is discussed from a sustainability viewpoint with regard
to issues such as the point-of-view of the feasibility analysis (which sets the boundaries of the analysis
and deter-mines the cost elements involved), length of the planning horizon, value of the investment
discounting rate, treatment of 'free' grants , and the design capacity of facility (waste reduction poli-
cies versus economics of scale). Finally , some comments are made on how the experience gained
could be useful to other countries, especially to those in the southern Black Sea region, with particular
reference to waste management hierarchy and the issue of integrated solid waste management.

Keywords : solid waste; management; sustainability ; SWM model; SWM systems; economics .

1. THE PROBLEM ENVIRONMENT

A number of risks are involved in the planning of an integrated solid waste managment
(SWM) system for a less developed region or country by a team that includes special-
ists from the ' more developed' countries. They are variously transfer of inappropriate
technology; adopting locally unacceptable (and thus ineffective) methods; unnecessar-
ily high investment on infrastructure (often with foreign aid), and adherence to a SWM
hierarchy of doubtful usefulness . Indeed , experience shows that real SWM hierarchy
- local, regional and often national - is: (a) economic viability, (b) social pressure,
and (c) environmental benefits (Fonteyne and McDougall, 1999) . In short, each region
has its own characteristics that call for region-specific SWM . One import, however,
which is always welcome, is ' lessons from others' mistakes' .

27
B. Natb et al. (eds.), Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region , 27-46.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers .
28

The planning of a SWM system implies choices of separate system components as well
as of the structure of the system as a whole . In the case of the components, choices are
made on the basis of source separation (type and extent); collection (frequency and the
collection system); temporary storage (location, size and type of containers) ; trans-
portation (collection vehicles or containers; and type, size and compression) ; treatment
(compo sting, incineration, digestion, recovery, etc.); and final disposal. In the case of
built facilities, choices must be made on the basis of the type of the facility, its location
among several candidate sites, size of each facility, and a scheduling plan.

For the system as a whole, the optimality criterion should be the attainment of a scially
acceptable balance between the total system cost on one hand, and the environmental
burden on the other. It is on the basis of the performance of a specific system that the
viability of a component should be evaluated . In general, larger systems offer econo-
mies of scale, but this must be tested for each case. It is to be noted, however, that
economies of scale at the plant level may not be acceptable at the system level, or over
a longer planning horizon, or when social and environmental issues are also taken into
consideration.

An integrated SWM system, which is expected to be environmentally sustainable (i.e.

minimum acceptable environmental burden), economically sustainable (i.e. effective
and affordable) and socially acceptable, involves an optimum combination of locally
available and acceptable treatment options. In order for this to be accomplished, a
large amount of data needs to be collected and analyzed - and it is by no means an
easy task so to do. Models for such systems have been extensively studied over the
last 30 years or so (Panagiotakopoulos, 1975; Wilson, 1985; Everett and Modak ,
1996). And yet, reported real applications are limited. This is due in part to the diffi-
culty in obtaining reliable data along with the complexities of the collective decision-
making process . Consequently, often analysts either make simplifying assumptions or
do not reveal real data, thus making it cumbersome for others to test the results or to
employ the model.

Two years ago a regional SWM plan was proposed for the Thrace region of Greece
(Figure 1) by a consortium involving a German company and some cities of the region.
It consisted of four transfer stations, a fleet of transport vehicles, and a central plant
with facilities for sorting, material recovery and baling, as well as aerobic and anaero-
bic compo sting plants, an energy recovery plant, and a landfill. The project was ex-
pected to serve a population of approximately 250,000 . With an estimated cost of
about 45 million Euro, it was expected to generate annual net benefits of more than
one million Euro . The project is still in the planning phase, however, awaiting funds
from the European Union.

The driving theme of the project continues to be ' profit from waste ' . However, eupho-
ria, mixed with skepticism, is driving the concerned analyst/researcher to investigate
the relevant issues, the following in particular: what is the real cost of the project?
 29

What are the obligations to be undertaken by the participating cities? What if the
population, for whom it is meant, reduces its solid waste output? How EU subsidies
are to be treated? And, is sustainability given the consideration it deserves? As it hap-
pens, the phenomenon of north-European companies pushing incineration or com-
posting facilities to local authorities in Greece (almost always with EU subsidy) is not
rare.

Motivated by the above, the purpose of this paper is to present some experience
gained from the Thrace region relating to both regional solid waste management and
economic sustainability. In doing so, we will first consider some relevant and practical
issues of economic sustainability, followed by the presentation of a SWM model study
based on the regional integer linear programming model for SWM. We will then draw
conclusions on how other regions could benefit from the experience of Thrace.

The level of analysis of cost data, alternative facilities, types and sizes is at a prelimi-
nary but pragmatic design level. The trade-offs between economies of scale of large
central facilities and transportation costs in Thrace, that essentially constitute a first
check on the feasibility of the ambitious plan mentioned above, are investigated . The
analysis presented here is both a combination and extension of two earlier works
(panagiotakopoulos and Psalti, 1999; Panagiotakopoulos, 1999). The basic format of
the model used here is the same as that of Everett and Modak (1996) . The model is
solved on the LINDO 's solver (Scharge, 1984) within a spreadsheet environment of-
fering flexibility and interactiveness.

2. ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC FEASffiILITY AND SUSTAINABILITY

2.1 Some issues ofeconomi c sustainability

Our purpose in this section is to address some of the practical issues arising from the
economic feasibility analyses of SWM systems and their components. A comprehen-
sive analysis of these issues will be found in Field (1994) .

An economic feasibility study makes a comparison between the present situation in

which there is neither a system nor a component, and the proposed situation in which
there will be a system or component(s). It involves the estimation (over the planning
horizon) of quantities and composition of solid waste to be disposed of, as well as of
the costs of the new facilities required . The economic benefits accruing from those fa-
cilities (including the effects of altering the existing patterns) are then assessed and a
cost-benefit analysis is made. Clearly, a project such as this would be considered eco-
nomically viable if its benefits outweigh the costs . Unfortunately, today in Greece the
enthusiasm for integrated solid waste management, coupled with the availability of EU
funds, is tending to relegate the need for rigorous economic analysis to the margins
along with important issues of sustainability. Furthermore, the pervasive notion that
30

subsidies are 'free lunches' is disturbing and unsustainable; and yet, it appears to be the
rule, especially when EU funds are involved.

In environment-related investments, incorrect economic evaluations have often led to

major errors with adverse environmental impacts. Furthermore, since a single plant
could drastically affect the performance of the whole system in terms of efficiency, ef-
fectiveness and equity, its feasibility should be examined with reference to the system
as a whole . But the question is where to draw the system's administrative, economic,
geographic and environmental boundaries? This dilemma repeatedly manifested itself
in the case study for Thrace.

On another front, when available initial capital allows for a larger-than-needed plant or
system, with or without a corresponding enlargement of the region being served, the
design capacity becomes an issue related to the break-even quantities of solid waste to
be dealt with as well as economies of scale.

From the point of view of economic sustainability, attention must therefore be given to
the following at least:

(a) The 'point-of-view ' to he adopted in analysis: it sets the boundaries of the analy-
sis and determines the cost and benefit elements to be considered . One could take
the view of the citizens as customers; or of the local, regional or national govern-
ment; of the European Union; or of the private investor.

(b) Length (N) oj the 'planning horizon ': this is crucial, especially for low discount
rates, and should extend beyond the physical life (usually 15 to 20 years) of plants.
The longer the horizon, the better.

(c) The discount rate, r, which represents the value of money over time.

Whether or not the facilities will be passed on to the next generation will affect the
values of both Nand r. The specific questions to be addressed in this context are : do
we wish simply to recover the invested capital, or do we wish to accumulate capital
for replacing a plant? What is the real time value of the money spent? Is there a capital
cost for the part covered by subsidies? Not requiring capital recovery for the subsidy
portion of the investment is equivalent to presuming no limit (i.e. no scarcity, and
therefore, zero opportunity cost and zero value) to the available funds. But this could
lead to mis-allocation of scarce resources. A logical argument might be that, since the
government is in debt, the opportunity cost of any government funds should be equal
to the interest on those debts.
 31

2.2 Costs, benefits and revenues ofSWM systems

On the basis of the above, the cost-benefit relationship of a SWM system can be ex-
pressed in terms of equation (1), with the understanding that the present value is over
N years which should cover at least one generation.

TCNS = TCRCES + CNF - DBR± ICB ± ESCB (1)

in which

TCNS : Total Cost (economic, environmental and social) of the New System;
TCRCES : Total economic Cost of the Remaining Components of the Existing Sys-
tem, an old landfill site for example;
CNF : Cost of New Facilities (construction and operation over Nyears);
DBR : Direct Benefits from the Recovery of energy and/or materials;
ICB : Indirect Costs and/or Benefits, covering all costs incurred (except those
in other terms) as a result of the changes introduced to the SWM system;
ESCB : Net extra Environmental and Social Costs and Benefits (measurable or
otherwise) resulting from the changes .

A new system is said to be sustainable if the extra overall net cost is negative . That is,

CNF - DBR ± ICB ± ESCB::s 0 (2)

The specification of the terms in equation (1) depends on the point-of-view of the ana-
lysis and on the perspective of the decision-maker. For a most general and sustainable
point-of-view, which tends to internalize all the aspects and extends the geographical
and administrative boundaries of the system as much as possible, the following hold:

The CNF could refer to a new collection system, a new materials recovery facility for
example. But its construction costs may need to be treated separately from the opera-
tional costs. Because, construction costs may be covered by different sources or social
groups. lCB could refer to extra transportation costs to a new plant, from a new incin-
erator to a landfill site for example, etc. If at present there is an incinerator and if a
new recycling plant is introduced, the effect on the performance of the incinerator
(caused by reduced availability of combustibles) will be included in lCB, but the bene-
fits from recycling will be included in the DBR term .

Similarly, if at present we have a biogas-generating landfill (LF) and a new compo sting
plant (CP) is introduced, then the energy or compost recovery benefits will be included
in DBR . But the CP setting-up costs will be included in the CNF term, while the cost
(in terms of reduced benefits) of reduced biogas generated at the LF will be included in
32

ICB. If an incinerator is built, then the burden on an existing LF will decrease and the
risk of leachate leakage will be reduced even though dioxins will be emitted . All of
these considerations are included in the ESCB term. Similarly, the benefits of recycling
metals or glass, that might save virgin materials, will also be included in ESCB.

We will now examine how the particular point-of-view of the analysis affects the terms
in equation (1).

The national government: normally all economic, environmental and social costs and
benefits over N must be the concern of the national government. Even if it is not
directly involved in the financing of the new system, the national government must
require through legislation that the decision-makers take a sustainable attitude towards
minimizing or eliminating the externalities. The ESCB term caters for this.

Local or regional government: they are often the decision-makers. Normally con-
cerned with impacts on local economy and on rates and taxes, they are also concerned
with distributing costs and benefits among all the waste sources served (i.e. neigh-
bourhoods, cities, prefectures , and regions). Usually they have limited concern for im-
pacts on neighbouring regions or on the wider environment.

The private investors: they are concerned with maximizing profit from their invest-
ment. That is, with the costs of new facilities, revenues from recyclables, arrangements
for financing, and recovery of their investment (local rates, government subsidies, in-
terest rates, etc.). They are mainly interested in plants and in securing predetermined
minimum flow levels, rather than in the system as such.

Citizens who pay for the service: environmentally aware citizens would accept the
concept of internalizing all costs. However, the usual attitude is one of 'let others pay' .
This may be due, at least in part, to the fact that in practice citizens are not involved in
planning, except indirectly through elections.

It is to be noted, however, that for every specific arrangement among government ,

investors, municipalities, regional authorities, private contractors, etc., the terms in
equation (1) have a specific content. An open question, which often arises, is this: who
should pay for environmental improvement? As a typical example, if a new landfill
contributes to the improvement of the quality of a lake in a neighbouring region out-
side of the SWM system boundaries, should the region benefiting cover part of the
cost for the new landfill?

In general, the agents involved in SWM tend to limit their concerns to their private
costs and benefits. The much-heralded hierarchy of 'reduce-reuse-recover-recycle' is
thus meaningless as a policy tool , unless it is underpinned by convincing economic
analysis. As we have already pointed out, for some facilities waste reduction might be
in contradiction with the target of economies of scale.
 33

For covering the financial cost of a SWM system, and from the viewpoint of the man-
ager of the system, the revenues are as follows:

{total revenue} {user charges} + {government subsidies and grants} +

{SWM system revenue} (3)

In general, and in the ' real world' , the SWM planning process is as follows: the alter-
native options pass (explicitly or implicitly) through some preliminary pre-screening on
the basis of economic, environmental and social criteria. Next, the options that are not
rejected outright, go through economic feasibility tests . The specific economically ac-
ceptable options are then evaluated on the basis of environmental and social criteria.

This process has been followed in the case study given in section 3. In that study the
regional SWM model contains options that are not outright unacceptable, and the
choice criterion (objective function) is the cost. All LF*, SF, CP and TS facilities are
new. The collection systems within the municipalities remain unchanged . The DBR
comes only from the compost; and the TCNS in equation (1) is restricted to the eco-
nomic cost of the new system from the point of view of the local/regional government
managing the system.

2.3 Economi c feasibility ofa system component - an example

Let us consider a planning horizon of N years, and, for year t (I < t < N), define the
following: p\ == population of the city or area (henceforth to be referred to as the
' source') i; w', == the equivalent municipal SW generation rate at source i (t x year" per
capita); T\ == p\ Wi ; the total SW quantity of source i in year t, of which T;IR tons are
recoverable (including composting) and TINare non-recoverable materials (c' = TIN/T I).
Sorting can take place at the SW source , at a MRF, or within a complex containing
one or more of the following: a SF, a CP, an incinerator, an energy and material re-
covery facility, and/or a LF.

Now , in"l; is the compostable fraction ofT\, RR the recovery rate, and l; the compost
quantity produced per ton of compostable material, then, assuming full biowaste re-
covery (RR = 1.0), the maximum compost quantity r.;
that can be produced in year t
from source i will be given by T i, ~ = p i; w', Ali r\. Note that an error in A\ of 8% means
the same % error in Tlc,i affecting economic analysis. Such errors are common when
solid waste composition data are lacking.

* Abbreviations are explained in Appendix 1.

34

Over the planning horizon both T\ and T1c,iwill be influenced by various factors . The
population may increase, and the quantity of solid waste entering the SWM system
may increase or decrease (e.g. due to policies of the EU) - the compostable fraction
in Thrace tends to decrease as socio-economic levels increase (Yiannakopoulou et al,
1997) . The quantity of compost produced depends on the composting technology
used. For various municipality sizes and socio-economic levels in Greece over the next
decade, the following ranges are considered to be realistic (Panagiotakopoulos, 1998) :
0.22 ~ w', ~ 0.45 ; 0.30 ~ '''}i ~ 0.60; 0.40 ~ y\ s 0.50.

For a plant k,

CNF k = {Sk + ~ ~I L ~x (inflow)} (4)

in which Sk denotes the present value (PV) of setting-up costs referring to the pur-
1
chase, installation and other expenses incurred mainly before operation starts, and L k
thePV of the operational cost per ton entering plant k in year t.

The equivalent annual discounted cost, EADC , is defined as

EADC = CNF k x (CRF ; N years at yOlo) (5)

in which CRF denotes the capital recovery factor (covering investment cost and de-
preciation) and r the discount rate. The SW inflow is a random variable because its
value depends on several unpredictable factors. If the inflow corresponds only to
source i (e.g. to city i), then CNF k = S, + ~ ~ I L ~ * p\ w', Once a plant is built, keep-
ing the inflow under control is very important, as it affects annual cash flow and the
cost per ton of SW processed.

Given below is a more detailed analysis of the EADC for a SF-CP facility (windrows),
with a specific numerical example for the Prefecture of Xanthi (82.3 tons/day), taken
from the Thrace case study given in section 3. With ",1=0.60, RR = 0.48, y1=0.50 and
density of compostables = 0.60 tons/nr', 55m3 of waste will enter the CP daily yielding
11.85 tons of compost. It is assumed that the plant is built within an existing landfill
area and that the windrows will be covered.

Setting-up costs
The setting-up cost, S, is given by S = A + B + C + D as described below:

Land-related costs (A): these are costs of land acquisition and land use over the plan-
ning horizon . If the land is public, and if there are no charges for using it and if there is
no other option for the use of the land over the planning horizon (i.e. if the opportu-
 35

nity cost is zero - a rather improbable case), then A = O. In Xanthi the annual op-
portunity cost of land is taken to be its rental value for agricultural use, which is cur-
rentlyabout 100,000 GDR per 1000m2 (currently 1 US dollar is roughly equivalent to
300 GDR).

Site preparation, design and p ermitting cost (B) : estimated at about 5 million GDR.

Construction cost (C): the cost of constructing the cover over the windrows is about
17,000 GDR/m2 . The cost of buildings is about 40 million GDR, with a service life of
the physical facilities of 20 years.

Plant fixed equip ment (D) : estimated at about 50 million GDR with a service life of
about 10 years.

Using above data, the total setting-up cost, S, of this example is estimated at about
230 million GDR (equivalent to about 767,000 US dollars at current rates of ex-
change). Thus, for a steady daily flow of 11.85 tonnes of compost (4,325 t/yr.) and
with CRF (N= 20 years and r = 8%) = 0.102, the discounted annual setting-up cost
per tonne of compost works out at 5,424 GDR. That is, 781 GDR ($2.60) per incom-
ing tonne of SW.

In the case study of Section 3, three different sizes of SF-CPs are considered. The
cost, S, corresponds to mean values over the corresponding size ranges.

Operation and distribution costs

The operation and distribution costs include those of pre-treatment , sorting, treatment,
product preparation, and marketing and distribution. Annual cost breakdown is as
follows: labour = 25 million GDR; equipment and annual maintenance = 10 million
GDR; other packaging (estimated) = 2,000 GDR/tonne ; advertising = 2 million GDR;
and an average of 4,000 GDR/tonne for transportation to the distribution centres.
Thus, for current flow levels, the operational unit cost works out at 14,556 GDR.
Therefore,

Total EADC per tonne of compost = (5,424 + 14,556) GDR

= 19,980 GDR ($66.60) (6)

Clearly, once the plant is built, increasingly greater waste inflow would reduce the unit
cost correspondingly. The debit side of this is that waste reduction will then cease to
be economical. In other words, a policy of solid waste reduction (e.g. by introducing
charges on a per tonne basis) would not be economical for the investor.
36

The benefits
The DBR term in equation (I) includes economic benefits deriving either from com-
post sales or from using compost as a substitute for other materials (in parks or for
daily landfill cover for example) . In the above example, let us say that these benefits
derive from sales at 1t GDRltonne. For the ICB term, we have benefits accruing from
the avoidance of expenses that would otherwise incur if the plant were not built (e.g.
less landfill space and cost, less fertilizing, and less transportation cost to landfill). If
we assume the transportation and operational costs of an existing LF to be 2,000
GDRlt, then for each tonne going to the SF-CP plant there will be {A. x RR} tonnes
going to the CP (i.e. not going to the LF). This will save 576 GDR/tonne of SW or
4,000 GDR per tonne of compost (for simplicity, we have neglected the value of the
LF space saved by this diversion).

We could incorporate into the ESCB term the environmental benefits resulting from
reduced greenhouse gases, reduced usage of fertilizers, etc . But these benefits are dif-
ficult to assess or quantify . Also, the revenue generated from service charges to citi-
zens/customers is not considered here analytically on the assumption that it will not be
affected by the new plant, and that feasibility will be tested on the basis of costs alone .

Feasibility test
In general , equation (2) forms the basis for the test for sustainability . In order for the
system to be sustainable, generally we must have

EADC g equivalent per ton DBR + ICB + ESCB}

For the above example this becomes

19,980 :S 1t + 4,000 + ESCB

Or, 15,98.0 :S1t + ESCB
Or, 1t ~ 15,980 - ESCB (7)

Clearly, an overestimation of ESCB or 1t would render the plant more desirable,

whereupon a higher EADC may be (wrongly) accepted. However, if the analysis aims
at the size of the plant, a larger plant may be accepted. Thus , from the operational
point of view, it would seem that it ' pays' to increase the waste inflow. That is, to
generate more waste or to secure more waste from the neighbouring cities!

Observations

The cover for the windrows, which may not be needed , accounts for about 2,600 GDR
per tonne. If no cover is used , the feasibility threshold for {1t + ESCB} will be reduced
 37

to 13,380 GDR. Roughly speaking, for economic feasibility 1t should be at least 13

GDR/kg minus the ESCB component. Furthermore , if there are no packaging, adver-
tisement or distribution costs, the value of 1t could go down to as low as {6.50 -
ESCB }. The real problem, however, has often been that there is little or no demand
for the product, even when 1t = 0, while the ESCB component is often arbritrarily
assessed.

As for the CRF, if we take N =IS and r = 10%, the annual equivalent setting-up cost
would be 13% higher, and the total EADC (equation (6» would then be 7,000 +
14,556 = 21,556 .

3. PLANNING OF THE REGIONAL SWM SYSTEM FOR THRACE

3.1 The Region of Thrace

The region of Thrace, divided into 15 equivalent solid waste ' sources', is shown in
Figure 1. It contains three Prefectures : Xanthi (sources 1-5), Rodopi (sources 6-10),
and Evros (sources 11-15). Waste quantity, Ti, for each source i generated in 1998 is
shown in Figure I (total for Thrace was 108,110 tonnes/day) . Both quantity and
composition of the generated waste depend on the size of the source and its socio-
economic characteristics (Yiannakopoulou et al., 1997).

Currently the management of municipal waste in Xanthi is the responsibility of the

Union of Municipalities. It owns the collection and transportation vehicles as well as
°
the Prefecture's landfill sites whose remaining service life is about I years at a unit
operating cost of around 2,000 GDR. There are no exact data on collection or trans-
portation costs, however . In Rodopi there are a number of uncontrolled landfill sites,
and a new one is under construction. In Evros there is a controlled landfill site for the
city of Alexandroupolis (source 11) and several other uncontrolled sites throughout
the Prefecture. There is no transfer station in Thrace, neither is there any other dis-
posal option except landfilling and open dumping. In the analytical model used in this
study, it is assumed that at present there are no landfill sites in the area under consid-
eration. In other words, it is assumed that all the available sites are almost full.

3.2 Managem ent options and costs

Collection of waste within each of the communities is not considered in analysis. In-
stead, waste is assumed to ' enter the model' after collection and when it is ready for
transportation. In the smaller communities there may be no organized collection at all.
Instead, citizens deposit their bagged waste to large containers at fixed locations.
There are two options for the transport system: the collection vehicle itself, or large
container vehicles going to a transfer station. As options, the available facilities of the
38

regional SWM system are assumed to be built on the existing road network with a
physical life of 15 years. They are shown in Table 1. For example, the collection vehi-
cles containing SW from SI may follow six possible routes to TSl, TS2, MRFl,
MRF3, LFI or LF3). Starting from TSI, there are five possible routes (above six mi-
nus TSI) for the container vehicles. Typically, SW from S14 may follow 14 possible
routes (TSI4, TSI5, 6 MRFs and 6 LFs).

Q . tons per day

CD )Source i
&. TSj (shown onl y for 2. 16, 17)
[TI LFk

BULGARIA

AEGEAN SEA

Approximately 160 km

Figure 1: The region of Thrace and its SWM options

Transfer stations
There is one 'local' TS for every equivalent source, presumed to be located in the
'middle' of the corresponding area (mean distance from an 'equivalent' source to the
local TS is assumed to be Ikm) that accepts waste only from that area. Exceptionally,
TS2 also accepts waste from the Prefecture's other 4 sources. In Evros there are two
additional 'regional' transfer stations (TSI6 and TSI7).

Material recovery facilities and landfills

Three sizes are available for the MRF and LF facilities. At each of the I 1 candidate
locations an MRF and a LF are possible options, and one or both may be selected. The
non-recoverable material from MRFk may be sent either to the adjacent LFk or to LF3.
MRFI and LFI are options only for the sources in Xanthi . Similarly, MRF2 and LF2
are the only options for the Prefecture of Rodopi, while eight MRF's and LF's (4-11)
are offered as options for the Prefecture of Evros. MRF3 and LF3 are large facilities at
the centre of Thrace and they are options for all its 15 sources (up to 300 tJday). In
 39

order to limit the extent of this presentation, the MRF type is restricted in this case
study to a SF along with an aerobic (windrows method) composting plant (SF-CP).
The setup costs are shown in Table 1. It is assumed that ~ = 0.60, RR = 1.0 and 'Y i =
0.50 for an i.

Based on real data, the unit transportation cost (UTC, in GDR per tonne-km, round-
trip) by the system of containers is set at 125 for both types of TS . The corresponding
UTC by collection vehicles is estimated at 480 . Given the distances travelled, the
UTCs are transformed into per tonne costs. (It will be shown that when 1t = 3,750,
LF3 is chosen only ifUTC < 70 for the container system. Also, when 1t = 20,000 , LF3
is chosen only ifUTC < 25. Thus, the value of 125 used here is safely away from the
'critical range').

But this question remains : which set of the candidate TSs, LFs, and SF-CPs would
yield the minimum total annual discounted system cost, including transportation?

3.3 The regional SWM model for Thrace

Let Xij denote the waste (t/yr) transported from S, to TSj for the {i, j} pairs permitted
by the management options of Table 1. Similarly, let Yik denote the waste from S, to
LF k for the permissible pairs {i, k}; and so on for Qic (from S, to SF-CPc), for Zjk
(from TSj to LF k) and for Rjc (from TSj to SF-CPc). Also, let <Pck denote the flow
(non-recoverable quantity) from SF-CPc to LF k. The following binary {O,l} variables
are now defined: fj for TSj; gk for LFk; and s, for SF-CPc. Then,

Transportation cost parameters (GDRlton): Cij = cost from source i to TSj; Pik = cost
from i to LF k; and so on for N c, Ajk, Vjc and Qek.

Setting-up costs of fixed facilities: Dj denotes the equivalent annual discounted setting-
up cost (EADSC) of TSj (CRF = 0.132, 15 years, r =10%), E k the EADSC of LF k,
and Me the EADSC of SF-CPe.

Facility operation costs (in GDR per incoming ton) : Fj corresponds to TS j, H, to LFk.
and I', to SF-CP e. Also, let 1t be the net revenue per ton of compost (revenue minus
all expenses not included in Meand 1 c).
Upper bound B; on capacity ofplant v requ ired for existing facilities, or for new ones
with specific design capacity, or for treating fixed costs and economies of scale. Coef-
ficient fI is introduced to deal with economies of scale; it expresses the deviation al-
lowed in the operational level of a facility v, from a predetermined level Av , over which
deviation of unit costs are presumed constant. In this case study I.l. = ± 0.10% and it
applies only to LF3 and SF-CP3 .
40

Table I Solid waste transport options in the Thrace model

Through Going to Or going to Comments

From One or more One or more One or more of
Direct load, mobile TS:
oftheTS oftheMRF theLFbelow
i shown below
or directlv
below
1, 3, 4, 5 and 7 to 10, 12, 13 and
14
Setup Cost: 2 million GDR
SI TSl, TS2 1,3 1,3 OperatingCost: negligible
S2 TS2 1,3 1,3
S3 TS3, TS2 1,3 1,3 Direct load, fixed TS:
S4 TS4, TS2 1,3 1,3 2, 6, 11, 15, 16 and 17
S5 TS5, TS2 1,3 1,3 Setup Cost: 50 million GDR
S6 TS6 2,3 2, 3 Operating Cost: 500 GDRJt
S7 TS7 2,3 2, 3
S8 TS8 2,3 2,3 MRF (actually, SF-CP):
S9 TS9 2,3 2, 3 Small: 1,2 and 5 to II
SIO TSIO 2,3 2, 3 Capacity: up to 100 t/day
Sl1 TS11 4,3 4, 3 Setup cost: 200 million GDR
SI2 TS12, TSI6 3,4,5,9,10 3,4,5,9, 10 Operatingcost: 1500 GDR/t
S13 TS13, TSI6 3,4,6,9, 10 3,4,6,9, 10 Medium: 4; capacity: 100-150
TSI4, TSI7 3, 4, 7, 9, 10, 3, 4, 7, 9, 10, t/day
SI4
11 11
Setup cost: 400 million GDR
TSI5, TSI7 3,4, 8, 9, 10, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10,
Operatingcost: 1500 GDRJt
SI5
Large: 3; capacity over 150 t/day
11 11
Setup cost: 600 million GDR
TSI6
Operating cost: 1500 GDRJt
and 3,9, 10, 11 3,9, 10, 11
TSI7
LF:
Small: 5 to II (up to 50 t/day)
Setup cost: 500 million GDR
Operating cost : 2300 GDRJday
Medium: 1,2 and 4 (up to 100
t/day)
Setup cost: 1000 million GDR
Operatingcost: 2000 GDR/t
Large: 3; capacity over 100 t/day
Setup cost: 2000 million GDR
Operating cost: 1500 GDR/t

The objective function

The Total Annual Discounted Economic Cost, TADEC, which is the objective func-
tion, is to be minimized subject to the constraints, (1) to (6), listed below .

TADEC = {transport cost} + {fixed cost} + {operation cost} - {compost profit}

 41

P:Pjfj + ~kE~k + ~cMcsc} + {~jFj~iXij + ~kHk(~iYik+ ~jZjk+ ~c<bck) +

~cr c (~icQic + ~jcRjc)} - n x Ax y x RR X ~c(~Qic + ~jRjc) (8)

The constraints
There are six types (or groups) of constraints as listed below:

(1) All waste of every source i must be dealt with: ~jXij + ~k Yik + ~cQic = G"
for i = 1 to 15.

(2) Mass balance constraints: at each TS{ ~iXij = ~kZjk + ~cRjc, for j = I to IS.
The constraints for TS 16 and TS 17 are analogous.
At each SFc, ~",<bck = ~ic Qic x (I - AXRR) + ~jcRjc x (1 - AXRR)

(3), (4) Should a facility v (TS, LF, or SF-CP) be built, its inflow must not exceed
an imposed upper bound B; and it must not be below Av(I-Il). That is,
(I-Il) X {binary variable}{Av } :S.. {inflow} S B, x {binary variable}

(5) fj, gk and Sc = 0 or I, for all j, k, and c.

(6) Non-negati ve constraints to apply to all flows.

4. SOLUTION OF THE MODEL AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

As we have already pointed out, a basic objective of this analysis was to get a realistic
'feeling ' of the regional SWM plan in terms of its potential benefits to the Thrace re-
gion which has a specific geography and population distribution. Table 2 shows the
results, arranged in a way that shows the sensitivity of the 'optimal' plan to variations
in the values of UTC and n, In all cases, all the 'local' TSs (1-15) were selected . From
the information given in Table 2, the following are worthy of emphasis for validating
the model analysis.

4.I The optimal scheme

As n increases, for UTC = 125 GDRlt more of the SF-CP plants enter the 'optimal'
plan. The central facility LF3 is chosen only when n = 3,750 and UTC < 70, or when n
= 10,000 and UTC < 25 (schemes 5 and 6 having the same plant set). Otherwise there
is no cross-prefecture transport. Also, as n increases, the critical (for choosing LF3)
value ofUTC decreases while the local SF-CP plants become more profitable. Facility
SF-CP3 is never selected, however, even when LF3 is.
42

Table 2 'Optimal' schemesfor solid waste management in Thrace

Unit transportation cost (UTC) = 125 GDR/t Compost revenue, 7t = 10,000 GDR/tonne
Scheme II SF-CP LF Scheme UTC SF-CP LF
(I) 3,750 None 1,2,4, II (6) UTC < 25 1,10 3
(2) 5,000 - 8,000 1,2 1,2,4,11 (7) 30 1,2,4 1,2,4
(3) 10,000 1,2, 11 1,2,4, 11 (8) 50-80 1,2,10 1,2,4,10
(4) n ~ 12,500 1,2,4, 11 1,2,4, 11 (9) 100 -130 1,2,11 1,2,4,11
(5) 7t = 3,750 1,10 3 (10) 150 1,2,11 1,2,4,9, 11
UTe < 70

In schemes (8), (9) and (10) LF4 is selected but SF-CP4 is not . This is due to the fact
that SF-CP4 is a medium-size plant (S = 400 million) while SF-CP 1 and 2, which are
chosen, are small (S = 200 million). In scheme 7, with UTC down to 30, it pays to
transport all SW from sources 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 south to SF-CP4 and LF4 . In Evros,
the semi-regional plants 4, 10 and/or 11 are selected over the local plants 5, 6, 7, 8 and
9; and, when UTC = 150, LF9 which is local is chosen. In general and as expected, the
local plants become more attractive as the value of UTC increases.

The analysis performed is static in the sense that only the current quantity levels have
been considered. Although the population of Thrace is not expected to increase dra-
matically over the next 20 years, the model was run with quantities at all sources in-
creased by 50 percent. The chosen scheme was exactly the same as scheme lOin Table
2. Clearly, an increase in the UTC value from 125 to 150 has the same effect on the
transportation cost term in the objective function as when the quantities are increased
by 50 percent.

4.2 Economics ofthe various schemes

Considering only the set of 'optimal' schemes that fall in the range {UTC 2: 70 and 1t 2:
3,500}, it is observed that the total system cost (ignoring compost revenues) ranges
from 1,074 to 1,252 million GDR/yr (equivalent to 3.4 to 3.9 million Euro/yr), or from
30 to 36 Euro/t. The breakdown of this cost is as follows :

Transportation (excluding collection) 22-31%

Transfer stations (construction and operation) 5-6%
Landfill (construction and operation) 50-56%
SF-CP (construction and operation) 0-20%

For the set of optimal schemes described in 4.1, the sum of the annual equivalent set-
ting-up costs of all facilities ranges from 520 to 635 million GDR. For CRF = 0.1315,
these figures correspond to a range ofPV from 3,954 to 4,830 million GDR (12.4 to
 43

15 million Euro) . This compares unfavourably with the 45 million Euro that the pro-
posed plan, referred to in section 1, is estimated to cost. It seems that this result alone,
regardless of the level of its accuracy, is the best justification for this whole analysis.
This is because it clearly shows that a more rigorous study is required.

With N = 20 and r = 6%, we will have CRF = 0.0872 and all annual discounted set-
ting-up costs would be 14 % lower. In that case the optimal schemes might be differ-
ent.

The model developed for the regional SWM plan of Thrace has been very useful in
drawing good conclusions about the parameters of the problem. First of all, the model
establishes that 12,000 GDRJt (37 Eurolt) is an upper limit on the cost, and that mate-
rial recovery is not economical as long as net revenue from compost is less than 5,000
GDRJt. It is noted that the threshold value of 1t in the example of section 2.3 is higher,
and that this is an example of how the analysis of a single plant may not lead to the
same economic results compared to when the whole system is analyzed.

The average cost per ton does not vary significantly. Typically, for a family of four
generating 1.5 tonnes of waste per year, the annual rate will lie within the range of 46
and 54 Euro regardless of the chosen scheme. Given this result, other non-economic
criteria may now enter the analysis for the evaluation of alternative schemes.

5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Many SWM systems are expected to be developed in several of the Mediterranean and
Black Sea countries over the next decade and, clearly, analyses of the kind presented
in this paper can be of much use to their decision-makers. The costs used in the model
analysis presented may not be more than mere estimates, but they are nevertheless suf-
ficiently reliable for drawing reasonably good conclusions. The version presented here
has been limited by space restrictions; it only covers some of the aspects of the prob-
lem. The full version of the model is more complex, covering issues such as: restric-
tions on organic wastes going to landfills, forcing a SF-CP to be chosen, considera-
tions of material and energy recovery facilities, separate budgeting for separate pre-
fectures, and a more rigorous analysis of the issue of economies of scale.

When it is possible to extend the area to be served, for example by adding more cities,
caution should be exercised especially if initial funding is easily available. The choice
for a ' bigger-than-needed' plant can be, and often is, justified by deploying a variety of
arguments . Often the argument for economies of scale is used. Also, when costs are
underestimated, the choice is easier to make. In the case of Thrace for example, if the
total setting-up cost is 4,500 million GDR and if 50% of it comes from a grant on
which no interest is to be paid, then the annual cost would be smaller by about 300
44

million and the cost per ton lower by 2,800 GDR. Then the optimal plan would cer-
tainly be different and bigger sizes would appear more economical.

Bigger flows mean greater profits and faster capital recovery in the case of systems
that claim a net benefit deriving from SW treatment. However, once the plant is built,
usually demand grows for increasingly greater quantities of waste . Consequently, any
policy on waste reduction or minimization has negative financial implications for the
plant owners. In addition, errors or omissions in financing can lead to inadequate
maintenance, and this in tum can have adverse environmental impacts. In fact, this is
already the case with many of the operating wastewater treatment plants and sanitary
landfills sites in Greece (and probably elsewhere) .

The analysis presented in this paper allows one to draw some conclusions that are
relevant to the countries of the Southern Black Sea region. The issues described below
refer only to some of the conclusions emerging from this analysis.

(a) The use of mathematical models can be very effective in assessing and evaluating
proposed SWM systems. Input data needed for analysis are not especially hard
to get , and often rough estimates suffice. In fact, such analyses can be used for
establishing the required level of data accuracy.

(b) Particular care should be taken with regard to the size of treatment facilities.
Larger sizes may not be as economical as one would expect from economics of
scale, and reliance on ever increasing quantities of SW is not a sensible policy.

(c) Larger regional facilities are not necessarily a desirable option , even when the
initial investment is free or nearly so. Transportation costs may erode possible
savings.

(d) Complex new technologies call for specially trained personnel for system and/or
plant operation. When they are not available, presumed benefits may tum into
losses .

(e) The transportation cost of a SWM system is almost 50% of its total cost. For
this reason the option of separation-at-source is worthy of investigation with a
view to reducing the quantities to be transported, along with the feasibility of
subsidizing such an option .

(f) The analyst must have a very clear viewpoint with regard to costs and benefits.
In addition , the planning horizon (within which the chosen viewpoint is not likely
to change) should be as long as possible.

Finally, an underlining hypothesis throughout the present analysis has been that envi-
ronmental quality (in the sense in which the local community understands and appreci-
 45

ates it) is not to be compromised below the preset level, and that the contemplated
SWM system scenarios reflect a socially acceptable balance between environmental
quality on one hand and economics on the other.

REFERENCES
Everett , J.W and A.R Modak (1996), ' Optimal regional scheduling of solid waste systems, 1:
Model development', J Envir. Eng., Vol. 122 (9), pp.785-792.
Field, H.C (1994), Environmemntal Economics : an Introduction, McGraw Hill, London .
Fonteyne, J. and F.McDougal (1999), 'European Waste Management Systems', Warmer
Bulletin , No . 65, March.
Panagiotakopoulos, C (1999), ' Economic feasibility analysis for municipal composting plants',
Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Environmental Science and Techno-
nology , Samos , Greece , Agust 30 - September 2, pp. 324-331.
Panagiotakopoulos, C and A. Psalti (1999) , 'Regional solid waste management in Thrace
th
through spreadsheet ILP modeling', Proceedings of the 6 International Conference on
Environmental Science and Technology, Samos, Greece, Agust 30 - September 2, pp . 332-
340 .
Panagiotakopoulos, D. (1975), ' An optization model for balancing economic-environmental
systems ' , Can. J Civil Eng , Vol. 2 (I), pp . 1-9.
Panagiotakopoulos, D. (1998), 'Solid waste management', University Notes , Department of
Civil Engineering, Democritus University ofThrace, Xanthi , Greece (in Greek) .
Scharge, L (1984), Linear, integer, and quadratic programming with LINDO , The Scientific
Press , Palo Alto, California, USA .
Wilson , D.C (1985), ' Long-term planning for solid waste management' Waste Management
and Research , VoU , pp . 203-216 .
Yiannakopoulou, T , M. Moutsiou, D. Panagiotakopoulos, V. Aivaliotis (1997), 'Municipal
Solid Waste Composition Related to Socioeconomic Characteristics', Proceedings, 6th
International Landfill Symposium , Sardinia, Italy, Vol. V, pp. 273-280.

Appendix I: Explanation of acronyms used in text

CP Composting plant
EU European Union, the
LF Landfill site
MRF Materials recovery facility
SF Sorting facility
SW Solid waste
SWM Solid waste management
TS Transfer station
46

"Meeting essential needs requires not only a new

era 0.(economic growth for nations in which the
majority are poor, hut an assurance that those
poor get their/air share ofthe resources required
to sustain that growth. Such equity would be
aided by political systems that secure effective
citizen participation in decision making and by
greater democracy in international decision
making.

A world in which poverty is endemic will always

be pron e to ecological and other catastrophes. "

Our Common Future, page 8

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES - A CASE
STUDY OF TURKEY

GUNAY KOCASOY
Turkish National Committee on Solid Wastes, Bogazici University, Institute ofEnvironmental
Sciences, 80815 Sebek, istanbul, Turkey. E-mail: kocasoy @boun .edu.tr

ABSTRACT
Proper management of solid wastes continues to be a serious problem world wide and especially in
the economically developing countries. Growing population, rising standards of living and life-style,
industrialization, and production and consumption of new products are acting in concert to generate
increasingly greater quantities of solid wastes, and this in turn is creating serious problems of their
management and proper disposal. Being aware of the implications of the problems of improper mana-
gement and disposal, the developed countries have established their regulatory programmes . But the
economically developing countries continue to manage solid wastes in what may be described as
primitive ways such as throwing into open and unregulated dumps.

In this paper it is argued that as a matter of priority, the economically developing countries should
establish appropriate solid waste management programmes, publish related regulations and by-laws
and strictly enforce their compliance . Turkey, which is an economically developing country, currently
has a total of 2020 open and unregulated dumps that have serious implications for both health and
safety. Typically in istanbul - a densely populated Metropolitan City - there have been serious
disasters in recent years such as the ' Hekimbasi Open Dump accident' due to the improper manage-
ment of solid wastes. However, following the publication in 1991 of the Solid Waste Control Regula-
tion in Turkey, the municipalities have now started to abandon or rehabilitate the existing open
dumps and construct sanitary landfills according to the standards stipulated in the regulation men-
tioned above. Since 1995 the Municipality of the Metropolitan City of istanbul has built six transfer
stations and two sanitary landfill sites.

It is argued, furthermore, that in the interests of environmental protection and quality of life, and for
promoting sustainable development, it is essential for the economically developing countries to deve-
lop their national policies for solid waste management as a matter of priority, including recycling
and/or recovery programmes and inventory studies on the quality and quantity of solid wastes.

Keywords: developing countries; solid waste; management; sustainable; regulation ; landfill ; Turkey.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 General considerations

The proper management of solid waste is a major problem besetting practically all
communities of the world today. Growing population, changes in habits and life-style,
rising disposable income, industrialization, and increasingly greater production and
consumption of new products are acting in concert to increase both the quantity and

47
B. Nath et al. (eds.), Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region , 47--68.
@ 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers .
48

complexity of solid waste being generated. The problem is at its most acute in densely
populated areas - the Metropolitan City of istanbul for example - where proper
management of solid waste is posing serious challenges.

The establishment of a national regulatory control programme with appropriate legisla-

tion, regulation, ordinances and licenses is the most important step and indispensable
pre-requisite for the protection of human health and the environment, as experience
clearly shows. It is not surprising, therefore , that significant improvements in waste
management practices have occurred in countries with established regulatory regimes,
while in those without regulatory programme there have been many instances of envi-
ronmental damage causing adverse impacts on public health and safety (Skinner, 1993;
Kocasoyand Curi; 1995).

Solid wastes comprise all wastes, arising from both human and animal activities, that
are normally solid and are discarded as useless or unwanted (Tchobanoglous, Thiesen
and Vigil, 1993). Usually all urban community throwaways, as well as agricultural,
mineral and mine wastes usually constitute the generic term ' solid waste ' . The ' chain'
of solid waste generation starts with the mining of raw materials for production. Solid
waste is then generated at every subsequent step of converting raw materials into
good s for consumption, as well as when whatever remains of the consumed goods is
discarded . It follows, therefore, that the most effective strategy for reducing the quan-
tity of solid waste generated would be to minimize the consumption of virgin raw
materials, and, at the same time, to increase both recovery rate and reuse of the waste
materials.

Historically, ever since the ancient times, solid waste has been burned, reused or depo-
sited into ' holes in the ground ' according to the specific socio-economic, cultural and
political traditions of organized communities. Current methods of disposal are little
different, except for the fact that the per capita production of solid wastes is much
higher now and rising, and that solid wastes today contain a wide variety of man-made
compounds and materials - some more toxic than others - that did not exist only a
hundred or so years ago.

1.2 Composition ofsolid waste

In general, solid waste is very heterogeneous in composition including organic wastes
such as food remains, recyclable material like paper, plastic, glass as well as metals and
other industrial wastes . Solid wastes are classified into eight categories , described be-
low, according to the sources from which they emanate.

)- Residential and commercial solid wastes (excluding hazardous and special wastes)
consist of organic materials originating from food, paper of all types, cardboard ,
textiles, plastic of all types, rubber, leather, wood and yard wastes, and inorganics
such as glass, crockery, tin cans, aluminum, ferrous metals and dirt fractions.
 49

~ Special wastes from residential and commercial areas including bulky items, consu-
mer electronics, white goods and yard wastes that are collected separately. Oil
cans and batteries, considered as special wastes, are also classified as hazardous
waste.

~ Hazardous wastes such as acids, compounds of heavy metals, asbestos , etc. are
potential sources of hazard to human health and to living organisms.

).- Institutional sources of solid waste include government centres, schools, hospitals
and prisons. Except for medical wastes, in composition these wastes are close to
municipal solid wastes before they are sorted into their components.

).- Construction and demolition wastes arise from all kinds of construction sites inclu-
ding roads and pavements; residential and commercial buildings under construc-
tion, renovation or repair; razed buildings, etc.

).- Treatment plant wastes and other residues that are solid or semi-solid wastes from
water, wastewater and industrial waste treatment plants; solid residues from com-
bustion plants, and so on.

~ Industrial solid waste excluding process wastes that include solid wastes generated
from industrial sites, but exclude industrial process wastes and any other hazardous
waste.

~ Agricultural wastes that include wastes and residues from diverse agricultural acti-
vities such as planting and harvesting of row, field, tree and vine crops ; production
of dairy products, etc. (Curi, 1993a).

The characteristics of solid wastes change not only according to the source, but also
according to season, country and even the specific socio-economic and cultural para-
meters of the community in question . As a typical illustration, the composition of solid
wastes from a number of different countries is given in Table 1.

As the proportions of the constituents of a solid waste change, so do the composition

of the leachate produced and the amount of biogas generated . Because of this reason
solid waste and leachate data given in the literature are of limited practical use. It is
thus necessary to gather reliable local, national or regional data as required on the
composition of solid wastes . This exercise is especially important to the economically
developing countries where such data are scarce. In general, currently there is no reli-
able system in place for their collection or analysis in those countries.

The main component of solid waste generated in economically developing countries is

organic waste . It consists mostly of food remains with a moisture content as high as
80% which compares with about 40% in the solid wastes generated in the developed
50

countries. The high moisture content results in differences in the duration of the degra-
dation periods of solid wastes , and this in tum leads to consequent variations in the
composition and amounts of leachate produced and biogas generated. Apart from the
high moisture content, both COD and BOD values are also higher than those given in
the literature.

Table I Composition of municipal solid waste in different countries

Proportion (%) France Italy Japan S. Africa Turkey UK USA

Food remains 25.0 20.0 20.0 31.0 42.0 23.4 29.0
Paper and cardboard 30.0 28.0 37.0 33.0 12.8 33.9 35.6
Glass 12.0 11.0 16.0 12.0 4.1 14.4 8.4
Plastics 6.0 8.0 17.0 7.0 9.4 4.2 7.3
Metals 5.0 3.0 6.0 7.0 4.1 7.1 8.9
Textile 4.0 1.0 3.8 - 3.6 4.1 2.0
Ash - 2.0 0.2 1.0 16.1 - 0.1
Other 18.0 27.0 - 9.0 7.9 12.9 8.7
(source: Cossu, 1995; Curi, 1993b)

Currently landfilling is the most widely used method of solid waste disposal, especially
in the economically developing countries. The leachate produced in landfills is one of
the main sources of groundwater contamination. It is very important, therefore, to im-
plement appropriate measures to protect groundwater against contamination. For this
it is necessary to determine the characteristics of a given solid waste before deciding
on the management option for its disposal. The characteristics of solid wastes, based
on the characteristics of eluates, are given in Table 2.

1.3 Briefhistorical background to solid waste management

In his book entitled The Disposal of Mun icipal Refuse, published in 1906, H. De B.
Parsons stated the following (TchobanogJous, Thiesen & Vigil, 1993) :

"To describe the characteristics of the different classes of refuse, and to draw atten-
tion to the fact that, if a method of nomenclature and record of quantities handled
could be kept by the various cities, then data obtained and the information so gained
would be a material advance toward the sanitary disposal of the refuse. Such unifor-
mity would put any expense upon cities, and direct comparisons and correct conclu-
sions could be made for the benefit ofothers ".

Parson's book could well have been the first book dealing with solid waste manage-
ment. It is interesting to note from the above statement that the basic principles, which
 51

constitute the foundation of modem solid waste management, were well known even
in those days.

Table 2 Classification of solid wastes according to their eluate characteristics

Chemical Hazardouswastelimits Non-interactive waste limits
pH 4-13 4-13
TOC 40-200 mg/I < 200 mg/I
Arsenic III 0.2-1.0mg/I < 0.1 mg/I
Lead* 0.4-2.0 mg/l
Cadmium* 0.1-0.5 mg/I * Sumtotal for thesemetals
Chromium VI* 0.1-0.5 0 mg/I should not exceed 5 mg/l'
Copper* 2-10 mg/I
Nickel* 0.4-2.0 mg/I
Mercury* 0.02-0.1 mg/I
Zinc* 2-10 mg/I
Phenol 100-200 mgll < 10mg/I
Fluoride 10-50 mg/I < 5 mg/I
Ammonium 0.2-1.09 mg/I < 50 mg/I
Chloride 1.2-6.0 gil < 0.5 mg/I
Cyanide/ 0.2-1.0 mgll < 0.1 mg/I
Sulphur' 0.2-1 .0 gil < 1.09 mg/l
Nitrite 6-30 mg/l < 3 mgll
Solvents 0.02-0.10 mg/l < 10 ug/l
Insect Killers" 1.5 u g/l 0.5 pg/l
Lipoph substances 0.4-0.2 mg/l I mg/l
(source: Kat) Auk Tiirk Milli Komitesi, 1991)

I None ofthese metal values will exceed theminimum concentration limit for hazardous waste alone.
2 Easily found.
3 500 mg/l if possible.
4 Chlorinated.

In general, and in the urban context in particular, problems began to arise when increa-
sing urbanization of society forced people to live in close proximity to wastes genera-
ted by their activities. This, together with the following, generated mounting pressure
for the upgrading of solid waste disposal requirements (Cossu, 1989) : growing aware-
ness and higher perception of nuisances caused by improper waste disposal and asso-
ciated environmental risks; increasing democratization of political administration; and
the problems and obstacles to economic activities created by improper waste manage-
ment practices.

The origins of modern Solid Waste Management as a discipline in its own right can be
traced back to the search for reasonable solutions to the problems referred to above.
Modern Solid Waste Management can be defined as the discipline that is responsive to
52
public attitudes and is concerned with the control of generation , storage, collection,
transfer, transport, processing and disposal of solid wastes in a manner that accords
with the best principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthe-
tics and other environmental considerations .

1.4 Thefunctional elements ofsolid waste management

Starting from generation through to final disposal, solid waste management comprises
the six functional elements described below:

»- Waste generation is the result of activities in which various materials are identified
as being no longer of value and are either thrown away or gathered together for
disposal.

»- Waste handling, separation, storage and processing at source is the second of the
six functional elements. Waste handling and separation cover activities until wastes
are placed in containers for collection. Handling also includes the movement of the
loaded containers to the collection point(s). Separation of the waste components is
an important element of handling and storage at source. Both from the point of
view of material specifications and revenues generated from the sale of recovered
materials, the best place for separating solid wastes is the source where they are
generated.

);- Collection includes gathering of solid wastes and recyclable materials and their
transportation to locations where the collected materials are emptied.

»- Separation, processing and transformation of solid waste covers the recovery of

separated materials, separation and processing of the waste components, and trans-
formation of solid waste that occurs primarily in locations away from the source of
waste generation .

}- Transfer and transport consists of two steps: (a) transfer of wastes from smaller
collection vehicles to the larger transport equipment; and (b) subsequent transport
of wastes, usually over long distances, to a processing or disposal site.

;... Disposal is the sixth and final functional element of solid waste management. Es-
pecially in the economically developing countries today, the disposal of wastes by
landfilling or land-spreading is the ultimate fate of all solid wastes, regardless of
whether they are residential wastes collected and transported directly to a landfill
site, residual materials from recovery facilities, residues from the combustion of
solid wastes, or compost or other processed materials from various solid waste
processing facilities.
 53

2. DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE

2.1 Open dumping as a solid waste disposal option in economically developing

countries
Today in most parts of the world solid waste is either disposed to open dumps or sani-
tary landfills, or incinerated. As incineration and sanitary landfills are expensive options
in terms of both initial investment and operational costs, in the main they are confined
to the developed countries. Open and unregulated dumping, on the other hand, is prac-
tically cost-free . Not surprisingly, therefore, it is the preferred option in economically
developing countries such as Turkey.

Open dumping may be defined as disposal of solid waste to areas, mostly over hills,
thought to be suitable even without taking any precautionary measures . Unfortunately,
as the waste slides over steep or very steep slopes, ground and/or surface waters are
polluted in the absence of a leachate management system. Also, sometimes explosion
of methane gas in landfill sites poses serious threat. Furthermore, insects, rats and
other vermins that infest open dumps constitute a serious health hazard.

In what follows we will consider the traditional methods and practices of solid waste
management in the economically developing countries and their prospects and poten-
tial for making improvements in this field. We will do so by means of a case study of
Turkey which is one such country . Discussion will include the background and the
current situation in that country with regard to solid waste management and practices,
as well as on-going and future developments .

2.2 Status ofsolid waste data in Turkey

In response to growing population , demographic changes, rising living standards, and
changing consumption patterns and consumer behaviour in Turkey, both quantity and
composition of solid wastes generated in the country have also been changing corres-
pondingly. Unfortunately, reliable statistical data on waste quantity, composition, or
waste sources are not available. From time to time location-specific data have been
gathered by individual researchers or research teams for the purposes of their own
research. But such data were not saved in a common data bank, and so it is difficult to
access them.

The Statistical Institute of Turkey undertook systematic collection of data on munici-

pal solid wastes following the publication of the Solid Waste Regulation in 1991.
However, the data they have been collecting are on combined wastes generated from
residential and commercial areas, industries, parks and streets . There are no data on
the amount of solid waste generated from each of the sources separately, or on the
composition of wastes from the different sources . In this regard the only data available
54

are those obtained from investigations carried out at source in the residential areas
(Curi, 1994).

In Turkey per capita municipal solid waste is calculated from the quantity of the same
transported to the disposal sites. Such data, collected from the different metropolitan
cities of the country, are shown in Table 3. It is pointed out, however, that data ob-
tained in this way are not reliable, because the quantities of solid waste taken to the
final disposal sites do not reflect the actual quantities generated at source .

Following the publication of the Solid Waste Control Regulation in 1991, individual
municipalities started to establish their own solid waste management programmes that
included only collection, transportation and disposal. But no programme was prepared
for waste recycling or recovery.

Table 3 Per capita solidwastegenerated in different

metropolitan citiesof Turkey
City Population Winter Summer
(g/dayper capita) (g/dayper capita)
Adana I, 129, 792 865 473
Ankara 2, 802, 747 615 635
Bursa 1,015 ,301 613 793
Diyarbakir 520, 195 365 250
Gaziantep 764,649 221 175
istanbul 7,512,652 554 514
lzmir 1,932,310 724 484
Kayseri 521, 754 752 374
Konya 638,400 683 539
Samsun 386,479 542 450
(source: DIE, 1995)

2.3 Recycling and recovery ofsolid wastes in Turkey

Recognizing the need for energy conservation and since natural resources are not
without limit, the developed countries have been devoting substantial manpower and
financial resources to develop viable methods and technologies for the recycling and
recovery of useful materials from solid wastes . Unfortunately, the economically deve-
loping countries are yet to realize the potential economic benefits of imaginative and
viable recycling and recovery programmes. For example, that the recovery of materials
such as iron, copper, lead, zinc, paper, plastic, glass, etc. would significantly reduce
the amount of scarce foreign currency they have to pay for their importation. Another
 55

advantage of materials recovery is that it saves energy. Because, in the case of metals
for example, energy needed for recovery is less than that needed for mining. Typically,
the energy needed for the production of one tonne of aluminium from recovered metal
is only four percent of that required for the production of the same amount of alumini-
um from virgin material; recycling of one tonne of waste paper saves about 17 trees
and 4000kw of energy; etc.

Currently in Turkey recycling and recovery of valuable materials from solid waste is
conducted in a primitive way as described below:

);- Glass bottles and newspaper are collected separately from the residential areas and
sold to the travelling salesmen. In the metropolitan cities this is done mainly by the
caretakers of apartment blocks.

);- Solid wastes deposited into street containers are sorted by human 'scavengers' and
sold to the companies that use them. As a result of this activity relatively large
amounts of solid waste are spilled from the containers on to the streets and pave-
ments, thus contaminating the environment. Plate 1 shows a typical environmental
impact of this. Also, as all kinds of solid waste are mixed together when they are
deposited into the containers, the recovered materials are contaminated with oil,
food remains, etc.

);- Solid wastes arriving at the open dumps (disposal sites) are sorted by people who
work there under very unhealthy conditions (Plates 2 and 3). They sell the reco-
vered materials to the owners of the open dumps who in turn sell them to factories
that process them. However, since the recovered materials are contaminated in
varying degrees by other wastes with which they are mixed up, some of them can-
not be recycled unless they are cleaned before processing. This adds to costs and
erodes the economic viability of recycling (Curi, 1994).

The process is not effective, however. Because, in order for it to be economically vi-
able, the recoverable materials should be collected separately at source and transferred
to the recycling or recovery centres. Currently most of the recyclable and recoverable
materials are wasted in the sense that they are disposed to landfills, and this actually
compounds the problem of disposal.

Data on recyclable and recoverable materials in the metropolitan cities of Turkey are
given in Tables 4 and 5. While only a small amount of these materials is recovered,
scrap wastes are being imported from other countries. Interestingly, the results of a
research project shows that, even if 70 percent of the recoverable materials from the
solid waste generated in istanbul could be recovered, it would be enough to supply the
local demand for scrap. Results also show that supply will exceed demand for some of
the items like paper, thus making their export possible. These aspects have important
implications for the economy of Turkey.
56

Plate I Animals searching for food among wastes spilled on to streets

Plate 2 People searching for valuable materials at an open dump

 57

Plate 3 People working in an open dump using water contaminated with leachate

Plate4 Leachate generated at an open dump running freely at the surface

58

Table 4 Distribution of recyclable/recoverable materials in the metropolitan citi es of Turkey

(Summer months)

Paper & Metal Glass Nylon PET & Textile Battery Rubber
City carton (% ) (%) (%) PVC(%) (%) (%) (%)
(%)
Adana 81.8 3.2 4.7 4.9 1.2 3.2 0.1 1.1
Ankara 58.3 8.6 12.5 11.2 4.2 3.0 0.2 2.0
Bursa 47.3 5.9 22 .2 11.5 4.0 7.4 0.2 1.6
Diyarbakir 39 .4 11.9 8.0 20.9 9.0 3.9 0.7 6.3
Gaziantep 39 .8 8.0 21.0 20.6 3.2 5.7 0.3 1.3
iskendenm 36.4 5.6 25 .8 18.7 2.1 7.1 0.1 4.2
istanbul 48.1 8.3 15.9 14.8 7.1 4.2 0.3 1.4
Izmir 44 .9 10.0 24.7 11.8 0.1 3.7 0.5 1.4
Kayseri 34 .7 16.5 8.8 15.9 11.7 2.8 1.8 8.0
Konya 33 .8 15.9 12.9 21.1 6.2 9.0 0.4 0.8
Samsun 43 .8 5.2 16.7 12.1 5.8 11.8 0.3 4.3
(source: DIE, 1995)

T abl e 5 Dist rib ution of recyclable/recoverable materials in the metropolitan cities of Turkey
(Winter months)

Paper & Met al Glass Nylon PET & Textile Battery Rubber Bone
City carton (%) (%) (%) PVC (%) (%) (%) (%)
(%) (%)
Adan a 36.9 9.9 22 .3 11.8 4.6 6.5 0.0 4.3 3.4
Ankara 51.7 8.8 16.4 14.7 5.2 1.9 0.0 0.2 0.0
Bursa 29 .9 13.2 30.2 15.3 6.0 2.8 0.2 2.1 0.2
Diyarbakir 14.5 5.9 19.7 7.5 4.8 3.7 4.6 7.0 32.4
Gaziantep 11.3 30 .9 15.0 14.2 10.4 7.6 3.5 2.3 5.0
isk endenm 27 .5 10.0 23.3 12.6 9.1 10.2 1.1 2.5 3.9
istanbul 45 .3 10.8 15.5 13.0 7.3 4.3 0.5 2.0 1.3
lzmir 42 .9 7.2 23.6 14.4 4.6 5.7 0.1 1.3 0.3
Kayseri 16.6 29.6 12.0 22.1 11.3 3.4 0.6 1.7 2.9
Konya 24 .4 9.5 20.1 17.8 2.8 16.5 0.9 2.8 5.3
Samsun 29.2 10.5 31.2 17.2 5.2 4.6 0.5 0.6 0.0
(source: DIE, 1995)

The only recycling plant in istanbul is the one established by the district Municipality
of Baktrkoy. In reality it is not a recycling plant, however, just a sorting centre . But it
is currently being operated as a pilot recycling facility covering the nearby districts of
 59

the Baktrkoy municipality. In a number of selected districts the householders collect

their packaging wastes, glass and plastic bottles, and cartons and metal containers in
plastic bags (or containers) supplied to them by the Municipality. These bags are then
collected and transferred to the Baktrkoy Waste Separation Centre by the municipality
vehicles on specified days of the week. There they are manually sorted and pressed for
size reduction and subsequently sent to different factories for reuse or conversion to
other useful goods.

Recently the District Municipality of Kadikoy has also started a recycling programme .
The plan is to sort solid wastes at source and then collect and transfer them to the
Recovery Centre located in the same district. After the final separation of solid wastes
manually at the Centre , they will be crushed and/or pressed, converted to granules or
bails, and sold to industrial concerns for further processing and recycling.

2.4 Disposal ofsolid waste in Turkey

In Turkey the traditional method of solid waste disposal has been dumping into the
sea, or into open dumps of which there are currently 2020 in the country . Solid wastes
are just dumped in this way without taking any precautionary measures. Waste is nei-
ther compacted nor covered . The open dumps have no leachate or methane gas collec-
tion system. And so they pollute the environment continually and have potential for
causing serious adverse impacts in terms of public health and safety, as will be gleaned
from Plates 4 to 8. Serious accidents occur when solid waste, piled high at a wrong
(steep) slope, slides down the hillside on which they are dumped, or methane gas ex-
plodes. Explosion of methane gas at the Umraniye open dump in istanbul on 28 April
1995, in which 39 persons were killed, is a typical example. Another accident took
place in istanbul on 23 May 1996 due to the sliding down of a huge mass of solid
waste from the Kemerburgaz open dump on to the by-pass road nearby. Clearly, in
order to avoid such accidents in the future - and they are waiting to happen - all the
existing open dumps should be closed down immediately or rehabilitated.

2.5 Solid waste management in the Metropolitan City ofistanbul

Straddling two continents, the City of istanbul acts as a bridge between Europe and
Asia. Proper and efficient management of solid waste generated in the City assumes
special poignancy when we consider that its population is growing relentlessly due to
migration from the rural areas and from the other cities of Turkey. Current population
of istanbul is nearly 14 million, and it is expected to reach 17 million by the year 2020 .
At present the City generates 9,000 tonnes of municipal solid waste per day, of which
6,000 and 3,000 tonnes are generated respectively in the European and Asian parts .
The residential areas, hotels, offices, commercial areas, streets, and parks and recrea-
tional areas are the main sources from which solid waste is generated. Table 6 shows
the projected growth of solid waste generated in istanbul.
60

Plate 5 People sorting valuable materials contaminated with leachate at an open dump

Plate 6 Smoke from the burning of solid wastes at an open dump

 6\

- .. '.
...
A \

..
" " \
.... .
~ ... 0·"

...
." J•
• Jo.,
, ,
~.

.' ~ : '"
, , "
,. .. . . ..
...i-: . . .

Plate 7 Birds feeding at an open dump

Plate 8 People working at an open dump with barrels of hazardous waste

62

Per capita solid waste generated in istanbul is 0.66 kg/day on the European side and
0.56 kg/day on the Asian side, while the average for the city as a whole is 0.63 kg/day.
The physical and chemical properties of the city's solid waste change from region to
region and also from season to season . It is for this reason that the composition of the
solid waste generated in istanbul is determined by dividing the city into five regions
according to the socio-economic levels of the inhabitants and type of fuel used for
heating.

Region 1: The commercial districts.

Region 2: Characterized by low socio-economic level, shanty houses, and use of
coal or wood for heating. Thirty percent of the population lives in this
region.
Region 3: Characterized by high socio-economic level and use of solid fuel for heat-
ing. Twenty percent of the population lives in this region.
Region 4: Characterized by high socio-economic level and use of liquid fuel for
heating. Twenty percent of the population lives in this region .
Region 5: Characterized by average socio-economic level and use of solid fuel for
heating. Thirty percent of population lives in this region.

Table 6. Annual solid waste generated in istanbul (million tonnes)

1990 2000 2010 2020

European Side 1.11 1.71 2.34 3.01
Asian Side 0.55 0.97 1.35 1.74
Total 1.66 2.68 3.69 4.75
(source : Curi , Ekinci and Kocasoy, 1998)

The unit weight and composition of solid wastes from Regions 1 to 4 are given in
Tables 7 and 8, respectively (data from Region 5 are not available), while Table 9
shows overall changes that occurred in the composition of solid wastes during 1980
and 1996. The percentages in Table 9 have been changing because of increased usage
of natural gas and low-ash coal. Also, because of the latter, the ash content has been
decreasing. Although there has been an increase in organic matter content, its overall
proportion has been declining because the total amount of solid waste being generated
has been increasing.

Until 1953 wastes generated in istanbul had been dumped into the sea. Since then dis-
posal of solid wastes to open dumps became common practice till 1991 when the Solid
Waste Control Regulation was published. istanbul has five open dumps: Kemerburgaz,
Halkalt, Umraniye, Aydtnli and Yakactk. Solid wastes from the Princess islands have
 63

been disposed to the open dumps on the island because the Municipality of the Metro-
politan City did not collect them for disposal to the open dumps mentioned above even
though it was their responsibility to do so. This problem has now been addressed .

Table 7 Unit weight of solid waste generated in Regions I to 4 (kg/nr')

Region I Region 2 Region 3 Region 4

1981 1992 1996 1981 1992 1996 1981 1992 1996 1981 1992 1996

IApril 451 366 409 445 273 409 566 196 164 313 176 139
September 451 302 239 403 240 239 302 197 131 353 177 175

Table 8 Composition of solid waste gen erated in Regions I to 4

Region Water content (%) Organic matter (%) CIN Calorific value (kJ/kg)
I 49 .8 54.7 30.7 3,325
2 37.4 36 .5 33.3 3,125
3 38.4 40 .7 35 .7 3,371
4 57 .6 65.6 22.6 3,841
(source: Basturk , 1997)

Table 9 Overall changes in solid waste composition during 1980 and 1996 (%)

1980 1981 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1992 1996

Organic matter 60.8 60 .6 59.0 51.8 43 .3 42 .7 44 .6 45 .0 48 .0
Paper 10.2 18.8 13.1 10.7 11.7 10.2 11.9 14.5 8.4
Textile 3.2 31.0 1.4 3.2 4.9 3.1 4.3 5.6 2.9
Plastic 3.1 3.1 4.0 4.8 7.1 6.2 11.9 9.5 11.0
Glass 0.7 0.7 0.6 1.4 1.7 3.6 3.4 3.8 4.6
Metal 1.4 1.5 6.5 4.8 4.3 4.6 2.3 2.2 2.3
Ash 16.2 14.6 10.0 18.5 16.8 20.2 14.1 15.0 13.2
Miscellaneous 4.5 6.9 5.0 4.8 10.1 9.5 7.4 4.4 6.3
(source: Curi, 1990; Kocasoy, 1996)

According to the Solid Waste Control Regulation of 1991, local district municipalities
are responsible for the collection and transportation of all municipality solid waste to
the transfer station s, while the Metropolitan Municipality is responsible only for the
collection of solid waste from the main streets and public parks, and for the manage-
64

ment of all solid wastes brought to the transfer stations. The latter is also responsible
for the construction and operation of the final disposal sites.

Following the publication of the Solid Waste Control Regulation in 1991, all the open
dumping sites in istanbul were legally closed down for rehabilitation, except for Ke-
merburgaz and Halkali. Also, the Metropolitan Municipality started to build transfer
stations and sanitary landfills in accordance with international standards . Six transfer
stations and two sanitary landfills have been built since 1995.

The transfer stations at Halkali, Baruthane and Yeni Bosna, with 53, 65 and 50 silos
respectively and a total capacity of 7,500 tonnes/day, are located on the Asian side of
istanbul. The other three transfer stations, Aydinlt, Hekimbast and Kucuk Bakkalkoy,
with 55, 69 and 45 silos respectively and a total capacity of 7,500 tonnes/day, are on
the European side. The capacity of each silo is 32 m3 . The distance of the transfer sta-
tions to the sanitary landfill sites varies from 38 to 51 km. Collected solid wastes are
brought by trucks to the transfer stations, emptied into the vertical silos and pressed
for reducing waste volume by 20 percent . Then the silos are transported to the final
disposal sites.

Two sanitary landfill sites have been operating in istanbul since 1995. One, called the
Odayeri, is located on the European side; and the other, named Komiircuada, is on the
Asian side. The Odayeri site has an available area of 14 ha along with a project area of
2,000 ha for future development. Its waste storage capacity is 4,500 tonnes/day . The
area of the Komurcuada site is 6 ha with an additional 50 ha reserved for future deve-
lopment. The target is 198 ha for the next 25 years. The base of the two landfill sites
was made impermeable (coefficient of permeability less than 10-8 cm/s) by a clay layer
60 em thick and 2 mm thick high-density polyethylene (HDPE) membrane. Leachate
collection pipes were installed on the impermeable layer, and provision was made to
transport the collected leachate to wastewater treatment plants. A gas collection sys-
tem was also installed. The plan is to convert the collected gas into electric power in
the future .

Silos containing compacted solid waste are transported from the transfer stations to
the sanitary landfill sites by trucks . They are then emptied into specially built platforms
whereupon they are placed in prepared cells by bulldozers and pressed by compre-
ssors. At the end of each day's waste placement operation , the cells are covered with
soil. Every day 4,500 tonnes of solid waste are brought to the Odayeri site and 3,000
tonnes to the Komurcuada site. The remainder is dumped into open dumps.

Industrial solid waste is not collected by the Municipalities. It is the responsibility of

the industrial concerns themselves to collect and transport their non-hazardous solid
wastes to the disposal sites, and their hazardous wastes to the incineration plant loca-
ted at Kocaeli. However, in the absence of strict control most of the hazardous wastes
have been transported and disposed to the same open dumps meant for municipal solid
 65

waste . The potential adverse impacts of this on health, safety and the environment are
not difficult to imagine. Typically, Plate 8 shows open dump workers near barrels of
hazardous waste illegally disposed to open dumps meant for municipal solid waste .
Hospital wastes are collected and transferred separately to the incineration plant by the
Municipality.

3. NATIONAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT POLICY OF TURKEY

The State Planning Department and the Ministry of Environment of the Government
of Turkey have established a National Policy on the management of solid wastes with-
in the scope of the National Environmental Plan of 1998. During the process of estab-
lishing the National Policy, the following suggestions were made for improving the
existing situation with regard to solid waste management:

(A) Legislation

>- Legislation on solid waste management should be reviewed and contradictions

with other regulations should be addressed. And the authority and responsibilities
of the different institutions involved in solid waste management should be clearly
defined.

>- Legislation to be made should be in compliance with relevant European Union

Directive(s) .

Y Both legislation and regulations should be strictly enforced and non-compliance

should be penalized.

Y There should be a requirement for Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) stu-

dies for selecting the location of sanitary landfill sites.

(B) Inventory

y Data collection and methods of analysis should be standardized and a data bank
should be established.

y Collection of data on solid waste should be continued.

(C) Waste minimization

y Minimization of solid waste should be encouraged (usage ofless packaging mate-

rial in particular) . A programme similar to the ' Green Dot' programme in Ger-
many should be implemented.
66
~ The name of the ' Cleaning Tax' should be changed to ' Solid Waste Disposal Tax',
and it should be charged according to the amount of solid waste generated.

~ Recycling and recovery programmes should be prepared and recycling/recovery

centres should be established.

~ The public should be educated and public awareness enhanced in order to minimi-
ze waste generation and to encourage the use of recyclable/reusable materials.

(D) Final disposal of solid waste

~ Before a decision is taken to build a waste incinerator, the composition and calo-
rific values of solid wastes should be determined, because generally the calorific
value of solid wastes in Turkey is low, and consequently, mostly they are not suit-
able for incineration. Also, rigorous cost-benefit analysis should be undertaken .

)0> Compo sting of solid waste should be encouraged in the rural areas, and studies
should be undertaken to determine soil quality in order to assess potential demand
for compost.

y Rigorous cost-benefit analyses should be undertaken before deciding on the cons-

truction of composting plants.

;.... Conversion of methane gas generated in sanitary landfill sites to energy should be
subject to rigorous cost-benefit analyses.

;.... Necessary funds should be secured for building sanitary landfill sites as required
by the Solid Waste Control Regulation of 1991.

:Y Methods of operation and control should be decided upon for both sanitary land-
fill sites and waste incinerators .

(E) Rehabilitation of open dumps

;.... The inherent risks of open, unregulated dumps should be carefully assessed.

;.... After the risks have been assessed, a programme for the rehabilitation of the open
dumps should be prepared without delay.

;.... Funds needed for the rehabilitation of open dumps should be made available.
 67

(F) Organizational structure

A robust organizational structure should be established for the efficient collection,

transportation and disposal of solid wastes (Curi, Ekinci, Kocasoy, 1998).

4. CONCLUDING REMARKS

Due in the main to the constraints imposed by financial resources and limited know-
how compared to the developed countries, the economically developing countries are
finding it hard to develop and implement effective programmes for the proper manage-
ment of solid waste . The problem is exacerbated by, among others, improper and un-
sustainable methods and practices that take time to change, attitude, and inappropriate
and/or inadequate organizational infrastructure upon which efficient solid waste mana-
gement is contingent.

Notwithstanding these problems, progress can be made by the economically develop-

ing countries towards achieving at least a degree of sustainability by promoting waste
minimization, recycling/recovery and reuse. Unfortunately at present these options are
not taken up with the seriousness they deserve, and much of the potentially useful ma-
terials contained in solid waste ends up in open, unregulated dumps .

Based on the case study of Turkey presented in this paper, it is argued that appro-
priate policies can be, and ought to be, developed and implemented as priority in order
to promote the concepts and practices of waste minimization, recycling and recovery
at all strategic levels - institutional, educational and popular. For it is only by so
doing that a degree of sustainability, however modest, could be achieved in solid waste
management.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author gratefully acknowledges that the photographs shown in the text of this paper were
taken by late Professor Kriton Curi.

REFERENCES
Basturk, A (1997), ' Design of solid waste plant and problem studies in istanbul', In Proc. Int.
Symp. Environmental Problems of istanbul and Solutions to Them, YTU Press, istanbul,
pp.103-109.
Cossu, R (1989), Role of Landfilling in Solid Waste Management - Sanitary Landjilling:
Process, Technology and Environmental Impact, Academic Press, London, pp. 29-49.
Cossu, R (1995), ' Solid waste composition and characterization procedures', in Proc. Med-
Campus Solid Waste Management Workshop, Cairo, Bogazici University Press, Istanbul,
pp.48-53 .
68

Curi, K (1990), 'Kati Anklann Tammlanmasi ve Suuflandmlmasi' , Katz Attklartn Tanimi,

Toplanmast ve Uzaklasttnlmast (in Turkish), KAKAD; istanbul, Bogazici University
Press , 1.1 to 1.4.
Curi , K (1993a), Hazardous Waste Management in Economically Developing Countries ,
Bogazici University Press , istanbul, Turkey.
Curi , K (1993b), ' istanbul Sehrinin Cop Sorunu, Gelecege Iliskin Tahminnler ve Cozum Alte-
rnatifleri ' , Research Report (in Turkish), Bogazici University Press, istanbul, Turkey.
Curi , K (1994) , ' Istanbul' da Katt Atiklar: Toplanmasi, Nakli , Depolanmasi ve Bertarafi So-
runlari', Katz Attk Ve Cevre (in Turkish), Vol. 19, pp . 2-15 .
Curi , K, Ekinci, F and Kocasoy , G (1998) , Ulusal <;evre Eylem Plani, TBMM Press , Ankara,
Turk ey (in Turkish) .
DiE (1995) , Environmental Statistics , DiE Press , Ankara , Turkey.
Kati Atik Turk Milli Komitesi (1991), ' Avrupa Toplulugu Komisyonu : Duzenli Atik Depo-
lama Uzerine Konsey Direktif Taslagi ' , Katz Auk ve Cevre (in Turkish), Vol. 4, pp. 4-22.
Kocasoy, G and Curi K (1995), ' The Umraniye Hekimbast Open Dump Accident', Waste Mana-
gement and Research, VoI.13 ,pp.305-314.
Kocaso y, G (1996) , ' Present and future of recycling activities in Izmir and Antalya' , in Eco-
cycle Med-Urb s, istanbul, Bogazici University Press .
Skinner,1. H (1993), 'International progress in hazardous waste management' , in Hazardous
Waste Management in Economically Developing Countries, Bogazici University Press ,
istanbul, Turkey.
Tchobanoglous, G, Theisen , H and Vigil, S.A (1993) , Integrated Solid Waste Management ,
McGraw Hill, Inc.. New York.
 SOLID WASTE PRIORITY PROJECTS FOR THE SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT OF SOUTH-EAST BULGARIA

YONTCHO PELOVSKI, STOYAN K. STOY ANOV and NIKOLAY KOZAREV

Centre for Ecology, University ofChemical Technology & Metallurgy, 8 'Kliment Ochridski'
Boulevard. 1756 Sofia. Bulgaria. E-mail : [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Endowed with a range of resources, the south-west of Bulgaria is an important region of the country.
But there are also serious and growing environmental problems that are thwarting the region's sustain-
able development. Given the concentration of industrial concerns in the region and its inadequate
municipal infrastructure, it is clear that determined efforts and high capital investment are needed to
deal with its serious and growing environmental problems whose origins go back to the neglect in the
former Socialist era.

According to prevailing legislation, the State is responsible for past environmental damage and it must
pay for necessary remediation. In the process of privatisation, the liabilities of the past and new owners
for rectifying environmental damage caused in the past are usually estimated and agreed upon. Even
so, the process is proving to be time-consuming and tortuous.

The main thermal power stations of the country are located in the region where there is a concentration
of a wide variety of industrial facilities. Owing mainly to the dirty technologies they employ, these
facilities generate a variety of pollutants that contaminate soil, air and water. The problem is compoun-
ded by, among others, the on-going privatisation process and scarcity of finance needed for remedia-
tion or for implementing clean technology.

This paper gives an overview of the environmental problems besetting the region , covering the current
problems of managing municipal, industrial and agricultural solid wastes . Notwithstanding the prob-
lems of scarcity of finance for investment and know-how and technology transfer, it is argued that
effective measures must be taken as a matter of priority if even a modest degree of sustainable solid
waste management is to be achieved in the interests of both present and future generations.

Keywords: Bulgaria; south-west; region ; sustainable; solid; municipal; industrial; agricultural; hazar-
dous ; waste ; technology; know-how; transfer.

1. INTRODUCTION

The south-western region of Bulgaria has common international borders with Greece
to the south and Turkey to the east, while the eastern part of the region has one of the
best coastal resorts of the country. The region has priority for sustainable develop-
ment not only for its importance to the national economy in terms of industry, trade
and tourism, but also because of its strategic location vis-a-vis the two neighbouring
NATO countries, namely Greece and Turkey.

69
B. Nath et al. (eds.), Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region, 69-80.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers .
70
2
The total land area of the region is approximately 8,800 km representing about 8 per-
cent of the country's territory. Eighty-five percent of the terrain, which is mostly flat,
is devoted to agriculture, 9 percent to forests, and 6 percent to residential areas . The
population of the region is approximately 930,000 representing about 11 percent of
the country's population. It is estimated that the region has approximately 11 million
domestic animals (cattle, sheep, goats and pigs) representing about 8.5 percent of that
of Bulgaria as a whole.

Apart from agriculture and tourism , which are the mainstays of the region's economy,
the region also has a growing industrial sector comprising facilities for the production
of the following among others : petrochemicals, polymers, fertilisers, chemicals, ce-
ment, textiles, machinery, electronics, processed foods, and thermal power. All these
industries generate different types of solid waste, most of which pose serious threats
to both health and the environment . The problem is exacerbated by the fact that the
industrial facilities are located in close proximity to major centres of population like
Bourgas, Stara Zagora, Dimitrovgrad, Haskovo, Kurdjali and Jambol, the population
of each of which varies from 60,000 to 300,000 .

In addition to industrial wastes, when we consider the municipal waste generated in

these population centres including the tourist resorts in the summer months - against
the background of the current inadequacy of the municipal infrastructure to manage
waste properly - it is clear that the region merits urgent attention for sustainable
development with particular regard to sustainable solid waste management. Indeed,
the alleviat ion of both health and environmental impacts of wastes generally , and of
solid waste in particular, in a sustainable manner is a priority for the region as it is for
the country as a whole (ISW A, 1999; La Grega et al., 1994; Nath et al., 1996).

With regard to the above, the purpose of this paper is two-fold . First, to identify the
main categories of solid wastes generated in the region. And second, based on know-
ledge and experience of the region gained to date, to discuss some ideas for the selec-
tion of the best available technologies with which the quantity of waste generated
could be minimised and waste could be used as secondary raw materials .

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MAIN SOURCES OF SOLID WASTE

GENERATED IN THE REGION

2.1 Industrial solid waste

More than 400,000 tonnes of industrial solid waste is generated by the NEFTOHIM
Refinery Ltd . which is a major manufacturing facility in the region. Although the
composition of the waste varies depending on the type of crude oil processed in this
facility, the heavy oil fractions always constitute the major component of the waste .
Table 1 shows the average composition of the waste generated by this facility (Apos-
tolov, 1994; Dimitrova, 1993; Dax, 1998).
 71

Table I Average composition of solid waste generated

at the NEFTOHIM Refinery
Component Content (% by weight)
Wastewater 47 - 54
Organic matter 39 - 46
Particulate minerals 7 - 11

In the winter months the wastes are generally solid in consistency, but they are soft
and even partially fluid in the summer months when temperatures are high. In sum-
mer evaporation of some of the fractions create not only fire hazards - such hazards
have already materialised on several occasions - but also their specific and unplea-
sant smell can be detected several kilometres away. A proportion of the waste is bur-
ned in rotary kilns, but the available capacity of the kilns is not sufficient to deal with
the new wastes being generated .

Figure 1 shows schematically a more satisfactory method of dealing with the waste
generated by NEFTOHIM Ltd . In this the organic part of the waste is separated out,
and only the solid residue is burned .

I STAGE 2 STAGE 3 STAGE

, - - - - - - , GAS
SEDIMENTS and on. IMPURITIES .. ~

FURNACE

'-----'SOLID

LAGOON

FI and F2 · Fll.-TERS
RESERVOIRS
FOR
SEDIMENTS 1
Oll.-PRODUCTS WATER GAS

Figure I Schematic for the processing of sludge produced by NEFTOHIM Ltd.

The thermal power stations (TPS) in the region and related coal mining activities are
by far the biggest generators of industrial solid waste . Much of this waste comes from
TPS-I, TPS-2 and TPS-3 located in Maritza east. TPS-2 is the largest with 8 units,
and its total electrical power output is 1490 MW. This complex supplies nearly 40
72

percent of the electrical power demand of the country by burning low-grade lignite.
The environmental impact of this, especially for air quality, is not hard to imagine.

Located in the same area is also the country's only factory (CBF) for the production
of coal briquettes used for domestic heating . The TPS and the CBF together generate
more than 3 million tonnes of fine particulates as waste which is disposed by hydro-
transport to a number of trailing ponds. Studies carried out so far confirm that the
solid waste disposed to the trailing ponds has a layered structure . The top layer has a
lower calorific value of between 2,100 and 2,340 kcal/kg when the lignite used for
production has a calorific value within the range of 1,315 to 1,870 kcal/kg. The ave-
rage composition (by weight) of the top layer is found to be as follows: carbon (23.0
- 27.6%); hydrocarbons (5.8 - 9.7%); and oxides of aluminium and other impurities
(17.2 - 27.3%).

During the summer months there is little rain to enable wet deposition of the airborne
particulates . Consequently, people living in the nearby residential areas suffer from
the impacts of those particulates and generally from air pollution. The sulphur content
is generally in the range of 1.6% to 2.9% by weight, but no desulphurisation cleaning
system is in operation at the facilities. Also, if the lime-limestone process is introdu-
ced, several million tonnes of gypsum waste will be released annually to the environ-
ment as secondary pollutant.

At present the first desulphurisation system for unit 8 of TPS-2 is under construction,
and the lime-limestone process has been selected for it despite its known adverse
environmental impacts. So, in future we can expect generation of gypsum waste esti-
mated to amount to about 360,000 tonnes per year. On the other hand, the ' e-beam'
technology would appear to be more appropriate and efficient for the purpose (Pelov-
ski and Kikuchi, 1996; Brown, 1996a and 1996b; Petkov et al., 1996; Dombalov et
al., 1990a and 1990b; Koning and Ludtke, 1996). To make matters worse, lignite is
also mined in the same area using open-cast mining technology . This activity alone
has so far significantly degraded about 38,000 ha of agricultural land which is now in
need of remediation for agriculture .

AGROBI0CHIM Ltd. and NEOCHIM Ltd., located near the towns of Stara Zagora
and Dimitrograd respectively, are producers offertilisers that are also contributing in
good measure to the solid waste generated in the region. The first has been in opera-
tion for 35 years and the second for more than 45 years. In the case of the former, the
solid waste comes from its TPS which uses lignite from Maritza east. In the case of
the latter, production of sulphuric and phosphoric acids has been the main source of
waste generation . Both the facilities were shut down about 5 years ago, but the prob-
lems of more than 10,000 tonnes of phosphogypsum, released and deposited by them,
still remain to be dealt with. The main components (by weight) of phosphogypsum
are CaS04.H20 (70-80%) and free water (7-15%). Phosphorous, fluorine and other
compounds are also present as impurities. Compounds of phosphorous are found to
be in the range of 1.1-2.3% by weight as P20s .
 73

Over many years of operation of copper mining and ore dressing factories near the
town of Bourgas on the Black Sea coast about 3,600 tonnes of solid waste have been
deposited in the area. The average composition (by weight) of the waste is as fol1ows:
CaO (5%) ; Ah03 (12%) ; Fe203 (12%) ; Si02 (70%) ; and some hazardous impurities .

The metal1urgical sector of the region's industry is represented by the Lead-Zinc

production facility in Kurdjali which disposes its solid waste to a trailing pond. Spent
catalysts from sulphuric acid production are also generated. Specific and dangerous
wastes, generated in limited quantit ies by the DZU-Stara Zagora Electronics Com-
pany, are kept in special storage. Thus they are not a cause for immediate concern.

2.2 Municipal and agricultural solid waste

According to available statistical data and inventory studies made so far, increasingly
greater quantities of both municipal and agricultural wastes are being generated in the
region as in Bulgaria in general (Apostolov, 1994; Dimitrova, 1993; Dax, 1998). A
significant amount of theoretical work on the quantities and composition of these
wastes has already been done, and is being done, but so far little practical work seems
to have been done to investigate or determine the appropriate modalities for sustain-
able solid waste management in the region.

To give an indication of the magnitude of the problem at hand, it is sobering to consi-

der that the coastal area of the region alone generates an estimated 230,000 tonnes per
annum of municipal solid waste to be disposed of. This is to be seen against the
background that the municipalities lack both infrastructure and know-how for recy-
cling or reuse or to deal properly with such huge amount s. The major constituent of
the waste is plastics of different kind, and the total quantity of waste generated is
significantly greater than normal in the summer months when tourists flock to the
holiday resorts on the Black Sea coast. Table 2 and Figure 2 show, respectively , the
composition and average contents of municipal waste generated in the region.

Table 2 Composition and calorific valueof municipal solid waste

Item 1990 1995 1997
Total water (% by weight of dry matter) 40.8 42.3 37.9
Organicmatter (% by weightof dry matter) 43.4 42 .6 41.2
Inorganic matter (% by weightof dry matter) 56.7 57.4 58.8
Lower calorificvalue (kcal/kg) 1097 1186 1050

In future special attention should also be given to solid wastes generated from indus-
trial and municipal wastewater treatment facilities at the bio-treatment stage. At pre-
sent there are only a few such facilities in Bulgaria. But in future there wil1 be many,
and the amount of solid waste they would generate would be large.
74

%, 45
wt 40
Ik
_
35 Lk - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -_1
0 1990
30
25 I k--------------~.:;._~.::.:..:..._=:_::_--_1 111995

20 0 1997
15 1 .A-----1.>W1.:~u-__"._r.r____:_::_::_------~

10
5
o
Pape r Plastics Met al s Glass Foo d Building Others

Figure 2 Morphological averag e content of municipal solid waste

3. BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES FOR THE REUSE OF

SOLID WASTE IN BULGARIA

The achievement of even a modest degree of sustainable solid waste management in

the region is contingent upon selecting the best and most appropriate technologies for
the reuse of materials recovered from solid waste . While on the one hand the central
issue here is concerned with the availability of financial and manpower resources , on
the other it is directly related to people 's quality of life and environmental integrity.
Clearly, therefore, a credible balance has to be struck between what is desirable and
what is realistically achievable.

3.1 Wastes from refineries

Feasibility studies have been prepared for both NEFTOHIM Ltd. and PLAMA Ltd.
However, because of financial constraints and some other problems that arose during
the privatisation process in Bulgaria, none of these industries has been able to imple-
ment technologies for the reuse of materials recovered from their solid wastes . The
practical implementation of best available technology involves the five elements des-
cribed below (Apostolov, 1994):

)r- Liquidation of waste locally by direct heating.

)r- Treatment of waste with chemical additives .
~ Separation of water, fuel and mineral fractions using sophisticated new generation
centrifuges.
~ Burning of the mineral fractions with the remaining heavy organic fractions .
~ Cleaning systems for separated water and furnace gases .

Using such technologies standard fuels can be produced , and the solid mineral residue
could be used as building materials or for road construction. It has been estimated that
 75

the revenue from the fuel alone could be around 11.6 million US dollars, and that the
residual waste could be gainfully utilised only over a few years.

3.2 Wastes from lignite mining and thermal power stations

Most of the wastes from the mining of lignite can be reused in recultivation. Indeed,
this method has been recommended in a project specifically designed for the purpose .
The main reason why that project cannot be implemented has been, and continues to
be, lack of investment. Recultivation work in the Maritza east area will continue for
decades nevertheless, despite the fact that the mining company involved cannot make
such heavy investments, and the chances of receiving some financial help from the
State are slim.

The prospects for using ashes from the thermal power stations and the briquette fac-
tory, deposited in the trailing ponds, would appear to be more promising by compa-
rison. Depending on the actual amount of useful components present in the waste , it is
possible to find a number of ways in which the ash could be utilised (Babachev, 1996;
UN-ECE, 1996a; UN-ECE, 1996b; Mehandjiev, 1997; EU, 1992). Some of the ways
are the following :

);- Compaction for use as briquettes for domestic heating.

);- Mixing with other components for the production of ceramic building materials .
);- Treatment with other components for the production of selective adsorbents.
);- Extraction of aluminium and some other metals.

The top layers of the trailing ponds of some of the thermal power stations and the bri-
quette factory conta in carbon and organic matter in amounts greater than that found in
the lignite from Ma ritza east. Therefore, solid wastes extracted from these ponds can
be used for domestic heating . Extrusion or other compaction technology would be
most suitable for this. Results of tests confirm that the technology used becomes more
effective when plasticizers are added. Wood , paper and agricultural wastes can also
be added . An estimated investment of 2.4 million US dollars would be needed to
acquire the technology required for the reuse of 35,000 tonnes per annum of this
particular waste in this way. Much of the necessary equipment could be produced in
Bulgaria

Industry-scale tests have shown that ceramic mixture containing 8-15% ash by wei-
ght could be used for the production of building elements . For a while this method
was used in the Harmanli Ceramic Factory, but the addition of ash was stopped be-
cause of transportation and dusting problems. Technically it would have been possi-
ble to avoid both these problems . It is interesting to point out that, if all the ceramic
factories in Bulgaria used only about 10 percent ash in their production, this would
more or less address the entire problem of ash generated by all the thermal power
stations in Bulgaria.
76

Production of adsorbents could consume only a limited amount of ash. Laboratory

tests show that adsorbents produced in this way may have a high selectivity as well as
high capacity to adsorb oxides of sulphur and nitrogen. This should be taken into con-
sideration when selecting air-cleaning systems for the thermal power stations in the
region . Even when the problems associated with dry adsorption technology are taken
into consideration, it still offers a number of advantages over the lime-limestone tech-
nology mentioned earlier . Production of adsorbents based on ash, and their appli-
cation in the cleaning systems, will contribute to the realisation of sustainability in
different ways: reduced consumption of limestone which is a natural resource; better
environmental quality; creation ofjobs, etc. Application of the other cleaning systems
may produce ammonium sulphate and ammonium nitrate as by-products that could be
used as mineral fertilisers (Pelovski and Kikuchi, 1996; Brown, 1996a).

Studies on the extraction of aluminium and other metals have been reported in the
literature. However, at present there is scant information on the possible use of ashes
in such processes . We may conclude , therefore, that such use is either not feasible, or
not economical if it is. It is clear, however, that in the interests of sustainability and as
traditional virgin raw materials become scarce, in future ashes from thermal power
stations will find increasingly greater usage in industrial production and application.
The same also applies to many other industrial by-products generated in the region
that are currently considered as waste, especially as necessary capital investment be-
comes available .

3.3 Gypsum wastes

Increasingly phosphogypsum and other gypsum solid wastes are being reused in a
number of applications, especially in the following (EU, 1992):

>- Treatment of soil salinity.

>- Produ ction of plaster gypsum .
~ Cement production .
).> Recovery of sulphur after thermo-chemical decomposition.

Use in cement production appears to be most promising. It is pointed out, however,

that phosphogypsum can be used in cement production only after it has been pre-
treated to extract the phosphorous compounds . After such pre-treatment it can com-
pletely replace natural gypsum as raw material for the production of both cement and
plaster gypsum . Also, the wastewater released during pre-treatment can be used in
liquid fertiliser production .

The investment needed for a medium-size pre-treatment plant is estimated at 1.65

million US dollars. Such an investment merits serious consideration. Because, at least
partial utilisation of gypsum wastes generated in the region, especially from the pla-
nned air-cleaning system of Unit 8 of the Maritza east TPS-2, would significantly add
 77

to the region's environmental integrity by reducing the amount of waste that will have
to be disposed of otherwise .

3.4 Agricultural wastes

Traditional agriculture is a leading sector of the region's economy. In future it is ex-
pected to be even more important in view of what is being perceived as the 'collapse'
of the region's industrial sector.

Only a few ofthe region's pig farms have wastewater treatment facility . Generally all
farm wastes are disposed of without treatment and improperly. Some of the solid
wastes are burned in open areas and manure is widely used as fertiliser without proper
pre-treatment. Such practices entail risks to both health and the environment. Clearly,
there is urgent need for implementing up-to-date methods and practices for the proper
management of such wastes, notably composting which is locally appropriate. It is
suggested that projects designed to deal with these problems should also include faci-
lities for treating solid wastes from wastewater treatment plants. This is because pro-
per disposal of the latter is also a serious problem in the region.

At present the level of consumption of synthetic fertilisers in Bulgaria is low. In fact

the current level is thought to be as low as that in 1953. It is suggested that, in the
interests of achieving even a modest degree of sustainability in agriculture with parti-
cular regard to soil productivity, determined efforts should be made for the reuse of
agricultural wastes as fertilisers .

3.5 Munic ipal solid wastes

Statistical data and results of inventory studies show that the amount of municipal
solid waste being generated in the region is increasing over time mirroring the nation-
al trend . On the other hand, current trend of recycling and reuse is downwards . Also,
current methods and practices for the management and disposal of municipal solid
waste generally do not comply with relevant EU directives.

On the positive side, however, the recently developed national programme envisages
prioratising promising and feasible projects for budgetary support . In fact, a number
of the region 's residential areas have already been selected for the priority progra-
mme, but the time-frame for implementation is at present vague - sometime in the
next ten years or so. A number of projects for the recycling and reuse of plastics,
paper and metals have also been developed, but once again their implementation and
time-frame will be determined by availability of financial resources .

The calorific value of the region's municipal solid waste is estimated at around 1000
kcal/kg and this makes the use of thermal technologies an attractive proposition, espe-
cially if processing is integrated with the use of selected agricultural wastes . What is
78

essentially needed in this regard is the effective transfer of both know-how and tech-
nology, especially for waste separation, recycling and reuse.

4. PRIORITIES AND THE ROLE OF COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS

At present Bulgaria is a state of 'transition', meaning that its macroeconomy is under

transformation from one that was centrally planned to one that would be laissez-faire
(free-market) in character. Since financial resources are scarce during the transition
period , it is clear that all kinds of projects, including those for environmental protec-
tion and sustainable development, are subject to both prioratisation and rigorous cost-
benefit analyses (CBA) . As a typical example, consider the project on the processing
and utilisation ofheat and fuel capacity of wastes from NEFTOHIM Ltd. The cost of
implementing and operating the project is estimated at 3.6 million US dollars, while
the revenue to be generated from it is estimated at about 11.6 million US dollars.
Thus the benefit-cost ratio of the project is favourable, and it becomes even more so
when we consider the health and environmental benefits it would bring .

However, it is not possible to carry out cost-benefit analyses of environmental pro-

jects as precisely as one would like, because environmental facilities and amenities
are 'non-market' goods whose money value can only be inferred from their shadow
prices on the basis of people's willingness to pay for them.

The above can apply even to recycling and reuse projects . Consider, for example, the
project on the recycling of plastic municipal waste (including separation of PET bot-
tles) of the Sredez Municipality of the region. The factory responsible for the plastic
waste is willing participate in the implementation of the project. According to the pre-
feasibility study, project implementation may only take a few months, and the need is
mostly for money to buy the necessary equipment. The pay-back period of the invest-
ment is estimated to be less than five years. Clearly, if the project is properly imple-
mented, it would bring environmental benefits not only to the Municipal ity of Sredez
but also to the coastal area of the region where the consumption of plastic materials is
much higher than the country average, especially in the summer. But it is difficult to
make a rigorous cost-benefit analysis in this case. Because, a very important factor
here is the inferred money value of a cleaner environment which is not easy to deter-
mine. Therefore, in this case CBA has to be calculated in terms only of the money
value of the recycled or reused plastic materials.

5. CONCLUDING REMARKS

Given the current state of the environment of the south-western region of Bulgaria
and its adverse impacts on people's quality oflife, it is clear that suitable projects and
 79

activities must be implemented as a matter of priority, at the very least to contain the
rate of deterioration. By all accounts this can only be accomplished by implementing
priority projects and activities that would bring at least a modest degree of sustainable
development to the region.

However, the problems currently thwarting attempts at implementing sustainable me-

thods and practices are many and varied . By far the most serious problem is that of
scarcit y of capital for investment, and at present this problem is exacerbated by the
on-going privatisation efforts. Hopefully, once these efforts have been satisfactorily
concluded, foreign private and institutional investors would be more willing than now
to make investments for much-needed projects and activities aiming at sustainability.

The other major problem is concerned with the modalities of technology and know-
how transfer. In this regard there are two distinct levels . The first refers to know-how
and technology transfer to the national intelligentsia, notably the academic commu-
nity. The second level refers to transfer of the same to the professionals who work for
municipalities and responsible government ministries and agencies and who are ulti-
mately responsible for implementing the methods and practices of sustainable solid
waste management locally in accordance with the recommendations of Local Agenda
21. In Bulgaria, as in many other countries, the second level is de facto the 'weak
link ' which is mostly thwarting progress towards sustainability. Indeed, it is this se-
cond level that must be strengthened. Otherwise sustainable development would be at
risk of remaining just a ' concept' , or perhaps even an unattainable distant mirage.

REFERENCES
Apostolov, A (Ed.) (1994), The Green Book of the Bourgas Municipality, The Municipality
of Bourgas, Bulgaria.
Babachev, G (1984), 'Ashes and slags - valuable raw materials', Technika , Sofia, Bulgaria.
Brown, G (1996a), 'Production and use of ammonium sulphate by-product' , The Fertiliser
SOCiety, Proc. N 380, London.
Brown, G (1996b), 'An innovative process for the production of ammonium sulphate', The
Fertiliser Society. Proc. N 380, London.
Dax, P (Ed.) (1998), The State of Municipal Waste Management in the Black Sea Coastal
Area, Feasibility Report to the HIID-MOEW, Sofia, Bulgaria.
Dimitrova, Z (Ed.) (1993), Industry and Environment, Universityof Sofia, Bulgaria.
Dombalov, 1, Delchev, P, Gruncharov, I and Pelovski, Y (1990a), ' An investigation into
monocalcium phosphate contained in phosphoric fertilisers' , in Proc. XXX Seminar on
Phosphoric Fertilisers, Pulavy, Poland, pp. 70-74.
Dombalov, I (1990b), ' Mineral Fertilisers' , SCientific Papers of the Institute of Inorganic
Technology, Technical University of Wroclaw, Poland, Vol. 37, pp. 89-96.
EU (1992), Chemical Analysis of Wastes, Handbook of European Regulations, Oxford Uni-
versity Press, Oxford, United Kingdom.
ISWA (1999), International Directory of Solid Waste Management , ISWA Yearbook, Inter-
national Solid Waste Association, Copenhagen.
80

Koning, H.J and Ludtke, P (1996), 'By-product sulphur - availability and use in the fertili-
ser industry' , The Fertiliser Society, Proc. N 381, London.
La Grega, M.D, Buckingham, P.L and Evans, J.C (1994), Hazardous Waste Management ,
McGraw-Hill Inc., New York.
Mehandjiev, M (1997), Waste Reduction and Minimisation in Mining, Ore Processing and
Metallurgical Plants, University of Sofia, Bulgaria .
Nath, B, Ling, I, Meszaros, E, Robinson, 1.P and Hens, L (1996), Environmental Pollution,
European Centre for Pollution Research, London.
Pelovski, Y and Kikuchi, R (1996), ' E-beam technology for the clean-up of waste gases and
production of fertilisers ' , Chemistry and Industry, Vol. LXVII, Nos. 3-4, pp. 20-23 .
Petkov, K, Bojinova, V & Georgiev, B (1996), ' Production and sustainable use of fertilisers ' ,
Chemistry and Industry, Vol. LXVII, Nos. 1-2, pp. 10-16.
UN-ECE (1996a), By-product Utilisation from Stationary Installations, UN-ECE Task Force,
Vienna.
UN-ECE (1996b), By-product Utilisation and Waste Management from Fuel Treatment and
Combustion, Status Report, UN-ECE Task Force, Vienna.
 SUSTAINABLE SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE FORMER
YOUGOSLAV REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA:
A NATO INITIATIVE

BHASKAR NATH and LUBKA MARINOVA

Europea n Centre fo r Pollution Research. Crusader House (Unit 2E), 289 Crick/ewood Broadway ,
London N W2 6NX. United Kingdom. E-mail: bnath.ecpr'iiCBtinternet.colll

ABSTRACT
A sustainable solid waste management project, which is being implemented in the Fonner Yugoslav
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) under an initiative of the Scientific & Environmental Affairs Divi-
sion of the North Atlantic Treaty Organi sation (NATO), is described in this paper.

Discussion begins with the genesis of the project and a review of the current status of solid waste
management in the FYROM with regard to policies, practices and legislation. It then moves on to how
the project configuration was developed in terms of two specific activities - Activity I concerned
with the construction of a regulated landfill site, and Activity 2 with teaching/training of the methods
and practices of sustainable solid waste management - to realise the stated project objectives. In
developin g the project, particular attention was given to ensuring that it satisfied real local needs as
faithfully as possible. A comprehensive ' needs analysis' was undertaken to identify real local needs in
the area of solid waste management. Discussion then moves on to the practical implementation of the
two specific activities mentioned above.

The project is essentially one of technology and know-how transfer, and, accordingly, the methodology
adopted for implementation focused on both ' hardware' and ' software' components that are character-
istic of a classical techno logy-transfer proj ect.

Judging by objective comments received, the project is said to have been very successful. It is advan-
ced as a useful ' blue print' for the development and implementation of projects that are essentially con-
cerned with tile transfer of environmental technology and know-how.

Keywords: solid waste; sustainable; management; teaching and training; countries in transition ; know-
how transfer; technology-transfer.

I . INTRODUCTION

The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) is a relatively young coun-

try which inherited a host of environmental problems of various kinds. In the main
these problems are a legacy of the erst while Socialist regime' s disdain for environ-
mental protection - disdain that has now culminated into serious and growing prob-
lems impa cting on both quality of life and health . The Government is ill equipped to
deal wit h them commensurately mainl y because of the follo wing reason s: inadequate
financial and technical resources; scarce indigenous expert ise; inadequate organisa-

81
B. Nath et al. (eds.), Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region. 81- 102.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
82

tional infrastructure; and rapidly growing consumerism and rising consumer expecta-
tion. These problems, as well as the difficulties of addressing them, are typical of the
so-called ' transition economies' of which the FYROM is one. The major difficulties
are inadequate or scarce investment and limited or very limited locally available skills
and relevant knowledge .

Of necessity, therefore , currently the FYROM has been relying very substantially on
foreign capital and consultants to tackle its varied and growing environmental prob-
lems. However, as annals of technology-transfer clearly show, exclusive reliance on
foreign experts or consultants without at the same time building up a largely self-
reliant national know-how base does not augur well for the long-term (Poats , 1972;
Hoelscher , 1985; Salam, 1989; Nath, 1991).

Environmental problems besetting the FYROM are many and varied; and most, if not
all, need to be addressed as a matter of urgency. However, the problem of managing
increasing quantities of solid wastes being generated in the country is one that per-
haps deserves priority attention . One only has to visit the countryside to see first-hand
the adverse impacts being caused to the environment by improper, uncontrolled and
unregulated disposal of solid waste . It is not hard to imagine how degraded the envi-
ronment would be in about ten years' time if sustainable measures and policies are
not implemented now to reverse, or at least to arrest, the current situation arising from
unsustainable solid waste management and disposal practices.

The argument for the introduction of sustainable solid waste management policies
and practices in the FYROM is further reinforced by the following. First, the problem
has been exacerbated by the recent conflict in the region that displaced a large num-
ber of people from Kosovo who came to the FYROM as refugees . The overcrowded
refugee camps created a whole range of environmental problems associated with
water, solid waste and soil contamination, thus stretching the already inadequate envi-
ronmental services beyond the limit. And second, if disposed of improperly in a
laissez-faire or unregulated way, solid wastes can create a host of other problems
including contamination of water and soil that are likely in time to diminish natural
environmental amenity and welfare . Subsequently all of these factors can act in con-
cert to impact adversely on both quality oflife and health.

It was against this background that recently a project entitled Sustainable Solid Waste
Management in the FYROM was initiated and developed by the European Centre for
Pollution Research of London . Funded by the Scientific Division of the North Atlan-
tic Treaty Organisation (NATO) , Brussels, and working in close collaboration with
the Ministry of Environment of the FYROM, the project is currently being implemen -
ted also by the European Centre for Pollution Research. Estimated completion date of
the project is September 2000 . We will describe it in detail in what follows. However,
before we do so, it would be instructive first to review the current status of environ-
mental policy and legislation in the FYROM , along with some related issues of solid
waste management in that country .
 83

2. CURRENT STATUS OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLlCY AND LEGISLATION

IN THE FYROM AND RELATED ISSUES

The FYROM is essentially following the Croatian model in preparing its legislation
on all aspects of environmental management and protection , including solid waste .
This particular model is considered to be appropriate for the FYROM because it is
said to take into account both socio-economic and geo-political parameters of the
country that more or less mirror those of Croatia . Furthermore, it is considered to be
particularly appropriate in terms of establishing both legislative and institutional
frameworks, as well as for practical implementation under the specific conditions of
an economy in transition such as that of the FYROM . It is pointed out, however, that
the FYROM is still in the process of establishing its environmental management and
protection systems along with associated infrastructure. For example, the institutional
framework, which underpins all environmental management and protection activities,
is still in the process of being set up. Very recently - only less than a year ago -
what is now the Ministry of Environment was established as a separate ministry , but
with a relatively small budget and limited staff.

The responsibilities of the different relevant authorities for environmental manage-

ment and protection have now been defined. However, because of some recent
changes in the legislative framework (notably passing of new acts and other regula-
tions), the responsibil ities mentioned above are expected to change too, and at present
this is creating some difficulties. For example, the number of municipalities in the
country has recently been increased from 34 to 124. Since the FYROM is a relatively
small country, currently this increase is creating problems especially due to the limi-
ted supply of qualified staff the municipalities need to recruit for the different areas of
their environmental management activities .

The municipalities are responsible for organising and performing all solid waste ma-
nagement activities at the local level in accordance with central government policy.
Each of the municipalities owns and funds a private company responsible for collec-
tion, transportation and disposal of solid waste of that municipality. These activities
are controlled through communal inspection. In each of the former 34 municipalities,
and in each of the 124 municipalities as at present, there is a Communal Department
responsible for overseeing activities concerned with water supply, waste disposal, etc.
Even when there were only 34 municipalities, it was difficult to recruit suitably qua-
lified technical and environmental management staff for the Communal Departments,
especially in modern solid waste management. Given that there are now 124 different
municipal ities, the immensity of the current staffing problem is not hard to estimate
or understand .

In terms of legislation, solid waste management activities in the FYROM are to be

organised according to the following : the Act on Nature Protection and Promotion;
the Act on Waste ; the Act on Public Works; the Act on Public Hygiene Maintenance;
the Act on the Collection and Transportation of Domestic and Industrial Wastes, as
84

well as some other regulations. The Ministry of Environment is responsible for deve-
loping national legislative and policy frameworks for solid waste management, as
well as for ensuring compliance with environmental quality standards at the national
level. The latter is the responsibility of the Environmental Inspectorate, which is in
fact an organ of the Ministry of Environment.

A number of other Acts, strategies and regulations that were to be passed by the end
of 1999 are concerned in varying degrees with solid waste management. They are :
Law on Environmental Impact Assessment ; Law on the Environmental Agency; Law
on the City of Skopje; National Strategy for Sustainable Development and Long-term
Programme for Waste Management . In addition, there are several other on-going pro-
jects and programmes for solid waste management, such as the Programme for the
Development of Local Environmental Action Plans; Study of the Utilisation of Alter-
native Sources of Energy; Project for a Regional Waste Disposal Facility for the
western and south-western parts of the country ; Project for a Hazardous Waste Dis-
posal Facility; Development of a Register of Waste and Harmful Substances ; Solid
Waste Management and Wastewater Treatment in the Radika River valley; Regional
System for Solid Waste Management for the Gevgelia area, etc.

In a relatively small country like the FYROM, the idea of each urban area having its
own waste disposal site is neither realistic nor economically viable, especially consi-
dering that the largest urban area of the country is Skopje whose population is only
about 700,000. The other urban areas are considerably smaller in terms of population .
In recognition of this, the Ministry of Environment has stipulated in its strategic
policy a total of six regional landfill sites for the country as a whole to receive wastes
from their respective regions . At present only one of these sites is in operation - the
Drizla site near Skopje - where solid waste mainly (if not only) from the city of
Skopje is disposed of even though it is meant for the greater Skopje region. This site
is due for upgrading, however. Because, although officially classed as a landfill site,
it is largely unregulated and falls considerably short of what is required of a modem
landfill site in terms of specification, control and facilities. The other five regional
sites have now been selected by the Ministry of Environment. One of these is to be
developed as a modem, regulated landfill site under a UNDP project. Another, near
the town of Struga, is to be developed also as a modern landfill site under this NATO
project.

3. OBJECTIVES AND CONFIGURATION OF THE NATO PROJECT

The objectives of this project, henceforth to be referred to simply as the 'NATO pro-
ject ' , are two-fold :

).- To construct a regulated landfill site in the FYROMfor the disposal of municipal
solid waste, conforming to EU standards and specifications as far as possible, to
 85

serve as a model to be emulated by future sites of this kind to be built in the

country.

y To impart up-to-date information and know-how on sustainable solid waste ma-

nagement to FYROM professionals in order to build high-quality local capacity in
thisjield

The first objective is essentially concerned with the demonstration of the functioning
and practical operational modalities of a modern regulated landfill site for the dispo-
sal of municipal solid waste .

The second objective, on the other hand, focuses on the medium- to long-term . It as-
pires to building a dependable and self-reliant core of FYROM professionals skilled
in the methods and practices of sustainable solid waste management. It is expected in
time substantially to lessen FYROM's current and almost exclusive reliance on forei-
gn consultants and experts the country can ill afford. Indeed, the two objectives
should ·be viewed as complementary ' tools' for achieving FYROM 's self-reliance in
sustainable solid waste management through effective know-how transfer. By all
accounts it is an increasingly important subject area in which knowledge and skills
are urgently needed in the country . However, with particular regard to FYROM 's me-
dium to long-term national self-interest, the realisation of the second objective may
be considered more important than that of the first.

Incidentally, the realisation of these objectives would also contribute in good measure
to the convergence ofFYROM environmental policy to that of the EU in line with the
ambition of the former for accession to the latter.

In the operational sense, and for practical implementation, the above objectives trans-
late into the following activities , respectively , that are now being performed in pur-
suance of the project objectives mentioned above:

Activity 1: Construction of a regulated landfill site for municipal solid waste in

accordance with EU norms and standards as far as possible at a suit-
able location to be designated by the FYROM Ministry of Environ-
ment.

The landfill site should serve two purposes :

(a) As a working landfill to cater for the solid waste disposal needs of
the municipalit y within whose jurisdiction it is located , and/or of
the surrounding region as stipulated by the Ministry of Environ-
ment.

(b) As a model landfill to serve the practical training needs of Activity

2 described below.
86

The landfill should be designed using up-to-date proprietary soft ware

for computer modelling, analysis and optimisation and paying attention
to relevant ED norms and standards. Once the feasibility study is ac-
cepted, detailed engineering design is to be prepared and scrutinised by
independent experts. If the design is accepted by the Ministry of Envi-
ronment, tenders should be called to find the most suitable local con-
tractor to build the landfill. Routine inspections are to be made during
construction in order to ensure that both specifications and schedules
are adhered to .

Activity 2: Teaching/training ofFYROM solid waste management professionals in

up-to-date methods and practices of sustainable solid waste manage-
ment in order to build high-quality national capacity in the subject.

The following are the defining parameters of this activity:

(a) A dedicated teaching and training programme on sustainable solid

waste management to be developed and offered at the Ministry of
Environment in Skopje over a period not exceeding four months
aiming at high western quality standards.

(b) The programme should be comprehensive in scope , and designed

and developed in consultation with the FYROM Ministry of Envi-
ronment and the municipalities to cater for local needs, conditions
and constraints.

(c) Emphasis to be given to practical, hands-on and operational aspects

of solid waste management focusing on sustainability as well as
real local needs, conditions and constraints.

(d) Teaching/training to be done by a team of well-respected experts

recruited from western Europe and the USA.

(e) The target audience of this activity to comprise solid waste mana-
gement professionals from the Ministry of Environment, univer-
sities and other higher educational institutions, the Municipalities,
non-governmental organisations (NGOs) , and industrial and busi-
ness organisations.

(f) A carefully selected number of the trainees to be sent to the USA to

take part in a specially designed further practical training progra-
mme over a 4-5 week period .

(g) A rigorously conducted written examination to be held in Skopje to

assess competence gained by the trainees from this activity . Those
 87

passing the examination to be awarded the 'Certificate of Compe-

tence in Sustainable Solid Waste Management' . Experience shows
that the trainees who participate in a programme such as this expect
to receive recognition of their performance in the form of a certi-
ficate or diploma.

4 . PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ACTIVITY I

4.1 Location ofthe landfill site and its strategic importance

The landfill site is located in the south-west corner of the FYROM (Figure I), about
180 km from Skopje, near the small town of Struga and close to the Ohrid Lake . As
we have pointed out earlier, this site is one of the six regional sites selected by the
FYROM Government for development as regulated landfill sites (Government ofMa-
cedonia, 1999).

This particular location of the landfill site is strategically important for three main
reasons. First, a considerable amount of solid waste is generated in Struga and the
nearby town of Delogozda , both close to the Ohrid Lake which attracts tourists in
large numbers especially in the summer months . The quantity of waste to be disposed
of in the summer is far greater than that generated by the inhabitants of the two
towns. However, both towns lack management skills and facilities for proper solid
waste disposal. Their current management regime and practices are grossly inade-
quate to say the least. For example, the best available facility that these two towns can
offer at present are open and unregulated rubbish dumps without fencing or security.
There is considerable anxiety, therefore, that such improper disposal of large and
growing amounts of solid wastes from these two towns would or could soon con-
taminate and degrade the Ohrid Lake which is on UNESCO's list of protected sites.
Clearl y, any degradation of the now prist ine Ohrid Lake would deter tourism in the
future , and this has serious implications for the FYROM economy. Because, tourism
is a major sector of the country's economy, and the Ohrid Lake and the surrounding
area is by far the most popular tourist destination.

Second , there is a modern wastewater treatment plant at Vraniste, about 12 km from

the site, which has the required capacity for treating leachate produced in the landfill .
Currently this plant is operating at about 60 percent of its capacity.

Third, the site satisfies both EU criteria (Council Directive 1999/31/EC of 26 April
1999) and FYROM legislation (No . 37/98 of29 July 1998), in particular the follow-
ing: (a) distances from the boundary of the site to residential and recreation areas and
waterways, water bodies and other agricultural or urban sites ensuring a minimum
separation of 0.5 km; (b) sufficient remoteness from groundwater, coastal water and
nature protection zones in the area ; (c) acceptable hydrological and hydro-geological
conditions in the area ; (d) negligible risk of flooding, subsidence, landslides or ava-
88

lanches on the site; and (e) protection of the natural or cultural patrimony in and
around the area.

Figure I Map of the FYROM showing the location of the landfill site of the NATO project

4.2 Feasibility study

A feasibility study of the site with basic environmental impact assessment was carried
out by a local consulting engineering company, under the supervision of experts from
the European Centre for Pollution Research, in order to evaluate its suitability for
development as a landfill site. The following main points emerged from that study:

(a) Shape ofthe site: the site, situated in a natural mountain valley, has the shape of
an open amphitheatre with steep sides covered with trees and shrubs, and with
an open end. It is not the shape of a conventional landfill site. The site is sur-
rounded by dense green belt consisting of trees and bushes and there is no visu-
al contact with settlements. An embankment would need to be built across the
open end, and its height would determine the landfill's storage capacity . Typi-
cally, with a maximum embankment height of 13m, storage capacity will be
about 206,000 m3 representing approximately 10 years of solid waste received
from the towns of Struga and Delogozda .

(b) Composition of waste: solid waste from Struga and Delogozda consists mainly
(about 86 percent) of municipal solid waste from households , the commercial
 89

sector, hospitals and schools. It has a heterogeneous composition that varies

depending on the season, population mix (inhabitants in relation to tourists) , etc.
Usually it contains a high proportion (60-70 percent) of organic biodegradable
matter.

(c) Site geology and hydro-geology: an examination of the geological and hydro-
geological characteristics of the site shows that it belongs to the western Mace-
donian massive that is part of the Dinarid massive. The area surrounding the
site was found to be characterised by the following lithological articles :

)- The proluvian sediment is situated to the south of the site, on the exit of the
mountain to the low-lying parts. It consists of terra-rossa, larger pieces of
rock, crushed rocks, a mixture of clay and dust, and granulated and un-
evenly sorted material containing irregularly rounded particles .

)- Pliocene lake sediments represented by sandy and clayey sediments (most-

ly sands, gravel and clays) that are well-sorted , show little subsidence, and
differ widely in granulation.

)- Triassic conglomerates, sandstone and argils that are well stratified , water-
proofed and situated to the north-east of the site.

;... Triassic sandstone occurring on the eastern part of the site, stratified to ma-
ssive limestone with stressed carstification characterised by high porosity .

).- The landfill site lies on comp lex paleozoic shists that are filtric and quartz-
sericitic , and on other shists that slip over younger triassic rocks . The shists
are in the process of weathering and occur at a depth of about I m. The un-
disintegrated shists are characterised by low porosity.

);- Key soil permeability of the site varies within the range of 1.07xl0·8 to
7.28xl0· 10 cm/s, accord ing to tests carried out on similar materials under a
constant pressure of 1000 kPa (Klincarovski , 1990). Considering the low
value of permeability, artificial lining of the landfill is not considered nece-
ssary.

(d) Environmental impact: the landfill is not expected to have significant envi-
ronmental impact, provided that it is built to relevant and applicable EU and
FYROM specifications with proper control of what is placed into the landfill;
that waste is placed in lifts, compacted , and each lift is capped with clay and
topsoil ; and that it is fenced off and has a properly constructed access road.
Furthermore, the location of the site satisfies site selection criteria to which we
have already referred in 4.1.
90

4.3 Engineering design

The design is based on the phased development of a sustainable bioreactor landfill.
The initial phases will consist of the construction of the void and of the embankment,
followed by waste placement. The subsequent phases will involve retrofitting of the
leachate removal system, recycling and treatment facilities, and landfill gas extraction
and combustion systems . It is considered that this strategy will provide a solution to
the immediate problem of waste disposal whilst allowing for subsequent development
of the leachate circulation and gas extraction systems to optimise energy recovery and
meet sustainability targets.

Recommended phasing will involve : construction of the embankment; initial exca-

vation and construction of the cell with drainage layer and piping for leachate remo-
val; waste placement ; capping with clay and topsoil ; and retro-fitting of: (i) pumps for
leachate removal and recycling; (ii) wells for landfill gas (LFG) extraction and flaring
or combustion for power; and (iii) installation ofLFG flare stacks or diesel generators
modified for LFG combustion.

The engineering design of the landfill has now been prepared in line with the above
and with regard to the following (Daniel, 1995):

(a) General considerations: measures shall be taken with respect to the character-
istics of the landfill and the meteorolog ical conditions of the area to:

y Control water from precipitation entering the landfill body.

y Prevent surface and/or ground water from entering the landfill waste .
y Collect contaminated water and leachate .

Measures for the above have been incorporated into the design.

(b) Protection of soil and water: the design must meet the necessary conditions for
preventing pollution of soil, groundwater and/or surface water and ensure effi-
cient leachate collection . The landfill base and sides should consist of a mineral
layer that satisfies permeability and thickness requirements that are at least
equivalent to: permeability of layer = 1.0xlO-9 rnIs; and thickness of barrier =
1m (these conditions are satisfied ; please see (c) in 4.2).

(c) Nuisances and hazards: effective measures shall be taken to minimise nuisan-
ces and hazards arising from the landfill through : (i) emissions of odours and
dust; (ii) wind-blown materials; (iii) birds, vermin and insects; (iv) formation of
aerosols; and (v) fires. Appropriate measures against these have been taken in
the design. In particular, placed waste will be covered by IO-15cm of soil at the
end of each day's operation to minimise the problems referred to above.

(d) Stability : the waste should be placed in the landfill in such a way as to ensure
stability of the waste mass and associated structures , and especially for avoiding
 91

slippage. This has been taken into account in the design with the stipulation that
waste should be placed in lifts (layers) 1.0 to 1.5m thick and covered daily (see
(c) above) . Also, the design has been subject to rigorous slope stability analysis .

(e) Fencing: the landfill will be surrounded by a fence sufficient to prevent free
access to the site. The gates must be locked outside operating hours, and a sys-
tem of control must be put in place to detect and discourage illegal dumping .
These considerations have been taken into account in the design .

(t) Waste placement : as mentioned in (d), waste will be spread in 1.0-1.5m deep
layers. The initial layer should preferably be 2m deep and not compacted by
repeated passages of heavy machinery . This will provide a 'fluff' layer of un-
compacted material that will act as a particle filter to minimise ingress of solids
into the drainage blanket. This has been taken into consideration in the design .

(g) Capping of the landfill: the capping system is necessary to minimise ingress of
rainwater and to contain landfill gas (LFG) . The water balance, and therefore
the amount of leachate produced in the system, will depend to a large extent on
the existence of a permeable cap. The clay layer, covered with topsoil from ori-
ginal excavation, will prevent ingress of water and allow the development of
methane-oxidising bacteria in the soil layer. It will also reduce the likelihood of
methane escaping into the atmosphere before the LFG extraction system is ins-
talled . These cons iderations have been incorporated into the design .

4.4 Observations
The proper functioning of a landfill site built to high specifications is contingent upon
how well regulated and well operated it is. In the absence of proper regulation and
operation it is at serious risk of becoming dysfunctional , almost certain to fail to achi-
eve both its performance and sustainability targets , and can even be a potential hazard
with implications for both health and safety.

At present know-how and skills needed for the proper operation of a modern and
regulated landfill site is practically non-existent in the FYROM , let alone in the small
towns of Struga and Delogozda. Clearly therefore, a parallel programme is needed to
train the personnel who would be responsible for the operation and maintenance of
the landfill site. Activity 2 of this project, described in detail in section 5, is expected
to address this need substantially.

Furthermore, proper operation and maintenance of the landfill site would also demand
fundamental changes in the practices and attitude of the municipalities of Struga and
Delogozda to solid waste management, especially with regard to transportation and
disposal. This in turn would require significant if not major changes in the associated
infrastructure. The initial response of the two municipalities to the construction of the
landfill site has been positive . But, whether, or the extent to which, such changes will
92

actually be made by the powers that be will depend on the availability of necessary
resources, local politics, and, perhaps more importantly, motivation and will of the
two municipal authorities .

As for regulation , at present there is apparently adequate legislation in the FYROM

on the proper and safe disposal of solid waste . However, statutory regulation is of
little use if it is not backed up with effective enforcement whereby non-compliance is
penalised. Unfortunately in the FYROM, as in many other countries, enforcement is
often lax or even non-existent, and this makes a mockery of any statutory regulation.
Once again the underlying problem here is one of economics (resources), because
effective enforcement is contingent upon the employment of enforcers .

Despite these inherent and to some extent ' cultural' problems, it is very much hoped
that the relevant FYROM authorities will take appropriate measures to ensure the pro-
per regulation and operation of the landfill site, after it is handed over to the munici-
palities of Struga and Delogozda following construction.

5. PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ACTIVITY 2

5.1 Identification ofgeneral teaching/training needs

The FYROM is a relatively young country, and its Ministry of Environment is even
younger. Notwithstanding its relative infancy, however, to date the Ministry has un-
dertaken and executed a significant amount of work for improving and protecting the
country 's environment. But the sum total of what has been accomplished so far pales
into insignificance compared to what still remains to be done in practically all areas
of environmental protection and sustainability including legislation .

Current methods and practices of managing solid waste in the FYROM, including re-
levant legislation, need upgrading aiming at EU standards in line with its ambition for
accession to the ED. In particular , and considering that waste incineration is not a via-
ble option for the country, a great deal remains to be done in the area of designing,
building and operating regulated landfill sites that comply with EU norms and stan-
dards. Clearly therefore, high-quality local capacity building in this area is a priority
for the country . In addition, there is urgent need for disseminating up-to-date informa-
tion, know-how and skills in waste recycling, reuse and minimisation to the country's
solid waste management community .

Another issue of concern is the scarcity of knowledge in the FYROM of sustainable

development (WCED, 1987) per se or of sustainability of human activities . Accor-
ding to the Treaty of the European Union (TEU, 1992), which constitutes the basis of
the EU, the objectives of environmental policy must be to achieve ' sustainable and
non-inflationary growth respecting the environment' . In other words, achievement of
sustainable and non-inflationary economic growth coupled with environmental sus-
 93

tainability is now to be the focus of all human activities (Artis and Lee, 1995). This
means that, in the case of solid waste for example, it is no longer acceptable to think
of 'solid waste management' as such. It has to be 'sustainable solid waste manage-
ment' . Clearly, it is hard to see how one could think of or deal with sustainable solid
waste management without having some or any idea of what sustainability is actually
supposed to mean.

5.2 Identification ofprecise teaching/training areas ofreal local need

In the first half of 1999 a series of meetings were organised in the FYROM involving
senior officials of the European Centre for Pollution Research, London, and those of
one or more of the following : Ministry of Environment, municipalities, universities,
non-governmental organisations (NGOs) , and industry . The purpose of these meet-
ings was to assess, as precisely as possible, real teaching and training needs in the
FYROM in terms of up-to-date information, know-how and skills in sustainable solid
waste management. In addition, a number of site visits were undertaken to facilitate a
'grass-roots' level understanding of the problems to be addressed .

The following emerged as priority areas of real local need from the deliberations of
those meetings , all within the context of sustainable solid waste management:

(a) Conceptual background and practice of sustainable solid waste management.

(b) Waste collection, transportation and disposal.
(c) Legislation on solid waste management.
(d) Landfi 11 construction and operation .
(e) Waste minimisation, recycling and reuse options .
(t) Policies for solid waste management.

The main target groups for the teaching and training programme were identified as:

)0. Officials of the Ministry of Environment responsible for developing progra-

mmes, policies and strategies for solid waste management.
)0. Representatives and officials of municipalities responsible for developing poli-
cies and organising activities concerned with solid waste management.
)0. Representatives and officials of public enterprises responsible for the collection,
transportation and other activities associated with solid waste management at
the municipal level.
)0. Representatives and officials of private enterprises interested in participating in
solid waste management activities.
)- Students, teachers and researchers in universities and other institutions of higher
education concerned with, or interested in, the methods and practices of sustain-
able solid waste management .
94

5.3 Objectives of the teaching/training programme

In consultation with the Ministry of Environment, the objectives of the programme
were precisely defined as follows at the very outset:

(a) To introduce the concept of environmental sustainability and sustainable deve-

lopment in general, and that of sustainable solid waste management in parti-
cular.

(b) To provide up-to-date information on both existing and evolving management

op~ions, methods and practices of sustainable solid waste management.

(c) Elaboration of both theoretical and practical aspects of the construction and
operation of a modem, regulated landfill site using practical examples.

(d) To organise further practical training of FYROM solid waste management pro-
fessionals, carefully selected from the target groups, in the USA over a period
of 4-5 weeks .

(e) To impart knowledge of private, or public-private, ownership of solid waste dis-

posal facilities and their relative advantages.

Taken together, items (a) to (d) above constitute the second objective of the project
stated in section 3.

Item (e) above, which was included at the request of the Ministry of Environment,
was prepared as a one-day dedicated seminar and given by a specialist on the subject.
The audience of the seminar comprised FYROM policy-makers mainly from govern-
ment ministries and local authorities. The purpose was to elaborate the operational
modalities, economics, and relative advantages of the participation of private enter-
prises and public-private partnerships in sustainable solid waste management. At pre-
sent the participation of such entities is practically non-existent in the FYROM.

5.4 Curriculum development

Based on the priority areas of real local need identified in 5.2, the curriculum for the
teaching and training programme was developed in the 'modular' format which is
particularly suitable for short teaching/training courses. The priority areas, (a) to (f) in
5.2, resulted in the development of five 'modules' outlined in Appendix 1.

The participants coming from the different target groups were variously academics,
students, in-service professionals, policy-makers, etc. with different backgrounds and
different starting levels of relevant knowledge. Development of a common curricu-
lum for such a mixed group can be a problem . The strategy adopted to address this
problem involved the following : first, in each module the starting level (threshold)
 95

was set deliberately low in order to facilitate the learning of those with a low initial
level of relevant knowledge, without at the same time frustrating those with a higher
initial level. And second, in each module the implicit teaching and training objective
was based on the concept that, on completion of the module, the amount of know-
ledge and skills acquired by the participants should approximate to that gained by
final-year Bachelor's degree students at a western university from a similar module.
And that the quality standard achieved, in terms of teaching/training and assimilation,
should approximate to that of a similar module offered at a western university .

Every effort was made in developing the individual module syllabuses to ensure that
they reflected the real priority needs as faithfully as possible. However, a problem en-
countered was that at present there is no unique operational definition of sustainable
development (Long, 1996; Lesser, Dodds and Zebre, 1997). This problem was obvi-
ated by defining sustainability in the sectoral sense as advocated by the OECD (Long,
1996) and others (Nath, Hens and Devuyst , 1996). Accordingly, sustainable solid
waste management was defined in terms of indicators of sustainability that are widely
used in sustainable solid waste management.

Each of the five modules was designed for teaching/training over a period not exceed-
ing five working days. This was because the participants were in the main employed
people with limited time at their disposal. Teaching/training of the modules, which
commenced in November 1999 and ended in February 2000, was done by a team of
experts from the United Kingdom and the USA (names given in Appendix 1), with
some assistance from a colleague from the FYROM Ministry of Environment.

Ample provision was made in each of the modules for the use of audio-visual aids in-
cluding the internet, hands-on work, coursework (see Appendix 1), case studies, etc.
In all the five modules emphasis was given to the practical aspects of sustainable
solid waste management.

5.5 Student evaluation

Continuous assessment of the students was integral to the teaching/training metho-
dology employed . The level of participation of individual students in group discu-
ssions, quality of their input as well as the overall quality of their coursework (see
Appendix 1) constituted the basis for continuous assessment.

For professional and other reasons students participating in a vocational course such
as this do expect to receive recognition of their efforts in the form of a diploma or a
certificate . Accordingly, a rigorously controlled three-hour written examination of the
participants was organised . Those who attended not less than 60 percent of the
teaching/training sessions in not less than four of the five modules, and scored not
less than 40 percent of the maximum possible marks in the written examination, were
awarded a 'Certificate of Competence in Sustainable Solid Waste Management' .
Those failing the above criteria were awarded a ' Certificate of Attendance' .
96

5.6 Further practical training ofselected students in the USA

The objectives of this programme were :

Y for the students to receive further practical know-how and skills in sustainable
solid waste management , and
~ to facilitate subsequent application of know-how and skills gained to improve the
solid waste management system in the FYROM.

Ten of the students in the teaching and training programme were carefully selected
through interviews based on the following criteria : motivation; ability; relevance of
their professional field to solid waste management; and competence in English .

The training programme, which lasted four weeks, was organised jointly at Arizona
State University (ASU), Phoenix, and Northwestern University, Boston. It consisted
mainly of the following : visits to landfill sites and waste treatment and disposal faci-
lities and discussions with their operators; visits to and discussions with the waste
management departments of municipalities; attending seminars at the above univer-
sities and also at Harvard University, the north-eastern Regional Headquarters of the
US EPA among others; and attending classes at Northwestern University.

The programme was intensive and closely supervised by senior faculty members of
the host universities. Following training, each of the students was required to prepare
a feasible project proposal, based largely on their training and experience in the USA,
for improving the solid waste management policies and practices in the FYROM.

6. CONCLUDING REMARKS

The NATO project, described in this paper, is essentially concerned with transferring
technology and know-how of sustainable solid waste management to the FYROM in
an attempt to assist and reinforce that country's environmental protection efforts . In
common with all successful technology-transfer projects, this project also has two
basic components - a ' hardware' component and a 'software' component. While the
hardware component refers to tangible items (such as equipment, machinery, demon-
stration project , etc.) to be introduced into the beneficiary country, the software com-
ponent is concerned with related intangible items such as know-how, skills and other
knowledge-based attributes essential to the proper functioning and operat ion of the
hardware component. Due attention to both the components is essential. For example,
it would be less than useful to introduce a piece of new machinery to a country with-
out telling the beneficiary in necessary detail how to maintain and operate it.

Regrettably , in the literature there are far too many examples of technology-transfer
projects that either failed dismally, or were less than effective, because due attention
 97

was not given to the software component (Poats, 1972; Salam, 1989). The software
component is also important for two other reasons. First, its effective provision often
constitutes the intellectual and/or technological foundation that in time leads to useful
spin-offs as well as innovation . And second, and perhaps more importantly, it builds
local capacity that in time leads to the beneficiary's technological self-reliance which
is, or ought to be, the unquestionable aim of any technology-transfer exercise (Hoels-
cher, 1985; Nath, 1991).

Accordingly, a tremendous effort was put into the design and implementation of the
teaching and training programme (Activity 2) of this project in order to ensure a
robust, enduring and improving legacy that would continue to benefit FYROM's solid
waste management community especially in terms of know-how and skills of high
quality standard . By design all project activities aspired to the achievement of western
quality standards . Indeed, achievement of such standards was deemed sacrosanct, not
to be compromised under any circumstances.

It is gratifying to report that, judging by the objective comments of both the partici-
pants and the Ministry of Environment, the project has achieved considerable success
on all counts, so much so that a possible repetition of Activity 2 is now under con-
sideration.

The modalities employed for both development and implementation of this project
are advanced as a useful ' blue print' for future projects concerned with the transfer of
environmental technology and know-how.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are deeply grateful to the Scientific & Environmental Affairs Division of NATO,
and in particular to Mr. Alain Jubier the Division Director, for providing the funding for this
project under NATO Special Award #975991 .

REFERENCES

Artis, M.J and Lee, N (1995), Economics of the European Union, Oxford University Press,
Oxford, United Kingdom .
Daniel, D.E (Editor) (1995), Geotechnical Practice for Waste Disposal, The University of
Texas at Austin Press, USA.
Government of Macedonia (1999), Regional Spatial Plan ofthe Government of the Republic
of Macedonia - Public Institution for Spatial and Urban Plans, publication of the
Government of the Republic of Macedonia, Skopje.
Hoelscher H.E (1985), ' Development - the issues ahead ', Int. J Dev. Tech., Vol. 3, pp. 237-
242.
Klinkarovski S (1990) , ' Inzenerskogeolozki I hidrogeoloski ispituvanja na pregradno mesto
vraninci', Orizarska reka, HS Zletovica, Skopje (in Macedonian).
98

Lesser lA, Dodds D.E and Zerbe R.O (1997), Environmental Economics & Policy, Addison-
Wesley, New York, USA.
Long, B.L (1996), 'The prospects and problems of achieving sustainable development in the
transition countries ', in proc. Int. Can! Env. Poll., (ICEP'3), (eds.) B. Nath, I. Lang, E.
Meszaros, J.P. Robinson and L. Hens, Vol. 2, European Centre for Pollution Research,
London, pp. 609-618.
Nath B (1991), 'The role of higher education in environmental technology-transfer to eastern
and central Europe', in Proc.Int. Can! Env. Poll. (ICEP]), published by European Centre
for Pollution Research, (eds.) B. Nath and LP . Robinson, Lisbon, Vol. 1, pp. 419-426.
Nath B, Hens L and Devuyst D (1996), Sustainable Development, VUB Press, Brussels,
Belgium.
Poats R.M (1972), Technology for the Developing Nations, published by the Brookings Insti-
tution, Washington DC.
Salam, Sir Abdus (1989), Notes on Science, Technology and Scientific Education in the
Development ofthe South, Third World Academy of Sciences, ICTP, Trieste, Italy.
WCED (1987), Our Common Future, Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom.

Appendix 1: Outline syllabuses of the five teaching/training modules

Module I: General aspects ofsustainable solid waste management

Teachers : Professor Bhaskar Nath and Mrs. Lubka Marinova

European Centre for Pollution Research, London
Syllabus developed by: Mrs. Lubka Marinova
Teaching hours : 20 Coursework hours : 4
Teaching objective : To introduce the concept, methodology and hierarchical approach
to sustainable solid waste management.

Outline sy llabus
(I) The concept of sustainable development (SD) and methodology for its implementation:
classical definition of SD and its practical limitations; laissez-faire definitions of SD and their
problems; practical obstacles to the implementation of SD; methodology for the implementa-
tion ofSD according to Local Agenda 21.

(2) Conceptual background to sustainable solid waste management: what is sustainable solid
waste management? How to achieve sustainable solid waste management?

(3) Introduction to EU directives on solid waste management.

(4) Classification of solid wastes.

(5) Hierarchical approach to solid waste management: solid waste management options; hier-
archical approach to solid waste management in accordance with ED's Fifth Environmental
Action Programme.
 99

(6) Role of different institutions in solid waste management, including public education and
raising public awareness : central government; local authorities ; NGOs and other private and
public institutions .

Coursework
Students are expected to participate in group discussions on aspects of solid waste manage-
ment with particular reference to sustainability and within the Macedonian context .

Module 2: Waste collection , transportation and disposal

Teachers : Dr. Nicholas Hild

Arizona State Univeristy, Phoenix, Arizona, USA.
Syllabus developed by: Mrs. Lubka Marinova
Teaching hours : 15 Coursework hours: 6
Teaching objective: To upgrade the knowledge and skills of students in the methods,
procedures and regulatory aspects of collection, transportation and
disposal of solid wastes in a sustainable way.

Outline syllabus
(I) Sources of solid waste and solid waste inventory.

(2) Different options for the collection of municipal solid waste with examples from different
countries .

(3) Equipment for the transportation of solid waste.

(4) Disposal of solid waste that cannot be recycled or reused: disposal at sea; lagooning;
disposal on land; disposal in salt mines; geological storage; deep-well injection; incinera-
tion.

(5) Regulatory controls on the disposal options of (4) above in different countries.

(6) User and waste disposal charges for municipal solid waste.

(7) Preferred disposal options for Macedonia.

Coursework
Video presentations on the different management options along with discussions on the bene-
fits of separate collection and on-site separation of municipal solid waste for landfills. Group
discussions on management options with particular reference to the conditions , constraints
and culture of Macedonia.
100

Modul e 3: Landfill design, construction and operation

Teachers : Dr. John P. Robinson

Queen Mary & Westfield College, Univers ity of London, UK .
Syllabus developed by : Mrs. Lubka Marinova
Teaching hours: 20 Coursework hours : 6
Teaching objective: To inform students about the following : (a) how in practice the
site for a landfill is selected; (b) how a sanitary landfill is designed
and constructed; (c) what are the requirements for compliance
with EU standards; and (d) how a landfill is operated in practice.

Outline syllabus
(1) Classification oflandfills and landfill as a bioreactor.

(2) Landfill design and construction: criteria for site selection and environmental impact
ass essment; excavation and construction of a cell with or without lining , drainage layer
and leachate removal piping.

(3) Operational management: typical equipment needed for a landfill site ; weighting of inco-
ming waste ; waste plac ement, and capping with clay and topsoil ; retrofitting of leachate
remo val and recycling; wells for landfill gas extraction; flaring or combustion of landfill
gas for power; leachate and gas management.

(4) Monitoring and control. Factors affect ing disposal to landfill : costs oflandfill; legislation.

(5) Existing legislation and industrial arrangement in terms of landfill construction and ope-
ration in Mac edonia.

Coursework
Visit to the Drizla landfill site near Skopje to see how a landfill operates in practice. Discu -
ssion of the shortcomings of this particular landfill and ways in which it could be made more
acceptable with regard to ED norms and standards .

Modul e 4: Waste minimisation, recyclin g and reuse options

Teachers: Dr. Nicholas Hild

Arizona State Univ eristy, Phoenix, Arizona, USA.
Syllabus developed by: Mrs . Lubka Marinova
Teaching hours : 16 Coursework hours : 8
Teaching objecti ve: To present the concept of waste prevention and minimisation, as
well as opt ions and benefits of reuse, recycling and other uses .
 101

Outline syllabus
(1) The 'throwaway ' society and its implications for solid waste management.

(2) Reuse of materials recovered from solid waste.

(3) Waste minimisation .

(4) Recycling: economic benefits and optimal level of recycling; recycling of different types
of waste (paper, plastics, glass etc.); economic costs of recycling.

(5) Recover of energy from waste.

(6) Composting and co-composting .

Coursework
Discussion of existing and possible options for waste utilisation in Macedonia. Practi-
cal demonstration of composting.

Module 5: Policies and legislation for sustainable solid waste management

Teachers: Professor Bhaskar Nath

European Centre for Pollution Research, London.
And
Mr. Ljupco Avramovski
Ministry of Environment, Government of Macedonia, Skopje.
Syllabus developed by: Mrs. Lubka Marinova
Teaching hours : 20 Coursework hours: 5
Teaching objective: To upgrade students' knowledge of ED legislation and policy on
sustainable solid waste management and to review them in the
Macedonian context, including convergence of Macedonian legis-
lation to EU legislation.

Outline syllabus
(1) Environmental legislation: general issues; the concepts of ' nuisance' and ' duty of care' .

(2) Relevant EU directives on solid waste management.

(3) Existing Macedonian legislation on solid waste and its convergence to ED legislation.

(4) Origins and evolution ofEU environmental policy.

102

(5) EU policy on solid waste management with regard to: waste minimisation ; recycling and
reuse; incineration ; landfilling; shipment of waste; integrated approaches to waste mana-
gement.

(6) Policy development, verification (through public participation), implementation and mo-
nitoring.

(7) Development of indicators and their application in practice.

Coursework
Case studies on policy development including policy verification, monitoring and revision .
Group discussion on how environmental policy is made in Macedonia and ways in which the
public could participate in policy-making more significantly than at present. Practical ways of
using indicators of sustainability to determine whether, or the extent to which, a given policy
is working towards or away from sustainability .
 THE NATIONAL WASTE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME OF BULGARIA
MARTIN DISHOYSKI*, DIMITAR YERGIEY* and MICHAIL STAYNOYt
* Department f or Solid Waste Management, Min istry of Environment and Waters, 67 W. Gladstone,
1000 Sofia, Bulgaria. E-mail: mdishovski@m oew.go vern.bg
t Regional Environment Centre for Central and Eastern Europe (Bulgarian Branch), 86 V. Levski,
1000 Sofia , Bulgaria.

ABSTRACT

The current status of solid waste management in Bulgaria falls far short of ED norms and standards.
Haphazard disposal of municipal waste, often mixed with industrial and hazardous wastes, to badly
designed and unregulated landfills is the only option available at present, and such unacceptable and
grossly unsustainable practices have been creating serious threats to both health and the environment.
The origins of this sorry state of affairs go back to the country's erstwhile Socialist era when matters
concerned with environmental protection were treated with much disdain.

The National Waste Management Progranune of Bulgaria has been developed with the object of im-
proving the country 's solid waste management methods and practices, and it is the subject-matter of
discussion in this paper. Discussion begins with an analysis of the various solid waste management
problems of the country. It then moves on to the salient aspects of the Programme including its objec-
tives and how it envisages a better and sustainable solid waste management regime in the future.
Finally the practicalities of implementing the Progranune are discussed along with the all too important
financial aspects.

It is argued that, given the robustness of the Progranune and its carefully crafted configuration , it has
the potential for making substantial improvements to Bulgaria's solid waste management methods and
practices in ways that could be sustained over time.

Keywors: Bulgaria ; national; solid; domestic; industrial; hazardous; waste; management; programme;
sustainable; legislation; regulation.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 The National Waste Management Programme

Waste management is one of the priorities of the Ministry of Environment and Waters
(MEW) of Bulgaria. On the basis of the current status of the problem, the MEW has
developed a National Waste Management Programme that was adopted by the Coun-
cil of Ministers on 18 March, 1999. Development of the Programme was based on the
requirements of the Law on Environmental Protection (LEP), and Article 27 of the
Law on Limiting the Harmful Impacts of Waste on the Environment (LHIWE) . Re-
cognising that wastes pose risks to both human health and the environment, the aim
of the Programme is to achieve sustainable management of wastes in Bulgaria with
reference to its specific conditions and constraints.

103
B. Nath eta/. (eds.), Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region. 103-112.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publisher s.
104

The Programme was developed in conformity with the requirements of EU Directives

75/442/EEC and 91/689/EEC and the Community Waste Management Strategy COM
(96) 399 (final). It enunciates concrete measures in relation to the transposition and
implementation of the directives, regulations and resolutions of the European Com-
munity in the field of waste management. Obligations of the competent authorities for
urgent implementation of European legislation are also included in the Programme.

Based on the current status of waste management in Bulgaria, the Programme docu-
ment was developed in four parts. Problems are identified in the document and the
main trends shown with regard to the generation and treatment of domestic, indus-
trial, construction and dangerous wastes. Programme principles and objectives are
laid down in the document. An Action Plan has also been developed . For both
medium- and long-term it gives indications of institutional and investment measures,
responsible institutions, and funds necessary for programme implementation. The in-
vestment programme is drawn up as a separate section of the document.

1.2 Underlying principle s ofthe Programme

The National Waste Management Programme is founded on the following principles:

;.. A clean and healthy environment.

;.. Rational utilisation of raw materials.
;.. Integrated waste management.
;.. Full responsibility of the polluters for the pollution they create .
;.. Public participation.

2. AN ANALYSIS OF THE CURRENT SITUATION

2.1 Domestic wastes

In 1997 an estimated 3.6 million tonnes of domestic solid waste was collected in
Bulgaria as a whole . However, this is to be seen against the background that since
1993 the total amount of waste generated in Bulgaria has been declining steadily due
mainly to the difficult economic situation facing the country . As a result the level of
consumption also declined steadily, and hence the decline in the amount of waste
generated. Greater control of the local authorities over information on wastes and
their management could also have contributed to the decline. In Bulgaria data on
domestic waste are gathered from 1,172 settlements which together account for about
78 percent of the national population.

In the specific context of Bulgaria, the only viable method of solid waste disposal is
that of landfilling. The total number of landfills in the country that have their own
 105

waste collection and transportation services is about 680, and together they receive
about 99 percent of the collected waste. According to data collected by the local
authorities, almost 27 percent of the landfills, which cater for about 54 percent of the
nation's territory, are controlled and an estimated 77 percent of the collected waste is
disposed to these landfills.

Almost all of the country settlements have one or more ' dung-hills' that are usually
illegal. All kinds of waste are dumped into them. A limited number of the settlements
operate both landfills and dung-hills that often cover several towns and villages.
However, from the points of view of both economics and the environment, it is not
effective for each ofthe settlements to have its own landfill site.

2.2 Construction waste

Until recently there was no system in place that could provide reliable information on
the amounts and types of construction wastes generated in the country, neither was it
possible to tell reliably whether, or how, they were disposed of or reused if at all.
However, in 1997 the National System for Environmental Monitoring (NSEM) col-
lected data on construction waste from 29 of the settlements. These data show that in
that year the amount of construction waste generated in the 29 settlements was
888,583 tonnes, of which about 83 percent came from the large cities. According to
data gathered by the National Statistical Institute (NSI), about 300,000 m3 of the
collected construction waste was disposed to landfills specially designed for such
wastes. The earlier practice of disposing construction wastes to landfills meant for
domestic wastes is now on the decline.

2.3 Industrial and dangerous wastes

Supervision of industrial waste is carried out under specific NSI nomenclature for
industrial waste containing no harmful pollutants, and it includes 82 different types of
wastes. In 1997 an estimated 43.5 million tonnes of industrial waste was generated in
the country. The largest amounts came from the ore-mining and ore-dressing facto-
ries, followed by the thermal power plants (TPP) and the chemical industry.

In Bulgaria landfills are frequently used for the disposal of industrial wastes. Accord-
ing to NSEM data, more than 99 percent of the total industrial waste generated is
disposed to landfills owned by the industrial facilities themselves, while the remain-
der is disposed to municipal landfills that are meant for domestic waste.

Information provided by the manufacturing facilities show that the following catego-
of waste are mostly recycled: ferrous and non-ferrous metals (95%); paper (89%); and
glass (62%). Depending on the organisation and management regime of the manufac-
turing facility in question, collected wastes are directly delivered by them to the waste
reprocessing companies, or to companies that trade in wastes for reprocessing. Nearly
106

25 percent of the waste resulting from the manufacture of construction materials is

used in road building and for the re-cultivation of damaged or degraded land. The re-
mainder is disposed to special landfills meant only for such wastes .

Greater part of the waste from the food processing industry is used in agriculture as
animal feed, while the remainder is disposed to urban landfills along with domestic
waste . Industrial waste containing natural or synthetic fibres, as well as textile waste ,
is usually disposed to urban landfills, as are rubber wastes. However , in the main
industrial waste is disposed to landfills that belong to the industrial concerns and
facilities themselves.

According to available data, an estimated 3.6 million tonnes of dangerous waste was
generated in Bulgaria in 1997. Of this 40 percent comprised 11 different types of
common waste such as those from pesticides, waste lubricant, sediments of industrial
wastewater, hospital waste, etc. Although dangerous wastes are generated in relati-
vely small quantities at individual facilities, the total amount generated in the country
as a whole is nevertheless large because of the spatially diffused nature of their gene-
ration. The aforementioned 3.6 million tonnes does not include wastes from the initial
reprocessing of ore for the production of non-ferrous metals. They are included in the
total amount generated by the ore-mining and ore-dressing factories.

A comparison between the quantit y of waste and the sources from which they are ge-
nerated shows that about 30 of the industrial concerns are responsible for generating
more than 99 percent of the total amount of dangerous wastes generated in Bulgaria.
The situation in highly industrialised countries like Germany and the United King-
dom is similar in that a relatively small number of industries generate a dispropor-
tionate amount of industrial waste . But it has its benefits, too, especially from the
point of view of management. This is because, in this situation attention need only be
focused on the behaviour and practices of a relatively small number of sources.

Given the diversity of industrial wastes and the wide range of their toxicity, it is clear
that different methods of disposal should be explored for their effectiveness and eco-
nomic viability . In Bulgaria the basic method of rendering dangerous wastes harmless
is by disposal to landfills. In fact, currently about 77 percent of such wastes are dispo-
sed to on-site landfills that belong to the industrial concerns or facilities themselves.
There are no regional landfills for dangerous wastes . Although there are a number of
incineration plants, their combined capacity is small compared to what would be
needed for the incineration of the country' s dangerous wastes . In some of the former
regional centres (such as Sofia, Montana and Vidin) there are incineration plants for
hospital waste . But, in general, they do not comply with current standards and speci-
fications, and, moreover , they are not able to process wastes from all the hospitals in
their respective regions.

In 1997 the MEW issued permits for the importation of 113,759 tonnes of scrap
metal, 212,122 tonnes of waste paper and 11 ,020 tonnes of plastic waste. However,
 107

there has been no official importation of dangerous waste to the country. On the con-
trary, 462 tonnes industrial waste (metal slag to Germany, aluminium slag to Turkey,
and waste lubricants to Greece) has been exported .

3. LANDFILLS IN BULGARIA

3.1 The problems

Most of the landfills in Bulgaria were built in the Seventies and the Eighties . Poorly
designed and built with little imagination, they fall far short of the standards and spe-
cifications required of a modern, sanitary landfill. Practically none of these landfills
has any protection against leachate contamination of groundwater or surface water.
Furthermore , operational instructions, such as they are, are seldom followed .

The main problems are the following :

y Out-of-service landfills and dung-hills are not controlled and they pose serious
health and environmental threats .
y The number of illegal dung-hills is large.
y Waste collection and transportation services are ineffective, often inadequate and
generally costly.
y Only a small part of the waste is recovered for reuse or recycling. Existing orga-
nisation for the recovery of useful materials from waste is unsatisfactory. In many
cases the technology needed for reprocessing recovered materials is not available
locally or even nationally.
);.- There is lack of sufficient capacity, facilities and installations for the treatment of
certain types of waste .
);.- As yet there is no established practice for managing waste at the regional level.
);.- Document management system is underdeveloped , and so is the control system
for permits for the treatment of dangerous wastes, or for the facilities needed for
such treatment.
)0- Author ised laboratories and standardised methodologies for the analysis of dan-
gerous wastes are scarce.
y The current practice of mixing dangerous wastes with other wastes and their joint
disposal to landfills is not acceptable.
" The existing landfill sites fall far short of what is required in terms of standards,
specifications and on-site facilities.
)0- The legislative framework governing the operation oflandfills is underdeveloped.
108

3.2 The trend

In Bulgaria, as in the other economies in transition, the amount of solid waste genera-
ted is expected to increase with increasing production and consumption of goods and
services as the economy becomes more buoyant. Indeed, the steady reduction since
1993, referred to in 2.1, is symptomatic of what is really an interregnum caused by
the recent and hopefully temporary economic downturn.

In view of the above, the following factors are expected to influence the generation of
solid wastes in Bulgaria in the years to come:

~ Greater amounts of plastic and metals used in the production of consumer goods .
~ Changes in the variety and circulation of the printed media.
~ Import of second-hand household equipment, electronic goods, cars, tyres, etc.
~ Increase in the total amount of industrial and dangerous wastes as industrial acti-
vities intensify .
~ Changes in the amounts of industrial and dangerous wastes generated because of
rising costs of making them harmless , greater energy efficiency, and more rational
and effective utilisation of raw materials .

4. OBJECTIVES OF THE PROGRAMME

The National Waste Management Programme has two main objectives. First, to base
waste management on the principles and modalities of the free-market ; and second, to
promote and enhance co-operation among the state bodies, local authorities, private
enterprise and the public aiming at sustainable waste management. To this end the
Programme envisages putting into force new regulations and standards that would
guarantee a sustainable level of environmental protection by harnessing private fi-
nance whereb y the initiating companies would be expected to cover the costs to the
maximum possible extent .

On the basis of an analysis of the current situation in Bulgaria and its specific condi-
tions and constraints, the Programme aims to achieve the following :

).- Elimination and reduction of waste generated .

).- Reduction of domestic waste generated to 350 kg per capita per annum by 2005 .
).- Linking of waste tax to the amount of domestic waste generated and costs of envi-
ronmental protection.
:.-- Imposing limits on the disposal of wastes that could be suitable for recycling .
).- Replacing single-use packages with those that can be used repeatedly in accor-
dance with EU directive .
 109

~ Greater reuse and recycling of waste .

~ Increase in recycling of waste by 20 percent by 2002 .
~ Increased variety of wastes to be collected for reuse and recycling.
~ Construction of new waste reprocessing facilities, including those for the dismant -
ling of old cars .
~ Improved arrangements for the collection and transportation of waste .
~ Establishment ofjoint companies to replace existing municipal firms.
~ Throwing waste collection and treatment concessions open to competition.
~ Use of up-to-date containers for waste collection and modem specialised machi-
nery for waste transportation.
~ Implementation of schedules for the collection of large-size waste such as kitchen
equipment (old cookers, refrigerators, etc.) and other specific household waste .
~ Making waste harmless in an eco-oriented manner.
~ Construction of highly effective regional facilities for waste de-contamination
with provision for effective monitoring and control systems (e.g. incinerators for
domestic waste, composting facility, etc.).
~ Compliance with the requirements of the Landfill Directive (SOM 971108): cons-
truction and reconstruction of 37 regional landfills in Coste Deltchev, Sevlievo
(old landfill), Vrasta-Mezdra , Sofia and Plovdiv) .
~ Providing necessary mechanisms, measures and funds for the development of an
integral system comprising installations and facilities for the de-contamination of
industrial and dangerous wastes (establishment of a centre for the treatment of
dangerous wastes, construction of landfills for such wastes, and incineration faci-
lities for hospital wastes in Sofia, Haskovo, Varna, Petrich and Vrasta).
~ Strengthening of the licensing regime for activities and facilities associated with
the de-contamination of dangerous wastes.
Y Reduced disposal to landfills resulting from the reuse and recycling of wastes .
Y Imposing restrictions on dangerous wastes to be disposed to landfills by stipula-
ting the types of wastes whose disposal in this way would be permitted.
Y Preventing importation of wastes to Bulgaria for de-contamination.
Y Reduction of risks from wastes disposed of in the past.
Y Containment of previously polluted areas, and prioritisation of such areas for re-
mediation or restoration.
~ Closing down of uncontrolled landfills and dung-hills that cannot be upgraded to
meet current requirements for environmental protection .
~ Clean-up to eliminate pollution caused by priority landfill and dung-hill sites that
are either operating or have been shut down.
110

5. LEGISLAnON AND REGULA nON OF WASTE MANAGEMENT

Regulation and legislation on the management of certain special wastes (accumulator

and other batteries, lubricants, packaging, sediments from domestic wastewater puri-
fication, and so on) mirror European legislation, the following directives in particular:
94/62/EC , 75/439/EEC , 96/59/EEC, 91/86/EEC and 86/278/EEC.

The following are germane to the generic context of waste management as envisaged
by the National Waste Management Programme:

>- Provision of public access to information on waste management at local, regional

and national levels.
>- Establishment of conditions for public participation in decision-making on waste
management at different levels.
>- Implementation of the principles of 'shared responsibility' , 'polluter pays' and
' manufacturer' s responsibility' .
>- Extension of the campaign for 'clean environment' .
>- Establishment of a public information centre and publication of both specialised
and popular literature on the environment and on sustainable waste management.
>- Improvement of systems for information gathering, monitoring and control.
>- Provision of all technical means needed for the monitoring system (installation of
weigh-bridges for measuring quantities of waste received, laboratories for the
analysis of wastes, adoption of effective programmes for the development of gas
and water monitoring systems, etc.).
>- Establishment of an information system.
>- Implementation of control functions within the systems of the MEW.
>- Development and implementation of computer codes that would assure smooth
and efficient operation of the information system.

6. THE INVESTMENT PROGRAMME

Taking the Bulgarian Leva as the key currency (one US dollar is equivalent to about 2
Leva at the current rate of exchange) , the section on investment in the National Waste
Management Programme was developed for a four-year period starting in 1999. This
section includes investment sites on which construction has already started or is plan-
ned to start by 2002; and institutional projects that should be completed during 1999
and 2002 in line with the obligations of the Republic of Bulgaria under the National
Programme on the Adoption of Jurisprudence Achievements of the European Com-
munities (NPPA) . Detailed designs have already been prepared for some of the sites,
while those for the others are currently under preparation .
 III

Site select ion was based on the following criteria :

);- Risk to human health.

y Impact on sensitive ecos ystem s.
}- National and regional significance of the project.
);- Complian ce with the requirements of the new legislation .
y Accomplishment of international engagements if any.
);- Degree of preparedness for project realisation .
);- Financial viabilit y and stability.

Some of the selected sites are considered for the construction of landfills with regard
to the following

}- Completion of sites under construction.

);- Size of the population served .
).- Preparedness of the different municipalities in the region, included in the munici-
pal waste management programme, to co-operate.
).- Design and technical preparedness for construction.

Above categorisation of the sites is subject to development:

);- Aiming at a more precise definition of regional boundaries if co-operation bet-

ween neighbouring municipalities materialises during programme implementation
and the regional scope is enlarged.
y In case changes in some of the conditions of characterisation occur.
).- In the case of propo sals for financing large-scale sites that could serve a regional
population of more than 100,000 .

A total of 678 billion Leva is needed for the implementation of the Programme. The
annual requirements (in Leva) are: 111 billion for 1999; 179 billion for 2000 ; 154
billion for 2001 ; and 234 billion for 2002 . In spite of the constraints and difficulties
of the State budget , a significant part of the financial resources will be provided by
the National Fund for Environmental Protection and by the municipalities. Annual-
ised foreign investment needed is as follows (in Leva) : 18 billion for 1999; 84 billion
for 2000; 58 billion for 200 I; and 136 billion for 2002 .

7. CONCLUDING REMARKS

Successful implementation and realisation of the current programme will no doubt be

a significant step towards solving the growing and serious problems of solid waste
management in Bulgaria. It will also substantially improve the country 's material and
technical capacity to deal satisfactoril y with such problems .
112

During 1999-2001 efforts will focus mainly on the urgent tasks related to the disposal
of wastes to landfills. Subsequently the focus will shift to recycling and reuse . Deter-
mined effort s will also be made whereby, for the first time in the country, incineration
plant s, installations for the composting of domest ic solid waste, as well as centres for
the physical and chemical treatment of dangerous wastes will be built. The task of
harmoni sing Bulgarian legislation to EU legislat ion will continue in parallel until
200 1 when the proces s is expected to be complete. The Programme is expected to be
funded by the Nat ional Fund for Environmental Prote ction of Bulgaria, the State bud-
get, other national sources, the European Union, and other external sources.

It is pointed out that the Programme document is subject to further improvement,

amendment, supplementation and actualisation. The competent departments of the
Ministry of Environment and Waters (MEW) will monitor programme implementa-
tion, and necessary actions will be taken if major implementation schedules are
delayed. Annual report s on actualisation, supplementation with new measures , and
programme implementation will be submitted to the Council of Ministers . The public
will be informed periodically about the progress of the Programme , and public opi-
nion on future programm e development will be taken into consideration.

The National Waste Management Programme is Bulgaria's first concerted attempt at

detailed review and analysis of waste management in the country, including the plan-
ning of concrete measures for the sustainable managem ent of solid waste.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

La Grega, M.D, Buckingham, P.L and Evans, J.C (1994), Hazardous Waste Management,
McGraw-Hili Inc, New York, USA.
OECD (1996), Environmental Performance Reviews, Organisation for Economic Coopera-
tion and Development, Paris, France.
MOE (1996), Development ofSystems fo r the Management ofDangerous Wastes, Ministry of
Environment, Sofia, Bulgaria.
 THE SUSTAINABLE LANDFILL BIOREACTOR - A FLEXIBLE
APPROACH TO SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

WILLIAM POWRIE* and JOHN P. ROBINSONt

• Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering. University of Southampton. Southampton .'1017
LBl. United Kingdom.
t Environmental Health and Saf ety. Queen Mary & Westfield College. University of London. London
E 1 4NS. United Kingdom . E-mail : j,p',!.Q.\"!t!!~Q!)1i}m!!lUKJJJs

ABSTRACT

According to the EC environmental policies, the disposal of municipal solid waste to landfill is the me-
thod of last resort. European legislation requires both that solid waste be diverted away from landfills
and that improved environmental controls on landfilling are implemented. In particular, the Landfill
Directive of 1999 requires strict control of landfill management practices, including a sharp reduction
in the proportion of biodegradable waste disposed to landfill.

Currently landfilling is still the most widely used disposal route in Europe and it will continue to be an
important waste management option for many years to come, particularly in the states of the former
Eastern Bloc, even though rising environmental standards will cause landfill disposal costs to rise.

Given this reality, a multi-disciplinary approach to landfill management involving geochemists, geo-
technical engineers , civil engineers and microbiologists, has lead to a rapid development of the concept
of landfilling as a sustainable technology . The traditional model of a landfill as a permanent waste de-
posit in which decomposition processes are minimised has given way to the concept of a controlled
decomposition process managed as a large-scale bioreactor. The fundamental aim of the sustainable
landfill is to optimise the natural degradation processes in the waste and to contain the products of
degradation to prevent pollution of the environment.

This controlled bioreactor landfill is seen as a flexible, cost-effective, and sustainable approach to cur-
rent waste disposal problems, particularly when combined with material reeovery either before or after
the biological treatment step. Indeed, it may no longer be necessary to view landfilling as a disposal
system at all, but rather as a method of large-scale processing of waste to be combined with recovery
and recycling processes.

This paper discusses both the legal and technical aspects driving the development of the sustainable
large-scale bioreactor concept of landfilling .

Keywords : Sustainable : bioreactor, microbiology, landfill gas, leachate; EU; Directives.

1. INTRODUCTiON

With rising awareness of the crisis facing the global environment, increasing empha-
sis is now being given to the formulation of international policies aimed at achieving
environmental sustainability.
113
B. Nath et al. (eds.), Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region. 113-140.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers .
114

Most governments use internationally accepted key economic indicators to monitor

and determine economic policy, and there is growing recognition of the need for simi-
lar indicators of sustainable development. These key, or headline, indicators of sus-
tainable development will be used for informing policy decisions and for increasing
the awareness of sustainable development issues at all levels of society.

Sustainable development is founded on the following four broad objectives :

)0.- Maintenance of high and stable levels of economic growth and employment.
)0.- Social progress which takes account of everybody's needs.
)0.- Effective environmental protection.
)0.- Sensible use of natural resources .

In a recent consultative document the British government has suggested that the sole
headline indicator for the fourth objective above (sensible use of natural resources) is
appropriate systems for waste management including disposal. This gives an indica-
tion of the importance to be given to appropriate waste management systems in a
sustainable techno-industrial society . Indeed, waste management must be a central
element in any sustainable environmental programme .

2. THE CONTEXT: ENVIRONMENTAL POLlCY AND WASTE

MANAGEMENT IN THE EUROPEAN UNION

2.1 Evolution ofenvironmental policy and preventive measures

Until 1987 environmental policy in the European Union (EU) was largely driven by
economic considerations, and those environmental policies which were established
were primarily aimed at harmonising environmental standards between the Member
States to prevent unfair economic competition in the single market. Even with the
bias towards economic issues, the first three Environmental Action Programmes,
which ran from 1973 to 1986, established important basic principles of EU environ-
mental policy, namely :

)0.- Pollution should be prevented rather than its effects dealt with.
)0.- Natural resources should not be exploited to the detriment of ecological balance .
)0.- Environmental impacts ofEU polices should be an integral part of those policies.
)0.- Polluters should pay for eliminating the environmental damage caused by their
actions .
~ Successful environmental protection requires international co-operation.

Finally, in 1987, the Single European Act (SEA) formally adopted protection of the
environment as an express objective of the community and provided a legal frame-
 115

work for environmental protection . Legislation to set emission standards for air, water
and soil, initiated in 1987, followed in the Fourth Environmental Programme

The Fifth Environmental Action Programme ' Towards Sustainability' , which began
in 1992, describes long-term objectives for improving environmental standards in the
industrial, energy, transport, agricultural and tourism sectors of the economy . This
Action Programme established the Polluter Pays and Precautionary Principles as cen-
tral tenets of the environmental agenda for the ED. Policies, such as waste reduction
and recycling, which emphasise prevention of environmental problems, will be en-
couraged, and environmental considerations will be integrated into all other policies.

In general, the concept of sustainability will increasingly drive environmental policy,

and, waste minimisation and recycling will be emphasised in this context.

A system for financing the costs of dealing with existing and future environmental
pollution, including damage caused by waste, is addressed by the Commission in a
discussion document entitled Green Paper on Remedying Damage to the Environ-
ment (COM (93) 47 (Final)) .

The Paper recommends that funds should be made available for environmental clean-
up, whether or not the polluter is proved to have acted illegally or negligently . In
cases where the polluter cannot be identified, or where the environmental damage is
caused by a large number of polluters, a joint fund will be used to finance the clean-
up of pollution .

Joint funds will be set up by different sectors of industry, and, when environmental
damage occurs, clean-up costs will be recovered from the sector of industry most
closely associated with that type of pollution . Funds for clean-up will be made avail-
able immediately , and the burden of paying for environmental damage will be shared.

The earliest of directives - the 1975 Directive 75/442/EEC on waste and the 1978
Directive 78/319/EEC on toxic and dangerous waste - to deal specifically with
waste management contained definitions of hazardous and non-hazardous wastes.
Subsequent Directive 75/442/EEC on waste was amended by Directive 91/156/EEC ,
and the list of defined wastes referred to in Article l(a) of the earlier directive was
established. Community Decision 93/3/EC on Hazardous waste, 91/689/EEC and
93/98/EEC, and Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their
Disposal (the Basel Convention) together amended Directive 78/319/EEC and estab-
lished the current EU lists of hazardous wastes .

Another important document, the Community Strategy for Waste Management (SEC/
89/934), published in 1989, identified the following priorities for waste management:

:r Prevention of waste .
:r Reuse and recycling of materials .
:r Optimisation of final disposal by regulating landfill and incineration facilities .
116

)0> Strict regulation of movement of waste according to the Basel Convention .

)0> Rehabilitation of contaminated sites including old landfills.

The Framework Directive 91/156/EEC defined waste management terms and also set
out responsibilities for waste management. According to this Directive the Member
States must:

)0> Prevent or reduce waste production through the adoption of clean technologies .
)0> Encourage recycling and reuse.
)0> Move towards self-sufficiency in waste management both within Member States
and within the EO.
)0> Prevent uncontrolled movement of waste.

The concept of the ' waste hierarchy' , first developed by the Strategy for Waste Mana-
gement, was reaffirmed and further refined in chapter 5.7 of the Fifth Environmental
Action Programme which sets out the waste management priorities in descending or-
der of desirability as:

);- Prevention of waste .

)0> Recycling and reuse of material.
)0- Safe disposal of waste by:
• Combustion as fuel.
• Incineration without energy recovery.
• Landfilling .

As mentioned earlier, the Basel Convention is another key regulatory instrument for
waste management. It was implemented by Regulation 259/93, ' Shipment of wastes
within, into and out of the European Community - supervision and control' which
incorporates the decision of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Deve-
lopment (OECD) on the control of trans-frontier movements of waste for recovery
operations . The movement of hazardous wastes is restricted, whilst trade in recyclable
materials between the developed OECD countries is allowed. For this trade waste has
been classified into three categories: the Red, Amber and Green lists that have been
adopted by the EC.

The Red list contains a small number of extremely hazardous materials such as PCBs.
The Amber list contains a number of less hazardous waste such as lead-acid batteries,
and the Green list consists of materials regarded by the OECD as non-hazardous .

Other important proposals concerned with waste management include a COM (91)
219: Civil Liability for Damage Caused by Waste. This far-reaching proposal, which
was approved by the European Parliament on 13 June 1990, aims to :

);- Establish a system whereby waste producers, or other persons directly responsible
for waste, bear the costs of any environmental damage caused by that waste . This
 117

would determine the true cost of waste management and eventually incorporate it
into the prices of the goods and services giving rise to the waste .

;,. Make the system of liability uniform throughout the EU so that waste does not
migrate to those countries where standards and/or regulation are the most lax.

;,. Enforce EC environmental law through the use of the civil courts.

The proposal covers wastes defined in the Framework Directive, but excludes nuclear
waste, waste oil, and domestic waste .

The basic principle is to make defined waste producers liable for damage to persons,
to property and to the environment caused by their waste. This liability continues un-
til the waste has been transferred to a licensed installation, establishment or under-
taking. Once the waste is at the licensed site, liability passes to the person responsible
for the site.

An important feature of this Directive is that it includes liability for damage to the
environment and public authorities, or to common interest groups such as non-
governmental organi sations, that would be able to initiate proceedings for damage to
the environment. Any action must be brought within three years of the date on which
the plaintiff became aware of the damage or of the identity of the waste producer. No
proceedings may be brought more than 30 years after the date of the event causing the
damage.

The Directive is intended to encourage producers to select carriers and waste contrac-
tors more carefully and to ensure adequate indemnities for producers once the waste
leaves their premises.

2.2 Prevention, recycling and recovery ofwaste

As stated above, prevention, recycling and recovery of wastes are the primary aims of
much of the EU legislation on waste.

The Community Strategy for Waste Management emphasises the value of pollution
prevention through waste prevention and minimisation . Evaluation of waste manage-
ment options using life-cycle analysis and ecological balances, along with incentives
to industry to develop products which generate the minimum waste in production and
distribution , are the recommended options.

Specific target s for waste management were set out in the document along with a
variety of mechanisms for achieving these targets including directives, cleaner tech-
nology, improved data collection, a liability system, and economic instruments and
incentives.
118

Waste minimisation and recycling are also implicit in the Integrated Pollution Preven-
tion and Control (IPPC) Directive 96/61. The purpose of this Directive is to ' prevent,
or where that is not practicable, to reduce emissions in the air, water and land inclu-
ding measures concerning waste, in order to achieve a high level of protection of the
environment taken as a whole ' .

A number of industrial processes are specified, and permission to carry out these pro-
cesses must be obtained from the enforcing authority who must ensure that the best
available techniques (BAT) are used to :

>- Prevent pollution .

>- Avoid waste production , recover waste, or, if these options are not practicable,
minimise the environmental impact of waste disposal.
Y Use energy efficiently.
);- Prevent or limit the consequences of accidents .
Y Avoid site contamination once a process ceases to operate .

Enforcing authorit ies are also required to promote recycling and recovery and mini-
mise the consumption of resources by the process .

Specific aspects of recycling and recovery are addressed by a number of Directives

and draft Directives aimed at implementing the principle of producer responsibility .
As an example, the Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive EEC 62/94, which
came into force in June 1996, requires Member States to minimise the environmental
impact of producer packaging and includes targets to be met before June 2001. These
are:

);- A minimum of50% recovery of total packaging waste .

);- A minimum of 25% of total packaging waste to be recycled with a minimum of
15% of each component.
y A maximum concentration for lead, cadmium, mercury and hexavalent chromium
of 100 mg/kg.

In addition, consumers must be given information on the return, collection and reco-
very systems including their role in the reuse, return and recycling processes.

Unfortunately, the targets for waste minimisation, recycling and reuse set by the vari-
ous pieces of EU legislation are not being met, and paragraph 33 of the Review of
Community Strategy for Waste Management COM 96/399 admits that "the Commu-
nity's achievements in prevention of waste generation are not satisfactory" , and that
"the quantity of waste produced has continued to grow" .
 119

2.3 Disposal ofwaste

In 1996 the Commission issued the new Community Waste Strategy (COM (96) 399)
to replace the 1989 document. In this review particular attention is paid to the failure
of disposal costs to reflect the true cost of environmental damage caused.

The Member States are required to ensure that the prices paid for disposal operations
take into account the cost to the environment as well as the cost of such elements as
closure and aftercare. This approach adopted in the review aims to restore the balance
between the high costs of recovery operations relative to the cost of disposal opera-
tions by taking into account the cost of environmental damage caused by disposal.

2.4 Disposal ofwaste to landfill

In the 1996 Community Waste Strategy, landfill is viewed as the option of last resort
with the recommendation that all wastes should be pre-treated and that only inert or
non-recoverable wastes be placed in landfills.

These recommendations are reflected in the Landfill Directive (COM (97) 105) of
April 1999. It replaced the 1993 draft Landfill Directive rejected by the European
Parliament in May 1996. Like its predecessor, the new proposal defines three classes
of landfill: for hazardous , non-hazardous and inert wastes. The following wastes are
to be banned from landfills:

~ Explosive, oxidising or flammable wastes.

~ Infectious clinical waste .
~ Tyres (whether whole or shredded).
~ Liquid wastes, except those suitable for disposal at an inert waste site.

All hazardous waste is to be treated before landfilling to reduce the hazardous charac-
ter of the waste. The Directive prohibits co-disposal of hazardous and non-hazardous
waste and requires that hazardous waste be placed only in designated hazardous waste
sites.

Member State should also reduce in the quantity by weight of 'biodegradable muni-
cipal solid waste ' disposed to landfills relative to the amount disposed in 1993 in a
three-stage process:

~ 75% of the 1993 level by 2002.

~ 50% of the 1993 level by 2005.
~ 25% of the 1993 level by 2010.

Biodegradable municipal solid waste (MSW) is defined as household waste together

with commercial, industrial, institutional and other waste which, because of its nature
or composition, is similar to waste from households. The Directive is aimed at redu-
120

cing the amount of biodegradable material landfilled, and the Member States will
have to begin monitoring the proportion of biodegradable materials in municipal
waste within two years of the Directive coming into force .

Waste management facilities will be regulated by a system of permits, and prices

charged for landfilling must meet all costs including financial security and aftercare
costs for a minimum of fifty years. Management and monitoring procedures for the
operational and aftercare phases of landfills are specified, and operators of existing
landfill sites must prepare a plan showing how their current sites will be brought up to
the standard within five years of the Directive coming into force.

The Directive requires that non-hazardous landfill sites must be at least 0.5 km from
residential areas, and hazardous sites at least 2 km. Soil and groundwater must be pro-
tected by lining the landfill with a barrier which satisfies thickness and permeability
(k) requirements equivalent to :

~ for hazardous sites: at least 5m, with k ~ I x 10.9 m.s"

~ for non-hazardous sites: at least Im with k ~ I x 10.9 m. S-1
~ for inert sites: at least lrn with k ~ I x 10- m.s"
7

Leachate must be collected at non-hazardous and hazardous sites, and any landfill gas
produced must be collected and either used to produce energy or flared. Environmen-
tal risk assessments must be carried out, and nuisance caused by waste and waste dis-
posal operations must be eliminated.

3. THE SUSTAINABLE LANDFILL

3.1 The landfill as a sustainable bioreactor

Although as a final disposal method landfill is at the bottom of the Ee hierarchy of
waste management options, it is by far the most widely used disposal route and will
continue to be used for many years to come. For example, in the UK approximately
90% of controlled waste is disposed to landfills, and, although continual raising of
environmental standards will cause landfill disposal costs to rise, it will nevertheless
continue to be an important waste management option.

Like its predecessor, the latest draft Landfill Directive has proved to be controversial,
especially in the Member States such as the UK where bulk of the municipal waste is
disposed of by landfilling. Whilst accepting the need for careful control of landfill
disposal, many of the Member States have opposed specific recommendations of the
Directive on the ground that modem techniques of landfilling can protect the envi-
ronment from significant damage .

The traditional model of a landfill as a permanent waste deposit, in which the pro-
cesses of decomposition are minimised, has given way to the concept of a controlled
 121

decomposition process managed as a large-scale bioreactor shown schematically in

Figure 1. This controlled bioreactor landfill is seen as being both flexible and cost-
effective, and a sustainable approach to current waste disposal problems , particularly
when combined with material recovery either before or after the biological treatment
step. Indeed, it may no longer be necessary to view landfilling as a disposal system at
all, but rather as a method of large-scale processing of waste combined with recovery
and recycling processes.

A multi-disciplinary approach to landfill management involving professional geotech-

nical engineers , geo-chemists, civil engineers and microbiologists, has lead to the
rapid development of the concept of landfilling as a sustainable technology. The fun-
damental aim of the 'sustainable landfill' is to optimise the natural degradation pro-
cesses in the waste, and to contain the products of degradation in order to prevent
pollution of the environment.

The bioreactor landfill requires the breakdown of the biodegradable fraction to be

controlled, and, in order to increase efficiency of the process, to be accelerated.

INPUTS PROCESS OUTPUTS

Microbiological activities
Dissolution
Precipitation
Adsorption and absorption
Filtration

Figure 1 The landfillas a biological, chemical and physical process.

The decomposition processes taking place in the waste deposited in a landfill depend
on the type of waste, particularly the proportion of degradable organic compounds
and on the water content. In general, high water content and a high proportion of bio-
degradable organic compounds leads to rapid microbial decomposition.
122

The anaerobic degradation of organic matter under anoxic conditions to methane and
carbon dioxide can be represented by the equation of Buswell and Hatfield :

c, n, o, Nd s, + [a-b/4-c/2+3d/4+e/2] Hp

JJ
[a/2+b/8-c/4-3d/8-e/4] C~ + [a/2-b/8+c/4+3d/8+e/4] CO2 + d NH3 + e H 2S

This equation predicts a yield of 50% CO2 and 50% C~ from carbohydrates and car-
bohydrate polymers, and it is reasonably accurate for in vitro studies of methanogenic
degradation . Some average elemental compositions of waste components are:

Municipal solid waste C99 H270S9 N

Paper C203 H 334 0\38 N
Food waste C6 H270 g N
Bacterial biomass Cs H7 O2 N

If the chemical composition and proportion of the biodegradable fraction of the waste
is known, it should be theoretically possible to use the Buswell equation to calculate
the potential yield of methane. In fact, the proportion of waste available for in situ bio-
degradation is very difficult to determine, and estimation of potential methane yield
using the equation is therefore not reliable.

The amount of water in the waste has a very large effect on the rate of gas formation.
For example, when the moisture content is 25-70 percent, the rate of gas formation in-
creases about 1000-fold (Rees and Grainger, 1982). This suggests that the moisture
content of the waste should be maximised to achieve rapid and complete waste decom-
position leading to gas formation and consequent waste stabilisation. The requirement
for high moisture content in the waste has important implications for the management
of sustainable landfills.

Figure 2 shows the sequence of decomposition and gas formation after the placement
of waste . The horizontal time-scale varies, and the time taken for gas formation and de-
composition to complete is usually of the order of decades. The aim of a sustainable
landfill management regime is to initiate methane formation quickly and achieve maxi-
mum rates of waste degradation as soon as possible after waste deposition. This opti-
mises the economics of methane recovery and stabilises the landfill so that the land can
be returned to amenity use, or the residual material extracted (referred to as 'landfill
mining ') and the void space reused for waste disposal. Landfill mining is a relatively
new concept which has been used on a commercial scale in the USA both to prolong
the life of given landfills and to recover marketable recyclables (Suflita et al., 1992).

Effective sustainable landfill management requires an appreciation of both the engi-

neering imperatives and the geo-biochemical processes that can, and do, occur in the
landfill environment.
 123

Phase II III IV V
100 - - - - - -
- - --- -
S::nlcmcnl
-- 100
Q)
:::J
"iii
>
E
:::J
E
.~ GO_ - GO

~
E
:::J 40 _ - 40
~
~
c:
~
Q)
a.. ~-~'-O

Time --+

of landfill
Figure 2 Microbial decomp osition processes in a landfill (schematic
sta bilisatio n, organic compon ents).

FATTY ACIDS
~ ALCOHO LS
KETONES FORMA TE

BIOPOL YMER
polysacc haride,
protein , lipid
1 SOLUBL E
PRODU CTS
sugars, amin 0
acids , fatty aci ds
-
2
3 I

FORMA TE
ACETAT E
....
..
ACETAT E
HYDRO GEN
CARBO N

~ HYDRO GEN 4
CARBO N
DIOXIDE

4 I
" t
AMMON IA METHA NE
CARBO N
DIOXIDE

that occur in a landfill.

Figure 3 A simplifie d represe ntation of the decomp osition processes
124

In the initial stages of decomposition the fraction of organic matter, which readily dis-
solves in the leachate, will be metabolised to carbon dioxide in oxygen-dependant
respiration. This process is rapid and causes oxygen concentration in the waste gas
phase to fall quickly to zero. In the absence of oxygen decomposition is taken over by
bacteria which carry out anoxic fermentative reactions leading to the formation of a
range of soluble, reduced organic compounds such as alkenic acids and alcohols as
well as hydrogen and carbon dioxide. During this stage of decomposition the leachate
becomes acidic, its pH falling to around 5. At this stage volatile fatty acids can be
found in the leachate . A simplified representation of the decomposition processes that
take place in landfill is shown in Figure 3.

3.2 Bacteria Responsiblejor Decomposition

The bacteria that catalyse the degradation reactions, leading to the formation of me-
thane and carbon dioxide, fall into four main functional groups :

Group 1: bacteria having the hydrolytic extracellular enzymes that are able to break
down insoluble polymers in the waste to smaller, soluble compounds which can be
absorbed into bacterial cells and metabolised. Cellulases, chitinases, amylases, lipa-
ses and proteases are examples of hydrolytic enzymes excreted by bacteria.

Group 2: fermentative bacteria able to metabolise the soluble products of hydrolysis;

amino acids, peptides, sugars, purines, pyrimidines to form fatty acids, alcohols, am-
monia (from amino acids), hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The lytic bacteria also form
part of this fermentative population, since they metabolise the products of their hy-
drolytic activities .

Group 3: the anaerobic fatty acid degrading bacteria, which oxidise long-chain fatty
acids such as propionic (C-3), butyric (C-4), valerie (C-5) and caproic (C-6) acid to
acetic acid (C-2) and hydrogen and carbon dioxide. This group is usually referred to
as the 'Obligate Hydrogen Oxidising Acetogens', or OHPAs.

Typical reactions of the OHPAs are butyrate and propionate degradation to acetate,
hydrogen and C02 .

CH3 CH2 CH2COOH + 2H20 -+ 2CH3 COOH + 2H2

CH3 CH2 COOH + 2H20 -+ CH3 COOH + CO2+ 3H2

These reactions are endothermic under standard conditions, and the OHPAs can only
grow in association with other bacteria capable of removing H2. They generally form
close associations with methane-forming (methanogenic) bacteria of group 4. These
associations , or consortia, are a key element in the decomposition of organic matter
 125

under anaerobic conditions, and their formation may be the rate-limiting step in the
establishment of methanogenesis in a landfill.

Group 4: the methanogenic bacteria are characterised , as their name suggests, by their
ability to synthesise methane . They require strictly anaerobic conditions to grow and
are quickly killed when exposed to oxygen. Restricted to such environments as sew-
age digesters, waterlogged soils, animal guts and sediments, they are able to metabo-
lise only a restricted number of compounds. Virtually alI of the methanogens des-
cribed can oxidise hydrogen to water, coupling it to the reduction of CO2 to methane.
The main reactions catalysed by the methanogens are:

Hydrogen oxidation

Formate dismutation

Aceticlastic methanogens can use hydrogen, methanol and methylamines. Most can
also use hydrogen, but there are some examples of obligate aceticlastic methanogens .

Acetate metabolism

Methylamine metabolism

The growth rates of methanogenic bacteria are generalIy low because the free energy
yields of the reactions they use for their energy metabolism are not high. A popula-
tion doubling time of 10 hours at 38°C is typical of many methanogens, and those that
utilise acetate grow even slower.

The affinity of the methanogens for hydrogen is high, and they are thought to rapidly
remove the hydrogen generated by the OHPA reactions, thus shifting the equilibrium
of fatty acid oxidation to the right. Thus, for example, oxidation of propionic acid is
carried out by a consortium consisting of an OHPA ( Reaction I ) and a methanogen
(Reaction II ) (see page 126). Whilst reaction I is endothermic under standard condi-
tions, the net reaction is thermodynamically favourable .

Acetate-using methanogens remove the acetate to make the reaction even more fa-
vourable. In addition to hydrogen, there is evidence to show that formate transfer is
126

an important mechanism for transferring reducing equivalents between the OHP A and
methanogenic populations.

I CH 3CH2COO- + 3Hp -+ CH 3COO' + HC0 3- + 3H 2 (ilGo/=+ 76 kJ)

II 4H 2 + HCO 3. + H+ -+ CH4 + 3H 2 0 (ilGo/= - 136.6 kJ)

Methanogenic bacteria tend to be inhibited by low pH and, if the initial fermentation

in landfill is too rapid, concentration of the acidic products offermentation can inhibit
final reactions preventing the development of a methanogenic population. The tempe-
rature and water content, as well as particle size of waste , all influence the rate of de-
velopment of the fermentative population, and care must be taken not to accelerate
the initial reactions to the point that methanogenesis fails. In a well-balanced system
the OHP A-methanogenic consortia are able to remove hydrogen and volatile acids as
rapidly as the are produced, and concentrations of these intermediates is low.

3.3 Other bacterial reactions and their significance

It is possible that metal reduction may be important in landfills. The reduction of iron
(III), and manganese (IV) by anaerobic bacteria during the oxidation of fermentation
products has been demonstrated. The reduction of iron (III) to iron (II) is coupled to
the oxidation of hydrogen, acetate, formate, lactate and pyruvate by various anaerobic
bacteria. Similarly, manganese (IV) reducing bacteria using the same electron donors
as in iron (III) redu cers and in fact most iron (III) reducing bacteria are also capable
of reducing Mn (IV) .

Although the landfill environment is likely to allow growth of these metal-reducing

bacteria since both Fe (III) and Mn (IV) are present in freshly deposited waste, they
have not been isolated from landfill waste . The presence of iron (III) and manganese
(IV) reducing bacteria may have important implications in the long-term functioning
of landfill drainage systems due to their ability to precipitate inorganic compounds
from leachate.

Nitrate and nitrite reducing bacteria may playa role in organic matter degradation in
landfills where the leachate contains high concentrations of these anions. In general ,
any nitrate or nitrite present in the waste will be leached into the soluble fraction and
reduced to nitrogen or ammonia soon after waste placement. Since both of these
anions inhibit methanogenic bacteria, methane formation will not occur until they
have been reduced.

Ammonia is an important product of the anaerobic degradation of nitrogen containing

organic matter such as proteins and DNA, and, since it accumulates under anaerobic
 127

conditions, ammonia concentrations frequently in excess of 1000 mg/l are an acknow-

ledged problem in landfillieachates from freshly deposited, actively degrading waste .

Bacteria, referred to as nitrifying bacteria, convert ammonia to nitrite, and then to ni-
trate in a two-step process:

Ammonia oxidation

Nitrite oxidation

Each reaction is carried out by a different group of bacteria and requires high concen-
trations of oxygen . Leachate has been successfully treated to remove ammonia by an
aerobic step, to oxidise it to nitrite and nitrate, followed by reduction of the nitrate to
dinitrogen as in Figure 4. Knox and Gronow (1995) described a system in which
leachate ammonia was oxidised to nitrate, which was subsequently reduced to dinitro-
gen in a reactor containing methanogenic waste . In this system methanogenesis and
nitrate reduction took place at the same time.

An anoxic mechanism for oxidising ammonia in wastewater digesters, the so-called

' Anamox System ' , has been described (Mulder et al., 1995) and may have potential
for removing ammonia from leachate .

BIO-POLYMER 1 SOLUBLE 2
polysaccharide, PRODUCTS CARBON
protein , lipid sugars, amino DIOXIDE
acids , tatty acids AMMONIA

NITRATE NITROGEN

Figure 4 Aerobic removal of ammonia from leachate

Sulphate and sulphur-reducing bacteria, sulfidogenic bacteria, are also widely distri-
buted in the anoxic zone oflandfills. Typically, in the presence of sulphate, these bac-
teria will oxidise both hydrogen and fatty acid products of the fermentative phase :

Hydrogen oxidation
128

Acetic acid oxidation

Propionic acid oxidation

2
4CH 3 C~ COO- + 3S04 - --+ 4C~ COO- + 4HC03- + 3HS- + W

Butyrate and straight-chain fatty acid oxidation

These sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB) have two potential effects on the anoxic de-
gradation processes in the landfill : formation of hydrogen sulphide, and the inhibition
of methane formation through competition for hydrogen and acetic acid (Figure 5)
Formation of insoluble sulphides of iron and other metallic ions in leachate immobi-
lises potentially toxic metals such as cadmium and chromium. Insoluble sulphides,
combined with magnesium and calcium carbonate deposits resulting from metabolic
carbon dioxide, may also contribute to clogging of drainage systems (Brune et al.,
1991; Rowe et al., 1997).

FATTY ACIDS
ALCOHOLS SULPHATE
KETONES
SOLUBLE
BIOPOLYMER 1 PRODUCTS
CARBON
polysaccharide, DIOXIDE
sugars , amino
protein , lipid
acids, fatty acids FORMATE
ACETATE
HYDROGEN SULPHIDE
CARBON
DIOXIDE

Figure 5 Decomposition processes that occur in a landfill in the presence of sulphate

3.4 Dehalogenation reactions

Several groups of bacteria, including sulphate-reducers and methanogens, are capable
of carrying out a type of reaction known as reductive dehalogenation. Some of these
bacteria are able to use this type of reaction for respiration in the absence of oxygen,
known as halorespiration (Sanford et al., 1996; McCarty 1997).
 129

For example, lactic acid oxidation can be coupled to the reduction of 3-chloro-4-hy-
droxybenzoate (3-CI-4-HB) to 4-hydroxy-benzoate (4-HB) by a sufidogenic bacte-
rium called desufitobacterium chlororespirans:

CH3 CHOH COOH + 3-Cl -4-HB ----> CH3 COOH + 4-HB + CO2 + HCl

Similar reactions, that have been shown to be responsible for the degradation of chlo-
rophenols, tetrachlorethene (PCE) and bromophenols, are most probably the reactions
by which a variety of other important environmental contaminants such as polychlo-
rinated biphenyls (PCBs) and hexachlorobenzene (HCB) are degraded in anoxic envi-
ronments . The removal of the halogen substituent from a molecule generally renders
the compound less toxic and more susceptible to subsequent degradation by aerobic
or anaerobic bacteria .

Household wastes contain minor components including chlorinated solvents such as

chloroform and trichloroethylene, wood preservatives such as pentachlorophenol,
pesticides such as 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) from
electrical equipment that may be largely degraded in the active methanogenic regions
of the landfill.

Another system of landfilling, which seeks to exploit the type of reaction described
above, is that of co-disposal. Co-disposal is the controlled deposit of toxic industrial,
wastes together with household waste that has become methanogenic. The industrial
waste is usually placed in pits excavated in the microbially active methanogenic
zones of the landfill, or buried at the working face where a suitable depth of mature
waste lies below . The xenobiotic compounds in co-disposed waste are decomposed
by the anaerobic reactions referred to above, although, in practice, the control of load-
ing rates is empirical, taking account of the adsorptive capacity of the parent waste
and the microbial activity .

Although anaerobic bacteria degrade some of these compounds, rates of decompo-

sition tend to be slow and the 1997 draft Landfill Directive will prevent co-disposal in
future . It is not possible therefore to consider co-disposal in the context of a practical
system of sustainable landfill operation .

4. DESIGN OF LANDFILL AS A BIOREACTOR

4.I Containment and drainage ofleachate

Both legislative pressure and best environmental practice require that leachate and
landfill gas are controlled in order to minimise their environmental impact. This, in
effect, requires that the landfill process is contained with landfill gas being burned to
130

carbon dioxide, and leachate treated to acceptable standards before being released
from the site.

Below the waste containment is achieved by lining the sides and bottom of the exca-
vation with artificial, impermeable liners that meet the permeability requirements of
the draft Landfill Directive for non-hazardous sites. That is, they must be equivalent
to a barrier at least 1m thick with k ~1 x 10-9 m/s. In modern contained sites this is
achieved by using composite liners that usually consist of high-density polyethylene
(HDPE) , often over a layer of soil mixed with bentonite clay.

Natural clay iners

WASTE

CLAY

SUBGRADE

Geomembrane liners

WASTE

GEOMEMBRANE

SUBGRADE

Bentonite/clay mixed liners

............................
...........................
'f/J-Jl_f/J_Jl_""."""""oI"
........................
"'eJ'."er/""'s',f/"'"
"'.r/'."'.r/'."'.
f/'.I/' ....
WASTE

--------------- SUBGRADEIBENTONITE MIXTURE

SUBGRADE

Composite liners
................
....................................
• 1/'.1/'. ...... .1
'\, ..
"'.1/'•.1.1/'.1/'.,/
.........................
."."'."'
...
•".,.,
~ ..
r/:."'.II'.r1
~
"'.."."....
...."'."'...."' ....,r!'."
':.~-:. ..
WASTE

GEOMEMBRANE
CLAY
SUBGRADE

Figure 6 Combinations ofgeomembran e and bentonite/clay liners.

 131

Figure 6 shows some of the combinations that are used for leachate containment. It
must be noted that these composite liner systems are expensive to install, and care
must be taken not to damage the geomembranes during waste placement.

In addition to containment, drainage systems are necessary to allow leachate manage-

ment. These are installed below the waste, on top of the lining system before waste is
placed. A geotextile protective layer is placed over the HDPE composite liner mem-
brane, and a drainage blanket consisting of graded aggregate is placed on top of that.
It is recommended by the US EPA that the drainage blanket should have a minimum
hydraulic conductivity of I x 10.4 m/sec and a thickness of at least 300 mm. A mini-
mum aggregate diameter of IO-I3mm is recommended although 16-32mm is prefer-
red. HDPE drainage pipes, preferably with circular perforations, are placed in the
aggregate and surrounded by a protective aggregate layer of mean diameter of 50
mm. Pipes of 150mm are frequently used, but for purposes of minimising silting and
ease of inspection and cleaning, pipe diameters of up to 300mm may be used.

A potential problem associated with the bioreactor landfill is clogging of the drainage
system due to microbial activity . Bacteria, originating from the landfill mass, can
colonise the landfill drainage layer, and, if sand or small-diameter aggregates are
used, bacterial growth will reduce the permeability of drainage systems due both to
accumulated biomass and to the metabo lic co-precipitation of insoluble salts from the
leachate . (Brune et al., 1991). Paksy et at. (1998) have demonstrated that, as long as
the aggregate used in the drainage system has a OlO of at least IOmm (i.e. a nominal
size range of 10 to 20mm), bacterial clogging is unlikely to be a serious problem over
reasonable operating periods .

4.2 Properties ofwaste

Various properties of waste are important in determining waste placement and opera-
tional methods . The most significant properties in most cases are :

~ Waste density on deposition and after compaction .

~ Physical properties such as particle size, moisture content and porosity .
~ Chemical composition.
~ Biodegradability.

These variables interact to various degrees and at different times after waste place-
ment. Waste settles as it decomposes, and this must be taken into consideration in the
management of the site. Inert wastes, such as waste ash, have a specific density of
around 1.5 tonne/rrr', and this does not change with time . However, in the sustainable
bioreactor landfill these wastes require few special site management practices after
deposition . Typical municipal waste, compacted to around I tonne/nr' using heavy
compactors, will lose a further 10 percent or more of the compacted volume during
biodegradation. Also, differential settling of waste may cause failure of impermeable
landfill caps .
132

The particle size of waste has important effects on the rate of bacterial degradation
and also on hydraulic conductivity . Both mechanical pulverisation before placement
and microbial degradation decrease particle size. Smaller particle size increases the
surface area available for bacterial activity, increasing the rate of gas formation, but
below about 30m depth in the landfill the hydraulic conductivity of pulverised waste
is reduced significantly (Walker et al., 1997).

The effect of degradation in altering the density, moisture content and permeability of
the waste to both gas and water is an important consideration in the bioreactor sys-
tem. Because, efficient management of the system requires that fluids be extracted
from and circulated around the bulk waste phase.

Waste placement methods, cell size, design of drainage and leachate circulation sys-
tems are all critical engineering decisions that must be made with reference to the
effects of the degradation activities which take place in the waste .

4.3 Leachate management

In general, fresh refuse will contain some water, but will not be saturated . The water
content (w or WCdry) of the refuse, as deposited, is referred to as the ' original water
content' . It is defined as in conventional soil mechanics as the ratio of the mass of
water to the mass of dry solids, and determined using conventional methods of soil
mechanics. Sometimes water content is also expressed in terms of the ratio of the
mass of water to the total mass of water and solids (WCwet) , or as the ratio of the
volume of water to the total volume of air, solids and water (WCvol).

After landfilling, the water content of the waste may increase due to the absorption of
water by components such as paper, cardboard and textiles. Beyond a certain limit -
known as the total absorptive capacity of the waste - the addition of any further
water would lead to the production of an equivalent volume of free-draining pore
fluid which wiII tend to move downward under the influence of gravity towards a
'water table ' below which (in the absence oflandfill gas production) the waste would
be substantially saturated .

Refuse is referred to as being at 'field capacity' when its total absorptive capacity has
been fully utilised and conditions of free downward drainage established . Total ab-
sorptive capacity and field capacity can be determined by flooding the refuse from the
bottom of the sample, and then allowing it to drain. This procedure also enables the
determination of the drainable porosity of the refuse, ne (defined as the volume of
drainable voids per unit total volume), at field capacity.

Thus, leachate is composed of the endogenous moisture in the deposited waste and
the water passing through the waste mass. The concentrations and types of soluble
chemicals in the leachate depend both on the type of waste, method of operation of
 133

the site, and on the length of time the waste has been deposited. Leachate from fresh-
ly deposited municipal solid waste contains a high proportion of readily degradable
organic matter; it can also contain heavy metals , mineral oils and traces of persistent
organic compounds such as halo-organic pesticides.

The main sources of liquid input to a landfil1 site are rainfall, groundwater, surface
water, and liquids contained in the wastes. The main losses of liquid from a landfil1
site are through:

Y Evaporation associated with landfil1 gas .

Y Evapotranspiration by plant cover.
Y Leachate leaving the site by infiltrating through the bottom and sides into ground-
water or surface water.
Y Leachate removed by the site operator.

Because leachate contains high concentrations of potential pollutants, its control and
treatment is a major management concern . The need for controlling water balance
within a landfil1 was recognised in the 1970s to be of primary importance.

Water balance calculations to estimate the likely amounts of leachate are required to
ensure that the liquid input does not exceed the total capacity of the leachate collec-
tion, treatment and ultimate removal systems . A simple water balance equation is
used for this :

Q=I-E-aW
in which

Q = free leachate generated (m3/yr)

I = total liquid input including liquid waste (m3/yr)
E = evaporative losses (m 3 /yr)
a = absorptive capacity (nr'rtonne)
W= weight of waste deposited (tonne/yr)

The total liquid input is given by:

I = (P x A) + L

in which
P = annual rainfal1 (m/yr)
A = average annual uncapped surface area (nr')
L = liquid input in solid waste + liquid waste (m3/yr)

Free leachate in the system will be prevented if

I-E <aW
134

It is usual to ignore evaporative losses to give a safety factor in calculating the accept-
able total liquid input.

The absorptive capacity of waste, a, is defined as the volume of liquid that the waste
wiIl absorb before leachate drains out under gravity. Liquid is held within the waste
both by the capillary forces in smaIl voids and in larger voids that will drain under
gravity. Absorptive capacity depends on the density of the waste and on the moisture
content on placement. In general, the denser the waste, the lower the absorption capa-
city. Absorptive capacity has been found to vary from about 0.1 m3ftonne at a waste
density of 0.7 tonne/rrr' , to 0.02 to 0.03 m3ftonne at 1.0 tonne/rrr' (CampbeIl, 1982;
Stegmann , 1982).

4.4 Leachate recirculation

In recent years the driving principle of landfiIl management in both Europe and the
USA has been to prevent saturation of the waste in order to reduce the potential for
leachate leaking into the surrounding ground . This has resulted in very slow rates of
waste degradation and leaching . Consequently, removal of the pollution load from the
waste occurs very slowly so that landfiIls retain the potential to pollute over a time-
scale measured in hundreds of years.

Innoculation at methanogenic phase

r--- High BOD leachate
-.
•
•I
Fresh waste I
High-strength I
leachate produced I
I
1.0.. BOll
!t ach.l.

Figure 7 Leachate recirculation for removal of dissolved organic matter.

In the sustainable bioreactor, leachate draining from the waste mass is recirculated as
shown schematicaIly in Figure 7, and this serves a number of related functions :

~ it ensures that a high moisture content is maintained throughout the waste mass,
encouraging waste degradation and methane formation .
>- it acts as an inoculum, transferring bacteria from methanogenic waste to freshly
deposited waste, thus accelerating the establishment of methanogenesis.
 135

? it acts as a leachate treatment system by passing leachate containing high concen-

trations of volatile acids through methanogenic zones established in the waste and
the drainage blanket .

Data compiled by Rees and Grainger (1982) on small-scale systems suggest that the
rate of gas formation increases exponentially as the water content of the waste is in-
creased, and that increasing the moisture content increases gas production .

At the Brogborough landfill in the United Kingdom, addition of water to test cells of
15,000 tonnes waste capacity was found to increase the rate of gas production over
that in a control cell to approximately 18 m3 .tonne-lyr"1 (Knox and Gronow, 1995).
In the 'Landfill 2000 ' trials conducted by WRc, UK, leachate was circulated through
a cell containing 1000 tonnes of domestic waste, whilst another similar cell served as
a non-circulated control. The rate of gas production in the leachate recirculation cell
was 18.1 m3tonne-lyr"I compared with 8.3 m3tonne- 1.yr"1 in the control cell. Circula-
tion of leachate also produced a more stabilised waste with 56% of the degradable
fraction having been converted to landfill gas after four years compared with only
22% in the control (Blakey et al., 1997). Similar enhancement of gas formation by
leachate recirculation has been observed in test cells in Yolo County, California. Gas
production rates of 102 m3 .yr -I.tonne-I dry mass in the cell with leachate recirculation ,
and 58.7 m3yr -ltonne-l dry mass in the non-recirculated cell, were observed .

Data emerging from full-scale recirculation landfills, reviewed by Reinhart (1996),

support the enhanced gas production rates and accelerated stabilisation found in pilot
and laboratory-scale systems.

As well as accelerating gas production, recirculation through waste and drainage sys-
tems can be used to remove organic compounds from leachate (Pavan et al., 1995) .
Using a mechanically sorted organic fraction of municipal solid waste as bacterial
support, leachate treatment rates of 50 to 60 I.m-3(re actor VOlume).day-l were achieved with
a total volatile solid (TYS) loading rate of8 .31 kg.TYS.m-3 .daf l . Robinson and Sturz
(1996) showed that non-gassing stabilised landfill waste in a 601lysimeter behaved as
a fixed-bed anaerobic bioreactor , rapidly converting volatile fatty acids in added
leachate to methane and CO2 Peeling (1998) observed complete conversion of vola-
tile fatty acids to methane and carbon dioxide under anoxic conditions in landfill
drainage models, and was also able to demonstrate the complete microbial degrada-
tion of pentachlorophenol under similar condition s (Peeling et al., 1997) .

Leachate recirculation is also an aid in the ' flushing' of contaminants that are not de-
graded from solid waste under prevailing conditions . This has led to the concept of
the ' flushing bioreactor' in which leachate is passed through a landfill to accelerate
degradation, whilst contaminants that do not degrade are removed by flushing
(Walker et al., 1997). In a pilot field study ammonia and total organic carbon (TOC)
were removed from freshly deposited waste by passing partly treated leachate through
the waste layer (Knox and Gronow, 1995).
136

There is no doubt that degradation of waste can be accelerated by circulating fluids

through the waste in a controlled manner and by operating landfills as engineered
flushing bioreactors. However, its successful implementation requires an understand-
ing of the factors governing the hydraulic properties of wastes, their impact on the
flow of fluids within the waste mass, and how they may change with increasing effec-
tive stress.

Quantification of the hydraulic properties and geotechnical behaviour of landfilled

waste is complex. This is partly because of the variable, deformable and degradable
nature of its constituents , and partly because the material is often in an unsaturated
state with gas, liquid and solid phases present. The field capacity of the refuse, which
is defined as the equilibrium water content (mass of water to mass of dry solids) at a
certain vertical stress under conditions of free vertical drainage, represents a useful
reference state.

Although the concepts of conventional soil mechanics offer a convenient framework

within which the behaviour of wastes can be described and understood, the appli-
cability of certain standard theories may need to be reconsidered in the light of the
significant increase in particle density that occurs with increasing stress.

A compression test on a non-degraded unsaturated waste at field capacity has demon-

strated the variability of the actual and dry density and drainable porosity (drainable
void volume porosity) with vertical stress (Powrie and Beavan, 1999). For example,
the drainable porosity of domestic refuse fell from 14.7% to less than 2% at an ave-
rage vertical stress of approximately 480 kPa. The test also showed that the hydraulic
conductivity of saturated domestic waste, such as that would be expected near the
base of a landfill, could decrease from around 10-5 m/s to around 10-8 m/s between
placement and burial to a depth of 60 m due to compression effects alone.

4.5 Gas management

The use of composite liners over the bottom and sides of the landfill contains landfill
gas as well as leachate . Before landfill capping became a common practice, methane
and carbon dioxide generated from bacterial decomposition of waste diffused through
the surface into the atmosphere, and through the sides and bottom of the landfill into
the groundwater or soil. Landfills were capped to control the formation of leachate
due to the ingress of rainwater, and this led to the recognition of the serious environ-
mental hazards caused by landfill gas, including:

);- Risk of explosion where methane accumulates in a confined space.

);- Risk of asphyxiation where atmospheric oxygen is displaced.

Impermeable HDPE membranes are being used under soil to cap landfills, as shown
typically in Plate 1. In uncapped or partially capped landfills active extraction has
been used to prevent gas migration. Active extraction can draw air through permeable
 137

caps into the digesting waste, thus inhibiting methanogenesis. Disruption of the ver-
tical extraction wells by structural damage caused by landfill settlement and flooding
with leachate are two important problems which cause difficulties in gas extraction
systems . In the contained bioreactor system passive gas migration through permeable
layers avoids the difficulties associated with active extraction.

Plate I An exampleofthe use ofHDPE membranes in landfills

In the test cells in Yolo County shredded tyres have been used to construct gas ex-
traction systems with some success . The results of gas extraction trials there suggest
that it may be possible completely to dispense with vertical extraction wells by pla-
cing a 600 mm thick layer of shredded tyres under the surface of the HDPE landfill
cap. The horizontal gas collection system was combined with a leachate infiltration
system similarly filled with shredded tyres . This technical innovation is environmen-
tally desirable from the point of view of providing a use for waste tyres that would
also reduce the need for gravel extraction.

The methane and carbon dioxide generated in a bioreactor landfill can be burned for
space heating, or used in modified internal combustion engines to generate electricity .
The value of the landfill gas as a fuel can be set against the cost of construction and
operation of the waste treatment facility.

5. CONCLUDING REMARKS

The cost of disposing waste to landfill varies widely across the ED reflecting varia-
tions in the market place, in local regulations, and site availability. As discussed, the
138

development of environmental laws in the ED and other factors will cause waste dis-
posal costs in Europe to continue to increase . The need for environmental protection
requires containment systems, such as composite liners, gas abstraction, leachate col-
lection, and treatment and monitoring. In addition to the cost of these technologies,
there is the cost of indemnity against damage to the environment. All of these costs
mean that disposal to landfill will not continue to be a cheap waste disposal option .

Transport costs, which have a major effect on waste management strategy, have al-
ready led to the development of larger sites with void volumes of several million
cubic metres . This, in turn, is leading to the development of waste collection systems
that are based on waste handling at bulk transfer stations where waste is compacted to
reduce transport costs. These transfer stations also have potential for development as
waste processing and separation facilities .

Another important strategic consideration is the effect that increased recycling, reuse
and pre-treatment will have on the composition of the waste stream . The composition
of waste will change at rates that are difficult to predict, and so waste management
authorities will have to take changes in planning disposal facilities into account. In
this context landfill bioreactors have potential for providing a flexible, environmen-
tally acceptable approach to waste disposal for some decades to come.

In future systems for sorting, shredding and placement of waste , including conveyor
belts, are likely to be developed on the landfill site itself. Such systems will provide a
means of controlling the bulk density , composition and moisture content of the waste
placed in the cells and could also be used to inoculate the waste with appropriate bac-
terial populations from leachate or solids. Indeed, it may not be fanciful to consider
integrated waste management systems comprising separation, landfilling and com-
bined heat and power incineration facilities sited in close proximit y to each other,
perhaps also combining wastewater treatment as well as associated sludge disposal
facilities .

Thus, although there is legislative and economic pressures to reduce landfilling, the
development of a practical bioreactor technology of the kind described will allow for
a transitional approach to landfill disposal that will continue to be an important waste
management alternative in many countries for the medium-term.

REFERENCES

Blakey, N, Bradshaw, K, Reynolds P and Konx, K (1997), ' Bioreactor landfill- a field trial
of accelerated waste stabilisation', in Proc. Sixth International Landfill Symposium , (Eds.)
T.H. Christensen, R.Cossu and R Stegman, Cagliari, Italy, Vol. I, pp. 375-385.
Brune, M, Ramke, H.G, Collins, H.J and Hanert, H.H (1991), 'Incrustation processes in
drainage systems of sanitary landfills', in Proc. Third International Landfill Symposium,
(Eds.) T.H. Christensen, R.Cossuand R Stegman, Cagliari, Italy, Vol. I, pp. 999-1035.
 139

Campbell, DJ.Y (1982), 'Absorptive capacity of refuse - Harwell research " in Proc. Se-
cond Harwell Landfill Symposium on Landfill Leachate, ETSU, Harwell Laboratories,
Department of Energy, United Kingdom.
McCarty, P.L (1997), ' Breathing with chlorinated solvents' , Science , Yol. 276, pp. 1521-
1522.
Sanford, R.A, Cole, J.R, Loffler, F.E and Teidje, J.M (1996), 'Characterisation of Desufito-
bacterium chlororespirans sp. nov. which grows by coupling the oxidation of lactate to the
reductive dechlorination of 3-chloro-4-hydroxybenzoate ', Applied Environmental Micro-
biology, Yol. 62, pp. 3800-3808 .
Knox, K and Gronow, J.R (1995), 'Pilot scale study of denitrification and contaminant flush-
ing during prolonged leachate recirculation', in Proc. Fifth International Landfill Sympo-
sium, (Eds.) TH. Christensen, R.Cossu & R Stegman, Cagliari, Italy, Yol. II, pp.681-690.
Mulder, A.A, van de Graaf, A., Robertson, L.A and Kuenen, lG (1995), 'Anaerobic ammo-
nium oxidation discovered in a denitrifying fluidised bed reactor', FEMS Microbial Ecol,
Vol. 16, pp. 177-184.
Paksy, A, Peeling, L, Robinson, lP and Powrie, W (1998), ' A laboratory investigation into
the susceptibility of granular landfill drainage media to microbial clogging' , Geotechnique ,
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Pavan, P, Musacco, A, Battistoni, P, Mata-Alvarez, J and Cecchi, F (1995), ' Leachate treat-
ment through thermophilic anaerobic co-digestion with MSW' , in Proc. Fifth International
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Peeling, L (1998), Landfill Drainage as a Fixed-bed Bioreactor, PhD Thesis, University of
London, pp. 195.
Peeling L, Robinson, J. P, Paksy, A and Powrie, W (1997), ' Degradation of Pentachlorophe-
nol in landfill drainage systems' , in Proc. Sixth International Landfill Symposium , (Eds.)
TH . Christensen, R.Cossu and R. Stegman, Cagliari, Vol. I, pp. 219-228.
Powrie, W and Beavan, R.P (1999), 'Hydraulic properties of household waste and implica-
tions for landfills' , in Proc. Institution ofCivil Engineers, Geotechnical Engineering, Vol.
137, pp. 235-247.
Rees, J and Grainger, lM (1982), ' Rubbish dump or fermenter? Prospects for the control of
refuse fermentation to methane in landfills' , Process Biochemistry, Yol. 17, pp. 4 I-44.
Reinhart, D. R (1996), ' Full-scale experiences with leachate recirculating landfills - case
studies' , Waste Management & Research, Vol. 14, pp. 347-365.
Robinson, lP and Sturz, H (1996), 'Removal of volatile fatty acids from leachate by bacteria
in landfill waste' , in Proc. Third International Conf erence on Environmental Pollution
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L pp. 283-289 .
Rowe R.K, Fleming, I.R, Armstong, M.D, Cooke, AJ, Cullimore, D.R, Rittmann, B.E, Ben-
net, P.T and Longstaffe, FJ (1997), 'Recent advances in understanding the clogging of
leachate collection systems ' , in Proc. Sixth International Landfill Symposium , (Eds.) TR
Christensen, R.Cossu and R Stegman, Cagliari, Yol. I, pp. 383-390.
Stegmann, R (1982), 'Absorptive capacity of refuse - West German research' , in Proc.
Second Harwell Waste Management Symposium on Landfill Leachate , ESTU Harwell,
Harwell Laboratories, Department of Energy, United Kingdom, pp.12.
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'The world's largest landfill - a multidisciplianry investigation', Environ. Science and
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140

Walker, A.N, Beavan, RP and Powrie, W (1997), ' Overcoming problems in the development
of a high-rate flushing bioreactor landfill', in Proc. Sixth International Landfill Symposium,
(Eds.) T.H. Christensen, R.Cossu and R. Stegman, Cagliari, Italy, Vol. I, pp. 397-408.
 MATERIALS RECYCLING - STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT AND
CONDITIONS FOR ECONOMIC VIABILITY

BERNARD DE CAEVEL* and ALFONS BUEKENS t

* RDC Brussels - Environmental Consultan ts, Boulevard Bockstael 230, I 020 Brussels, Belgium.
E-M ail: [email protected]
t Department ofindustrial Chemistry, Free University ofBrussels, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Bruss els, Belgium.

ABSTRACT

Material recycling (MR.) is attractive for society because it reduces the use of resources and the amount
of waste generated for disposal. Although theoretically the environmental benefits of MR are obvious,
currently it is not being applied widely. The reason for the slow development of MR is economic - it
simply costs more to recycle than to use virgin raw materials. This situation will continue as long as
the costs of environmental impacts are not fully integrated into the cost calculations of all the stake-
holders such as producers, converters, users, recyclers, and waste operators.

Since the end of the war prices of both raw materials and energy have steadily declined in real terms,
albeit with some temporary exceptions caused by political or supply problems . Cheap raw materials,
combined with mass production techniques, have made cheap final products possible. The low intrinsic
cost of landfilling, which is still a low-eost solid waste management option, makes waste disposal con-
siderably cheaper than reuse or recycling. This is mainly because selective collection , handling , sorting
and intermediate storage of waste for MR is labour-intensive. Furthermore , the quality of goods manu-
factured from recycled materials is often much lower than when virgin material is used in production.
Consequently, they have fewer market outlets compared to goods made with virgin raw materials.

The development of MR is also being thwarted by the absence of a scale-effect, limited outlets and low
demand, as well as insufficient prospects for research. In practice only those materials (such as gold,
lead, iron and steel, and some other metals), whose properties are not degraded by recycling, are now
being recycled in large quantities . Large quantities of some of the lower-quality recycled mass pro-
ducts, such as hygienic paper for which there is a strong demand, are also being produced . There is
thus a 'vicious circle' operating to inhibit the wider development of MR.

Thus. a strategic management to promote MR depends on the creation of structurally sound economic
conditions. It is argued that MR would attract necessary investment only when the aforementioned
'vicious circle ' is replaced by a 'virtuous circle ' characterised by a growing scale-effect that would en-
sure regular and reliable supply of goods of the right quality and quantity made from recycled mate-
rials. It is also argued that a strategic management plan to favour MR should comprise the following :
(a) an integrated approach to MR to facilitate the involvement of operators from both virgin and recy-
cling systems: (b) creation of stable conditions for long-term investment in progranunes to promote
MR; and (c) inputs and actions from competent authorities to facilitate the creation of the 'virtuous
circle ' via demand- side management (in order mainly to create a guaranteed minimum demand and for
demonstrating MR).

Keywords: solid; waste ; municipal; industrial; management ; strategic; recycling; materials ; economics;
industry; sustainable ; waste stream ; consumers ; instruments.

141
B. Nath et al. (eds.}, Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region, 141-156.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
142

1. INTRODUCTION

A relentlessly growing amount of waste is being generated world-wide as a result of

improving standards of living and societal evolution. It is indeed a sign of our time
that the increasingly widespread use of 'disposable' goods has given rise to what is
called the 'throw-away' society.

Clearly, when waste is landfilled or incinerated, a potential source of raw material is

lost, air and/or water pollution is created, and landfill space (meaning space that could
otherwise be utilised more gainfully) is used up. Material recycling (MR) permits the
avoidance of these environmental problems, at least in part. Recycling also creates
jobs mainly for people with low educational attainment. Thus MR is an attractive
means to evolve towards a sustainable society, even though there are on-going dis-
cussions on the environmental benefits and advantages of MR when extremely high
recycling rates are to be achieved (RDC-Brussels et al., 1997). This has led the Euro-
pean Union, for example , to examine the costs and benefits of several levels of recy-
cling rates for (packaging) materials in each of its Member States . The results of this
study are not expected before the end of the year 2000 .

At present MR is operating at far below its potential level, however, and the reason
for this is that, in general, MR is an unprofitable process . New MR methods and pro-
cesses survive only because of legal obligation and/or public pressure. Indeed, the
total cost of the recycling chain - which involves selective collection, sorting and/or
dismantling, and recycling or disposal of the sorted fractions - largely exceeds the
sales revenue plus the saved waste management cost.

From an economic point of view, MR is confronted with four main problems:

>- High operating cost.

>- Low value, weak demand and limited outlets for goods made from recycled mate-
rials resulting in unrewarding sales revenue .
>- Low, or too low, savings in waste management cost realised through recycling .
>- Avoided cost is often not credited to those that actually avoided such costs .

Some of the causes of these problems, and their possible solutions, are discussed in
this paper with a view to promoting MR and making it profitable .

2. ECONOMIC AND STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF THE

RECYCLING INDUSTRY

Compared to the production of virgin raw materials, at present the recycling sector is
only a small industrial sector. The relative size of a given MR operation is determined
 143

by the nature of the material to be processed. For example, while the recycling of ma-
terials listed under Group A is well developed , recycling of Group B materials is not.

Group A: recycling of the following materials is now well developed and traditional :
iron and steel, non-ferrous metals, and precious metals. And to a lesser extent textiles,
plastics and rubber, paper, vegetable oil and animal fats, and glass .

These materials can be recycled economically because :

y Production cost relating to recycling is relatively attractive when compared to the

production of virgin materials.
y The molecular structure of the material is not altered by recycling so that often a
quality similar to that of the virgin material can be obtained .

It is to be noted, however, that some of the materials cannot be recycled because of

their dissipative use; for example, zinc from the zinc coating in steel products used
for protection against corrosion .

The case of paper is slightly different, however. Recycled paper is cheaper than that
made from virgin fibres, but both its mechanical and optical qualities are lower due to
the shortening of fibres during refining and also due to the presence of contaminants.
The 'quality/price ' ratio of recycled paper is generally less favourable than that made
from virgin fibres.

Even so, paper recycling is economically viable because there is a sufficiently strong
demand for low-quality paper and board for which the mechanical properties of virgin
paper are not required. Furthermore, production of recycled paper is being stimulated
by the growing demand for all kinds of green products, recycled paper being one of
the symbols of those products .

Group B: currently recycling is applied only to a limited extent for post-consumer

plastics, rubber, and building rubble and demolition waste. This is because MR is not
an economically viable proposition for these materials at present .

In the case of plastics it is possible to limit the degradation of the polymeric structure,
but the loss of quality originates from the mixing of plastics that can occur in one or
more of the following ways:

y Mixing different types of plastics such as PE, PP, PET, PVC, PMMA, PS, etc.
Y Mixing plastics of different grade . For example, for the same plastic like HDPE,
there are different grades that correspond to different flow behaviour linked to the
distribution ofthe polymer chain length .
Y Mixing of plastics containing different additives such as plasticisers, lubrifiers,
pigments , flame retardants, etc.
144

Moreover, the presence of even small amounts of other materials, which is difficult to
avoid, can have dramatic consequences. For example, small pieces of metals can seri-
ously damage plastic processing machines, and this makes plastic processors reluctant
to use recycled plastic even when it could reduce their raw material costs .

3. REASONS FOR THE ECONOMIC UNVIABILITY OF RECYCLING

The condition for the economic viability of recycling can be expressed by:

RC «SR+WM) (1)
RC = (SC + S + R) (2)
in which
RC = cost of the recycling chain.
SC cost of selective collection.
S cost of sorting and/or dismantling.
R cost of recycling.
SR sales revenue.
WM saved waste management cost .

Clearly, RC in equation (2) denotes the total cost of recycling including those of se-
lective collection, and sorting and/or dismantling. According to equation (1), a given
recycling operation will be economically viable only if the revenue generated from
the sale of the recycled material, plus the saved cost of waste management, is greater
than the total cost of the recycling chain, RC.

Note that the recycling process itself can also be regarded as a chain involving clean-
ing, washing, milling, filtering, purifying, reconditioning and finally reprocessing into
(semi-) products.

In a market economy MR will only develop if the condition of equation (1) is satis-
fied . Therefore, if the public authorities wish to promote MR, they should develop a
suitable mix of organisational, normative, economic and informative measures. These
measures will need to influence the market in such a way that, directly or indirectly,
the condition of equation (1) is satisfied. The objective of these measures will be to
address the four main problems listed in section 1. We will discuss below the techni-
cal and organisational aspects of those four problems in greater detail.

3.1 High cost ofthe recycling chain

The high cost of this chain (SC, Sand R) is explained by the following :

(a) Labour-intensive (and therefore costly) selective collection and sorting: in

western Europe the average cost of (SC + S) for packaging waste amounts to
 145

about 0.35 Euro/kg, or about 50 percent of the price of the virgin material (costs
would be much lower in the countries of the Southern Black Sea Region where
labour costs are lower). But this is an extreme case because packaging waste is
very light. Collection of denser wastes (such as cars, television sets, clothes, etc.)
would be much cheaper per unit of weight .

Mass production allows appreciable scale-effects , while distribution to individu-

al consumers leads to a large dispersion (or entropy) of the products . Once the
products become waste, they have to be collected from dispersed sources (indi-
vidual consumers) and grouped for recycling based on type of material.

(b) Availability in small amount s: the amounts of waste available for collecting, sor-
ting and recycling are relatively small, and, consequently, the 'scale-effect' is
limited.

(c) Unpredictability of waste composition: due to the diversity of materials in the

waste, recycling processes cannot always be designed and optimised for a well
defined stream composition . So, a variety of impurities must be catered for. As
the output must meet a certain quality standard, there must be appropriate purifi-
cation and quality control mechanisms built into the recycling process . This ma-
kes recycling processes complex and adds to their cost.

(d) Lack ofguarantee ofsupply : the supply of waste materials to a recycling facility
cannot be guaranteed because waste composition changes rapidly, or the waste
streams disappear because of preventive actions, or because they end up in alter-
native destinations , etc. As a result, investors cannot be sure of whether the
supply of materials needed for recycling could be sustained in the long-term . It is
for this reason that:

);.- Investments must have a short pay-back period, and this makes the fixed
costs of sorting/dismantling and recycling processes high.

);.- The research budget is limited with little or no investment in high technolo-
gy. As a result, processes are not optimised to the degree possible or nece-
ssary, neither are they energy efficient or automated . And so the processes
continue to be labour-intensive with a high operating cost.

3.2 Low sales revenue

From the technical point of view, the so-called ' secondary raw materials ' are much
less attractive than virgin materials for a number of reasons described below :

(a) Poor and variable quality of the recycled materials: this problem occurs mainly
with post-consumer waste . It is much less of a problem with industrial waste,
especially production waste .
146

(b) Variahle characteristics of waste collected selectively for recycling: the charac-
teristics of wastes collected selectively vary considerably depending on the sour-
ce (but this is not so in the case of ores and petrochemical products that usually
have stable composition and characteristics) . Consequently, the suppliers cannot
obtain, and therefore cannot guarantee, a standard quality to the converter. This
makes the latter suspicious and even reluctant to buy recyclable wastes or pro-
cess them.

(c) 'Commercial risks ' ofproducts made of recycled materials: these risks emanate
from the fact that often the recycled product does not have the same colour or
odour of the product made from virgin material with which consumers are fami-
liar. Even if the key mechanical and chemical properties of the recycled product
could be guaranteed, a strange, unfamiliar or different colour or odour can make
consumers suspicious about the product's other qualities, and this can be a seri-
ous marketing handicap.

It is for these reasons that recycled products are generally less attractive than when
virgin raw materials are used in production, and this helps explain the price difference
between them which is often quite large.

3.3 Waste management is not efficient from an environmental point of view and is
therefore cheap
If not recycled, waste has to be collected, transported and usually landfilled or some-
times incinerated . Because the technical operations of waste management facilities
are simple (especially in the countries of the Southern Black Sea Region), the costs of
disposing waste to such facilities is generally low, sometimes very low. In particular,
dumping is much cheaper than disposing to well-managed, well-constructed and re-
gulated landfill sites.

The higher costs of a modern sanitary landfill would motivate waste producers to re-
duce the amount they would otherwise dispose to it.

3.4 The saved waste management costs are not passed on to those responsible for
saving such costs
In theory, the saved costs of these activities should act as an incentive for recycling.
In practice, however, it is not so. The 'polluter pays' principle is not yet applied as
widely or rigorously as it ought to be. Indeed, waste management costs are largely
supported by the public authorities , and not by the recycling chain. So, by definition,
the savings are not reported to the recycling chain.

If, on the other hand, the recycling chain were managed and financed by public autho-
rities, the saved costs would normally be taken into consideration in the economic
 147

evaluation of the recycling chain. But this may not always be the case, because waste
management costs are often supported by local or regional authorities while recy-
cling projects are organised at the national level. So, the national authorities might
ignore the saved costs in their analysis and decision-making.

4. CREATING CONDITIONS FOR THE ECONOMIC VIABILITY OF

MR IN A MARKET ECONOMY

The public authorities may adopt the following strategies to promote MR :

~ Creating, managing and financing by themselves the entire recycling chain, thus
taking the role of an economic actor.
~ Making MR mandatory whereby industry will be obliged to collect and sort waste
for recycling .
~ Creating conditions conducive to the better economic viability ofMR in a market
economy.

The third strategy, which is the main object of our discussion, will be developed in
what follows . To this end we note, to begin with, that the role of the public authorities
should be to intervene with the aim of removing the obstacles to MR discussed in
section 3. We will propose possible measures with which to remove them, or at least
to reduce their potency .

4.1 Measures for addressing the high cost ofthe recycling chain

(A) Costs of selective collection and sorting/dismantling

The following are proposed as possible measures with which to reduce these costs :

)..- Marking with colour, labelling (giving names of materials used in production in-
cluding additives, etc.) or material standardisation at the production level makes
sorting much easier.

~ Motivating waste holders (consumers) to participate in selective collection . The

cost of collection is mainly a fixed cost. However, as the amount collected per
capita increases, the cost per tonne collected decreases. This is called the ' scale-
effect' that can also be taken advantage of in the sorting/dismantling process .

)..- Informing waste holders on how to participate in selective collection efficiently.

Rules require waste to be grouped together based on material type . But consumers
seldom understand this. Efforts should therefore be made to inform them of how
this task should be done properly, explaining that good separation at source offers
148

these advantages: subsequent sorting becomes easier and can be done by fewer
workers than would be needed otherwise; and it makes automated sorting more
feasible .

).- Organise what is called a ' bring ' system of collection instead of a kerbside collec-
tion system . A large part of the collection cost is avoided in the 'bring ' system,
because the waste holders themselves bring the waste to fixed collection sites free
of charge . These collection sites are financed and managed as part of the recycling
chain. The costs of transporting waste to the sorting or recycling facility is inclu-
ded in the costs of the chain, but these costs avoid the costs of door-to-door waste
collection. Another advantage of the ' bring' system is that the waste holders can
be helped and guided by the supervisor of the collection site. This will enhance
their motivation and improve the quality of pre-sorting.

However, a drawback of the ' bring' system is that it requires supplemental effort
on the part of the waste holders. In practice this leads to a reduction in the amount
collected compared to the amount that could have been collected by door-to-door
collection . As a result , input to the recycling chain, and consequently the sales re-
venue, is reduced . For this reason the ' bring ' system is not suitable for achieving
high recycling rates, except in those countries where the ' wage/material cost'
ratio is low, as in the ' reverse' vending shops in Shanghai for example .

This drawback is substantially addressed when the collection site is located close
to one that is frequently visited by the waste holders, a shopping arcade for exam-
ple. Indeed, for some products like batteries and electronic equipment the shop
itself could also serve as collection site.

In the particular context of waste collection , the countries of the Southern Black Sea
Region arc characterised by the following that indicate that, in general , the 'bring '
system is likely to work more efficiently in those countries than in western Europe:

., Labour costs are substantially lower than in western Europe.

,. Population density is often low, and so door-to-door collection is expensive.
,. Necessary investments are difficult to make because of scarce financial resources.
r: Due to their difficult economic situation , consumers are more difficult to motivate
for environmental protection.

(B) Amount of waste available for recycling is relatively small

Possible ways to increase the amount available are :

,. Motivating waste holders to participate in selective collection . In fact, in this re-

gard the entire recycling chain can take advantage of the scale-effect to make the
process more efficient than it would be otherwise.
 149

Y Approaching all potential sources of waste . Grouping together of industrial and

post-consumer waste streams, and taking advantage of the scale-effect, would per-
mit the development of larger streams.
Y Grouping together of waste streams from different regions and even from differ-
ent countries . Once again grouping together in this way, and taking advantage of
the scale-effect, would permit the development of larger streams.

(C) Irregular supply of waste for recycling

Possible ways of addressing this problem are:

Y Focusing policy on large industrial waste streams. Selective collection ofindustri-

al waste is much easier to organise and control than the selective collection of mu-
nicipal solid waste (MSW) . Also, MSW represents only about 3 percent of the
total waste generated in Bulgaria (Dishovski et al., 2000) which is a typical south-
ern Black Sea country . In this regard selective collection of industrial waste
should be a priority for the public authorities.

Y Organisation of rigorous control of waste to be collected separately . Elimination

of the most contaminated waste at source substantially facilitates the sorting ope-
ration and makes it possible to obtain a more permanent quality of the recycled
material.

Y Removing from the recycling chain the sorted and/or dismantled materials whose
quality cannot be assured .

(D) Lack of guarantee of supply of waste for recycling

As pointed out in 3.I(d), lack of guarantee of supply deters investment in recycling
facilities and processes, and recycling costs rise as a result. It is difficult to guarantee
supply because waste reduction and minimisation policies act against it. Therefore,
management efforts should focus on making investment more attractive by:

Y Supporting investment programmes with subsidies, fiscal incentives, and public

participation in industrial projects.
Y Supporting research and technology-transfer programmes (e.g. research and deve-
lopment programmes, scientific collaboration programmes, etc.).
Y Making long-term policies and announcing foreseen measures in advance .

If implemented, these measures would give confidence to the investing community in

the long-term prospects of recycling so that they would be willing to prolong the
period of depreciation and to invest more in research on high-technology methods and
processes for recycling .
150

4.2 Measuresfor addressing low sales revenue

(A) Quality of recycled materials

Possible ways in which the quality of goods made with recycled materials could be
improved are the following :

r As pointed out in 4. I(A), marking and proper labelling or material standardisation

makes sorting easier . They also improve the purity of the sorted streams, leading
to a recycled product of better quality.

r Supporting the application of better technology, and/or upgrading existing techno-

logy, in order to achieve:

• Better sorting/dismantling techniques, especially for the identification and se-

paration of wastes.
• Improved washing techniques to eliminate dust, paints, solvents, etc.
• Better technology using compatibilisers, additives, etc. to stabilise and/or im-
prove the material properties of wastes to be recycled.
• Adaptation of production technology for sandwich-type multi-layer products.

r Focusing policy on the collection of large recyclable items, such as large-size in-
dustrial waste . This would make sorting much easier, and the materials obtained
more homogeneous, thus ensuring a better quality of the recycled product .

(B) Variable characteristics of waste

Measures to be adopted for reducing variability of recyclable materials are the same
as those listed under (A) above.

(C) ' Commercial risks' of goods made with recycled materials

Measures to be adopted for reducing such risks are the same as those listed under (A)
above. In addition, a system for rigorous input and output control should be put in
place.

(D) Competition from virgin materials

Possible ways in which the competitiveness of recycled goods could be improved are
the following :

);. Developing new markets with low technical requirements, especially for plastics .
There is no real competition in terms of quality between goods made with recy-
cled materials and those with virgin raw materials . So recycled materials can take
 151

advantage of their lower price. However, it would be difficult to develop such

markets, not least because low technical requirements are often associated with
products that are in competition with cheap materials like wood and concrete .

~ Exploiting the competitive advantage of the 'green' image of recycled goods . As

many of the environmentally-conscious consumers are ready to pay a little extra
for 'green' products made from recycled materials, effective marketing can help
secure a respectable market share for such products notwithstanding their less fa-
vourable price/quality ratio compared to similar products made with virgin raw
materials. However, the current unhealthy economies in the southern Black Sea
Region do not inspire much hope for the development of markets in recycled pro-
ducts . Hopefully such markets will be developed in the future as and when the
economic situation in those countries becomes more favourable .

However , the down-side of this strategy is that it is based on short-term markets

that are generally unstable . And this is likely to deter private investors from in-
vesting in green products. On the other hand, creating short-term markets can be
useful as an intermediate stage on the way to creating more stable markets .

);> Raising the costs of virgin raw materials by internalising the costs of their econo-
mic externalities. The costs of the economic externalities could be integrated into
real costs of produetion by:
• Imposing taxes on environmental burdens caused by air, water and soil pollu-
tion, noise, odour, etc.
• Obliging the responsible entities to reduce those burdens to very low levels
(emission standards) .

The obvious logic of the above strategy is that, as virgin raw materials become more
expensive, recycled materials to be used in production would become increasingly
more competitive.

4.3 High costs ofdisposal to sanitary landfills

Landfills should be well managed and properly constructed with barriers to protect
groundwater; leachate and gas collection systems; leachate treatment facility; facility
for gas flaring or consumption ; capping ; etc. Thus both construction and operational
costs of sanitary landfills are high, and the costs of disposing waste to them are also
correspondingly high. A positive effect of this is that it encourages recycling .

4.4 Measures to ensure that the avoided waste management costs are not passed on
to the economic operators
With regard to the enforcement of the 'polluter pays' principle, the following measu-
res are proposed for internalising the avoided costs of waste management:
152

~ Consumers to be required to make at least a small contribution for the collection

of their municipal solid waste, proportional to the amount of waste produced (di-
fferential tariff), so that they have an incentive to reduce waste. But clearly, the
strategy will not work if the principle is not rigorously enforced to deter illegal
dumping . The level of the contribution should be set low if enforcement proves to
be difficult, but it should not be zero.

~ Industry to be required to behave more responsibly, without focusing exclusively

on sales and profit margins. The environment will benefit enormously if they are
forced to manage the post-consumption wastes of their products through recycling
and/or waste prevention as a part of their organisational sustainable waste mana-
gement programme . This, combined with increased landfill costs (see 4.3), will
provide a strong stimulus for MR.

~ All relevant economic externalities should be internalised in waste management

costs by imposing taxes on environmental burdens; use of raw materials; air, wa-
ter and soil pollution ; and on noise, odours, etc. In particular, landfiIl costs should
include the costs of all relevant externalities .

In practice the 'polluter pays' principle should also be applied when pollution is nega-
tive. In other words, the corollary principle of 'pollution saver - money saver' should
be applied as an incentive to promote waste reduction. If the recycling chain is mana-
ged and financed by the public authorities, one would expect the saved costs normally
to be taken into consideration in the economic evaluation of the recycling chain.
However, the authority that makes decisions on the recycling chain is often the re-
gional or national government. And normally it does not consider savings in waste
management made by other authorities (that are often the municipalities) in evalua-
ting the recycling chain.

5. STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT TO ENCOURAGE MATERIALS RECYCLING

5.1 Improving the price/quality ratio ofrecycled products

The only way of securing a stable market for recycled products in the long-term is by
improving their price/quality ratio so that it approaches the corresponding ratio for
products made with virgin raw materials. Indeed, this must be the basis of strategic
management to encourage materials recycling. Two strategic management targets
must be aimed at for realising this goal :

(A) Improving the quality of waste materials to be recycled through :

~ Prevention, as explained in the VDI (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure - Association

of German Engineers) guidelines that are comprehensively approved engineering
standards (see Bibliography). The drafting of national positions is the basis for
 153

national , European and international technical regulations in co-operation with the

proper authorities. The VDI guidelines must be in accordance with ED guideline
98/34/EC.

VDI 1000, 'E stablishing Guidelines and Procedures', explains in detail the pur-
pose, methodology and legal aspects of the VDI guidelines to interested parties
both in Germany and abroad and serves as a basis for working out individual VDI
guidelines.

);> Motivating the waste holders and informing them .

);> Focusing policy on large industrial waste streams.
);> Organising strict control of waste collected separately.
);> Supporting investment programmes, as well as programmes for research, develop-
ment and technology-transfer related to sorting of waste.

(B) Lowering the cost of the recycling chain through :

);> Improved technology.
);> Ensuring a large, regular and guaranteed supply of materials for recycling in order
to take maximum advantage of the scale-effect. The scale-effect favours invest-
ment in automated operations.

The above favourable conditions will materialise only if the responsible public autho-
rities undertake to promote the start-up and development of the intermediate stage of
the recycling chain .

5.2 Principles ofstrategic management to be adopted

The strategic management regime to be adopted should be based on the following
principles:

(A) An integrated approach

All stages of the recycling chain are rapidly evolving. A dialogue is therefore needed
among the stakeholders at different levels of the recycling chain . For example, if an
efficient system for selective collection already exists, there is no need to install cost-
ly sorting/dismantling equipment for the same . On the other hand, if already there is
efficient sorting/dismantling equipment, selective collection can be simplified. Also,
if the demand for lower quality material grows, collection and sorting/dismantling
operations should aim at increasing volume rather than achieving a higher degree of
purity . Conversely, if the goal is for recycled produ cts to compete successfully with
their counterparts made with raw virgin materials, higher priority should be given to
quality than to volume.

The overall goal is to achieve the co-ordinated development of:

154

> Information for, and motivation of, the waste producers .

> Organisation of collection with regard to frequency of collection, and definition
and numbering of streams .
> Sorting/dismantling technologies.
> Treatment technologies.
> Demand for recycled materials through encouragement (see B).

(B) Use of diverse instruments to encourage recycling

> Normative instruments such as:

• Prohibiting the disposal of recyclables to landfiIls, and strict conditions under
which authorised, weIl-managed landfill sites must operate.
• Product norms authorising or favouring recycled materials.
• Mandatory recovery and recycling of specific bulk streams such as those of
fly-ash, rare elements, hazardous compounds, etc.

> Economic instruments such as:

• Differential levy on landfiIling, incineration, raw material consumption and
energy recovery.
• Subsidies for research and development of technologies and for investment.
• Creation of markets, for example through the mandatory use of recycled mate-
rials in furniture for public institutions .

> Informative instruments such as:

• Organised campaigns to educate consumers on the need for selective collec-
tion of waste and for motivating them to participate in such collection .
• Promotion of fundamental and applied research in industry, production faci-
lities and in the universities.
• Creating new standards, responsible attitudes and greater acceptance of recy-
cled goods by means of examples, by requiring that recycled paper must be
used in all government departments and agencies for instance.

AIl the different types of instruments listed above have advantages , drawbacks and
limitations . Therefore, they should be combined to develop policy in a way that ex-
ploits their synergy and avoids contradiction if any.

6. CONCLUDING REMARKS

The following conclusions are drawn from the study reported in this paper :

>- The public authorities can employ a raft of measures to make material recycling
more attractive than it is at present. There are several approaches to this end that
 155

could be combined to derive synergy, notably an educational and awareness rai-

sing approach aimed at educating the main actors (including the consumer) on the
need to achieve a greater recycling rate than at present, and their respect ive roles
in the process. And a system of fiscal incentives and penalties aimed at stimula-
ting material recycling, etc.

~ Technologies for fast identification, sorting, and upgrading of recycling streams

are rapidly developing, and so is a systems approach to the organisation and ma-
nagement of material recycling.

~ Differe nt types of instruments (normat ive, economic and informative) should be

combined to develop policy on material recycling in such a way that maximum
synergy is derived .

~ An integrated approach to material recycling is needed. In this context particular

mention is made of the pioneering work of the European Recycling and Recovery
Association (ERRA) (now merged into the Association for the Sustainable Use
and Recovery of Resources in Europe (ASSURRE» who give concrete examples .

~ A clear and coherent message should be sent to all the economic actors of the re-
cycling chain to give them confiden ce in making long-term investment in recy-
cling programmes .

REFERENCES

Dishovsk i, M, Vergiev, D and Staynov, M (2000), 'The national waste management pro-
gramme of Bulgaria' , in Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Countries of the
southern Black Sea Region, (Ed.) B. Nath , Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The
Netherlands , pp.103-11 2.
RDC-Brus sels and Coopers & Lybrand (1997), Eco-balances fo r Policy-making in the Do-
main ofPackaging and Packaging Waste, Report to DG XI, Commission of the Europ ean
Communities, Brus sels.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brisson, I (1992), 'Th e Go vernment's recycling policy: optimal recycling?' , Integrat ed Waste
Management, No. 15, pp. 13-14 .
Buekens, A (1992) , Recycling, VUB Press, Free University of Brussels, Belgium .
Clean Japan Centre ( 1991), Law for the Promotion and Utilisation ofRecyclable Resources,
Tokyo, Japan .
Clean Japan Centre ( 199 1), Recycling Guide, Tokyo, Japan .
Cooke, F (1992), ' Recycling review' , Special Report , European Plastics News, pp. 17-32.
Dawson, A, Gask ell, D and Brown, C (1996), Affordable Recycling - Building a Strategy,
Institute of Groc ery Dist ribution , IGD Business Publication, Letchmore Heath , United
Kingdom.
156

Diaz, L.F, Savage, G.M and Golueke, e.G (1982), Resource Recovery from Municipal Solid
Waste, Volume I (Primary Processing) : ISBN 0-8493-5613-X ; and Volume II (Final Pro-
cessing): ISBN 0-8493-5614-8, published by CRS Press Inc., USA.
Pears Plastics Ltd. (1991), Strategies for Plastic Recycling ofPost-Consumer Waste, Report
of the Pears Plastic Recycling Company, Houthalen, Belgium.
Porter, W.J (1995), The American Recycling System, Report of the Waste Policy Centre,
Leesburg, Virginia, USA.
Vinci, Perrier (1996), 'Le project Poluphenix, presentation du project Polypnenix ', Direction
Environnement, Internal Document.
World Resources Foundation (1995), Materials Reclamation Facilities , Technical Brief,
Technical Information Sheet from the Residua & Warmer Bulletin.
VDI (1999), VDI-Richtlinie: VDI 2343 Blatt 4, Recycling of Electrical and Electronic Pro-
ducts, VDI Handbuch . For more information : E-mail: rili:a)vdi.dc
MUNICIPAL INVESTMENT STRATEGIES AND NATIONAL POLICIES IN
THE PROCESS OF ACCESSION TO THE EUROPEAN UNION:
IMPRESSIONS FROM BULGARIA

PAUL DAX and PLAMENA BORISOVA

Institute fo r Environmental Strategies, Lagera. Block 38, Entr. 2. Apt. 29, 1124 Sofia , Bulgaria.
E-mail: daxrihnbox.cit.bg

ABSTRACT

Salient features of the modernisation of municipal solid waste management (MSWM) include, in addi-
tion to the modernisation of equipment, regionalization of the service and the construction of modem
sanitary landfills . By contrast, traditional services are local, with even small settlements having their
own service organisation and dumps. Most of Bulgaria, excluding the major cities where the service is
often privately managed, still conforms to the traditional model.

In its efforts for accession to the European Union, Bulgaria is launching an ambitious programme for
the construction of landfills that conform to EU standards. However, these investment programmes by
and large disregard the principles of regionalisation and commercialisation of MSWM, so that in fact
far more landfills may be planned than the country would need. Furthermore, there is negligible finan-
cial support for the modernisation of the fleet of vehicles and equipment. It is argued that these policies
are likely to result in unbalanced and inefficient use of scarce resources. Also, indirectly and unwit-
tingly, such distorted policies are in fact a response to European Union policies which insist on rigo-
rous and costly standards of landfilling without really addressing the pre-requisites of modernising and
regionalising waste collection and transportation services. A number of recommend ations are given in
this paper for correct ing the unbalanced policies referred to above.

Keywords: Bulgaria ; municipal; solid; waste; management; landfill; public; private; partnership ; capi-
tal; regionalization ; accession ; EU.

1. INTRODUCTION - TRANSITION FROM OLD TO NEW IN

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Municipal solid waste management (MSWM) is a public service that can either be a
leading loss-maker for a local government or a commercially viable enterprise, re-
gardless of whether it is carried out by a private company, a municipal enterprise, or a
partnership of the two. In this paper we wi11look at some of the factors that make this
public service commercially viable or otherwise, and in particular comment critically
on the impact of European Union policies on investment strategies at both national
and local municipal levels .

Like other utilities, MSWM is often thought of as a natural monopoly. Indeed , this
has been traditionally regarded as a reason for the public ownership and management

157
B. Nath et al. (eds.), Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region , 157-170.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
158

of the service. In reality, however, private participation in MSWM is common and on

the increase in most of the western European countries and in some of the transition
economies. There are also many cases, including some in the major cities of Bulgaria,
where sections of the same city are served by different companies, some of them pri-
vate and others public. Thus, clearly, MSWM is not always a monopoly, not even in a
single city or town.

Modern MSWM is normally a regional rather than a strictly local operation, and this
makes it even less of a monopoly. Based on their central landfills, MSWM companies
typically operate with modern, large-capacity compactor trucks within a radius of 30
to 60 km and often compete with each other in overlapping geographical spheres.

For example in Hungary, where there are at least a dozen major regional operators,
landfills are often quite close to each other, and the companies compete aggressively
among themselves for the business of the municipalities in their sphere of interest.
Competition is especially strong in the central and south-western parts of the country.
There are several strategic public-private partnerships, in most of which one or more
strategic foreign investor is the majority shareholder. From the outset these compa-
nies made it their objective to extend their operations beyond the headquarters where
their central landfill is located. Many of the smaller towns in Hungary have obtained
central government support for the construction of modern landfills. The municipal
enterprises of these towns are geared to meeting local needs, and generall y they have
no capital, incentive or interest to expand their operations regionally.

Regionalization ofMSWM in Hungary represents a transition phase approximating to

the practices in western Europe . It contrasts with traditional MSWM as practised in
that country before transition, and indeed in most of Western Europe 20-30 years ago.

In the generic context of solid waste management in the transition countries, and in
Bulgaria in particular, the following points are worthy of particular note:

First, the ' old' (traditional) MSWM system referred to above was a typically local
operation in that each village had its own dump. Official statistics dating back to the
end of the Socialist era typically show more or less as many ' depots' as settlements
- some 3000 in Hungary and about 2600 in Bulgaria .

Actually the number of dumps is much greater in Bulgaria. The municipality of Guli-
anci in the northern Danube region, which is one of Bulgaria 's 262 municipalities, is
typical. The population of Gulianci is about 20,000, of which about 4,000 live around
the town centre and the remainder in a surrounding cluster of 11 villages. The munici-
pality has 20 dumps, most of which are alongside roads connecting the villages, not
more than a couple of kilometres from each other.

Next consider the case of a small village, called Gorno Ablanovo, in the Municipality
of Borovo in northern Bulgaria. With a population of only about 2,000, this village
 159

has no less than 13 recorded dumps. About half of them are 'authorised', meaning
that the local sub-mayor* has issued a permit for their use, while the other half are
unauthorised . Such proliferation of dumps, which characterises most of semi-rural
Bulgaria, represents the other extreme from the modern centralised sanitary landfill
which normally caters for populations of 100,000 or more.

The proliferation of dumps in Bulgaria is related to the spread of subsistence agricul-

ture in the urban and semi-urban settlements during the transition . With the colIapse
of the co-operatives, animal husbandry moved to the garden allotments within the
settlements, generating agricultural waste and manure in far greater quantities than
before. This poses great problems for municipal waste management; it also helps to
explain the proliferation of sites to which people themselves cart agricultural wastes .

Second, in the traditional system each town has its own waste colIection and disposal
service, whilst the villages are not served by an organised service at alI. A separate
department of the Municipality may provide the service, or it may be carried out just
by a handful of employees operating one or two vehicles. Even in the large cities,
where foreign or local private companies operate the service, their operations are
largely confined to the city limits. As yet there is no true regional waste colIection or
disposal service in Bulgaria .

Third, the vehicles used are typically low-capacity open trucks, or container trucks
that haul uncompacted waste to the landfill. On a per-ton basis they are extremely
expensive to operate compared with modern compactor trucks . In general they are old
and obsolete and in urgent need of replacement.

Fourth, as a rule the municipal service is run at a loss and heavily subsidised. A 'vici-
ous circle ' would appear to be at work here: the equipment is inefficient and progre-
ssively wearing out; operations cost more and more and so there is less and less to
invest in modernisation; and the service deteriorates from bad to worse.

How could one break this vicious circle? How is the modernisation of MSWM pro-
gressing in the former Socialist economies ? Last ten years' experience in MSWM , as
in other areas of local governance , is rich and varied with stories of progress and stag-
nation, belying the notion that transition is a seamless and homogeneous process.

The authors of this paper are an international policy research team inquiring into the
'Opportunities and Constraints of Public-Private Partnerships in MSWM in Central
and Eastern Europe' supported by the Open Society Foundation . Their on-going re-
search focuses on the analysis of how the private sector could playa key role in the
modernisation of MSWM , and how in the process the burden of financing moderni-
sation could be shifted from the State budget to private capital. The policy implication

* Underthe Bulgariansystemof local government, each village has a sub-mayor who is subordinate
to the Municipality's electedmayor.
160

of this is that creation of conditions conducive to both private sector investment and
sound public-private partnerships ought to be a key element of public policy.

The theme of this paper is not the promotion of private participation in MSWM per
se. Rather, it is the impact of 'harmonisation' on the quest of the transition countries
for accession to the European Union as reflected in their national policies and invest-
ment strategies, and consequently on their investment decisions at the local level. We
will argue that this impact is not as positive as one might have hoped for.

2. NAnONAL WASTE STRATEGY IN THE PROCESS OF APPROXIMAnON

Compliance with EU directives and standards is understood to be a necessary condi-

tion for accession to the EU. To this end Bulgaria's 1997 Law on Waste, for example,
was crafted with a view to conforming to European legislation. Similarly, with regard
to landfills, the technical standards incorporated in the recently adopted Landfill
Directive have already been adopted in Bulgarian regulations, but with the important
corollary that only such landfills will receive financial support from the Ministry of
Environment.

Bulgaria 's National Strategy for Waste Management contains ambitious targets for
landfill construction. It envisages about 40 landfills to be developed between now and
2002. The total cost of this programme is very roughly estimated at about 100 million
Leva (one Bulgarian Lev is equal to one German Mark (DM). Under Bulgaria 's Cur-
rency Board arrangement introduced in 1997, the Lev is tied to the DM, and relative
price stability reigns as a result).

Fifty percent of the funding for this programme is expected (or better, hoped) to come
from external sources, meaning international finance institutions and European Union
grants, and the remainder from domestic sources (the Environmental Fund, and state
and municipal budgets) . It is to be noted, however, that whereas in Hungary and Slo-
vakia foreign strategic investors have been in the forefront of developing and finan-
cing EU-conform landfills, private companies have so far not shown any interest in
investing in landfills in Bulgaria . The National Strategy of Bulgaria does not allude to
private capital as a source of finance for landfills.

Now, with the first year of the Strategy's time-span gone, the realism of those targets
appears doubtful.

With regard to f oreign funding, landfill investment has become a target for EU's bi-
lateral donors that are duty-bound to assist in the accession process. To date only one
such landfill has reached the commissioning stage, however. Jointly financed by
Danish bilateral aid and the National Environmental Fund, the regional landfill in
Vratza has been built and is now ready for commissioning (see Appendix). Two other
 161

bilateral donor agencies are initiating projects that may lead to landfill construction,
and at least one multi-lateral institution is identifying some sites. PHARE has funded
the first stage of a landfill development in a municipality in the south-west of Bulga-
ria. However, given the lengthy time-frame of planning and design, just a handful of
the landfills assisted by foreign donors are likely to have been commissioned by the
end of the planning period in 2002. These would presumably be model showpieces,
designed by foreign consultants, to parade all that is perceived to be good and expen-
sive in EU-standard landfills.

Local municipal initiatives are also few in number in Bulgaria - their planning prob-
lematic and sometimes haphazard . In 1998, following the passage of the Waste Law,
the municipalities were obliged to prepare their 'Plans for Solid Waste Management'
to be approved by the Ministry of Environment. Most, but not all, did submit such
plans. In the diagnostic part of their Plans the municipalities invariably pointed out
the problems of too many existing unregulated dumps and poor landfill management.
In those cases in which the landfills were filling up, or were clearly not suitable for
further use, the Plans as a rule recommended that regional landfills be constructed ,
but without necessarily specifying their partners or the sites where they were to be
built. In fact, they invariably put forward their own municipality as the host for the
proposed regional landfill. This is not surprising, considering that all municipalities
want to keep their transportation costs down.

The criterion which regional landfills must satisfy in order to qualify for EF support is
that at least two municipalities must apply jointly for funding. This usually takes the
form of a ' protocol', which may be a one-page declaration of an intention to collabo-
rate. In practice, however , frequently a large municipality finds a small and obliging
neighbour so as to create a ' region'. The complex issues ofjoint ownership , financing
and management of these ' regional' landfills are postponed to another date.

Some of the municipalit ies have agreed in principle on a joint site. But only a handful
have agreed jointly to finance the required Environmental Impact Assessment of the
selected site. Apparently none have so far engaged consultants for a feasibility study
or detailed design.

The National Environment Fund provides funding only for the construction of land-
fills, not for their feasibility study or detailed design. Also, the municipalities often do
not have the funds to finance a full feasibility study, let alone a fully detailed design
for tender documentation. The cost of design of the selected site can vary from tens of
thousands of US dollars, if done by foreign consultants, to only a couple of hundred
US dollars for local consultants . Typically, the mayors expect the landfills to be
totally funded by grants . They are not in a hurry to push a project ahead if they are
unsure of the source of its funding, which is mostly the case.

Given the time-frame of planning and design, and of all the bureaucratic and adimis-
trative steps involved in obtaining permits and finance, it would be surprising if more
162

than a couple of locally-sponsored and domestically financed new regional landfills

could be completed by 2002.

The outcome could be perceived as a failure of Bulgaria to make adequate efforts to

harmonise its standards with those of the EU. And yet, the target itself of 40 landfills
warrants critical examination - whether it is the right priority at this time and whe-
ther the strategy itself is sound .

An analysis of the existing situation shows that some 20 regional landfills could serve
most of the surface area and most of the population of Bulgaria. There are 21 cities
and towns in the country, each with a population of 50,000 or more, and together they
account for about 45 percent of the total population . Thus, if MSWM regionalization
spreads from such centres of population, some three-quarters (or more) of the total
population could be reached by only 20 or so regional landfills . Whilst Bulgaria's
mountainous topography may in some cases justify smaller local landfills to cater for
local needs, the idea of building 40 EU-standard landfills over a three-year period
reveals a lack of understanding of the processes of regionalization. (It is interesting to
note in this context that some of the sources at the Ministry of Environment of'Bulga-
ria actually put the long-term needs of the country at 100 landfills. The Netherlands,
with a population roughly twice that of Bulgaria, has reduced the number of its land-
fills to 14. Admittedly it is a country where the terrain is flat and the surface area less,
and where incineration and a high percentage of recycling has reduced the amount of
waste to be landfilled . In Hungary, which is more comparable to Bulgaria in terms of
surface area (smaller by about 30 percent and population greater by about 20 percent),
currently about 20 modern landfills may be operating to serve well over half of the
country 's population) .

In the early years of transition there was a plan for developing 51 landfill sites in Bul-
garia, some of them ' regional' and the others 'local' . But, in many cases the regional
and local sites were located right next to each other. This extraordinary state of affairs
may be explained as follows by considering administrative hierarchy : as ' superior'
levels of government the ' regions' should have their own landfills, while the major
towns, which rank lower in the hierarchy, should have their (presumably inferior)
' local' landfills . So, when the major town also happens to be the regional headquar-
ters, the 'regional ' landfill finds itself right next to the 'local' landfill. Clearly, the
authors of this 'plan' did not have cost-effectiveness or market principles in mind,
namely that two or more new landfills in the same neighbourhood would undermine
each other 's commercial viability . Such plans typically illustrate the waste of money
that can ensue if erstwhile apparatchiks with ingrained attitudes continue to do the
planning in the transition economies.

Interestingly, when we consider the sites of the 40 landfills tentatively identified in

the actual National Strategy, the picture that emerges is not much better. Landfills are
heaped on top of each other, as it were, particularly in the western part of Bulgaria
near the capital, Sofia.
 163

3. REAL PRIORITIES AND IMBALANCES

What the municipalities need most of all is modernisation of equipment in order to re-
duce costs and to provide a better service. Surveys of MSWM in the Black Sea coast
of Bulgaria, currently being conducted by the Institute for Environmental Strategy for
the Association of Danube River Municipalities, clearly indicate that replacement of
vehicle fleet and associated containers is the first priority. This is hardly surprising,
given that the mayors are becoming increasingly more aware of both high costs of
operating with obsolete equipment and the alternatives available. By contrast, land-
fills inevitably involve higher costs in terms of both investment and site operation,
and also in terms of higher transportation costs . Municipalities may pay 'lip-service'
to the idea of regional landfills, but they are not is a hurry to spend money on them.

Unlike landfills, vehicles and equipment are not subject to EU directives. This means
that, as funding policies are driven by accession, there is no comparable financial sup-
port for modernising equipment. What little support is available for equipment tends
to be given in loans, whilst grants to municipalities continue to be the prevailing mo-
de for financing landfills . EU accession drives the national investment plan, not the
priorities of mayors or of municipal councils.

However, as long as the municipalities continue to work with their old equipment ,
they would be unwilling to incur the much higher transportation cost of hauling waste
over longer distance s. The standard ' workhorse' of Bulgarian MSWM is the container
truck hauling 4 m3 containers filled with uncompacted waste, making 8-10 trips per
day to a landfill normally located a couple of kilometres away on the outskirts of the
town. By contrast , a modern compactor truck, which in a single haul can carry 10-20
times the volume of waste carried by the old 4 m3 container, spends most of its time
in the town collecting waste and makes only one or two trips per day to the landfill.
Thus, the additional fuel and other operating costs of going to the landfill account for
a relatively small proportion of the costs of a modern vehicle. For the sake of argu-
ment, if the distance to the landfill from the collection site is 30 km instead of 3 km,
the container trucks will make much fewer trips per day, and the cost of operating the
old fleet will increase disproportionately relative to the cost of operating a modern
truck. It is clear, therefore, that unless the old fleet is modernised, the municipalities
will resist using remote regional landfills.

In view of the above, building regional landfills before modernising the fleet can be
likened to ' putting the cart before the horse' . Historically, and in terms of economic
rationale, the process should start the other way around . This ' reverse' sequence was
successfully followed in Hungary. A similar pattern is now emerging in Bulgaria
where waste collection and transportation services are being modernised with private
capital, albeit so far mainly in the major cities. However, there is an important differ-
ence between the situation in Bulgaria and that in Hungary. Whilst in Hungary forei-
gn strategic investors have pioneered investment in modern landfills and contributed
to their financing , unfortunatel y in Bulgaria there has been no similar interest to date.
164

4. SOME MODEST RECOMMENDATIONS

4.1 Creating conditions conducive to private sector investment for the modernisation
ofequipment
The imbalance of restricting grant funding to EU-type landfills, and at the same time
neglecting the modernisation of the vehicle fleet, needs to be corrected. This does not
necessarily mean making grant funding available to municipal enterprises to purchase
new equipment. The experience of other transition economies shows how, given the
right incentives, private investment can be secured to modernise waste collection and
transportation services . This has happened, and is happening, in some of the major
cities of Bulgaria. Unfortunately, the competitive business environment is at present
less than conducive to attract necessary private investment, and the modernisation
process has barely touched the medium and small towns in Bulgaria, much less the
majority of villages that are not served by an organised service at all. Clearly, this un-
acceptable state of affairs needs to be addressed as a matter of priority.

This state of affairs offers an opportunity to local governments for fostering small and
medium size local enterprises. As a prelude to privatisation, the municipalities can do
much by themselves in terms of introducing financial accountability, better manage-
ment practices , and sound cost-recovery policies . In the process and by so doing they
can make MSWM a more attractive proposition for private investors . The central
Government could also do a great deal to foster the principles of cost recovery, com-
mercially sound management, accountability , and transparency in contracting. By so
doing it could create a favourable environment for MSWM .

4.2 Empowering municipalities to do their own planning and design and to promote
low-cost technologies for improved landfill management
The present policy of not funding municipal project preparation activities virtually
ensures the exclusive position of western consulting firms in the planning of local
strategies and design of modern landfills. Bulgarian engineers will at best be engaged
as local counterparts of these firms, working in a narrow capacity to put on paper the
technical details of imported solutions . On the contrary, municipalities should be en-
couraged and financially supported to carry out their own planning and design work.
If local experts familiar with local problems are set to work, creative experimentation
with low-cost and locally appropriate alternatives could be the result. This could be
particularly relevant for landfill improvements.

Most of the municipalities have no option but to use their existing landfills for years
to come. Improvements in the operation and expansion of these landfills, however
modest, could no doubt reduce significantly the environmental damage they cause.
Many of the landfills could be gradually upgraded with simple technologies, modest
investment, and better operating procedures. While many of the municipal landfills
are badly sited and unregulated dumps, others are not and do not appear to present
 165

any obvious environmental risk. The operative word here is ' appear' , because practi-
cally none of these landfills has undergone environmental impact assessment.

Assessing the environmental impacts of those landfills that appear prima facie to be
appropriately located would deserve high priority, not least because the majority of
them are expected to remain in operation for years to come. However, equipped with
better information on the actual environmental impacts of these landfills, the munici-
palities would be in a better position to analyse options and plans for their gradual im-
provement and upgrading .

Unfortunately, official support for such modest improvements using low-cost , inter-
mediate technology is not available, neither is environmentally or intellectually sound
policy advice or financial support. While in the United States and in western Europe
microbiologists and other scientists are engaged in high-technology solutions to trans-
form landfills into efficient 'bio-reactors' (including commercial use of landfill gases,
even utilising leachate for more efficient methane generation), research on low-cost
intermediate solutions applicable to financially strapped municipalities of the transi-
tion economies is stifled in no small measure by current fixation with the textbook
EU-standard landfill. On the contrary, ministries should encourage creative research
for low-cost, intermediate solutions and undertake to finance pilot projects for their
validation.

4.3 Consolidation ofdumps and introduction ofseparate treatment oforganic wastes

As pointed out in section I, the spread of urban subsistence agriculture is generating
wastes in quantities that are a multiple of normal household waste . Collection and dis-
posal of these wastes stretches the capacity of those municipalities that provide orga-
nised waste management services. These wastes also account for the proliferation of
dumping sites and indiscriminate disposal where there is no organised service.

This is a major problem facing many of the municipalities in Bulgaria, those of the
smaller towns in particular. Disposal to landfills, and especially to modem landfills, is
not a solution to this problem for three good reasons. First, it would be wasteful to fill
expensive landfill space with huge amounts of organic materials. Second, it would
violate both EU directives and Bulgarian policies that aim to limit the amount of or-
ganic wastes going to landfills. And third, the large amount of manure in the waste,
which at present damages the environment, is a valuable resource which, if compos-
ted or otherwise properly treated , can be used for soil enrichment.

This major problem is hardly touched upon in the National Waste Management Stra-
tegy of Bulgaria. It is clear, however, that the municipalities are in urgent need to
come up with solutions for the separate treatment of agricultural waste and manure by
launching cost-effective composting schemes or other environment-friendly methods .
There are as yet far too few initiatives of this kind, and no support is available for
them from the Environmental Fund. (Note that, under the Ecolinks Programme spon-
166

sored by USAID, two partnership projects will be developing pilot composting sche-
mes for a few of the municipalities in northern Bulgaria. The Institute for Environ-
mental Strategies is a partner in one of these projects).

4.4 Promoting co-operation among the municipalities to foster regionalization of

MSWM
Experience gained in 1998 from an exercise, in which each of Bulgaria's 250 munici-
palities was to draw up its Waste Management Plan, demonstrates that planning at the
municipal level is neither effective nor efficient for coming to grips with the pressing
problems. Regionalization of the service, centered round large modem landfills, is by
definition contingent upon the collaboration of several municipalities . Collaboration
must be much more than just signing a protocol for jointly requesting a grant from the
national financing agencies. Beyond collaboration for landfill planning, the municipa-
lities need to explore possibilities for merging their services to create more viable
units, or to create conditions under which service providers can operate across muni-
cipal boundaries . All these elements are linked to the overarching issue of creating a
business environment in which MSWM can be managed in a commercially viable
manner.

5. CONCLUDING REMARKS

Efforts to comply with the EU landfill directive, which seems to be driving Bulgaria's
National Waste Strategy for MSWM, are unwittingly distorting that country's invest-
ment decisions . Because, instead of supporting cost-effective, modernising technolo-
gies that could reduce costs and improve environmental services, these efforts would
channel grant funding to high-technology, state-of-the-art landfills whose investment
and operational costs the municipalities can ill afford. Even if a few of these show-
pieces are built in the coming years, they will be beyond the reach of the vast majo-
rity of Bulgarian municipalities . Furthermore, if they prove to be not replicable, they
will fail in their purpose as demonstration projects. Even worse, the target communi-
ties to be served may well avoid using these new facilities for fear of incurring extra
costs that they would entail.

This is hardly a financially sustainable scenario in terms of being able to afford EU-
standard landfills, or in terms of perpetuating the present high costs of waste collec-
tion and transportation. Poor or deteriorating collection services in the small and
medium sized towns of Bulgaria, in which private investors have so far shown little
interest, are bound to have negative environmental impacts.

The obvious question to be asked is whether or not some low-cost alternative to the
EU-standard landfill could be found. Curiously, the problem is that this question is
not even asked under present circumstances . The municipalities can only get funding
for 'textbook case' landfills. It is not only a question of finance, however . For, while
 167

the Regional Environment Inspectorates are quite willing to tum a blind eye to the
conditions prevailing in a myriad of the dumping sites so to speak, permits for the
construction of any new landfill must nonetheless conform to the textbook case. This,
in effect, is stifling creative thinking on alternative solutions that the municipalities
and local taxpayers might otherwise be willing to entertain. If this impasse persists,
the prevalence of poorly managed or entirely uncontrolled landfilling is likely to con-
tinue unchanged for years to come.

The recommendations we have made for improving Bulgaria's MSWM regime are
somewhat selective, perhaps disjointed, and born of experience of working with the
municipalities. Actually, in Bulgaria as in other transition economies, the need is for
formulating integrated policies and programmes that address the needs of the people
and their local governments at the town and village level. This need , as we have ar-
gued in this paper, is quite different from the need to meet European Union norms
and directives, the landfill directive in particular.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Borisova, P and Dax, P (1999), ' Modernisation of municipal solid waste management in the
Bulgarian Danube River Region - public-private partnership, economic instruments, and
integrated river basin management' , in Proc. MEDCOAST '99-EMEC ' Joint Conference on
Land-Ocean Interactions: Managing Coastal Ecosystems, Middle East Technical Univer-
sity, Ankara, Turkey.
Dax, P and Borisova. P (1998), Survey of Municipal Solid Waste Management in the Bul-
garian Black Sea Region, Report of the lES, Sofia, Bulgaria
Dax. P (1998), ' Public-private partnership in sustainable municipal solid waste manage-
ment' , in Proc. Towards Local Sustainability in Central and Eastern Europe, Regional
Conference in the Framework of the European Sustainable Cities & Towns Campaign, 12-
15 November, Sofia, Bulgaria.
Dax, P (2000), ' Opportunities and constraints for public-private partnership in municipal
solid waste management in CEE' . Abstracts. Third European Conf erence on Sustainable
Cities & Towns, Hannover, Germany.

APPENDIX: REGIONAL LANDFILL IN VRATZA, BULGARIA

Vratza 's new landfill, built to EU standards, is ready to be commissioned. It was financed
jointly by Danish bilateral aid and the National Environmental Fund, together with small con-
tributions from the budgets of the Municipalities of Vratza and Mezdra.

Up to the end of 1999 about 3.0 million DM had been invested in the landfill as follows:

)- About 1.5 million DM by the Environmental Fund mainly for earth-moving and civil
works for the following: completing one of the four cells: starting work on the other cells;
168

construction of housing for staff and sheds for machinery; fencing; and development of
essential infrastructure .

)0> A contribution of about 1.3 million DM mainly in the form of the following : a weighing
station, a bulldozer, a compactor, a disinfection facility, 2 mm thick plastic sheets to co-
ver one cell, pipes for the internal drainage system, computers , etc.

)0> Earlier expenditures on design and project preparat ion were financed mostly by Vratza .

CariBro, a Danish company , implemented the Danish component of the project and revised
the original design prepared by a Bulgarian engineering firm. The Environmental Fund awar-
ded the civil works contract to a local construction company in Vratza.

Although for the last six months the landfill has been standing practically ready to be com-
missioned, albeit with some minor structures such as the leachate pumping station and the
computers at the weighing station still to be installed, commissioning is being held up by con-
troversies as will be gathered from the following : '

Allegedly the Danish agency is insisting on the closing, remediation, and recultivation of the
old landfill, which borders on the new landfill and is now being used by Vratza, based on a
Bulgarian commitment in the assistance agreement to do so. However, the estimated costs of
this are in excess of I million DM, and the Environmental Fund has so far not agreed to fi-
nance these tasks. The Fund seems to feel that it has already invested enough in the Vratza
landfill. This is true relatively speaking, as no other landfill with the exception of Sofia has
received a similar level of support from the Fund. Furthermore, there have been questions
asked in the Parliament about the large amount of expenditure incurred in the project. Vratza
is contemplating making a request to the Swiss-funded Eco-Trust Fund for the remediation . It
does not have the resources, or the intention, to fund this from its own resources (Vratza 's
entire municipal budget is about 10 million DM, of which no more than 5 percent may be
invested in investment projects). Thus there is no obvious way out of this impasse, and so the
new landfill may lie idle indefinitely.

The Vratza landfill is the first and only one in Bulgaria that has the minimum features of a
European-standard landfill. It was intended as a 'role model' to be emulated by the other
municipalities in Bulgaria .

Meant to serve as a demonstration of the regionalisation of MSWM as well, this landfill was
conceived as a co-operative venture between Vratza and the neighbouring Mezdra Municipa-
lities. There is, in fact, a protocol between the two municipalit ies which states inter alia that
Mezdra will pay for 25 percent of the expenses incurred and rent up to 25 percent of the
space in the new landfill. However, there is no mention of the ownership of the landfill, the
presumption being that Vratza is the owner since Mezdra will have to pay rent for the space it
hires, unlike Vratza. In fact, there have been no detailed discussions on the joint operation of
the landfill, on the fee structure for charging industry and others who will bring their own
waste, or on the whole question of establishing a regional transport and collection service
instead of each municipality or settlement organising its own services.

With respect to the modernization of equipment, the National Environmental Fund has exten-
ded an interest-free loan to Vratza for the purchase of three new compactor vehicles, each
 169

with a capacity of about 12 nr' . However, as only Bulgarian manufacturers are eligible to ten-
der for the contract according to the rules of the Fund, it means in effect that the one and only
Bulgarian manufacturer, located in Madara , will be the sole supplier of Fund-assisted equip-
ment procurement.

Mezdra has apparently not modernised its equipment, which means that it would become
very expensive for it to transport uncompacted waste to the new landfill. And so, Mezdra is
evidently in no hurry to utilise the new landfill and may actually prolong using its present
disposal facilities as long as possible . Ther e has been no cons iderat ion so far of extending the
organis ed service to the smaller settlements in the two municipalities, or for that matter , seek-
ing the participation other municipalities in a true regionalisation of MSWM around the new
central landfill.
170

"Peop le have acquired, often for the first time in

history, both an idea oftheir relative poverty and
a desire to emerge from it and improve the
quality of their lives. As people advan ce
materially, and eat and live better, what were
once luxuries tend to be regarded as necessities.
The net result is that the demandf or f ood, raw
materials, and power increases to an even
greater degree than the population. As demand
increases, a greater and greater strain is put on
the finite area ofthe world 's land to produce the
products needed. "

Dr. J.P. Garbouchcv

Bulgarian Academy ofSciences
(Moscow, II December, 1986)
 MONITORING OF WASTE IN BULGARIA FOR SUSTAINABLE
WASTE MANAGEMENT
NADYA BONEVA, KETI IANKOVA, EKATERINA KULISHEVA and SIYKA TERZIEVA
Exec utive Environmental Agency, Mini stry ofEnvironment and Waters, 136 Tzar Boris IJJ Boulevard,
1618 Sofia, Bulgaria. E-mail: sustmon @nfp-bg.eionet.eu.int

ABSTRACT

The problems of solid waste management in Bulgaria are many and varied. During the Socialist era
little attention was paid to the issues and problems of environmental protection , and the roots of most if
not all of the current environmental problems besetting the country can be traced back to that era.

However, ever since Bulgaria's democratisation in 1989, increasingly more focused and determined
efforts are being made to alleviate both environmental and health impacts of solid waste, aiming at
achieving at least a modest degree of sustainabili ty. But the problems are difficult, some intractable. A
major difficulty in the policy-making area is posed by the scarcity (sometimes total lack) of historical
and even current data on solid waste with regard to their sources, composition, complexity, etc.

With a view to addressing this problem, an effective solid waste monitoring system has been set up at
the Executive Environmental Agency of Bulgaria. In this paper a discussion of the salient features of
that system is presented.

Keywords: Bulgaria ; environment information ; system; sustainable ; solid; municipal ; hazardous ; in-
dustrial; waste; monitoring.

I . BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION

I . I Genesis of environmental policy in Bulgaria

Political events at the end of 1989 together with the fiasco of the former regime re-
vealed , as in most of the other transition economies, the grim picture of a seriously
sick society that Bulgaria was . The newly democratised country inherited a rapidly
deteriorating economy based on an outdated and heavily polluting industrial sector
that produced mostly low-quality goods using more energy and raw materials per unit
of production than the corresponding industries in the European Union . In the main
these industries have been responsible for creating the serious and growing environ-
mental problems that are an enduring legacy of Bulgaria's Socialist past.

For the first time it was openly admitted that the crisis at the time was not only politi-
cal and economic in nature, but also environmental. Information revealed that all
three natural compartments - air, water and soil - had been polluted to the extent

171
B. Nath et al. (eds.), Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region , 171-180.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers .
172

that there was serious risk to both health and the environment in many parts of the
country.

The new constitution of 1991 ushered Bulgaria's transition to a democratic society

based on strict respect for human rights, the rule of law, and market economy. As for
matters environmental, Bulgaria has adopted the principles of sustainable develop-
ment which is now increasingly the focus ofEU environmental programmes and poli-
cy. It has also committed itself to citizens' rights to a favourable environment and
created of a set of legal instruments with which to protect and guarantee those rights
(Klarer and Moldan, 1997).

Bulgaria's new state policy, officially proclaimed by the first democratic government,
placed the environment among its top priorities . The Environmental Strategy and Ac-
tion Plan, elaborated in 1992, is probably the most comprehensive government policy
document so far giving clear directions for future activities concerned with environ-
mental protection (EU, 1995). Three main aims are elaborated in the Action Plan for
the short- and the medium-term (World Bank , 1994):

(a) Conservation of that part of the environment not yet affected by pollution.
(b) Step-by-step reduction of existing pollution, and prevention of future pollution of
the different compartments of the environment.
(c) Gradual elimination of environmental damage already caused, including clean-
up and restoration.

1.2 The purpose ofthis paper

Since Bulgaria's democratisation and especially after the Rio Earth Summit of 1992,
citizens ' concern for, and perception of, environmental problems and issues has deep-
ened due in the main to greater access to relevant information as disseminated by both
printed and electronic media. By all accounts the problems are many and varied , and
there are no easy answers.

Proper management and safe disposal of solid waste is a major problem , among many
others, that needs to be addressed as a matter of priority . The emphasis is now on the
sustainable management of solid waste in the interests of both present and future ge-
nerations (WCED , 1987). A persistent problem in the generic context of solid waste
management, whose origins can be traced back to the Socialist era when such prob-
lems were not afforded the seriousness they deserve, is that of waste monitoring and
the associated tasks of waste characteri sation and determination of waste composi-
tion. The purpose of this paper, which is on the current status of waste monitoring in
Bulgaria, is to focus on the following :

;.. Configuration and functions of the Waste Information System which is an inde-
pendent unit of the National System for Environmental Monitoring (NSEM).
 173

;.. Organisation of the information processing system of the Ministry of Environ-

ment and Water of the Government of Bulgaria.
;.. Analysis of the current status of assessment of different types of solid waste , na-
mely domestic, industrial, construction, and hazardous .
;.. Problems and trends in the development of the monitoring system .

2. THE INFORMATION SUBSYSTEM 'WASTE' : ITS PURPOSE AND TASKS

It is the responsibility of NSEM 's information subsystem, called simply 'Waste', to

collect annual data on domestic , construction, industrial and hazardous wastes genera-
ted in Bulgaria in accordance with the requirements of the Law for Limiting the
Harmful Impacts of Waste on the Environment (LLHIWE) . The main purpose of the
subsystem is to provide information on waste , on the basis of which the competent
authoritie s could assess, analyse and make prognosis to ascertain which of the acti-
vities and policies ought to be pursued for managing waste effectively and efficiently
in ways that could be sustained over time.

Information on municipal waste is provided by the municipal authorities, while the

industrial enterprises supply information on the industrial and hazardous wastes they
generate, including information on type, quantity, properties, transportation, removal
and disposal.

With regard to the above, the main tasks of the ' waste' subsystem are the following :

., Systematic operation and administrative control over the state of the waste .
y Collection of data on the types of waste and on their development, properties and
treatment .
Y Analysis of data, and operation and management of the information database .
., Monitoring of pollut ion of the environment caused by solid wastes .
., Preparing and maintaining an inventory of waste dumps and landfills in Bulgaria.
., Assessment of the efficiency of both planned and executed activities aimed at im-
proving the state of the environment.
., Development of strategy, and improvement of legislation for waste management.
y Dissemination of information on solid waste management to the public at large
from governmental and public sources and organisations.

Since 1992 data on waste have been collected by the Executive Environmental Agen-
cy (EEA) from a wide range of sources, including the polluters themselves (MOEW,
1995). The Regional Inspectorates (RIs) also collect and control information on solid
waste and make them available to the EEA.
174

3. MONITORING OF MUNICIPAL AND CONSTRUCTION WASTES

3.1 Municipal solid waste

Since 1995 the Ministry of Environment and Water (MOEW) of the Government of
the Republic of Bulgaria has been focusing its attention on the largely unregulated
waste dumps and landfills in the country with a view to imposing stricter control and
better management and operational practices . On their part the municipalities use
what is called the ' Infor mation Chart Report' to collect annual data on domestic and
construction wastes disposed to each and every dump and landfill within their respec-
tive jurisdictions, one report for each dump or landfill. The report contains annual
data covering the 12-month period from the end of March of the preceding year to the
end of March of the current year.

Periodic inspection of waste dumps and landfills is one of the responsibilities of the
Executive Environmental Agency (EEA) . In 1997 a team from the EEA inspected the
dumps in a total of 217 settlements. Almost every settlement in the country owns one
or more dump and/or landfill that are mostly unregulated and into which all kinds of
wastes are deposited haphazardly . In total there are 275 dumps and landfills in these
settlements. Occupying an area of 739 ha, they serve a population of approximately
6.35 million representing about 76 percent of the population of the country . The re-
mainder of the population is served by a proportionate number of dumps and landfills.
In that year an estimated total of3 .6 million tonnes of solid waste was disposed to the
dumps and landfills, representing a per capita waste generation rate of 565 kg per
year which is significantly greater than the corresponding figure for many of the de-
veloped countries.

Proper assessment of the amounts of solid waste disposed to dumps and landfills is
very difficult in Bulgaria, mainly because only very few of them have facility for
measuring the weight of incoming wastes. Almost without exception, the weight of
the incoming waste is estimated from largely unreliable information given in the do-
cuments carried by the waste transporters. Not surprisingly, therefore , the figures are
unreliable at best and can be grossly misleading at worst.

Most of the dumps and landfills were built in the Seventies and the Eighties, usually
with little or no planning . Since then by far the majority of them have been operating
without any regulation or control. Neither are there any precautionary measures or
contingency plans to deal with emergencies . In some cases hazardous wastes are dis-
posed of without any treatment to render them harmless, often mixed with domestic
and other wastes . Waste separation is seldom carried out. There are only a handful of
dumps and landfills in the whole country where separation is organised , in most cases
only because of the initiatives of their more enlightened owners or operators . There is
no authorised or organised system in place for the recovery of materials from waste
that could be reused or recycled . As a result only a small proportion of the waste is
recovered , usually by poor people who eke out a meagre living by selling what they
recover.
 175

In the National Register of Dumps and Past Pollution, special status is afforded to the
dumps and landfills serving more than 20,000 people, in so far as their monitoring by
the MOEW is concerned. There are 76 such dumps and landfills in the country . The
larger settlements are served by 53 operating dumps and landfills that are meant only
for municipal solid waste (Figure I) . Approximately 60 percent of the country 's mu-
nicipal solid waste is disposed to them.

3.2 Construction waste

Data collected from 29 settlements by the EEA reveal that an estimated 888,583
tonnes of construction waste was generated in those settlements in 1997, of which no
less than about 83 percent was generated in the large cities. There are 34 dumps in the
country meant only for construction waste, to which about 77 percent of such waste
was disposed in that year. The remainder was disposed to dumps and landfills meant
for domestic solid waste . The larger settlements are served by 21 special dumps for
construction waste whose combined capacity is 611,876 tonnes.

The National Statistical Institute (NSI) of Bulgaria collects generalised information

on both domestic and construction wastes for the whole country. It also receives in-
formation on waste from, and exchanges them with, the regional authorities and other
relevant structures.

4. MONITORING OF INDUSTRIAL AND HAZARDOUS WASTES

4.1 Industrial waste

Industrial and production facilities, which generate industrial wastes, are required to
collect and submit information on their waste using what is called the ' Information
Report Form' . The report is to be made annually. A typical report includes informa-
tion on such wastes generated during the period covering the 12-month period from
the end of March of the preceding year to the end of March of the current year. In
addition, there are charts and forms for every kind of industrial waste . The data on
these documents show, among others, the amount of waste generated, the place where
it is generated, and its subsequent treatment.

During 1997 the EEA processed data contained in a total of 1947 Information Report
Forms submitted by industrial and production facilities, each of which was responsi-
ble for generating more than 100 kg (or 0.10 m3) of such waste each day. The pro-
cessed data reflects the amount, type, properties, transportation, storage and recycling
of industrial wastes . This activity is carried out in accordance with Article 2 of the
LLHIWE on the basis of the prevailing 1997 nomenclature for industrial waste not
containing hazardous components . In total 82 different types of waste are listed in the
nomenclature .
 -..I
0\

Figure 1 Estimated quantities (in thousands oftonnes) of solid waste disposed to dumps
and landfills in Bulgaria in 1997.
 177

The estimated amount of industrial waste generated in 1997 in Bulgaria was 25.8
million tonnes. As will be seen from Figure 2, practically all of it (97.7 percent ; 25.2
million tonnes) was disposed to dumps and landfills mostly without any treatment.
Only a small proportion was reused, recycled or treated by thermal processing. About
94 percent of the waste came from ore-processing and ore-dressing plants, while only
about 4 percent was chemical waste. Of the 25.2 million tonnes disposed to land, 99.6
percent was disposed to dumps and landfills owned by the industrial facilities them-
selves. The remainder was disposed to municipal dumps and landfills mixed with
other wastes. About 99 percent of the waste generated by the mining and chemical in-
dustries was disposed to special dumps .

Disposed 10 landfi ll (97 7%)

• Recycled ( I 49%)
D Reused (0.53%)
• Thermal treatment (024%)
Exponed : 0.02%
Temporary storage 0.02%

Figure 2 Fate of industrial solid wastegenerated in Bulgaria in 1997.

Based on data collected by the Regional Inspectorates, Figure 3 shows the amounts of
industrial waste disposed to dumps or landfills, or treated, in 1997 relative to the total
amounts generated in the different regions of Bulgaria .

Waste from the textile industry is disposed to municipal dumps and landfills along
with other wastes . Available information shows that 95 percent of the waste from the
ferrous and non-ferrous industry is recycled, while the corresponding figure for glass
wastes is 62 percent. A significant proportion of waste from the food processing and
building materials industry is reused. About 60 percent of waste from the food pro-
cessing industry is reused in agriculture as animal feed or fertiliser, while about 20
percent of the waste from the building materials industry is reused in road building .

4.2 Hazardous waste

Enterprises and facilities that generate hazardous waste are required to register them
using what is called the 'Information Declaration Form ' . Registration has to be done
annually for all such wastes generated in the ' current' year, defined as the 12-month
period from the end of January of the preceding year to the end of January of the
current year.

In 1997 an estimated 1.1 million tonnes of hazardous waste was generated in Bulga-
ria. The amounts of waste generated by the primary ore-processing and non-ferrous
178

industries, which are not included in the above amount, are accounted for under in-
dustrial waste . Based on data collected by the Regional Inspectorates, Figure 4 shows
the fate of hazardous wastes, divided into categories according to the Catalogue of
Hazardous Waste, generated in the different regions of Bulgaria in 1997.

• generated disposed to landfill o treated

Figure 3 Amounts of industrial waste disposedto land,or treated, relative to the amounts
generated in the different regions of Bulgariain 1997.

Data show that about 54 percent of the waste is of mineral origin, generated from the
processing of raw materials . The second largest category, 37.4 percent, comes from
cleaning facilities, medical wastes, etc. Ninety-nine percent of the waste in this cate-
gory comes from cleaning facilities, including the leather industry whose share is 91
percent . The smallest share, 1.2 percent , is of plant and animal origin .

It is interesting to note that more than 99 percent of the hazardous waste generated in
Bulgaria comes from only 30 of the country 's enterprises.

5. CONCLUDING REMARKS

At present one of the major problems of solid waste management in Bulgaria is that
the integrated waste management system is yet to be completed. The database needed
for it is currently under development. This system, the National System of Waste Ma-
 179

nagement, is based on the national programme for waste management focusing on

national legislation on waste.

o Disposed to landfill • Treated 0 Recycled • Temporary storage

Figure 4 Amounts of hazardous waste disposed to land. or treated, relative to the amounts
generated in the different regions of Bulgaria in 1997.

The qualit y of monitoring of solid waste depend s critic ally on the robu stness and cre-
dibilit y of the mechani sm with which industrial concerns and enterprises, and the mu-
nicipalit ies, report on their waste . Ordinance N I0/06 .11.98 regulates the design of the
forms and documents (e.g. the ' Information Declaration Form ') to be used for repor-
ting . Also, since 1998 waste has been classified according to order N323/1 0.08 .1998
of the Ministry of Environment and Water and the Ministry of Health, and The Cata-
logue of Waste appended to the order.

The mandate of the Ministry is to promote technological improvements whereby both

quantit y of waste and the risks they pose could be reduced, and, by so doing to reduce
both health and environmental impacts of solid waste . Clearly, monitoring of waste in
the wider sense comprising collection of data and information for coding and identi-
fication of waste , and managing an inventory of dumps and landfills, has a pivotal
role to play in fulfilling this objective. Exchange of information among the main play-
ers, as well as public dissemination of relevant information, is also very important to
the exercise.
180

The process of contamination by solid wastes is time-dependent as well as spatial.

The spatial element, which shows the sources, impacts and distribution of solid waste
on a large-scale and at any given time , is arguably very important for policy-makers.
To this end the Geographical Information System (GIS) highly recommends itself.
Because, it can be used effectively for the visualisation of the spatial element, thus
facilitating decision-making.

The weakest ' link' in the ' chain' for monitoring solid wastes is their laboratory analy-
sis and control. In Bulgaria these activities need to be improved and reinforced in
order for them to measure up to the increasingly higher quality standard being deman-
ded by the legislators.

REFERENCES

EU (1995), Preparation of the Associated Countries ofCentral and Eastern Europe for Inte-
gration into the EC Market , Commission of the European Communities, Brussels.
Klarer, J and Moldan, B (1997) , The Environmental Challenge for Central European Eco-
nomies in Transition, John Wiley & Sons Ltd., Chichester, United Kingdom.
MOEW (1995) , Annual Bulletin on the State of the Environment in the Republic ofBulgaria,
NCESD, Ministry of Environment and Water, Sofia, Bulgaria.
WCED (1987) , Our Common Future, Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom.
World Bank (1994) , Research on the Environmental Strategy in Bulgaria: Actualisation and
Future Activities, Report of the World Bank, N 13493 BUL, Sofia, Bulgaria.
 THIOUREA LEACHING OF GOLD-BEARING MINE WASTES FROM
THE MADJAROVO PROCESSING PLANT IN THE
SOUTH EAST OF BULGARIA

STOYAN GAYDARDJIEV
Department ofMineral Processing, University ofM ining & Geology, 1700 Sofia, Bulgaria.
E-mail: ga vdard jiev rZv)l1gU.nlRU.bg

ABSTRACT

The study presented in this paper deals with the issues concerned with the utilisation of floatation tail-
ings produced in the past by plants in which complex sulphide gold-bearing ore was processed. The
concentration of gold and silver in the tailings is found to be sufficiently high to justify starting a
research programme for their recovery. A number of studies have shown that thiourea has potential for
such treatment - treatment which is not amenable to cyanidation of ores or where environmental con-
cerns make the use of cyanide compounds problematic .

The choice of thiourea in this research was motivated both by enviroumental and technological consi-
derations . The region in question is environmentally sensitive because it is a border region of Bulgaria ,
and also because the A rda River, which is a major source of water supply, runs through the region. The
impetus for the research was provided by the fact that the relatively high content of sulphides as a po-
tential cyanide-consuming mineraI is considered a major technological drawback necessitating the use
of an alternative lixivant such as thiourea .

A technical now-sheet, developed for the recovery of gold and silver from mine tailings, is presented.
It consists of the following operations : magnetic separation, floatation, hydrochloric leaching, and thio-
urea leaching. The purpose of hydrochloric leaching is to provide the oxidant required for the next
stage of thiourea leaching and to expose the surfaces of the gold particles for further processing .

The method presented is typical of how suitable technologies could be developed for recovering valu-
able materials from potentially harmful wastes for reuse and/or recycling. It is argued that due attention
should be paid to such technologies for reinforcing efforts at sustainable solid waste management.

Keyw ords: Bulgaria : mine; tailings ; solid; waste; thiourea; gold; silver; environm ent; recycling.

1. INTRODUCTION

Continuing efforts are being made to identify lixivants that are effective for leaching
gold out of gold-bearing materials , but excluding cyanide mainly because conven-
tional cyanidation processes are not effective for treating ores that are refractory in
character. Moreover, cyanide compounds are very toxic to both humans and animals .
They are also known to have serious and adverse environmental impacts .

Bulgaria is a relatively small country where in the past gold-bearing mine wastes had
been generated in large quantities close to the sources supplying water to the urban

181
B. Nath et al. (eds.), Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region. 181-188.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
182

areas. This emphasises the need for developing an alternative to the use of cyanide for
leaching gold out of gold-bearing mine wastes.

Thiourea is known to possess properties that make it potential1y a good substitute for
cyanide for leaching gold out of gold-bearing materials. However, despite its faster
kinetics than cyanide, so far its use in industrial operations of this kind has been limi-
ted. This is because a number of factors preclude its application on a wider scale,
notably the high cost of the lixivant and the fact that the route for the effective remo-
val of precious metals from the solution is not yet wel1 established. Clearly, further
research and development is needed to address these persistent problems that could
have significant implications for the environment.

During leaching gold is anodical1y oxidised to the aurous state. Subsequently it is pre-
sumed that gold stays in the solution only as an aurothiourea compound. However,
for the acidic thiourea solutions, it is general1y accepted that oxidising agents such as
FeCb, H202 , etc. oxidise not only the gold but also the thiourea to form formamidine
disulphide (FDDS) . Thus the mechanism of gold dissolution is directly linked to the
automatic reduction process in which thiourea is spontaneously oxidised to FDDS in
the process of forming gold. However, in spite of the considerable amount of work
done so far, the precise role of FDDS in the process is not yet clear. Also, informa-
tion is not available on the thiourea/FDDS ratio that has to be maintained in the sys-
tem or on their synergist ic effects. In an earlier study Gaydardjiev and Spassova
(I992) have shown theoretical1y that FDDS is the most important compound for the
leaching and separation of gold.

2. EXPERIMENTAL WORK AND RESULTS

2.1 Experimental procedure

In this work the material under investigation was tailings from the lead-zinc floata-
tion of sulphide ore. To begin with, the entire waste pond containing the tailings was
examined thoroughly . Single core drill samples containing varying amounts of pre-
cious metals, as well as representative samples, were then analysed. The purpose of
this exercise was twofold : to arrive at realistic conclusions on the process itself; and
to develop suitable technology for the treatment of such mineral resources .

Mineralogical , chemical and phase analyses of the samples were carried out, and the
results showed that the only elements of interest were silver and gold. The silver and
gold contents recovered were 5.6 and 1.2 g/tonne respectively . Also, mineralogical
analysis suggested that the predominant rock mass consisted of quartz sand which,
after proper treatment, could be rendered suitable for reuse in the glass manufacturing
industry. Accordingly, the design of a combined process, with which al1 the valuable
components of the waste could be recovered, was undertaken.
 183

Floatation was performed in a pneumo-mechanical machine, called the 'Mechanobr',

using 31 cells. The floatation collectors of the AERO Cyanamid series were used.
Magnetic separation was carried out using the High Intensity Wet Magnetic Separator
(HIMS), and leaching was performed in an agitator vessel using a mechanical stirrer.
The solid/liquid ratio was kept at I: I under gravity filtration, and the agitation speed
was kept constant. The elemental assay for both solid and liquid phases was accom-
plished by using ICPAES.

The precious metals contained in the tailings were first concentrated by froth floata-
tion. The recovery of precious metals, which was less than 30 percent, was not satis-
factory, however . Neverthe less, it was clear that this product could be realised as a
mixture along with the concentrate produced in the plant as at present. It is also to be
noted that the main objective of floatation is not to obtain a standard concentrate, but
to separate the non-ferrous metals present in the floatation concentrate in order to pre-
vent undesirable reagent consumption. The relatively high iron content of the ore (2.8
percent of Fe) is also a factor thought to be responsible for the low recovery rates of
the precious metals. It was concluded therefore that, when the ferrous minerals were
separated out, better results could be expected in terms of the recovery of the precious
metals contained in the waste.

2.2 Removal ofthe iron-bearing components

The method employed for the removal of the iron-bearing components consisted of
two stages. The first was that of using high-intensity magnetic separation, and the
second that of salt-acid leaching. Samples representing floatation tails from the pre-
floatation of the waste were subjected to magnetic separation . The non-magnetic frac-
tion resulting from magnetic separation was then subjected to salt-acid leaching. The
aim of this operation was to unwrap the gold particles ; that is, to release them from
the covered hydroxy-ferrous coatings by dissolving them, and, by so doing to expose
the surfaces of the free gold particles for the next stage of thiourea leaching . Ano-
ther purpose of salt-acid leaching was to provide in-situ FeCb, which is an oxidant
essential for thiourea leaching.

Salt-acid leaching was performed according to the methods of mathematical planning .

Two different samples were subjected to leaching - the non-magnetic fraction re-
sulting from the magnetic separation of tailings, and floatation tailings that were not
subjected to magnetic separation . Three factors were examined: Xl denoting the con-
centration (degree of dilution) ofRCI; X2 denoting the leaching time ; and X3 deno-
ting the pulp temperature. The parameter subjected to optimisation was Y (YI and
Y2), which represented the minimum iron content present in the solid cake obtained
after leaching. Normal regression analysis was carried out using results obtained from
experiments.

The optimal values of the input and target parameters for the leaching of the non-
magnetic fraction were found to be:
184

Xl = 1:19; X2 = 60 min; X3 = 59°C; and Yl = 0.20%

The corresponding values for the leaching of the floatation tailings, that were not sub-
jected to magnetic separation, were found to be:

Xl = 1:22; X2 = 62.5 min; X3 = 77°C; and Y2 = 0.43%

An analysis of the results obtained from these studies indicate that:

(a) Due to the fact that the precious metal particles are very loosely connected to the
magnetic iron minerals, the amount of these metals lost in the magnetic fraction
is negligible.

(b) By far the greater part of the precious metals tends to remain in the non-magnetic
fraction which itself is subject to further treatment.

(c) The quartz particles are also slightly recovered in the magnetic fraction, while the
recovery rate for the ferrous minerals is in the neighbourhood of 50 percent.

(d) Minimum iron content in the material was achieved when salt-acid leaching was
preceded by magnetic separation.

2.3 Thiourea leaching - thermodynamic considerations

A detailed thermodynamic analysis of the leaching system was carried out before em-
barking on the experimental tests. The entire range of poss ible reactions for gold, sil-
ver and electrum were considered in the analysis by taking into account the effects of
FeCb, thiourea and its oxidised compounds (formamidine disulphide). A careful ana-
lysis of the thermodynamic parameters (free Gibbs energy , reaction constants, etc.)
indicated that the compounds of disulphide performed a key role in the leaching sys-
tem, because they were found to be in the most stable thermodynamic state.

2.4 Thiourea leaching at ambient temperature

Exper iments for estimating the optimal leaching parameters at room temperature were
conducted in accordance with the methods of the 'Latin quadrant' with simple ' pass'
via the following stages: floatation, magnetic separation, and salt-acid leaching. The
subjects of optimisation were concentrations of gold and silver in the post-leaching
solution. Considering that salt-acid and thiourea leaching were performed separately,
it could be presumed that the greater part of the iron ions had been removed with the
liquor from the salt-acid leaching, and, accordingly, a lack of oxidants could be ex-
pected. In order to prevent this, it was decided to conduct thiourea leaching with an
 185

additional supply of iron ions in the form of FeCh. And, therefore, the consumption
ofFeCb had to be considered in the factorial design .

According to the model obta ined from the processed experimental data, the following
values for the input parameters were estimated for both gold and silver:

pH = 2.0; thiourea consumption = 3 kg/t; FeCb consumption = 650 g/t; and leaching
time = 102 min.

It was concluded from the results of the experiments that the degree of silver disso-
lution was fairly insufficient, in fact much smaller than that of gold which reached 87
percent. The results also suggested that the consumption of thiourea should be consi-
dered a key factor especially for the silver leaching system. Also, the relatively low
value of FeCb consumption indicated that the additional supply of iron ions in the
pulp was not significant. In other words, the remaining amount of iron ions in the fil-
trate after salt-acid leaching should be sufficient as an oxidant for the optimum per-
formance of thiourea in the system. This was the reason why it was decided to test the
possibility of combining the two operations, namely those of salt-acid leaching and
thiourea leaching, into a single operat ion.

2.5 Combined salt-acid and thiourea leaching at higher temperatures

The optimal conditions, estimated for salt-acid leaching, showed that the maximum
amount of ferrous ions in the filtrate after leaching (and therefore the maximum effi-
ciency of the iron-remo val operation) was achieved under higher temperatures. On
the other hand, it is a well-established fact that such an environment facilitates thio-
urea oxidation in a number of steps, of which the first is that of disulphide formation .
Also, thermodynamic studies of the system revealed that compounds containing di-
sulphide were key to the functioning of the leaching system. Accordingly , it could be
expected that higher temperatures, which maintained a favourable environment for
disulphide formation, should have a catalytic effect on leaching kinetics . In order to
test this hypothesis, a series of combined salt-acid and thiourea leaching experiments
were performed at higher temperatures to study the influence of pulp pH on leaching
kinetics. These experiments were carried out with the following parameters: pulp
temperature = 60°C; thiourea consumption = 3 kg/t; and degree of salt-acid dilution =
I :19. Results showed that maximum gold recovery rate was achieved when pH was
maintained close to 3.5. The recovery rate for silver with this value of pH was found
to be about 60 percent.

When we consider the practical aspects of thiourea technolog y in the context of its
possible commercialisation, a major economic concern is that of high reagent con-
sumption . An analysis of the test data suggests that the maximum leaching recovery
rate for both gold and silver is achieved with a thiourea consumption of 1.3 kg/t and
pH = 3.5. These findings vindicate our assumption that higher temperatures facilitate
leaching processes and, at the same time, reduce the amount of reagent consumed .
186

Indeed, conclusions drawn from the thermodynamic analysis of the disulphide com-
pounds that are key factors in leaching, are also in line with these findings .

3. CONCLUDING REMARKS

The following conclusions emerged from the study reported in this paper:

(a) Within the temperature range studied, thiourea is found to behave favourably as a
leaching agent for the recovery of gold, with a recovery rate of approximately 90
percent. However, a comparable recovery rate could be achieved for silver only
under even higher temperatures.

(b) It is possible to combine the processes of salt-acid and thiourea leaching into a
single process . But this is contingent upon the development and solution of ma-
thematical equations for estimating the optimal system parameters .

(c) Operation at higher temperature facilitates the reduction of reagent consumption

from 3 kg/t to 1.4 kg/t, accelerates leaching kinetics from 102 min. to 28 min,
and lowers pulp acidity from pH = 2.0 to pH = 3.5.

(d) The assumption made in the thermodynamic analysis of the system is validated
by experimental results, namely that the disulphide compounds have a key role
to play in the process, especially in the recovery of silver. Also, there is evidence
to show that disulphide formation is facilitated at higher temperatures (Oudenne
and de Cuyper, 1986).

(e) Salt-acid leaching, either as a separate operation or combined with thiourea lea-
ching, is essential for removing iron and also for exposing the surfaces of the
gold particles by dissolving the hydroxy-ferrous compounds to form FeCh which
acts as an oxidising agent in the subsequent leaching of thiourea.

(f) Thiourea would appear to have much potential for application in treatments that
are not amenable to the cyanidation of ores, or when cyanidation could have
serious environmental impacts. Further studies should be undertaken to develop
further the use of thiourea in such treatments.

(g) In Bulgaria there are far too many instances of improper treatment and disposal
of mining and mineral solid waste of the kind described in this paper, and they
are a persistent source of growing and potentially serious health and environ-
mental impacts . However, due mainly to the unavailability of necessary skills and
especially finance, rendering these wastes harmless is proving to be very difficult
indeed. Ideally, strategies and economically viable technologies should be deve-
loped whereby valuable and/or useful materials could be recovered from such
 187

wastes for reuse or recycling . If this could be done, it would contribute in good
measure to the efforts that are currently being made for achieving at least a deg-
ree of sustainability in solid waste management.

The research, on which this paper is based, is a typical example of what can be
done in this respect - in this particular case the recovery of precious metals
from a potentially harmful waste, and, at the same time, rendering the residue of
that waste harmless or at least less harmful.

REFERENCES

Gaydardjiev, S and Spassova, S (1992), ' Amid base technologies in floatation and hydro-
metallurgy of precious metals', in Innovations in Advanced Floatation Technologies,
(Eds.) P. Mavros and K. Matis, NATO ASI Series E, Vol. 28, pp. 283-292.
Oudenne, P.D and de Cuyper, J (1986), 'Reagents and floatation flow-sheet selection for the
beneficiation of a complex sulphide ore containing copper and gold' , in Proc. Int. Symposi-
um on Beneficiation and Agglomeration, Bhubaneswar, India.
188

IfWhat a piece ofwork is man !

How noble the reason !
How infinite in faculty. inform. in moving! how
Expre is and admirable!
In action how like an angel!
In appreciation how like a god/
The beauty ofthe world/ the paragon ofanima/s f
And yet, to me, what is this quintessence ofdust ?
Man delights not me; no, nor woman neither,
1710 ugh, by your smiling, you seem to say so. "
From Shakespeare's Hamlet , act 2, scene 2
 A PILOT-SCALE PASSIVE SYSTEM FOR THE TREATMENT OF
ACID MINE DRAINAGE

STOYAN N. GROUDEV*, PLAMEN S. GEORGIEV* , IRENA!. SPASOVA* ,

ANATOLl T. ANGELOV* and KOSTAS KOMNlTSASt
• Department ofEngineering Geo-ecology, University ofMining and Geology, Studentskigrad Duver-
nitza, 1100 Sofia, Bulgaria . E-mail: [email protected]
t Laboratory of Metallurgy, National Technical University of Athens, Zographou Campus,15780
Athen s, Greece.

ABSTRACT

Acidic drainage water from mines, with different composition and containing sulphuric acid, sulphates,
toxic heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Cd, Mn and Fe), arsenic and solid iron precipitates as well as radioactive
elements (U, Ra and Th) as the main pollutants, were treated using a pilot-scale passive system. The
system consisted of an anaerobic cell constructed in three parts that were connected in series and a mo-
del wetland . The anaerobic cell, filled with a mixture of spent mushroom compost, cattle manure and
sawdust, was inhabited by a microbial community consisting of sulphate-reducing bacteria and other
metabolically inter-dependent micro-organisms.

An efficient removal of the pollutants mentioned above was achieved in the cell under continuous flow
conditions. Removal was linked mainly to processes such as those of microbial dissimilatory sulphate
reduction and sorption on the organic matter. Effluents from the anaerobic cell were enriched in dis-
solved organic compounds that were degraded in the model wetland by the heterotrophic micro-
organisms inhabiting the ecosystem. Effluents from the wetland were found to contain none of the
pollutants in concentrations higher than the relevant permissible levels for waters intended for use in
agriculture and/or industry .

The passive system described in this paper is found to be efficient, effective and relatively simple in its
configuration. It has much to recommend itself for the treatment of mine wastewaters containing a
wide range of pollutants.

Keywords: microbial; sulphate; reduction ; bacteria; biosorption ; toxic; heavy; metals; radioactive ; ele-
ments; water.

1. INTRODUCTION

Acidic drainage waters from mines are considered to be a major environmental prob-
lem associated with the mining industry . The composition of these waters depends on
a number of factors, but usually they contain free sulphuric acid, dissolved heavy
metals, sulphates, solid iron precipitates, and, in some cases, radionuclides and toxic
elements such as arsenic.

Currently there are a number of different methods for treating mine waters, but the
so-called passive systems developed recently would appear to be the most attractive .

189
B. Nath et al. (eds.), Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region, 189-194 .
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
190

Based on naturally occurring biological and geochemical processes, these systems are
claimed to be capable of improving the quality of the influent waters with minimum
operational and maintenance costs (Heddin et al., 1994; Cambridge, 1995; Groudev et
al., 1998).

Data on the treatment of mine waters with different composition were obtained from
a pilot-scale passive system . They are given in this paper along with a description of
the system and its operation .

2. EXPERIMENTAL WORK

2.1 The experimental set-up

Acidic drainage water from mines, with different composition and containing sulphu-
ric acid, sulphates, toxic heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Cd, Mn and Fe), arsenic and solid iron
precipitates as well as radioactive elements (U, Ra and Th) as the main pollutants
were treated using a pilot-scale passive system.

The system consisted of an anaerobic cell and a model wetland . Divided into three
sections that were connected in series, the anaerobic cell had a working volume of9.5
nr' . It was filled with a mixture of spent mushroom compost, cattle manure and saw-
dust. Iron shavings were mixed with the organic matter mentioned above to react with
the excess hydrogen sulphide produced in-situ by the anaerobic sulphate-reducing
bacteria . A reduction in the concentration of the hydrogen sulphide was necessary for
avoiding its inhibitory effect on the sulphate-reducing bacteria . The cell was then
filled with a solution of water containing the following nutrients : NazS04 (5.92 gil);
~CI (0.30 gil); K zHP04 (0.15 gil); and MgS04.7HzO (0.50 gil).

The cell was inoculated with a mixed enrichment culture of sulphate-reducing bacte-
ria and other metabolically inter-dependent micro-organisms. A stable microbial com-
munity was established in the cell within one month of cultivation at 8-23°C under
batch conditions. Plastic pipes with an internal diameter of 10 mm were inserted to
different depths into the organic matter in order to enable sampling of water from di-
fferent layers in the anaerobic cell.

The model wetland was constructed as a basin 5.3 m long, 2.5 m wide and 500 mm
deep . The bottom of the basin was covered with a 200 mm thick layer consisting of
spent mushroom compost, soil with a high organic content, silt and sand. The purpose
of the layer was twofold : to support the growth of the higher plants that were planted
in the basin; and to act as a source of organic matter to support the growth of hetero-
trophic micro-organisms that developed in the system. Water-torch (Typha latifolia
and Typha angustifolia) sod mast, spaced evenly in the basin, together with emergent
vegetation (related mainly to genera Scirpus, Eleocharis, Juncus and Carex) were
placed on this layer. Different algae, mainly those related to genus Zygnemopbyta, as
 191

well as water clover (Marsilea) were also placed in the basin which was filled with
tap water. Fertilisers containing suitable amounts of phosphorous, potassium and ni-
trogen were added to the basin. The system was maintained at an ambient temperature
that varied within the range of 8 to 23°C for a month. A stable biocenose was develo-
ped under these conditions. Apart from the plants mentioned above, the biocenose
also contained a variety of micro-organisms, protozoa, insects and other invertebrate
organisms.

2.2 Treatment ofpolluted waters - results and discussion

The treatment of polluted waters was carried out under continuous-flow conditions
and at different flow rates. Prior to treatment, the tap water in the anaerobic cell and
in the aerobic wetland (basin) was replaced by polluted water from the sample inten-
ded for treatment. The relevant biocenoses were allowed to adapt to the new watery
environment in the course of a period that varied from 3-4 days up to a month de-
pending on the composition of the mine water . Then the treatment was started at low
flow rates that were gradually increased to the maximum possible level at which an
efficient clean-up of the given mine water sample was achieved.

Results show that very efficient removal of toxic heavy metals, arsenic, radioactive
elements and sulphates from mine waters -was achieved in the anaerobic cell, as will
be seen from Table 1. This was obviously due to the different biological, chemical
and physico-chemical processes at play in the system, but the main role was played
by microbial dissimilatory sulphate reduction. Both toxic heavy metals and arsenic
were precipitated mainly as respective sulphides by the hydrogen sulphide which was
formed as a result of the process. Uranium was precipitated mainly as uraninite
(U02) . However, certain proportions of these pollutants, as well as most of the radi-
um, was adsorbed on the organic substrates in the cell. In all the experiments carried
out the concentration of sulphate decreased to levels lower than 400 mg/l which made
the treated waters suitable for use in both agriculture and industry.

The biocenose in the cell was able to survive and to act efficiently even when the pH
of the water being treated was higher than 2.5 (Table 2). The alkalinity produced by
the solubilization of the carbonates contained in the spent mushroom compost, as well
as by the hydrocarbonate ions formed during sulphate-reduction, gradually increased
the pH and stabilised it around the neutral point.

Microbial sulphate-reduction is a function of the digestibility of the organic substrates

in the cell. Different saprophytic micro-organisms degraded the biopolymeric organic
compounds and provided the sulphate-reducing bacteria with suitable monomeric or-
ganic sources of carbon and energy. The organic substrates used in this study were
slowly degradable, and they supported microbial growth over the long experimental
period (from the beginning of April to the end of November) . Substrate utilisation
was found to be about 25 percent during the entire incubation period.
192

Temperature was found to be an important factor affecting the rate of both substrate
biodegradation and microbial sulphate-reduction. The temperature coefficient, QIO,
varied from 1.7 to 2.3 when the temperature varied within the range of 10 to 27°C.
The maximum sulphate reduction rate achieved in this study was 95 mg/I per hour.
The main factor limiting the rate of sulphate reduction was the relatively low concen-
trations of the electron donor (i.e. the dissolved organic carbon). Regardless of this,
effiuents from the anaerobic cell were enriched in dissolved organic compounds.
However, in the model wetland (basin) the heterotrophic micro-organisms inhabiting
the ecosystem degraded those compounds. Effiuents from the wetland contained no
pollutants in concentrations higher than the relevant permissible levels, and so they
were suitable for use in agriculture and industry.

Table 1 Data on the treatment of mine waters using the passive system

Water parameters Before After Permissiblelevels for waters

treatment treatment used in agriculture and industry
Waters with compositiontypical of copper mines (residencetime: 28 to 86 hours)
pH 2.3 - 3.5 7.3 - 8.0 6.0 -9.0
Sulphate (mg/I) 2853 - 4220 295 - 370 400
Iron (mg/I) 590 - 1232 0.6 - 1.0 5
Manganese(mg/I) 1.4 - 4.4 < 0.60 0.80
Copper (mg/I) 8.0 - 28.0 < 0.05 0.50
Zinc (mg/I) 6.0 - 14.0 < 0.05 10
Cadmium (mg/I) 0.3 - 1.7 < 0.04 0.02
Arsenic (mg/I) 8.2 - 121.5 < 0.05 0.20

Waters with compositiontypical of uranium mines (residencetime: 19 to 62 hours)

pH 2.3 - 2.8 7.5 -7.9 6.0- 9.0
Sulphate (mg/I) 1744- 2840 262 - 325 400
Iron (mg/I) 415-710 0.3 - 0.7 5
Uranium (mg/I) 1.7 - 5.3 < 0.10 0.60
Radium (Bq/I) 0.8-2 .1 < 0.05 0.15
Total
p-radioactivity(Bq/I) 3.75 - 10.5 < 0.50 0.75

It is pointed out that when used separately (i.e. without the anaerobic cell), the model
wetland was able to remove the above-mentioned pollutants from waters with pH
higher than 3.5. However, the rates of removal were much lower, and the residence
times much longer, than when the anaerobic cell was in operation.
 193

3. CONCLUDING REMARKS

The data presented in this paper show that the passive system of the kind described
can be used efficiently and on a commercial scale for treating mine waste waters with
different compositions.

Wastes emanating from all kinds of mines have potentially serious implications for
the environment in general and for ecosystems in particular. Yet, today such wastes
are commonplace in most if not all of the countries of the world. Clearly, efficient
and economically viable technologies are needed for the proper management of such
wastes for achieving at least a degree of sustainability. Because of its efficiency,
effectiveness and relative simplicity, the method described in this paper would re-
commend itself to that end.

Table 2 Composition of microflora in the passive system (cells/ml)

Anaerobic cell Model wetland

(in waters after their
Micro-organism at5 em at 65 em treatment in the
depth depth anaerobic cell)

Aerobic heterotroph ic bacteria 104 - 106 \03_ \05 104 _ 107

Cellolose-degrading micro-organisms \02_ \0 5 \02_ \04 \0 2_ 105
Oligocarbophiles 103 - 106 \02 _ \0 5 \04 _ \06
Nitrifying bacteria 10 - \03 1- 10 10 - \03
Streptomycetes \0 - \02 < 10 \0 - \03
Fungi \0 - \04 \0 - \0 2 10 - \03
Fe2+ - oxidising chemolithotrophs 102 _ 104 < 10 \0 - \03
So- oxidising chemolithotrophs \02_ 105 \0 - \02 \02_ \03
(at pH = 2.0)
S20t - oxidising chemolithotrophs \02 _ \04 \0 2_ \03 \04 _ \06
(at neutral pH)
Fe2+ - oxidising heterotrophs \0 - \02 < \0 102 _ \03
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria \04 _ \06 103 - 105 104 _ \0 5
Anaerobic heterotrophic bacteria \0 5_ \06 \0 5_ \0 7 \04 _ \06
Bacteria fermenting sugars with gas \0 2_ 105 \03_ 105 \02_ \04
production
Sulphate-reducing bacteria 104 _ \05 105 _ \07 \0 3_ \0 5
Denitrifying bacteria \03_ \05 104 _ \0 5 \02_ \0 5
Methanogcnic bacteria < \0 10 - 103 < 10
Fe3+ - reducing bacteria \02_ 105 \03_ \06 \02_ \04
Mn4+ - reducing bacteria \0 - \03 \02_ \04 \0 - \02
194

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to acknowledge with gratitude the financial support for the
project of the Commission of the European Communities under the Copernicus
project, ' Marine Pollution in the Black Sea Due to Mining Activities: Risk Assess-
ment , Development of Preventive and Remedial Actions', Contract No. ERB-ICI5-
CT96-0114. Sincere thanks are also due to Mike Cambridge, Clive Hallett and Quen -
tin Hamilton of Knight Piesold Ltd ., Ashford, United Kingdom, for their helpful
comments on the work.

REFERENCES
Cambridge, M (1995) , ' Use of passive systems for the treatment and remediation of mine
outflows and seepage', Minerals Industry International, May, pp. 35-42 .
Groudev, S.N, Bratkova, S.G and Komnitsas, K (1999), 'Treatment of waters polluted with
radioactive elements and heavy metals by means of a laboratory passive system', Min erals
Engineering, March.
Heddin, R.S, Nairn, R.W and Kleinmann, R.L.P (1994) , Passive Treatment of Coal Mine
Drainage, USBM Information Circular, No. 9389, US Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, USA.
 TREATMENT OF SOLID WASTE GENERATED FROM THE
MANUFACTURE OF POLYACRYLONITRILE FffiRES
EKATERINA I. TERLEMESIAN and STOYAN K. STOYANOV
Centre f or Ecology, University ofChemical Technology and Metallurgy, 8 'Kliment Ochridski '
Boulevard, 1756 Sofia, Bulgaria. E-mail: stoyanovla:.uctm.edu

ABSTRACT

Application of ED policy for the prevention, reduction, recycling, reuse and safe disposal of industrial
solid waste in Bulgaria is illustrated in this paper by taking the example of the manufacture of poly-
acrylonitrile (PAN) fibres at the BULANA factory which is part of the NEFfOCHIM complex in the
town of Bourgas, Bulgaria.

Trends of the total amount of PAN fibres produced by the factory over the last 20 years are investiga-
ted, along with those of waste generated, waste composition and waste management. Based on the
findings of this investigation, some of the issues bearing on the sustainable management of industrial
waste through waste minimisation , elimination ofunrecyclable waste, and recycling by feeding back to
the same (or other) processes are discussed.

Also discussed is how the problem of solid waste generated by the BULANA factory was practically
solved by replacing the old technology with new and clean technology imported from Italy. It is argued
that this factory, with its new and clean technology, should be taken as a paradigm of what can be
done, and ought to be done, to address the growing problem of industrial solid waste for achieving at
least a degree of sustainable solid waste management.

Keywords: Bulgaria; polyacrylonitrile (pAN) ; fibre; industrial; solid; waste; sustainable; management ;
clean ; technology .

1. INTRODUCTION

The world polymer industry has grown from about 7,000 tonnes in 1923 to more than
30 million tonnes in 1990, representing an impressive compound annual growth rate
of about 15 percent sustained over a period of nearly 70 years. By all accounts this
upward trend is likely to continue in the new Millennium, but mainly at the expense
of the developing countries.

Increasingly material substitution has been driving the polymer market . A typical
example of this is the substitution of man-made, non-cellulosic fibres for cotton, wool
and silk (Meyer , 1995). As will be seen from Table 1, at present the world market
share of natural fibres is roughly 50 percent, while non-cellulosic, man-made fibres
account for more than 40 percent of the world fibre market. Interestingly, in the USA
natural fibre consumption accounts for less than 30 percent of the total (Table 2).

195
B. Nath et al. (eds.), Sustainable Solid Waste Managem ent in the Southern Black Sea Region, 195-206.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers .
196

From the early Seventies three different types of synthetic fibres have been produced
in Bulgaria: fibres based on polyethyleneterephalate (PET) ; polyamide (P A) fibres ;
and polyacrylonitrile (PAN) fibres . The combined total production was about 60,000
tonnes. Table 3 shows the production trend of these fibres during 1980-1992.

As the data of Table 3 show , total production of synthetic fibres in Bulgaria remained
practically static until the end of the 1980s. In fact, in terms of per capita production
of man-made fibres Bulgaria was among the top ten countries of the world, ahead of
the west European countries.

Table 1 Historic world market share by fibre type (source: Meyer, 1995)
Percent market share of
Year Cotton, wool, silk Man-made Non-cellulosic
Cellulosicfibre fibre
1940 89 10 1
1950 83 15 2
1960 74 18 8
1970 58 14 28
1980 49 9 42
1990 48 8 44

Figure 2 Historic US market share by fibre type (source: Meyer, 1995)

Percent market share of
Year Cotton, wool, silk Man-made Non-cellulosic
Cellulosicfibre fibre
1940 89 10 1
1950 81 14 5
1960 66 17 17
1970 43 14 43
1980 26 9 65
1990 26 9 65

Unfortunately, Bulgarian synthetic fibre technology as well as production 'froze' as it

were at the level it was in the early 1980s. Indeed, ever since the industry has been in
decline characterised by low productivity due to a number of reasons , notably those
concerned with investment in modem equipment and new processes and finding new
markets. Loss of markets in the former USSR was a serious blow to the industry. It
was swiftly followed by the economic collapse of Bulgaria in the early 1990s from
which the industry is yet to recover. The upshot of all this is that, outdated equipment
 197

along with improper management practices has been responsible for generating large
amounts of waste. Improper management and especially disposal of these wastes is
continuing to pollute the environment, and this is a cause for much concern.

In the mid-1990s both PA and PET fibre plants were shut down and the processes for
their liquidation and/or privatisation were initiated. From the early 1990s PAN fibres
have been produced at about SO percent of capacity. However, in 1996 the new SNIA
technology was imported from Italy for boosting PAN fibre production to meet do-
mestic demand.

Table 3 Synthetic fibre production in Bulgaria during 1980-1 992 (in thousand tonnes)
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
PA 19.8 20.5 21.1 20.6 20.9 20.4 18.2 20.5 22.0 21.8 15.5 7.2 6.5
PET 17.1 25.1 25.0 25.0 25.2 25.2 25.1 25.5 25.4 25.9 23.8 8.7 18.3
PAN 13.0 13.0 12.7 12.9 12.2 11.5 10.1 10.2 11.8 12.0 10.3 5.4 6.8
Total 49.9 58.6 58.8 58.5 58.3 57. 1 53.4 56.7 59.2 59.7 59.6 21.3 31.6
(source: Zlatev, 1993)

Against the background painted above, our purpose in this paper is twofo ld:

)r- To investigate trends of the amount, composition and treatment of wastes genera-
ted over the last decade at the BULANA factory where PAN fibres are produced .

)r- To examine some of the issues involved in reorienting Bulgar ian fibre industry to
sustainable method s and practices through waste minimisation and recycling .

2. SPECIFIC FEATURES OF PAN FIBRE PRODUCTION IN

BULGARIA UP TO 1994

The BULANA factory, as part of the NEFTOCHIM company, was built in 1969 by
FABELTA - a Belgian company . It manufactures PAN fibres. The NEFTOCHIM
company is the largest Bulgarian petroleum group (for refining and production of
petrochemicals and polymers) situated near the town of Bourgas on the Black Sea
coast. Polymer (polystyren e, polypropylene, low- and high-density polythene, synthe-
tic rubber and PAN fibres) production is one of its main activities. At the NEFTO-
CHIM complex acrylonitrile (AN) monomer is also produced from propylene and
ammonia using the amino-oxidation process.

The flow diagram for the production of PAN fibres using the FABELTA technology
of 1969 is shown in Figure 1. The process is organised in two stages following these
sequential steps (Figure I): production of the polymer is based on suspension poly-
merisation (1); the solid polymer is filtered from the aqueous medium (2), washed to
198

remove impurities, dried in cyclone (3) and stored (4). In the second stage the poly-
mer pellets are dissolved in dimethylformamide for the preparation of the spinning
dope (5); degassing and filtration (6), followed by extrusion through the spinnerets to
form the filaments (7); treatment for the finishing of the filaments including washing,
stretching (8), heat treatment and crimping (9), drying (10), application of lubricants
and anti-static finishing , cutting and baling (11 and 12).

First Stage
2 3 4
PAN
~ Suspension Transportation _
Polymerization & Storage

WasteFilter-Cloth WastePolymer
Sheets Powder
Second Stage
5 6 7 8

-
PAN . . - - - - - - ,
Dissolution
of PAN

WasteFiller-Cloth Waste Waste

Sheets Wet Fibres UndrownFibres

11

PAN Staples

WasteDry Fibres

Figure 1 Flow diagram for the manufacture of PAN fibres (FABELTA technology, 1969)

Different types of solid waste are generated at all the steps mentioned above, in par-
ticular the following :

~ Wet and undrawn waste PAN fibres, including both coloured and dirty filaments
(WWF).
 199

~ Dry waste fibres (DWF), coloured or colourless .

~ Polymer powder (PP) .
~ Sheets of filter cloth (FCS) containing up to 30 percent of PAN .

3. TRENDS OF SOLID PAN WASTE GENERATED IN BULGARIA

Figures 2a and 2b show the total amount of solid PAN waste generated in Bulgaria
during 1986-1998 in relation to the total production of PAN fibres .

14

..
~
12

10
c
.9 8
":::c 6
:::I
o
(:. ..
2
o.\.d.-~LJ.g~~.J.¢U~.l2;dJ2;:LlaJ2::Z::2;:LQ;:l--l2;:UQ
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Figure 2a PAN fibres produced during 1986-1998 (source: annual reports of BULAN A)

1000U-=;;';";""'-=-;;';";_~~~_;;';";
900
.:".:: r.:,-

'!of( -.-,
.. "
-,L.=7I-
,;
---1
800 ./
1.1-- - - - - . 4
700 ~ ,
$tt-n...-"'-- - - - - - - - - -j
~t. 1--.L-a-----------l .~~' I---~
~ 600
2
o
500 ~.
..... ..
~ ": ~i·1-- - - - - . 4
" ~-~-
I- 400 ;; ' - - ,-,-,

300 ~
¥ :~

[i.1-- - -
,,--.4
200 t=t2 1 ~'
I ~ij--:.~---::'---1
? .. 0.
k J~
10~U~;:LJ2;:Ll2;::LJl4=U~jl;:LJ2;:L.l4:LJt2::Z:z;::i---'l~~~J2;;
o ':.'
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Figure 2b PAN waste generated during 1986-1998 (source: annual reports of BULAN A)

Up to the end of the 1980s, when the manufacturing plants had been working close to
full capacity, the average total amount of PAN waste generated was about 680 tonnes
per year, representing about 6.2 percent of the total annual production of PAN fibres.
As it happens , this proportion of PAN waste generated was the highest compared with
those generated by the other synthetic fibre manufacturing plants in Bulgaria. In fact,
fibrous waste amounted to roughly SO percent of the total PAN waste generated at the
factory as will be seen from Figure 3. In this Figure the relatively high proportion of
200

waste from man-made fibre production is explained by the fact that it includes waste
from the production of rayon whose manufacture, compared to other fibres, generates
the greatest amount of waste per unit of production .

The early 1990s are characterised by a drastic reduction in fibre production together
with a corresponding but small decline in the amount of waste generated. During
1991-1994 the total amount of waste generated was around 175 tonnes per annum,
representing about 3.3 percent of the average annual PAN fibre production . In 1995
the old FABELT A plant was replaced by a new Italian plant using SNIA technology.

oj 10./.L'12w~~~d£~JjB~~flli~ 0 waste
Tota l anvnount of solid
.
;;;
! ~
8
6 =="±-;;;';"""'=;-'-"i-"":>i"7jt=~. Fibrous waste
" .
"j 4 ,

J 2
o
Average PET PA (1991· PAN
(19114- (1981. 1992) (1986.
1985) 1989) 19901

Figure 3 Proportions of solid waste generated by different man-made fibre production

facilities in Bulgaria (source: Zlatev , 1993)

During 1996-1998, when the SNIA technology had been commissioned, fibre produc-
tion in Bulgaria was stabilised at a level close to the installation capacity of 14,000
tonnes per year. Except for 1996 when this technology was introduced, there has been
a drastic reduction in the waste generated amounting to only 0.7 percent of the total
PAN production . Rough composition of PAN waste, determined on the basis of the
amounts of different types of PAN waste generated during 1986-1990, is shown in
Figure 4. More importantly , however, there has been a significant change in the com-
position of PAN waste generated by the new technology.

Dry and wet waste fibres, which constitute the major components of bulk PAN waste ,
account for 45 and 46 percent of the total, respectively . Approximately 300 tonnes of
dry waste fibres, generated annually, have traditionally been used in the textile indus-
try for purposes not requiring standard-quality fibres (e.g. for filling cushions and
anoraks , preparation of fibre webs, etc.). Wet and undrawn PAN fibre wastes are
generated during the processes of spinning and stretching of the filaments . These
wastes also include those generated when the installation is switched on and off Such
wastes, amounting to about 320 tonnes per year, cannot be used for the production of
textiles .

Air-borne polymer powder, generated during the processes of polymer centrifugation

and drying in cyclones, pollutes the indoor working space and causes health problems
 201

for the workers . During 1986-1990 the amount of this waste was estimated at about
10 tonnes per year, or approximately 2 percent of the total PAN waste . Sheets of filter
cloth, used for filtering polymer suspension following polymerisation and also for fil-
tering polymer solution before spinning, represent about 7 percent of the total amount
of solid waste generated in PAN production .

Figure 4 Composition of PAN waste generated by the FABELTA technology (1969)

4. STATUS OF INDUSTRIAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN BULGARIA

Up to the end of the 1980s it was common practice to dispose both wet and dirty PAN
fibres, along with the used filter-cloth sheets, to an uncontrolled landfill site near the
village of Do/no Eserovo in the Bourgas region. This site is close to the Vaja Lake
which is a listed nature reserve and habitat of some rare birds. This mindless ' throw-
away' practice, which still continues, is endangering the very survival of these protec-
ted species of birds listed in Bulgaria 's ' red book ' of endangered flora and fauna.

In the general context of solid waste management, there is often no ' other side of the
town' where modern tanneries could be located so to speak, neither is there open
space beyond the 'village gate' where waste can be dumped with impunity and with-
out causing harm. As usual, everyone agrees that waste should be disposed of safely
and properly with a view to achieving at least some degree of sustainability , but not in
their own backyards. This is the infamous NIMBY (not in my backyard) syndrome
which is thwarting attempts at proper and sustainable management of solid waste in
Bulgaria and elsewhere .

These facts emphasise the need for recycling, conservation, waste minimisation and a
switch to alternative and appropriate technologies. They lead to the realisation that
the traditional model of industry, in which individual manufacturing facilities take in
raw materials to produce goods and services which in turn generate wastes to be dis-
posed of, should be transformed to one that is better integrated in the sense that the
amount of waste generated is minimised and the effluents of one facility or process
serve as raw material for another . If it could be achieved, transformation of industry
202

in this way would help close the so-called 'production-consumption loop' (Barbiroli,
1997), and, by so doing, it would contribute significantly to the achievement of sus-
tainable solid waste management.

In the particular context of applying relevant European Union policies on waste pre-
vention, minimisation, recycling, reuse and safe disposal to the Bulgarian situation, it
would be instructive first to consider the changes that have taken place in the country
in this regard during the last 30 years or so. Three distinct periods, which can be iden-
tified over those 30 years, illustrate the changes that have occurred in the collective
' mind-set' and attitude of Bulgarians to industrial wastes in general and PAN wastes
in particular.

Up to the early 1980s there was no structured regime or system in the country for the
safe and proper disposal of solid wastes . The growing problem of solid waste was not
acknowledged as a 'problem' as such, and so little or no attention was paid to its alle-
viation or solution. Indeed, it is true to say that many, if not most, of the current
environmental problems of Bulgaria originated from the then government's disdain
for all matters environmental, including the problems of solid waste management.
The cumulative effect of that disdain is now all too obvious to see.

The second period began in the 1980s when research and development projects on
new technolog ies for the recycling of PAN waste were financially supported by the
Bulgarian Ministry of Industry and the Committee for Science and Technology . As a
result of these efforts, a number of methods and processes were developed for the uti-
lisation of PAN powder waste for producing new polymers for application as fibro-
span flocculates, additives, etc.

It was during this period that a contract was made between the Committee for Science
and Technology and the Department of Textile and Man-made Fibres of the Univer-
sity of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy, Sofia, for developing polyampholyte
containing acidic and basic groups using a process of synthesis which involved che-
mical modification (Terlemesian et al., 1982; Simitzis et al., 1995). Undrawn or dry
PAN waste was used as raw material in the process which yielded two types of ion-
exchangers - one with a fibrous structure and the other with a porous structure . The
synthesised polymers were used in the following applications : decolouration of waste
water from the textile industry (Terlemesian, 1992); extraction of iodine from brine;
decolouration of sugar syrups; and extraction of metal ions from liquids (Terlemesian
and Veleva, 1993). Using the ion-exchanger developed in the project, a new technolo-
gy was developed for producing copper from low-grade copper ore rich in iron. This
technology is based on the selective sorption of iron from copper and iron mixed in
sulphuric acid leachates .

During this period approximately 93 percent of the waste generated from all kinds of
fibre production was utilised through recycling, and about 30-35 percent of the waste
emanating from synthetic fibre production was exported (Zlatev, 1993).
 203

The third period began in 1996 when the old FABELTA technology was completely
replaced by the new SNIA technology imported from Italy. The main difference from
the former technology was that now polymerisation was carried out in solution. Solu-
tion polymerisation is more efficient for fibre manufacture, because, under favourable
conditions the polymer solution can be spun directly so that the troublesome process-
es of isolation and re-dissolving of polymer are avoided .

5. SPECIFIC FEATURES AND ADV ANTAGES OF THE SNIA TECHNOLOGY

Production of PAN fibres using the SNIA technology is a one-stage process whose
flow diagram is shown in Figure 5. In this technology production of waste is tailored
in a way that allows the largest proportion of the waste to be fed directly back into the
process . Most of the BULANA in-house scrap (such as undrawn and wet fibres for-
med during spinning and stretching) is redissolved and used in the process along with
virgin PAN.

2 J 4

AN Solution
Stretching
- Polymerization

WasteFilter - Cloth Sheets

WasteWetFibres

WasteUndrawnFibres

Finishing &
Crimping
.--------. PAN Staples

Waste
Dry Fibres
Waste Dry Fibres

Figure 5 Flow diagram for the manufacture of PAN fibres (SNIAtechnology, 1996)

There are 8 stages in the SNIA process compared with 12 in the FABELTA process
(shown in Figure 1). The following steps are avoided in the SNIA process: filtration
of polymer pellets from the polymer mixture; drying ; transportation and storage; and
re-dissolving of polymer.
204

A particular advantage of the SNIA technology is that it is based on solution polymer-

isation to which we have already referred in section 4. The other advantages are :

).- Polymer powder is not released to create indoor air pollution.

).- Because the PAN dissolving process is eliminated, the amount of filter-cloth used
is cut by 50 percent compared with the old FABELTA technology.
).- Drying takes place under tension, and not in a relaxed state as in the FABELTA
technology. The advantage of this is that it reduces the quantit y of tom filaments
and enhances final fibre quality. Consequently, the amount of dry waste fibres ge-
nerated in the drying process is reduced significantl y.

700
C FABELTA technol. (1969)
600
• S NIAtec h nol . (1996)

..~. ..~
~ 500

400

--
~

..
.. 0

::
c
300

200

100

0
~

-;
.
-; E
~

-; E -= t ."t
~ ~
.&J
~
• .&J
~... ~ .§
"0
~
0
"iI :0:
'" c·'" ~
:; i 0- <0-
c;
!-
~ C
...
Figure 6 Average amounts of PAN waste generated.

100
90 p':'~~jJI=./
80
70
60
50
40
30 ~<
20
10 ..
o ~ ... ...
; ::...
~
2:
:3
~
~
• .&J o 0
C·'"
Q
.. <0-

Figure 7 Waste reduction in SNIA technology compared to FABELTA technology.

Figu res 6 and 7 show both reduction of different types of waste after the introduction
of the SNAIA technology and changes in waste composition. Reduction ranges from
approximately 60 percent for filter-cloth sheets to 100 percent for polymer powder.
 205

Wet and undissolved fibres, which cannot be recycled, are eliminated in the process.
And so the only waste generated consists of a small amount of filter-cloth sheets and
dirty fibres that could be incinerated or disposed to controlled landfills.

Clearly, substantial positive changes have occurred in recent years at the BULANA
factory with regard to solid waste following the introduction of the SNIA technology .
This illustrates, typically and vividly, how changing over to clean technologies can
contribute significantly to the achievement of sustainable solid waste management via
waste minimisation and recycling programmes.

In his book Barbiroli discusses the issue of appropriateness of technology in terms of

both operation and application within the wider societal and technological context
(Barbiroli, 1997). He defines appropriate technology as ' one which determines the
processes which support themselves and tend towards the growth of the activity of the
(industrial) system, its independence and its capacity for survival and development ' .
The case under discussion is a good and typical example of this. Because, it illustrates
how the adoption of an ' appropriate technology' has potential for achieving sustain-
able development through waste minimisation, and elimination of wastes that cannot
be recycled by feeding them back to the same process or to other processes in which
they could be gainfully used.

6. CONCLUDING REMARKS

The focus of this paper has been on the problems of solid waste management in a
particular factory - the BULANA factory near Bourgas on the Black Sea coast of
Bulgaria - which produces PAN fibres. We have demonstrated how the introduction
of new, clean technology has brought about very substantial and positive changes to
the extent that, compared to its former magnitude, the current problem of solid waste
generated by that factory is very small indeed. But the crucial factor in this has been
investment in new and clean technology without which none of the benefits could
accrue. Although this is an isolated but typical example, it shows nevertheless what
can be done, and ought to be done, to achieve at least a degree of sustainability in
solid waste management.

The problems currently besetting the Bulgarian industrial sector are many and varied,
and the status of its environmental credentials is increasingly under close scrutiny not
least because of Bulgaria 's ambition for accession to the European Union. The key
question to be addressed here is whether, or the extent to which, foreign direct invest-
ment could be attracted to replace outdated equipment, technology and processes with
their new and clean counterparts . For it is only by doing so - following the paradigm
of the BULANA PAN factory to be precise - that a degree of sustainable solid waste
management could be achieved. It is hoped that on-going privatisation efforts will in
due course address the key issue of investment.
206

REFERENCES

Annual Reports of the BULANA factory, NEFTOCHIM, Bourgas, Bulgaria, 1986-1998.

Barbiroli, G (1997), The Dynamics ofTechnology , Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
The Netherlands .
Meyer, J (1995), 'Polymer research directions to meet the needs of the 21st century ' , in Proc.
Macromol Symposium, Vol. 98, pp. 1249-1260.
Simitzis, J, Terlemesian , E and Mladenov, I (1995), ' Utilisation of waste PAN fibres as ad-
sorbents by chemical and thermal modification ', European Polymer Journal, Vol. 31,
No . 12, pp. 1261-1267.
Terlemesian, E, Dimov, K and Dimitrov, D (1982), ' Method of ion-exchange for PAN fibre
production ' , Bulgarian Patent No. 34554.
Terlemesian, E (1992), ' Sorption methods for purification of dye-containing wastewater from
the textile industry ' , in Proc. Third Eurotex International Symposium on ' Environmental
Aspects in the Textile Industry', Athens, Greece.
Terlemesian , E and Veleva, S (1993), 'Thermodynamic investigation of metal sorption by ion
exchange fibres ' , Journal ofPolymer Materials, No. 10, pp. 36-47.
Zlatev, V (1993), Environmental Pollution Caused by Man-made Fibre Manufacture - In-
dustry and Environment, ET ' Boris Hranov' , Sofia, Bulgaria.
 SUSTAINABLE SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN TURKEY

CAGLA GURESiNLi
General Directorate of Environmental Pollution , Prevention and Control, Min istry ofEnvironment,
Eskitehir Yolu 8. Km, Ankara, Turkey. E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Solid waste generated from municipal and other sources has been and continues to be a major environ-
mental problem in Turkey as in many of the developing countries . Initially concentrated on the west-
ern coast of Turkey , Turkish industry has been growing rapidly and steadily, and, increasingly it is
making inroads into the urban areas . Both variety of manufactured industrial products and their con-
sumption in ever increasing quantity are generating increasingly greater amounts of industrial wastes
to be disposed of safely and without causing adverse environmental impacts .

In Turkey the collection and transportation of solid waste are generally well organised, but the dispo-
sal of wastes collected from municipal, industrial and agricultural sources is less than satisfactory to
say the least. Much of it is dumped haphazardly into the nearest lowlands or river valleys, or directly
into the sea without any prior treatment. Such uncontrolled practices , especially that of disposal to
unregulated ' open dumps ' which is commonplace in Turkey, is posing growing and serious threat to
both public health and the environment.

This paper focuses on the salient aspects of the problem and the various management and regulatory
measures that are being developed and implemented in Turkey for the proper management of solid
waste aiming at sustainability.

Keywords: Turkey ; solid; waste ; municipal ; industrial ; hazardous; problems; management, regulation .

I. INTRODUCTION

All kinds of human activities including agriculture generate solid wastes. Although this
has been the case ever since the dawn of history, increasing industrialisation of commu-
nities during the last 150 years or so coupled with population growth has been, and
continues to be, responsible for generating increasingly greater quantities of solid waste
to be disposed of as well as for the growing complexity of its composition. Not sur-
prisingly therefore, the focus is increasingly on the proper and sustainable management
of solid waste emanating from municipal, industrial and agricultural sources in the in-
terests of both present and future generations.

Proper and sustainable management of solid waste is rapidly becoming a serious prob-
lem in Turkey where, as in many of the other developing counties , the problem is being

207
B. Nath et al. (eds.), Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region. 207-218.
@ 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
208

exacerbated by two factors that are acting in concert : rising standards ofliving, which
manifests itself in increasingly greater product ion and consumption of all kinds of con-
sumer goods and services, is generating ever greater quantities of solid waste to be dis-
posed of On the other hand, the infrastructure and regulatory framework along with
enforcement needed for the proper disposal of solid waste is either lacking or grossly
inadequate .

In this paper our purpose is to focus on some of the major solid waste problems in
Turkey with particular reference to the management, legal and regulatory issues.

2. MANAGEMENT OF HOUSEHOLD WASTE

2.1 The current situation and trends

Lack of necessary historical data (and indeed in some cases current data) is the main
obstacle to estimating the quantities of household solid waste generated in Turkey.
Subject to this, in 1991 an estimated 22.3 million tonnes of municipal solid waste was
generated in the country, equivalent to 590 kg/year per capita which is slightly higher
than the 1993 OECD average of 500 kg per capita. It was calculated that the daily
quantities of waste collected by the municipalities in that year was 11,000 tonnes for
istanbul, 3,750 tonnes for Ankara, and 3,400 tonnes for izmir. However, in recent
years some statistical data on solid waste have been recorded . These show that average
per capita waste production in Turkey as a whole is within the range of 0.7-0.9 kg/day.
These values rise to 0.9-1.2 kg/per per capita for the highly populated or industrialised
or tourist areas, but fall to 0.1-0.3 kg/day per capita for the rural areas of the country.

In the major cities the proportions of food wastes, ash-slag and recyclable materials in
the total amount of solid waste in the summer were determined as 80%, 2% and 18%
respectively, while the respective figures for the winter were found to be 46%, 46%
and 8%. Waste collection services reach most of the households in the cities and in the
towns . In 1992 the proportions of materials recycled from household wastes were 27%
for paper and cardboard and 40% for glass. These proportions rose to 36% for paper
and cardboard in 1995, but fell to 24% for glass. Besides paper and glass, metal and
plastics were found to be the major recyclables.

2.2 Legislation and enforcement

Turkish Environment Law (Law number 2872) came into force in 1983. According to
paragraph (1) of Article 8 of this Law, it is forbidden to introduce into, or transport or
remove from, the receptor area any discharge or waste in a way that directly or indi-
rectly contradicts the standards and methods specified in the pertinent regulations or to
engage in similar activities.
 209

The Solid Waste Control Regulation, which became effective on 14 March 1991, aims
to control the adverse environmental impacts of the unregulated open dumps (that are
all too common in Turkey) into which of aU kinds of solid waste is deposited in huge
quantities. This regulation also provides certain financial facilities and incentives for the
systematic coUection, transportation and disposal of solid waste in the country as a
whole. Furthermore, it forms the legal basis for research and studies on the various ma-
nagement aspects of packaging waste .

Based on the three fundamental principles listed below, the regulation offers general
guidance on waste management:

)- Production ofless waste (waste minimisation).

Y Recovery of waste .
Y Disposal of waste without causing environmental damage.

According to the Municipalities Law (Law number 1580), coUection and transportation
of waste is the responsibility of the district municipalities within the greater municipa-
lity. The latter is responsible for street sweeping and coUecting waste from the main
roads. In addition, the municipalities are responsible for building and operating facilities
for separation, disposal and composting.

2.3 Waste collection and disposal

In Turkey the responsibility for coUecting household wastes lies with the municipal au-
thorities. According to a study conducted by the State Institute of Statistics in 1991,
the daily average quantity of household waste coUected by the 1974 municipalities of
the country was 61,137 tonnes. Of this 80.3% was disposed to the main city dumps,
the municipality dumps, or to dumps operated by public-private partnerships; 14.8%
was disposed to rivers, seas and lakes; 1.7% was burned in open areas; 1.7% was con-
veyed to composting plants; 1.1% was used as material for landfiUs; and 0.3% was
disposed to open areas and agricultural fields.

Seventy-eight percent of the municipalities of Turkey dispose their waste to unregula-

ted landfills (open dumps), while the others do so in regulated landfiUs. About 5% of
the former have been preparing feasibility studies on their own regulated landfiUs, while
about 8% of the others are in the process of building their regulated landfiUs. About
5% of the municipalities that have their own regulated landfiUs decided on the loca-
tions of those landfiUs on the basis of their particular requirements and situation. But
the majority of the municipalities (about 95%) did not carry out any geological, topo-
graphical, hydro-geological or meteorological study for selecting their landfill sites.

In general, the standards of cleanliness of the main streets, public squares and highways
in Turkish cities are high and compare favourably with most of the towns and cities in
210

the European Union and other developed countries. It is clear, however, that the cost-
effectiveness of the service provided could be generally improved though better mana-
gement and achievement of greater efficiency, and particularly via improved route
planning, training, staff motivation and vehicle maintenance measures. Unfortunately,
the high standard of waste collection and street cleansing are largely offset by generally
poor standards of waste disposal, in particular disposal to unregulated open dumps
which is common practice at present.

2.4 Recycling activities

Waste reduction (i.e. waste minimisation, reuse, recycling, recovery and composting) is
both an important and integral part of Turkey's national waste management strategy .
The practice of separating and recycling secondary materials from municipal solid
waste is already well established in the country. There are several kinds of waste mate-
rials that could be, and ought to be, recovered from solid waste. The major materials
include glass bottles ; paper and paper products; plastic products; cans made of steel
and aluminium; and metals including copper, iron, steel and aluminium.

'Recycling of solid waste', enshrined in Turkey's Solid Waste Control Regulation, im-
poses certain responsibilities on producers for the re-collection and evaluation of liquid
food packaging of the 'use-and-dispose' type in accordance with the 'polluter pays'
principle explicitly stated in the Environment Law. Nowadays economic tools such as
tax, quota, and involvement share are being used for controlling and regulating waste
disposal. In Turkey 'quota-deposit', which is an economic tool, is now being applied in
order to reduce environmental pollution originating from packaging wastes.

In practice this means that firms producing solid or liquid foods, for example, that are
marketed in packages made of glass, metal, plastic or cardboard containing plastics, are
obliged to collect a certain proportion of the discarded packaging materials used in
those products. The Ministry of Environment stipulates the annual target quota to be
collected for each material. In order for this exercise to be meaningful, it is clear that
this year's target quota must be greater than, or at least equal to, last year's.

This regulation was applied for the first time in 1992. The amount of packaging waste
collected in that year was 60,337 tonnes which exceeded the annual quota. The amount
collected in 1993 was 72,703 tonnes, and that in 1998 was 91,232 tonnes, as shown in
Table 1.

Recycling rates for the non-household sectors are relatively low. Twenty-two percent
of the firms in the service and commercial sectors have limited recycling, as do 21% of
industries, 25% of hotels, and 18% of restaurants. Of those commercial establishments
that recycled in 1992, 75% dealt with newspapers and magazines, 46% with packing
paper, 14% with metals, and 9% with paper and glass. Just over 50% of the firms used
 211

some of the collected materials in their own establishments, 43% sold or gave them
away, 18% burned the materials, and 6% gave some of the recyclables to the garbage
collectors.

Table I Recycling of packaging materials in 1998

Type of Quantity Quota Total Notified Recovered Recovery
packaging releasedto the rate quota quota (tonnes) rate
market (tonnes) (%) (tonnes) (tonnes) (%)
Plastic 54, 168.0 30.0 16,250.4 14,783 .9 16,188 .5 109.5
Metal 30,763.8 25.0 7,691.0 4,706.3 5,210.1 110.7
Glass 190,578.0 36.0 68,608 .0 68,608.0 68,340.1 99.6
Cardboard II, 895.2 15 .0 1, 784.3 1,478.6 1,493.4 101.0
Totals 287,405 .0 94,333.7 89,576.8 91,232.1 101.9

3. HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT

3.1 The current situation and developments

Turkish industry generates almost all types of hazardous wastes in quantities similar to ,
if not more than, any industrialised country. Considering the rapid growth of industry
in Turkey, her rate of industrial waste generation is expected to exceed the correspond-
ing rates of the developed countries because of reliance on relatively older technologies
and lack of regulatory enforcement.

There is no reliable hazardous waste inventory for Turkey . The only available waste in-
ventory data , which was compiled by the Turkish State Stati stical Institute in 1992, is
for the country's manufacturing sector. According to these data about 25 million tonnes
of solid waste is generated annually by the manufacturing sector. Of this 47% is sold,
35% is disposed of, and 13% is reused . The fate of the remaining 5% is not known.

The total quantity of solid waste of chemical origin from the manufacturing sector, in-
cluding slag and ashes, is around 5.5 million tonnes per annum. Of this about 61% is
disposed of, 24% is sold, 14% reused, and only about 1% is recovered. Further evalua-
tion of the data reveals that wastes excluding slag and ashes, which can be considered
'hazardous waste ', amount to approximately 2.5 million tonnes per year. Despite the
fact that these data represent the country and the major cities only in a limited way,
they show nevertheless that approximately 73% (1.9 million tonnes) of chemical waste
is being disposed of or stored on-site , while 11% is sold and 15% is reused . Approxi-
mately 1% of the disposal is reportedly by burning . Outside of the cities, mining and
rural power plants are the major sources of industrial waste .
212

Currently land disposal is the most widely used option for industrial waste management
in Turkey . It should be noted, however, that at the time of the waste survey of 1992
there was no hazardous waste disposal service facility in the country licensed under
existing regulations. The common practice was to dispose all kinds of hazardous waste
to unregulated open dumps along with other wastes.

The practice of not separating industrial waste from other wastes for proper disposal is
still common in Turkey . The only available regulated hazardous waste facility for the
whole country is that located in izmit which has an incineration plant with a capacity of
35,000 tonnes/year and a landfill for industrial waste with a capacity of 700,000 m'.
However, in spite of being the only regulated facility in the country, it is going through
hard times in terms of both receiving waste due to problems of transportation logistics
and lax enforcement of regulation . There was considerable public opposition to the fa-
cility during and following its construction. Currently it is accepting hazardous waste
for both incineration and landfilling.

By all accounts currently available industrial waste disposal facility in Turkey is not
sufficient for its rapidly growing industrial sector. Moreover, industry is in desperate
need of interim regulated waste management services such as waste exchanges, indus-
trial waste collection and transportation, and off-site waste recovery and treatment.

Currently nearly all of the major applicable international environmental regulations are
in force in the Republic of Turkey . However, due mainly to the lax enforcement re-
gime, existing regulations has been quite ineffective. On the other hand increasing pub-
lic pressure , and, more importantly, growing acceptance of ISO 9000 and upcoming
ISO 14000 standards, as well as international buyer-requested environmental protec-
tion specifications, is becoming the most effective means of enforcement. Also, grow-
ing presence in Turkey of major international companies with sound environmental
management policies and practices is playing an important role in improving the coun-
try's environment.

Implementation of environmental protection measures at the facility level require addi-

tional capital and entail operational costs, and both impose additional financial burden
on companies and enterprises. Even so, the majority of Turkish manufacturing compa-
nies have recently recognised that effective waste management is an important and
integral part of their operations. Accordingly, many of the companies have started to
incorporate the costs of environmental protection measures into their budgets.

Management of waste generated by industrial facilities of all kinds has now become a
major issue in the day-to-day management of the majority of Turkish companies . How-
ever, according to information and data supplied by the managers of major manufactur-
ing and chemical industries, these industries are facing great difficulties in disposing
their industrial solid wastes to the existing municipal landfills. Currently environment-
ally responsible companies have been storing their industrial hazardous waste on-site in
 213

containers until such time as when suitable disposal facilities are established, and, re-
portedly they are running out of temporary storage space.

3.2 Legislation and enforcement

Turkey is party to the International Basel Convention on the ' Control of the Trans-
boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal' of20 September 1994.
Based on this Convention, the National Hazardous Waste Management Legislation of
Turkey was prepared and published officially on 27 August 1995.

Under this legislation hazardous wastes are defined according to :

Y Reasons why materials are intended for disposal.

Y Disposal operations.
Y List of hazardous characteristics.
Y Constituents of potentially hazardous waste .
Y Activities which may generate potentially hazardous waste.

Legislation provides a list of general types of waste to be controlled, each designated

by a code number and characterised by its probable constituents, likely sources, prob-
able hazard s and legally acceptable disposal methods . Legislation also provides for the
following :

Y Responsibilities of hazardous waste generators, transporters, collectors, governors,

municipalities and the Ministry of Environment.
). Transboundary movement of hazardous wastes using a notification system and
modes of waste transportation.
). Rules concerning notification.
). Illegal traffic.
)i- Principles and procedures of disposal operations.

The legislation includes the following :

Y Controls on the import of hazardous wastes .

)i- Encouragement for the minimisation of hazardous waste at source.
)i- Requ irements for producers to register with, and for the collection and disposal
contractors to obtain licences from, the Ministry of Environment.
)i- Continuous 'cradle to grave' accountability .
)i- Powers for the Ministry to :
• ensure co-operation and co-ordination;
• determine waste characteristics and define hazardous wastes ;
• approve plans and locations for plants;
• issue licenses to treatment and disposal plants; and
• establish a commission for waste management.
214

~ Powers for the Governors to :

• ensure that waste management plans are applied within their provinces;
• convey applications for treatment and disposal plants from municipalities
to the Ministry of Environment; and
• issue licences to firms operating waste transport in their provinces.
~ Powers for municipalities to develop, or to have developed on their behalf, treat -
ment and disposal plants for hazardous wastes .

3.3 International trade regulations

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboudary Movements of Hazardous Was-
tes and Their Disposals is taken as the basis for the 'Regulation on the Control of Ha-
zardous Wastes ' . According to this Convention, transboundary movements of wastes
from the state of their generation to any other state is permitted only when such move-
ments are conducted under conditions that do not endanger human health or the envi-
ronment and under conditions in conformity with the provisions of this Convention.
According to Article (38) of ' Regulation on the Control of Hazardous Wastes', impor-
tation of wastes to the sites and free zones under the jurisdiction of Turkey is forbid-
den. However, import licences for wastes that have economic value and which are
certified to be used for research, health, fuel and similar purposes, until the publication
date of the Regulation in accordance with the notices to be published within appropri-
ate periods and conditions, shall be issued by the Ministry. In this case the competent
authority of the exporter country shall make a written statement to the Ministry for the
overseas transportation of the wastes . In accordance with Article (39) of this Regula-
tion wastes may be exported under the following circumstances:

(a) Plants with the technical capacity needed for the discharge of wastes are not avail-
able in Turkey;
(b) The competent authority of the importer country accepts the subject wastes . In this
case written approvals of both transit and importer countries should be submitted
to the Ministry of Environment before the overseas transportation of the wastes
commences .

Turkey does not import hazardous wastes, and its regulations concerning such imports
are strict. Regulations on the export of hazardous waste are less strict, however, and,
due in the main to the relatively high transportation and permit costs, often export is
not a means with which to reduce the amounts of hazardous waste generated in the
country. At present Turkish industry is stockpiling huge quantities of hazardous waste .

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade provides no clear rules on the issue, but
it explicitly recognises the need for supporting environmentally preferable and protect-
ive methods of disposal. Under this umbrella foreign companies, that are themselves
often obliged to comply with very strict hazardous waste treatment regulations, are
 215

trying to offset the competitive price advantage enjoyed by Turkish industry that is cur-
rently not subject to such regulations .

4. MANAGEMENT OF CLINICAL WASTE

4.1 The current situation and developments

A number of statistical surveys have been carried out by the State Institute of Statistics
of Turkey on clinical wastes for a limited number of geographical areas of the country .
Data from such surveys are essential for developing strategies for the future control of
clinical wastes, and, clearly, the exercise should be extended to cover all parts of the
country . It is also necessary for the Ministry of Environment to compile an inventory of
clinical wastes in collaboration with the provincial health authorities. Because, such an
inventory would permit a better determination of the following:

Y The quantity of hospital and other clinical wastes being generated.

~ Correct capacity of the disposal facilities needed.
Y Likely cost of providing disposal facilities; and
Y the most appropriate pricing policy for the clinical waste collection and disposal
regime to be implemented.

Although further detailed studies would be needed to determine the required number of
clinical waste facilities in Turkey, at this stage it is provisionally estimated that a maxi-
mum of around 25 incineration plants may suffice. There are a number of current initia-
tives in place to build such plants. In the Marmara Region, for example, the existing
istanbul project stipulates two incineration plants - one on the Asian side and the
other on the European side. The integrated environmental project currently in progress
in lzmit includes an incineration plant for industrial and clinical wastes . There are two
clinical waste incineration plants in Turkey : one is in istanbul with a capacity of 24
tonnes/day; the other, with a capacity of 1 tonne/day, is at the University of Antalya.

At present the healthcare institutions in Turkey do not pay any fees to the municipa-
lities for the collection of their hazardous wastes . Appropriate charging systems should
therefore be developed by the Ministry of Environment, perhaps by carrying out a se-
parate national Clinical Waste Management study.

4.2 Legislation and enforcement

One type of hazardous waste of particular public concern is clinical waste from hospi-
tals and other healthcare establishments. The Regulation on Control of Clinical Wastes,
published on 20 May 1993, is designed to address the problems of safe disposal of such
wastes. The object of this Regulation is to determine and implement effective adminis-
216

trative, legal and technical principles, policies and programmes for separate collection,
interim storage, recycling, transportation and final disposal of medical wastes emana-
ting from healthcare institutions in a way that avoids causing harm to public health and
the environment.

According to this Regulation, specially trained crews should collect clinical waste sepa-
rately from the other wastes. Wastes of domestic nature shall be collected in blue plas-
tic bags, kept in interim storage separately from clinical wastes, and disposed of in
accordance with the instructions of The Regulation on Control of Solid Wastes . Patho-
genic wastes shall be first sterilised and collected together with other infectious wastes
in plas-tic bags. The Regulation also addresses methods of disposal like incineration
and final storage of clinical wastes .

There are two broad methods available for the controlled treatment and disposal of
clinical wastes:

» incineration at dedicated or shared facilities; and/or

y co-disposal at sanitary landfills under strict management supervision.

Where insufficient funds are available to provide adequate incineration facilities for cli-
nical wastes, co-disposal at controlled landfill sites should be carried out. In order for
co-disposal at landfill to be effective, clinical wastes should be stored and collected se-
parately before delivery to landfill. Once at the landfill, wastes should be buried in a
specially designated section of the site, and only handled by trained staff equipped with
protective clothing to avoid exposure to the materials.

5. CONCLUDING REMARKS

Resolution of the issues identified and discussed above is contingent upon the estab-
lishment of an effective waste management regime in Turkey. In order to realise this, it
is necessary in the short-term to establish suitable waste collection, transportation and
recovery industries and facilities, regional waste exchanges, and hazardous waste treat-
ment and disposal facilities. In the medium-term, identification of applicable waste
minimisation technologies is very important for effective waste management. It is also
necessary to encourage industry to enhance their environmental awareness through
focused educational and training programmes; interaction with the communities they
serve; environmental standards and industrial initiatives such as responsible care, Eco-
tex, etc.; prevent ion of unfair competition by environmental dumping; investment in-
centives for waste minimisation; and use of environmental technology.

Provision of effective training programmes for municipalities, industries and employees

in health institutions , especially on segregation and handling procedures, is the key to
 217

effective solid waste management in Turkey. Training in appropriate collection, hand-

ling and disposal systems will greatly encourage compliance with current Regulation.
As neither the municipalities nor the private companies collecting waste own special
vehicles for such tasks, personnel must be trained in the methods and procedures for
the collection and handling of such wastes. Also, emergency measures must be taken
against possible accidents during transport. Firms collecting hospital wastes must be
encouraged to collect only those wastes that are properly packed.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SIS (1991), Municipality Solid Waste Statistics, State Institute of Statistics, Office of the
Prime Minister, Ankara, Turkey.
SIS (1993), Household Solid Waste Composition Survey Results, State Institute of Statistics,
Office of the Prime Minister, Ankara, Turkey.
Karaca, Y (1998), Solid Waste Management in Turkey, Country Report for JICA, Ankara,
Turkey.
218

"Alan alone ofal/forms oflife can produce

cancer-producing substances Human
exposure to cancer-producing chemicals
(including pesticides) are uncontrolled and (hey
are multiple .....We tolerate cancer-causing
agents in our environment at our peril. "

Rachel Carson
 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ON THE BLACK SEA
COAST OF TURKEY

ERTUGR UL ERDIN and SEVGI TOKGOZ

Fac ulty of Environment, Ninth September University, 144 Cumhuriet Bulevard,
352 10 A lsancak, lzmir, Turkey. E-mail: eerdin:a·.deu.edu.tr

ABSTRACT

This paper is on the current situation on the Black Sea coast of Turkey with regard to the management
of solid waste. This area of the country, which has the greatest concentration of industrial and commer-
cial enterprises, tourism as well as a large and growing population, generates a large and increasing
amount of solid waste. Unfortunately, the exiting methods, practices and facilities for the safe and
proper disposal of the waste are at present grossly inadequate .

Starting with an overview of the current situation, the discussion moves on to the composition of waste
and the various options available for its management and disposal. Existing laws, regulations and ordi-
nances on the management of solid waste in Turkey are then reviewed. Clearly, determined efforts are
needed in the areas of waste minimisation, recycling and reuse for achieving at least a degree of sus-
tainability in solid waste management. The current status of such initiatives in Turke y is then briefly
discussed.

It is argued that greater emphas is than hitherto should be given to waste minimisation, recycling and
reuse, and that a robust regime should be established for the rigorous enforcement of existing laws and
regulations on the management of solid waste.

Keywords: Turkey: solid: waste; management Black Sea; coast: sustainable ; laws: regulations ; recy-
cling: reuse.

I . INTRODUCTION

1.1 An overview ofsolid waste management on the Black Sea coast of Turkey
The historic City of Istanbul and other cities on the Black Sea coast of Turkey cons-
titute the country's largest and most important industrial-commercial area. Histori -
cally the area has evolved with trade and commerce as the mainstays of its economy,
and this tradition continues even more intensively to this day. Owing to the intense
industrial and commercial activities in the area, and the fact that a large urban popu-
lation lives there, a large and growing amount of solid waste is being generated in this
part of Turkey. But the facilities that are currently available for the safe and proper
disposal of this waste are inadequate to say the least. The problem is compounded not
only by increasing quantities of solid waste to be disposed of, but also by its in-
creasingly complex composition resulting mainly from advances in technology as

219
B. Nath et al. (eds.), Sustainabl e Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region. 219-226.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
220

well as people's increasingly consumptive life-style. These factors, together with the
existing grossly inadequate infrastructure to deal properly and safely with the waste
generated , is cause for much concern with regard to both health and environmental
integrity of the area.

Uncontrolled and what may be described as 'do-as-you-like' disposal of solid waste

to unregulated 'open' dumps has been and continues to be a traditional practice in
Turkey. These unregulated dumps - and there are an estimated 8,000 such dumps in
the country - are of mounting concern with serious implications for both health and
the environment .

Unavailability of reliable data, both historical and present, on waste composition is at

present a major obstacle to the proper planning of methods and management practi-
ces. Although measures are now being taken to remedy this situation, lack of concrete
and reliable information is continuing to impede the development of strategies and
policies for the safe and proper management of solid waste not only in the area but
also in Turkey in general.

1.2 Composition ofsolid waste

In the coastal areas the daily production of municipal solid waste is less than 1 kg per
capita with a high organic putrescible content. Much of the area attracts tourists in
large numbers especially in the summer months. Including tourism, an analysis gives
the average composition of the solid waste generated in the area as: organic matter,
55-65 percent; paper and board, 9-12 percent; glass, 2-3 percent; plastics, 3-4 percent;
and metals, 1-2 percent.

In this context it would be instructive to examine the composition of solid waste rela-
tive to the income status of the communities generating such waste. Such data, avail-
able for some of the municipal districts ofIzmir, are shown in Table 1. They provide
information which lead to three interesting observations, among others, that are wor-
thy of note and may have potential for sociological insight.

First, the average food waste from the poor districts is 28.3 percent compared with
41.7 percent from the rich districts. This is presumably because the poor do not enjoy
the luxury of throwing food away. Second, particulates generated in the poor districts
is 27.4 percent compared to only 10.2 percent for the rich districts. This large differ-
ence is presumably explained by the differences between the housing conditions of
the rich and the poor and by the differences in their respective life-styles. And third,
average paper and board waste generated in the poor districts is 3.5 percent which
compares with 11.8 percent in the rich districts. This difference is presumably ex-
plained by the differences in the life-styles of the poor and the rich, as well as by the
differences in their respective professional, educational and related activities. It is
acknowledged, however, that these observations are empirical and subject to statisti-
cal scrutiny and validation.
Table I Composition (%) of solid waste generated in some of the districts oflzmir, Turke y (source: Erdin, 1997)

Municipal districts of Izmir

Waste component I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II
Food 25.1 32.7 27.2 34.8 51.6 27.4 33.6 17.9 27 .6 47 .6 49 .9
Paper, board 3.2 3.5 3.9 6.7 9.7 7.1 14.6 9.2 10.8 7.1 17.6
Plastic 0.3 1.1 0.8 2.0 19 3.8 2.2 1.1 1.3 4.8 3.6
Rock , ceramic 6.8 0.8 8.6 1.8 0.1 2.6 1.6 4.7 0.8 1.5 0.7
Glass 1.0 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.3 1.0 1.0 2.6 2.0
Ferrous metal 0.0 0.1 0.8 0.6 0.1 0.7 0.0 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4
Non-ferrous metal 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.0
Bone 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 4.0 1.8 0.5 1.6 2.0 0.4
Wood, leather 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.9 0.1 0.3 0.9 0.1
Textile 0.5 2.3 0.6 1.7 1.2 2.4 0.7 2.2 1.1 1.5 1.4
Particulates 35.9 16.8 29.6 21.7 7.4 27.6 9.8 29.0 21.7 7.4 1.5
Particles < 40 mm 27.3 41.1 27.0 29.2 26.6 26.2 33.4 33.5 29 .2 26 .6 22.4

Number Name of district Income status Number Name of district Income status
1 Kadifekale Poor 7 Hatay Medium
2 Karabaglar Poor 8 Bornova Medium
3 Semiklar Poor 9 Alsancak Rich
4 Alsancak Good 10 Kartiyaka Rich
5 Kartiyaka Good II Hata y Rich
6 Kahramanlar Medium

N
N
-
222

1.3 Feasible solid waste management options

Given the grossly unsatisfactory state of affairs with regard to the open dumps and the
risks they pose to health and the environment in particular, the focus of current policy
is to upgrade them to regulated landfills if possible, or to shut them down if not. The
other options are waste incineration, composting, and disposal to sea. Incineration is
being considered as a feasible and viable option, and there are already some facilities
of this kind in the country. However, there are genuine worries about whether this
high-technology option is appropriate to the specific needs, conditions and constraints
of a developing like Turkey.

The solid waste generated in the area, and indeed in the country as a whole, contains a
relatively high moisture content. Typically, moisture content varies within the range
of 40-50 percent with a bulk density of 0.30-0.35 tonne/rrr'. The calorific value of the
waste is around 6,000-8,000 kJ/kg . The proportion of organic matter in the waste is
also relatively high, as will be seen typically from Table 2. Considering this and the
relatively high moisture content, composting would recommend itself as a viable
option . But at present this option is being exploited only to a limited extent, probably
because the domestic market for composts produced in this way is yet to be develo-
ped to a viable level. Traditionally dumping at sea has been common practice in the
coastal regions of Turkey. But it is now being actively discouraged because of its ob-
vious adverse environmental impacts.

Table 2 Composition (%) of waste generated in the Kartiyaka district oflzmir

Semikler municipality Bostali municipality
Waste component (a) (b) (a) (b)
Organic matter 41.5 27.2 51.6 47 .6
Paper and board 4.7 3.9 9.7 7.1
Plastics 0.9 0.8 1.9 4.8
Stones 1.0 8.6 0.1 1.5
Glass 1.5 1.4 1.4 2.6
Ferrous metals 0.7 0.8 0.1 0.2
Aluminium 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2
Wood, leather, etc. 0.7 0.2 0.1 1.1
Textiles 1.6 0.6 1.2 1.5
Others 47.4 56.5 33.9 33.4
(a): 2-8 August 1980; (b): 21-28 March 1980.

2. LAWS, REGULATIONS AND ORDINANCES ON SOLID WASTE

Regulation Number 20814, which came into force on 14 March 1991, is concerned
with the management of solid waste in Turkey. It covers the organisational and legal
aspects of collection, transportation and disposal of solid wastes . Various definitions
 223

relating to the management of solid waste are given in Article 3 of the Regulation. In
what fol1ows we will discuss those aspects of the Regulation that are concerned with,
or related to, the management of solid waste in Turkey and/or Turkish municipalities
along with other relevant regulatory and legal instruments that are currently in force
for protecting the environment and enhancing quality of life.

To begin with, Article 56 of the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey, enacted in

1982, states that living in a healthy and balanced environment is the right of every
citizen, and that protecting the environment and its quality, and preventing environ-
mental pol1ution, is the responsibility of both government and citizens . In this regard
the purpose of Environmental Law is to protect and improve the environment which
is the common property of all human beings; to provide appropriate usage and protec-
tion for urban and residential lands; to prevent air pol1ution; to protect plant and ani-
mal life as well as both natural and historical wealth of the country; and to develop a
life-style that would serve the interests of both present and future generations with-
out jeopardising the prospects for socio-economic development.

The Regulation on the Necessary Principles for the Col1ection and Disposal of Solid
Wastes Originating from Hospitals and Similar Health Institutions is on the proper
management and disposal of such wastes . This Regulation was drafted with respect to
Articles 43-46 and 57 of Turkish Republic's Constitution on Public Hygiene Law
Number 1593. (It is pointed out that the Environment Law was enacted on 15 March,
1990, fol1owing the decision of 52 City Councils within the jurisdiction of the Metro-
politan Municipality of Izmir). The purpose of this Regulation is to dispose of solid
wastes originating from hospitals and health institutions in a way that does not cause
harm to the environment or public health, or create aesthetic problems .

This Regulation (No. AYD/2011-12268), which was enacted with a notice from the
Prime Minister's Secretariat on 13 September 1991, began to be applied in al1 Turkish
cities following its enactment. Since hospital wastes have potential for harming al1 the
environmental compartments - air, water and soil - as wel1 as ecosystems, they are
classified as hazardous waste . Limitations on their production, transportation and dis-
posal, stipulated in the notice, are to be complied with until such time as when the
notice is replaced by appropriate regulations .

Law number 3030 is on the legal management of municipalities in a way that would
enable them to deliver a planned and efficient service to the community or communi-
ties under their respective jurisdictions. This Law includes principles and rules on the
establishment, duties and authorities of metropolitan and city municipalities, their
inter-relationships, and on their relationship with the central authorities. Directly or
indirectly this law impinges on the responsibility of municipal authorities for the ma-
nagement of solid waste within their respective jurisdictions.

Solid waste management in rural Turkey is far less organised than in the urban areas.
Often there is no management system in place for the collection or disposal of waste .
224

What is called the ' Village Law' was designed to address this deficiency, as will be
gathered from selected elements of this law given below :

Paragraph 7: Areas around houses and village roads are to be kept clean, and house-
holders are required to sweep the front of their respective houses.

Paragraph 8: Places around fountains, wells and springs are always to be kept clean,
and leakages are to be prevented so that formation of mud is avoided.

Paragraph 9: Every household to dispose of its waste to an allocated place at a com-

mon disposal site situated at a distance from the village .

Paragraph 33: Decayed and foul-smelling fruits and other such materials are to be
disposed of by burying them at a site outside of the village.

The Izmir Metropolitan Municipality Police Regulation was enacted by decision no.
10-139/6 of the Municipality Council on 15 March 1976. This regulation was drafted
for protecting public health and comfort and for performing the duties given to the
municipalities by Municipality Law No . 1580 along with other laws.

According to this law collection of waste paper and metals, intended for use as se-
condary raw material, has been organised on a permanent basis. Relevant authorities
are required to prepare environmental impact assessment reports on such waste , along
with proposals for appropriate technologies to deal with both sewage and solid waste
generated in the tourist destinations on the coast.

This law also elaborates on public education and awareness including waste minimi-
sation at source and during production and consumption. The overall objective is to
minimise the amount of solid waste generated with a view to achieving at least a deg-
ree of sustainability. In pursuance of this, the law obliges the municipalities not to
mix the following special wastes with domestic wastes for disposal : hospital, clinical,
laboratory and radioactive wastes ; medicines and pills; storage batteries; and normal
batteries . They are to be collected and disposed of separately, using if necessary a
'deposit-refund' scheme.

Furthermore, this law obliges the municipalities to perform the following activities: to
classify, collect, transport and dispose of special wastes ; and to collect separately
those wastes that have economic value in terms of reuse and recycling such as cans,
bottles, paper, etc. Enterprises which produce wastes, whose properties are similar to
those of domestic waste , are obliged to keep their own waste ready for collection in a
way determined by their municipality or by the most authoritative organisation in the
city or town charged with such responsibility.
 225

3. RECOVERY OF MATERIALS FROM WASTE FOR

RECYCLING AND REUSE

The achievement of at least a degree of sustainable solid waste management is contin-

gent upon the following : waste minimisation at source, recycling and reuse. There is
now a growing emphasis on these issues in Turkey. However, unlike the highly in-
dustrialised countries , in Turkey the recovery of materials for recycling and reuse is
not properly organised . In fact, there is no systematic operational plan for this acti-
vity. In practice it is carried out by poor people who work in the open unregulated
waste dumps to recover manually those items of waste that can be recycled or reused.
They sell the recovered waste either to the owners of the dump, or to the recycling fa-
cilities, and by doing so they eke out a meagre living.

Due in the main to enhanced public awareness of the adverse environmental impacts
of improper solid waste disposal and the need for achieving sustainability, there is
now a growing number of initiatives in the country to promote the recycling and reuse
of recovered waste . Many of these initiatives are organised by the non-governmental
organisations (NGOs). We will describe below the initiative of the Cevkovakfi Envi-
ronment Protection Foundation which is typical.

Established under the Regulation for the Management of Solid Wastes of 1 November
1991, the aim of this Foundation is to recover materials from waste for recycling and
reuse. Through its good organisation and by using effective public relations techni-
ques, it motivates people to gather their waste separately for collection. The objec-
tives are:

~ Reuse of packaging as containers .

~ Recycling of recovered waste as secondary raw material for production.
~ Use of chemical and thermal contents of waste in pyrolysis and incineration .

As an experiment, separate collection of cans and plastic (mainly PET) bottles began
in the large cities such as Ankara, Antalya, Bursa, Istanbul, Izmir and lzmit. Clearly,
the aim is to extend the initiative to cover the whole of Turkey, as well as to extend
the scope of the initiative to include glass bottles, paper and board, metals and assor-
ted beverage containers . Response of the public to the initiative continues to be posi-
tive, and the majority view is that the best way to deal with the increasing quantity of
packaging material is through ' buy-back' and/or 'deposit-refund' schemes (Cevko
Raporu, 1991).

4. CONCLUDING REMARKS

The problem of solid waste management in Turkey is characterised by the fact that,
while on the one hand both the quantity and complexity of wastes being generated is
increasing relentlessly , on the other the existing methods and practices are proving to
226

be woefully inadequate for their safe and proper disposal. Solution to the problem is
made more difficult by the socio-cultural and economic conditions and constraints, as
well as tradition, that are typical of a developing country such as Turkey.

In order to deal with the problem with a view to achieving at least a degree of sustain-
ability in solid waste management , it is clear that determined efforts must be made to
educate the public in general and the productive industries in particular on the need to
minimise waste and on viable ways in which the recovered waste could be used as
secondary raw material for production . A growing number of initiatives are being un-
dertaken to this end, but only time would tell whether, or the extent to which, they
could deliver at least a degree of sustainability in solid waste management.

At present there are enough laws and regulations on the management of solid waste in
Turkey. Indeed, a close examination clearly shows that the collective focus of the
existing laws and regulations is on sustainable solid waste management. However,
laws and regulations are oflittle use if they are not enforced rigorously. Unfortunately
this is very much the case in Turkey at present. Of course there are plausible societal
as well as scio-economic reasons for the lax enforcement of existing laws and regula-
tions. Even so, it is essential to establish a robust enforcement regime, for without it
the situation is not likely to improve to the extent necessary or desirable .

REFERENCES
Cevko Raporu (1991), Cevko Vakji Kati Atiklarin Geri Kazanilmasi Raporu, DEU Bornova,
lzmir, Turkey (in Turkish).
Erdin, E (1997) , Kati Atiklar Ders Kitabi , DEU Miihendislik Fakiiltesi, Bornova, Izmir (in
Turkish)
 SEPARATION, COLLECTION AND TRANSPORTATION OF MUNICIPAL
SOLID WASTE - A CASE STUDY IN TURKEY
FADIME TANER, S OLENT HALISDEMIR and EMRAH ODABA~Y
Department ofEnvironmental Engi neering, Mersin University, Cliftlikkoy , Me rsin, Turkey
E-Mail: !!lJ.!lll.!j.d~!1!ir'dh.Q1!llgH com

ABSTRACT

111is paper reports on a project implemented over a period of 120 days in the city of Mersin, Turkey.
The objective of the project was to carry out separation of municipal solid waste at source by the resi-
dents of an apartment block. The separated recyclable fraction of the waste was then transported to the
respective production facilities for usc as secondary raw material.

The project consisted of two distinct components . One was concerned with developing and implemen-
ting an educational programme for the training of the residents of the block on how to carry out waste
separation according to the chemical composition of the waste. The other was concerned with the tech-
nical aspects of waste separation, collection, transportation and final disposal.

Results of the project, and experience gained from it, show how the recyclable fraction of the waste
could be separated by the residents themselves. How both children and adults could be motivated to
perform the tasks involved in separation and collection by themselves. And how the project aligns the
methods and practices of municipal solid waste management towards sustainability. Perhaps more im-
portantly, the project significantly enhan ced public awareness of the need for achieving sustainable
solid waste management through waste minimisation, recycling. reuse. and prudent use of both energy
and raw materials .

It is argued that projects of this kind have much to recommend themselves for addressing the serious
and growing problems of solid waste management in a developing country like Turkey.

Key words: Turkey; solid; waste; separation ; collection ; transportation; management ; sustainable ; edu-
cation; programme ; recycling; reuse.

I . INTRODUCTION

Proper management and safe disposal of increasing amounts of municipal solid waste
(MSW) being generated is a problem besetting practically all the countries of the
world today, and Turkey is no exception. In the wider context MSW management can
be defined as the discipline associated with controll ing the generation, storage, collec-
tion, transfer, processing and disposal of MSW in a way that is governed by the best
principles of public health , economics, engineering, aesthetics and environmental
considerations (Daskalopoulos et al., 1997).

The disposal ofMSW has been the focus of environmental policy of the industrialised
countries ever since the mid-1970s when attempts were made to identify and catego-

227
B. Nath et al. ieds.), Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region, 227- 234.
© 2000 Kluwer Academ ic Publishers.
228

rise waste fractions in a systematic way. This categorisation provided policy-makers

with information needed to determine the most appropriate option(s) for dealing with
waste in a more economical and environmentally sustainable way. However, broad
categorisation by itself is not enough for developing policies and technology for re-
cycling the useful fractions ofMSW. A more detailed analysis ofMSW composition
is needed, including determination of calorific value, moisture content, chemical na-
ture and composition of plastics, etc.

MSW contains both organic and inorganic compounds that have different chemical
structures (perry, 1984). Taken separately, each of the compounds will have been
produced using a specific technology, and each is made up of pure materials with a
known chemical structure . However, since MSW is a composite material containing
materials of many different kinds and in different proportions, often in a highly mixed
state, separation of all the components is difficult and economically not viable. A ty-
pical MSW may contain fifty or more different waste components (Haith, 1998).

In general, the composition ofMSW varies widely depending on the characteristics of

the source, and currently there is no method or process with which all the components
ofa given MSW could be processed to produce one (or more) useful product in a sin-
gle unit operation . Then, to be precise, what useful products could be produced from
MSW in economically viable ways, and what would it entail? With reference to the
currently available technologies , the useful products that could be made are: compost
from the composting of MSW (Gotaas, 1956; Haug, 1980); bio-gas and energy from
landfilling (Brunner and Keller, 1972; Bagchi, 1990); and energy from incineration
(Brunne, 1984; Anon, 1991; Fricilli, 1991). Whether, or the extent to which, these
useful products could be produced in economically viable ways will be determined by
the market forces controlled by supply and demand for the materials produced and
also by their unit cost of production.

In the particular context of the developing countries, a number of detailed studies

have been made to develop appropriate technologies for producing useful materials
from MSW. Typically, the effect of MSW-compost from various feedstocks on vege-
table crops have been investigated (Roe et al., 1997) along with the effects of their
by-products (Cook et al., 1997; Ciba et al., 1997; Chefez et al., 1998). The Results of
these investigations show that MSW-compost and its by-products may have adverse
impacts on the environment. In general, recovery of useful materials from waste for
the production of other useful materials (e.g. compost) is contingent upon waste sepa-
ration which, if it is not oragnised properly and preferably at source, can be a costly
operation that might make the exercise economically unviable. An important advan-
tage of separation at source is that it reduces the volume of MSW, and so the cost of
transportation is reduced too (Miranda and Aldy, 1998).

The purpose of this paper is to report on a pilot project in the city of Mersin, Turkey,
that was developed under a programme for the separation of MSW at source . That
project, funded by the community's local authority, was also concerned with determi-
 229

ning the most effective and efficient modalities for the collection and transportation
of the recovered materials directly to industry for recycling. To this end the project
was designed with two distinct components - an educational component (progra-
mme) to educate 24 families living in an apartment block meant for the highway staff
of a certain organisation, and a technical component on the separate col1ection of
waste for recycling and reuse. That project and its findings are discussed in this paper
along with suggestions for the planning of future activities that are expected to contri-
bute to the achievement of sustainable MSW management in Turkey . Henceforth the
aforementioned 24 families wil1 be referred to as the ' target group ' , and their apart-
ment complex as the ' project site' .

2. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT

2.1 The educational component (programme)

Normal practice at the project site has been for the municipality to col1ect waste daily,
without separation, from containers placed in front of the apartment block, after use-
ful materials amounting to about 4 percent of the waste have been col1ected by poor
children from the neighbourhood. Following the common practice in Turkey, the
mixed waste is then transported by special trucks to an open and uncontrol1ed dump
near the city where it is disposed of, often without any treatment. At the dumping site
partial separation of recoverable materials in the waste is usual1y carried out manual1y
by poor children (and/or their parents) under very unhygienic conditions. However,
there is no reliable data on the proportion of the materials recovered from the waste,
or on the types of the materials recovered.

There is a low-capacity composting plant in Yfel, not far from the dumping site, to
which some of the waste is taken for processing . But, as the supply of material to the
plant is not properly organised , its operation is intermittent. Consequently, the unit
cost of the compost produced is high, and its composition variable and often uncertain
due to inefficient separation of the harmful or undesirable substances from the waste .
In fact, local farmers who buy the compost complain about its harmful effects on their
plants, and, not surprisingly, demand for the product is very weak .

Under the project a study was undertaken to determine the chemicals used in the pro-
duction of the consumer goods which generate MSW. Two main groups were consi-
dered - inorganic and organic . About 150 different types of consumer goods were
considered . The inorganic group comprised al1 kinds of glass (e.g. bottles, mirrors,
plates, lamps of different colours, doors, windows, etc.); metals such as bottle tops,
conserve boxes, all kinds of needles, syringes, nuts and bolts, etc.; and deodorants,
sports equipment , spoons, milk containers ; batteries, large tin boxes, aluminium foil,
etc. The organic group consisted of materials produced from petroleum products such
as polyethylene, PYC, etc. that could be recycled or reused. The materials were then
arranged in groups with respect to their chemical structure so that it was clear as to
230

under which group they should be separated and collected. Posters were produced and
made available to the target group showing a graphic representation of the different
groups as well as the materials listed under each group . The purpose of the poster was
to instruct the target group on how to separate and collect wastes according to the
group to which they belong.

Following this scheme, the target group was asked to collect materials under each
group separately in second-hand plastic bags. On the day of collection of materials
listed under a given group, the bags containing those materials were collected by the
porter who deposited their contents into clearly marked containers placed in front of
the apartment block. The empty plastic bags were placed in the container meant for
plastics. A specific colour was used for marking each of the containers to identify its
material group. In total there were eight distinctly coloured containers, one for each
group of waste materials. For glass waste there were two different containers sponso-
red by the glass industry: one for coloured glass and the other for colourless glass.
There were separate containers for organic waste comprising mainly plant residue,
paper and board, plastics, PET, metals, and rare waste.

A weekly schedule was prepared for the collection of the containers, each on a differ-
ent day of the week (for example, the two glass containers on Monday, and so on),
and it was made available to the target group. Kitchen and non-recyclable waste was
collected and transported by the municipality, while recyclable waste was collected
by agents working for industry.

2.2 The technical component

This component involved the organisation of the following main tasks :

);- Identification of the materials under different groups to be collected separately at

source by the target group .
);- Marking of the containers with a colour code identifying the group of materials
they would contain.
);- Preparation of weekly collection schedules based on the convenience of both the
target group and the porter.
);- Preparation of weekly or monthly schedules for the transportation of the recycla-
bles to their respective destinations .

Separated waste material was sold at market prices to agencies under contract with
the aim that the revenue generated could be used for the partial financing of the pro-
ject until such time as when a sustainable solid waste management programme for the
Yrel province was substantially or fully developed . For this the quantity of waste deli-
vered separately by each household of the target group was measured and recorded,
and coupons were given to each household based on the amount of separated waste it
 231

delivered . The face value of the coupons accumulated by each household was deduc-
ted from its annual garbage tax bill following the principle of ' we pay your garbage
tax in proportion to your contribution to MSW separation' . An accurate record of the
waste, by type and quantity, separated by the target group was kept for subsequent
statistical analysis .

2.3 Extension ofthe project to Guven

Following the success of the project in Mersin, it was extended to Giiven (Taner et
al., 1999), but with a revised educational programme designed and developed for the
different groups of people involved in project implementation with different responsi-
bilities. The following categories were involved: children in the age range of 8-14
years; people of 15 and older; porters; door-keepers; managers of complexes; gradu-
ate and undergraduate students from the environmental engineering department of
Mersin University ; waste collectors ; and volunteers wishing to be involved in the
project. The teachers and trainers involved in the programme were suitably qualified
volunteers and undergraduate students of Mersin University. Children were also in-
volved in waste separation and collection, but they were at no health risk from enga-
ging in such activities . The programme was supported with a range of audio-visual
aids including graphics , posters, and weekly schedules for the porters and door-
keepers for the collection of separated waste under different groups . Effectiveness of
the programme was assessed from the response of the residents, as well as of project
personnel, to a questionnaire . The idea was to revise, if necessary, the project and/or
the modalities of its implementation in the light of information gathered from ques-
tionnaire response.

The project, which covers the entire city, is to be supported by the local municipality .
The motivation of the municipality to do so derives from the fact that the city's un-
controlled waste dump, which is located in a terrain with a poor geological structure,
is close to the Mediterranean Sea. And so it has to collect and store the MSW, and
this is proving to be a costly exercise .

Agriculture is by far the most important economic activity in the area, followed by
tourism. Groundwater in the area is contaminated by pollutants that occur during the
biological degradation of the organic fraction of the MSW. There is a composting
plant in the city. But it does not work properly because the waste it processes is not
properly separated, and so compost produced contains undesirable and even harmful
elements.

A rough analysis of the economics of separation at source including collection, trans-

portation and disposal of MSW was carried out. It showed that substantial material
conservation was achieved through the use of plastics, paper and glass as secondary
raw material. Furthermore, revenue generated from the sale of these materials could
support both continuation and extension of the programme. The other benefits were:
environmental pollution by MSW was drastically reduced ; investment needed for the
232

treatment and/or storage of MSW was eliminated; and, perhaps more importantly,
public awareness of the need to achieve sustainable MSW management was greatly
enhanced. On the whole and by common consent, the project has been a substantial
step towards sustainable MSW management - one that is well worth emulating by
municipalities everywhere . Indeed, this is already happening in Turkey in the sense
that many of the municipalities of the country are showing serious interest in develop-
ing and implementing projects of this kind.

3. OBSERVATIONS

The project was implemented over a period of about 120 days. A number of interest-
ing facts emerged during that period. First, all the children involved in the project per-
formed their tasks (mainly of separation and collection) efficiently, loyally and with a
high level of commitment. Second, refunding part of the MSW tax (see 2.2) was not
possible at this stage. Third, the original schedules for the bulk collection of separated
waste from the project site could not be adhered to because the truck driver and the
owner of the agency, with whom the contract was signed, failed to respect the terms
and conditions of the contract and litigation was out of the question. Fourth, nearly all
the members of the target group, with an average monthly income of 60 million
Turkish Lira in 1997 per family, were trained in how to separate and collect waste,
and all of them responded positively and enthusiastically to their training and tasks.
And fifth, the composition of the recyclable waste received during the 120 days of
project implementation was as follows (percent by mass on dry basis): paper and
board (39.0); plastics (13.0); PET (8.0); coloured glass (10.0); colourless glass (20.0);
metals (6.0); rare waste (1.0); and other inorganic matter (3.0). During this period the
total amount of waste collected was 2,340 kg, of which 35 percent (on dry mass
basis) was kitchen waste .

4. CONCLUDING REMARKS

In Turkey it is difficult to separate all the components of MSW according to their

chemical composition because many of the consumer products do not at present carry
such information on their labels. Nevertheless, best efforts must be made to separate
the recoverable materials in order to maximise their recycling and reuse. Experience
gained from the project, described in this paper, shows that this can be done effi-
ciently, provided that the householders are trained properly to carry out waste separa-
tion and collection by themselves. Imaginative educational programmes are needed
for such training, and for motivating people to perform such tasks in the interests of
achieving at least a degree of sustainability in the management of MSW. It is also
necessary to develop educational programmes for children on the need for waste
minimisation, recycling, reuse and prudent use of energy and resources .
 233

The project reported in this paper is concerned with separation at source of MSW by
the householders themselves, as well as collection, achieved through the implementa-
tion of a well thought-out educational programme. It would serve, it is hoped, as a
'blue print' for developing and implementing such projects elsewhere aiming at sus-
tainable management ofMSW.

ACKNOWLEDGEl'v1ENT

Sincere thanks are due to the Manager of the Apartment complex for the Highway
staff members, as well as to the staff members themselves, for their help in the imple-
mentation of the project.

REFERENCES

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Bagchi, A (1990), Design, Construction and Monitoring ofSanitary Landfills, John Wiley &
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Brunne, C.I (1984), Incinerator System Selection and Design, Van Nostrand Rheinhold, New
York, USA.
Brunner, O.R and Keller, OJ (1972), Sanitary Landfill Design and Operation, Publication
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Chefetz, B, Hatcher, P.G, Hadar, Y and Chen, YN (1998), 'Characterisation of dissolved or-
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feedstocks affecting vegetable crops: II growth, yields and fruit quality' , Journal of the
American Society for Horticultural Science, Vol. 122, Issue 3, pp. 433-437.
Taner, F, Aksan, Y, Cakyr, 0, Giiven, Y, Halisdemir, B, Baydar, G, Odabapy, E and Pehli-
van, E (1999), 'Separation, collection and transportation of MSW: a case study', Fresenius
Environmental Bulletin (FEB), Vol. 8, pp. 313-320.
 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT EFFORTS IN TURKEY - REGIONAL
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN ADANA-MERSIN

HUNAY EVLIYA
Centre/or Environmental Research, Cukurova University, Ol330Adana, Turkey.
E-Mail: hel./im ri"im ail.clI.edll.fr

ABSTRACT

Solid waste management in the Adana-Mersin region of Turkey is the subject-matter of this paper.
Discussion begins with an introduction to the solid waste management problems in the region and pro-
posals for their alleviation. It then moves on to the modalities proposed in the recent Development
Plans of Turkey for the alleviation of those problems. the Seventh Five-year Development Plan in
particular. This Plan recommends pro-active and timely measures to be taken to prevent pollution as
opposed to dealing with pollution already caused as in the earlier Plans. The place of solid waste ma-
nagement in the National Enviroruuental Action Plan (NEAP) of Turkey is then discussed. Finally, a
study on the development of a solid waste management plan for the Adana-Mersin region is discussed
with reference to its various elements such as site selection, appropri ate technology, pilot projects, etc.

It is argued that appropriate technologies should be developed and promoted to meet the specific con-
ditions and constraints of Turke y in general and those of Adana-Mersin in particular, rather than rely-
ing exclusively on imported teclmologies that are often implemented without adapting them to local
conditions, constraints and specific needs. It is also argued that the successful implementation of a
solid waste managem ent plan for Adana-Mersin is contingent upon reinforcing the finances of the res-
ponsible cleansing organisations. Recommendations are made on how their finances could be impro-
ved and reinforced.

Key words: Turkey; A dana-Mersin; solid; waste; management; plan; sustainable; development ; plan;
appropriate; technology; policy; finance.

I. INTRODUCTION

It is the stated aim of the Government of Turkey to improve the nation's solid waste
management system with the assistance of the Ministry of Environment, the Medi-
terranean Environment Technical Assistance Programme (MET AP), and the World
Bank. To this end in 1996 the Government set up a programme, entitled Study on Ap-
propriate Solid Waste Management Practice (SASWMP), to provide guidelines for
solid waste management countermeasures. The SASWMP has proposed seven pilot
projects , of which one entails the preparation of a solid waste management (SWM)
plan at the regional level.

The regional SWM plan involves the establishment of an inter-municipal treatment

and disposal system . The impetus for this initiative derives from the fact that although

235
B. Nath et al. (eds.), Sustainabl e Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region, 235-248.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
236

alI the municipalities nation-wide carry out their respective solid waste colIection and
disposal services, in general the services delivered are not efficient due to insufficient
technical , human and financial resources . Therefore, in order to improve services, it is
deemed essential to combine several of the municipalities and to provide the com-
bined unit with necessary manpower, technical and financial resources .

The SASWMP has designated the Metropolitan Municipalities of Adana and Mersin,
both located within the Mediterranean region of the Cukurova Plain, as model areas
for the regional SWM plan covering the cities of Adana and Mersin. In 1997 the po-
pulations of Adana and Mersin were 1.85 million and 630,000, respectively.

Achievement of the much-needed improvements in SWM is contingent upon the im-

plementation of a regional SWM plan, as will be gathered from the folIowing:

~ The current practice of disposal to open and unregulated dumps, coupled with the
lack of effective environmental protection measures, has been adversely affecting
the local environment. The problem is exacerbated by the traditional practice of
jointly disposing MSW with hazardous and hospital wastes to such dumps.
~ There is now urgent need for new final disposal sites because the existing sites are
reaching their full capacity .
~ Little financial resources are available to improve conditions at the existing final
disposal sites.

With reference to the above, this study is concerned with the following :

~ Formulation ofa master plan for improving regional SWM by the year 2020 focu-
sing on the Metropolitan Municipalities of Adana and Mersin.
~ Feasibility study on priority projects to be selected for the master plan.
)r Transfer of both relevant know-how and technology to the personnel of the two
municipalities directly involved in SWM.

The focus of the study, which covers the provinces of Adana and icel, is on the me-
tropolitan municipalities and other municipalities in their vicinity. The types of waste
considered in the study are those emanating from households, markets, offices, com-
mercial enterprises, as welI as medical and street wastes . The master plan covers the
period from 2000 to 2020 (Kokusai, 1999).

2. SWM IN TURKEY UNDER NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANS

Under the title of ' Basic Structural Reform Projects,' the Seventh Five-year Plan for
Turkey (1996-2000) makes specific reference to the protection of the environment
and nature conservation against respective institutional settings. Also, under the sepa-
 237

rate heading of' Arrangements Regarding the Metropolises' the Plan elaborates on the
general problems of selected metropolitan centres of the country with a brief refer-
ence to solid waste management. FoIlowing a basic analysis of the current status of
the environmental issues relating to solid waste management practices in Turkey, the
Plan sets out the objectives , principles and policies along with complementary legal
and institutional arrangements (SPO, 1995).

2.1 Current structural problems

The concept of 'sustainable development' was incorporated into the Sixth Five-year
Development Plan that gave priority to the integration of the national economy with
the environment. However, according to the Seventh Plan, insufficient progress has
so far been made in terms of the organisational and legal arrangements needed to de-
velop a functional and sustainable environmental management regime . The Seventh
Plan emphasises that the authorised and responsible institutions, primarily the Minis-
try of Environment, have failed to realise effective vertical and horizontal co-ordina-
tion and co-operation that are vitaIly important mainly for creating a data-base and a
financial model, updating an inventory of relevant research and analysis, as well as
for developing proper planning, monitoring and evaluation systems .

Furthermore, attempts at partial reorganisation without a holistic approach or strategy

has caused controversy over the disbursement of authority, competence and responsi-
bility to bodies that are elements of the current inadequate administrative structure.
The situation is compounded by the fact that, although there is an abundance of juris-
dictional regulations, according to the Seventh Plan they contain deficiencies, contra-
dictions as weIl as repetitions that cause practical difficulties in their implementation.
Environmental Act No. 2872 is a typical example of this (EFT, 1990).

In the Seventh Five-year Plan attention is also drawn to the fact that the expectations
from environmental impact assessment practices have not been fully realised due to
shortcomings in data management, information flow and qualified manpower (Ustun
and Topkaya, 1998). Another issue in the Seventh Plan, which is of much relevance,
is that of internalisation of environmental costs . It recommends that management of
natural resources and environmental protection should comprise effect ive mechani-
sms for the internalisation of such costs .

2.2 Current status of SWM policies and objectives

As pointed out earlier, the Seventh Plan makes only a brief reference to the problems
of SWM in the metropolitan centres of Turkey. After outlining a long catalogue of the
current problems facing the huge settlements as well as the metropolitan centres -
problems of unemployment; spread of informal settlements; housing deficit ; environ-
mental degradation; rising crime; inefficient provision of housing infrastructure; and
the problems posed by inadequate transportation, health and educational services -
238

the Seventh Plan goes on to give some indication of the inadequacy of solid waste
management in Turkey .

A system of waste management capable of sorting and recycling waste, and disposing
it safely to a facility in a way that does not damage or degrade the environment, is yet
to be set up in Turkey . In fact, what is happening is that, in compliance with current
requirements relating to the location, identification and spatial allocation of facilities
in the urban development plans that are in the main deficient, unhealthy and uncon-
trolled open dumping sites are proliferating throughout the country. In an attempt to
overcome this problem, and thus minimise or eliminate associated risks to health and
the environment, the Seventh Plan recommends the construction of sanitary landfill
sites. In fulfilling this objective priority is to be given to the rehabilitation of suitable
existing uncontrolled dumping sites that cater for the metropolitan centres . Another
interesting policy stated in the Seventh Plan is to encourage the private sector to take
part in the sub-sectors of solid waste management such as those of material recovery ,
recycling, and dumping site operation.

As for industrial wastes, the Seventh Plan stresses the need for establishing a regula-
tory regime whereby industrial plants would be obliged to introduce stack filters and
treatment facilities as the basic requirement.

2.3 Legal and institutional arrangements

Regarding legal arrangements, the Seventh Five-year Development Plan recommends
that the Constitution of 1982, which is directly or indirectly concerned with environ-
mental matters, should be amended in line with the principles of sustainable econo-
mic development. In particular, it recommends the amendment of the Law on Forests
(Law No. 2872) ; Law on Encouraging Tourism (Law No . 2634); Law on Resettle-
ment (Law No. 3194); Law on Coasts (Law No. 3621) ; and the Law on the Protection
of Cultural and Natural Assets (Law No . 2864) in order to ensure that (OG, 1993):

)-- Economic and social development targets are in conformity with environmental
protection and improvement.
)-- The natural environment is preserved .
)-- Land-use practices are rationalised.
)-- Clauses in the Law are updated in compliance with current realities .

3. THE NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN

Notwithstanding some positive developments in recent years, the Seventh Five-year

Development Plan recognises that environmental issues have not been adequately in-
corporated into economic and social decisions, and that this calls for developing a
 239

national environmental strategy. The National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP),

prepared in 1997, responds to this call with concrete actions to be taken for integra-
ting environment and development . The NEAP essentially constitutes the foundation
for Turkey 's National Agenda 21.

Initially the NEAP produced a general profile of Turkey 's environmental problems,
including those of waste management. According to its findings, 95 percent of the
municipal solid waste generated in the country was disposed to uncontrolled dumping
sites on land and in the seas, lakes and rivers, while only 22 percent of the private
firms engaged in recycling activities . It gave the following reasons for the poor and
deteriorating state of solid waste management in the country: low level of investment
in disposal facilities as well as in programmes for waste reduction and recycling; ra-
pid urbanisation; poor environmental performance of state-owned enterprises that are
more polluting than their private sector counterparts; and low level of awareness of
the rules and options . The NEAP concluded that, although Turkey has an impressive
arsenal of environmental laws and regulations, officials responsible for their imple-
mentation, monitoring and enforcement are not sufficiently familiar with waste mana-
gement or the rules of environmental impact assessment (EIA).

4. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN TURKEY

4.1 Waste composition and recycling

Using information gathered by the State Institute of Statistics (SIS) since 1991, some
quantitative assessments have been made through surveys to develop solid, industrial
and municipal waste inventories (SIS, 1997). According to these data, 22.3 million
tonnes of municipal solid waste was generated in the country in 1991, or 392 kg/year
per capita. Data also show that during the winter months solid waste generated in the
major cities consisted of 45-50 percent food waste; 5-10 percent recyclables; and 40-
50 percent ash, slag and other non-recyclable waste . In the summer months the com-
position was found to change to 80-85 percent food waste; 15-18 percent recyclables;
and 1-3 percent non-recyclable waste .

According to these data, in 1992 a total of 25 million tonnes of industrial solid waste
was generated in the country . Of this 47 percent was sold, 36 percent sent for final
disposal, 15 percent recycled, and 2 percent was unaccounted for. Recycling rates in
the non-domestic sector was relatively low. A limited amount of recycling was done
by 22 percent of the enterprises in the commercial and service sectors, 21 percent of
the industrial concerns, 25 percent of hotels, and 18 percent of restaurants . Of those
that did some recycling in 1992, 75 percent collected newspapers and magazines, 46
percent packaging materials, 24 percent metals, and 9 percent paper and glass. Just
over 50 percent of the enterprises used some of the materials they had collected in
their own establishments, 43 percent either sold or gave them away, 18 percent bur-
240

ned some of the materials, and 6 percent gave some of the recyclables to the waste
collectors.

Results of a survey conducted in 1991 revealed that 80 percent of the municipal solid
waste was disposed to open, unregulated dumps; 15 percent to seas, lakes and rivers ;
2 percent was composted; I percent was disposed to a sanitary landfill; and 2 percent
was either burned in the open, or buried or disposed to agricultural lands (Evliya et
al., 1999).

4.2 Causes ofinadequate solid waste management in Turkey

Problems of solid waste management in Turkey are caused by a number of factors
that could be roughly attributed to the following :

>- Low level ofinvestment infacilities: recently some of the major cities like Ankara,
Istanbul, Izmir and Izmit have been building or operating their first sanitary land-
fills. In the whole of the country there is now a new integrated waste treatment
facility in the highly polluted area of Izmit which is nearing completion . It inclu-
des a sanitary landfill for both municipal and industrial solid wastes, as well as an
incinerator for hospital and hazardous wastes .

>- Rapid urbanisation: rapid growth of population in the cities is putting mounting
pressure on the limited existing systems for solid and liquid waste management.
As a result, the utilities and networks are failing to keep pace with relentlessly
growing demand.

>- Poor performance ofstate-owned enterprises: 54 percent of industrial solid waste

generated by these enterprises is sent for final disposal rather than for recycling,
reuse or sale. The corresponding figure for comparable private enterprises is only
21 percent.

>- Low level of awareness: a certain solid waste control regulation emphasising re-
cycling and safe disposal of waste came into force in 1991. However, a recent
survey of nearly 2,000 municipalities showed that none was enforcing that regu-
lation. Various reasons were given for this. While more than 50 percent of the
municipalities said they lacked necessary financial resources, unavailability of
suitable staff, technical know-how and vehicles was given as the reason by 33
percent. Remarkably, one-third of the municipalities was unaware of the existence
of the regulation .

>- Financial mechanism: current financial mechanisms also constrain environmental

management as well as associated waste management activities to a large extent,
especially at the local level. At present local governments' share of the national
budget and tax revenues amounts to only 1.4 percent of the GNP, or 12 percent of
 241

all public expenditure. Consequently, local governments are able to make only 22
percent of the investment needed for environment-related projects and facilities .

In consideration of the above, the NEAP recommends that a number of obstacles

must be overcome in order to reduce the negative impacts of poor or improper solid
waste management . The first obstacle is the low level of awareness of domestic and
industrial waste treatment and disposal facilities, as well as of programmes and poli-
cies for reducing, recycling and reusing solid waste. The second is the bad example
set by the state enterprises that generate the largest quantities of solid waste which is
improperly disposed of, often without any treatment. The third is the level of aware-
ness of existing rules and regulations on the management of waste. And finally, there
is low capacity (in terms of financial resources , equipment and staff) at the local level
for the proper control and management of solid waste.

5. DEVELOPMENT OF A SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN

5.1 Genera/considerations
The following should be taken into consideration when undertaking a study to deve-
lop a solid waste management plan for a given community :

y Solid waste management should focus on improving the existing system rather
than on establishing a new one.
y Solid waste management has a direct impact on the daily life of the community in
question. The management system cannot work efficiently or effectively if it ref-
lects only the intentions or perceptions of the administrators, local government
officials, or of the cleansing authority.
y Natural, social and economic settings of the community in question must be taken
into consideration, along with the historical and cultural background of the popu-
lace as well as their educational attainment, tradition and life-style.
Y In developing a solid waste management plan, it is not acceptable simply to apply
the standard plans and methods used in other countries, or to transplant a system
that works elsewhere without adapting it to local conditions, constraints, culture
and tradition .

Turkey, a middle-income developing country with a per capita GNP of about 3,000
US dollars, is aiming for the membership of the European Union. Focusing on this
national objective, increasingly many of Turkey's environmental standards and regu-
lations, including those on solid waste management , are now being made to converge
to EU standards and regulations . Management and technical standards of the central
government agencies for solid waste management are high in Turkey, including those
of the Ministry of Environment and local consultants . But it is certainly not so where
242

it matters most - at the municipal level - as amply illustrated by their widespread

practice of haphazardly disposing all kinds of waste to unsanitary and unregulated
open dumps. Clearly, in terms of standards, there is a great disparity between national
and local levels that needs to be addressed . The same is also true for planning for
solid waste management (Evliya et aI., 1999).

Because of rapid urbanisation and high population growth (4.5 and 7.0 percent per
annum for Adana and Mersin, respectively) it is becoming increasingly harder to find
suitable sites for final disposal, and, consequently , the implementation of countermea-
sures to alleviate the problems of solid waste is becoming a pressing issue. The re-
quired countermeasures include policies and facilities for waste volume reduction ,
resource recovery, waste stabilisation , and waste minimisation . Furthermore, active
public co-operation and participation in the countermeasures, which has important
positive cost implications for the municipalities, is still to be organised in an effective
and efficient way.

In view of the above and considering the current solid waste management practices in
Turkey, the basic approach to developing a solid waste management plan should ad-
dress the four elements described below (5.2 to 5.5):

5.2 The institutionalframework

The realisation of an effective solid waste management plan is contingent upon im-
proving the following : the technical level; administrative and operational capabilities
of the municipalities concerned; and the organisation of their cleansing activities. Im-
provements to both their administrative and operational capabilities deserve added
emphasis in view of the fact that, due to on-going rapid urbanisation, the target muni-
cipalities are under mounting pressure of a relentlessly intensifying problem . Clearly
therefore, in order to make a meaningful improvement to the current situation, it is
necessary to carry out an extensive overhaul of the existing organisational and institu-
tional framework for solid waste management.

5.3 Planningfor sustainability

What makes a solid waste management project significantly different from an infra-
structure development project (such as road or dam construction) is its relatively low
investment cost, but high costs of operation and maintenance. Thus, the ability to sus-
tain a solid waste management project depends on the availability of sustained finan-
cial support. Although an extensive restructuring of the financial system is by no
means an easy task, it is necessary nevertheless to make short-, medium- and long-
term plans. While the short-term plan will focus on improving the existing solid waste
management system within current financial constraints, the focus of medium- and
long-term plans would be on making extensive improvements to cope with future de-
mand and problems .
 243

5.4 Role ofappropriate technology

The plan for operation and maintenance is an essential component of the wider solid
waste management plan, and the target municipalities and their respective cleansing
organisations should independently implement the plan using their own technology,
manpower and financial resources. Formulation of the technical system plan to be
adopted should be based on the technology available in Turkey. Alternatively, the tar-
get municipalities could consider introducing appropriate technologies that could be
sustained over time commensurate with locally available know-how, skills and finan-
cial resources. By definition such technologies would comply with local conditions,
constraints, culture and tradition, unlike some of the imported technologies that are
perceived as being virtually alien. Indeed, research and development of such techno-
logies is highly recommended for developing countries such as Turkey.

5.5 Public participation

Since solid waste management is directly concerned with the public, any alteration to
the system in place will directly affect the public at large . Furthermore, separate col-
lection , recycling and self-d isposal programmes cannot be effectively implemented
without active public participation and co-operation. To a large extent the same also
applies to the operation of solid waste management facilities like composting plants
and recycling centres. Clearly therefore, it is necessary to involve the public from the
initial planning stage and their opinions fully reflected in the plan . This would ensure
active public participation. It is to be noted that public participation in this way is no
longer an option; increasingly it is becoming mandatory, as in the European Union for
example.

6. DEVELOPMENT OF A SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN

FOR THE ADANA-MERSIN REGION OF TURKEY

A study was undertaken to determine how best to develop a solid waste treatment and
disposal system for the Adana-Mersin region . Sections 6.I to 6.4 refer to that study.

6.1 Site selection

Selection of site for the treatment and disposal system should be based on the follow-
ing considerations:

y As sites suitable for final disposal are not available within the Metropolitan Muni-
cipalities of Adana or Mersin, efforts should be made to find such sites outside of
the two municipal jurisdictions. If an inter-municipal treatment and disposal sys-
tem is contemplated, the municipality within whose jurisdiction the system is to
244

be located, as well as the neighbouring municipalities, will be considered as target

municipalities.

~ The municipality within whose jurisdiction the candidate site is located, as well as
the neighbouring municipalities, should be willing to establish an inter-municipal
treatment and disposal system together with the Metropolitan Municipalities of
Adana and Mersin .

6.2 Reinforcement ofthe finances ofthe cleansing services

Financial backing is needed to alleviate the problem of solid waste management in
the study area of Adana-Mersin. For example, upgrading of an existing open dump to
a sanitary landfill site would cost a considerable amount of money . TypicaIly, the
upgrading and annual operation of the final disposal site in Adana is estimated to cost
about 4.93 million US dollars which is in excess of the overall annual budget of 4.36
million US dollars of the Adana Cleansing Services. Obviously therefore, a major
issue to be addressed in the study is how to secure adequate finance and cut costs .
Clearl y, sound financial backing, to be secured by reinforcing the finances of the
Cleansing Services, is a paramount pre-requisite for a successful transition to proper
and safe solid waste management in the study area .

The follo wing measures, shown schematically in Figure I , are proposed for reinfor-
cing the finances of the cleansing services in the stud y area :

(A) Cost cutting

The following measures, that are expected to cut costs significantly, will be studied:

);- Choosing an appropriate technical system.

).- Reduction of the volume of waste to be dealt with through :
• Resource recovery and recycling.
• Waste minimisation.
• Promoting appropriate self-disposal methods (e.g. on-site composting).
Y Efficiency of service operations to be achieved through:
• Direct operation by the municipality, or direct operation by a public com-
pany under the supervision of the municipality.
• Granting of concessions to a private company for providing cleansing ser-
vices.
Y Public co-operation for achieving:
• Reduced refuse collection cost through co-operation in waste discharge.
• Reduced cleansing service cost through reduced illegal dumping practices
and reduced littering of streets and public places.
 245

(B) Generation of extra revenue

The study will focus on establishing an appropriate fee system (especial1y tariffs) on
the basis of the fol1owing considerations:

~ A system is to be established for collecting cleansing service fees as cleansing tax

based on relevant legislation .
~ None of the municipal cleansing services can be sustained using the cleansing tax
alone. Cleansing service costs are determined mainly by the municipality budget.
A typical example is that of the municipalities of Seyhan and Yuregir, which
belong to the Metropolitan Municipality of Adana, whose cleansing tax collection
rate is 85 percent. However , the tax collected by Seyhan and Yuregir only cover
21 and 33 percent, respectively, of their actual cleansing service costs .

Raising waste collection fee is expected to face strong public opposition with political
implications . Therefore, in order to facilitate matters, an opinion survey is proposed
for assessing public 's willingness to pay (WTP) for an improved service . An appro-
priate cleansing tax will then be proposed on the basis of the findings of that survey.
Clearly, all the elements of actual cleansing costs must be estimated as precisely as
possible. If the proposed cleansing tax is found to be insufficient to cover the actual
costs, a further study should be made to determine whether, and how, the shortfal1
could be made good with allocations from central or municipal government budget.

Reliable fee collection

method

Figure I Schematicof measures for reinforcing finances of the municipal cleansing services
246

6.3 Need for and selection ofappropriate technology

A given technology is said to be appropriate when it is applicable, technically feasi-
ble, economically viable , culturally acceptable and environmentally sound. Therefore,
the technology to be chosen for the study must be one that satisfies the above criteria
and could alleviate, or solve if possible, the problems in the study area in spite of the
constraints (Ikegushi, 1994). The constraints are many and varied, such as those of
scarcity of financial, human and technical resources , as well as restricted budget for
making improvements as can be judged from the financial and economic conditions
of the study area. Clearly therefore, the technology to be selected must be one that
can deliver targeted objectives despite these constraints (Blight and Mbande, 1998).

At present there is no plan in Turkey whereby imported technologies are adapted to

suit local conditions, constraints, culture and tradition . Rather, they are used for deve-
loping existing technologies. The disposal of hospital waste in Turkey, as required by
law, is a typical example of this. Such wastes are normally incinerated in the deve-
loped countries. However, since in Turkey incineration capacity for such wastes is
very limited, and consequently incineration cost very high at about 100 US dollars per
tonne, existing regulations require their disinfection prior to final disposal to sanitary
landfills . This recommended practice is appropriate to the conditions and constraints
of Turkey, and it is neither unacceptable nor unsafe. In practice , however, this regula-
tion is seldom complied with.

Findings of studies made in the past are also helpful in making decisions on appropri-
ate technologies to be adopted. A study on the operation of sanitary landfills is a typi-
cal example of this . In this study sanitary landfill operation is divided into the four
task levels listed below . The target municipalities can select a level that matches their
financial capability and technical competence to construct and operate such a site.

);- Controlled tipping.

);- Construction of a storage area and daily coverage of waste.
);- Installation of a simple leachate treatment facility and daily coverage of waste .
);- Leachate treatment facility; lining of landfill to prevent groundwater contamina-
tion; and daily coverage of waste .

It is pointed out, however, that although higher-level landfills incur correspondingly

higher construction, operation and maintenance costs, the adverse environmental im-
pacts oflandfills are almost inversely proportional to those costs.

6.4 Pilot projects andfeasihility study

The implementation of pilot projects is extremely useful in formulating practical solid
waste management plans that could be supported by the cleansing services . If the site
conditions are favourable, the study may propose the implementation of pilot projects
on the following :
 247

~ Separate discharge of recyclable waste .

~ Public awareness campaigns through public co-operation in parallel with separate
discharge mentioned above .

The objective of the pilot projects is twofold : to promote a cost-effecti ve method of

recycling; and to eliminate scavenging at disposal sites. The suitability of pilot pro-
jects, to be implemented chiefly in the target municipalities, will be determined by
evaluating measures for establishing a recycling system that is not capital-intensive.

In addition, feasibility studies will be carried out on the following projects within the
overall context of the study area:

~ Construction of a new final disposal site.

~ Construction of one or more transfer stations.
~ Construction of a recycling/resource recovery facility.

7. CONCLUDING REMARKS

In this paper we have outlined some of the key aspects of the current solid waste ma-
nagement efforts in Turkey. The problem of solid waste management is now high on
the agenda for a number of reasons, such as direct and indirect impacts of waste on
health and the environment; characteristics of the sources of waste including indivi-
duals; nature and functions of the different agencies charged with the responsibility
for solid waste management; and both proprietary and appropriate technologies for
alleviating environmental and health impacts of solid waste .

With a view to simplifying the confusing picture of current problems and a multitude
of proposals for their solution, a methodological approach has been developed under
the National Environmental Action Plan for Turkey based on the following :

~ Problem areas and categories of actions to be taken .

~ Implementation of optional policies as and when necessary.
~ Project implementation matrix for improving solid waste management.

According to the Seventh Five-year Development Plan, the earlier environmental po-
licies were reactive in nature in that they aimed to deal with pollution already caused .
By contrast the Seventh Plan emphasises pollution prevention in a pro-active manner.
It strongly recommends pollution prevention through the timely implementation of
regional and/or central policies aiming at sustainability of both natural and man-made
environments. The policies are to be based on, or accompanied by, economic, admi-
nistrative, legal, fiscal, social and cultural instruments as necessary .

The Seventh Plan also recognises growing public awareness of environmental issues
and problems as a key indicator of the democratisation process . Accordingly, public
248

participation in decision-making on environmental issues and problems is now being

promoted more vigorously than ever before, mainly under the auspices of the volun-
tary bodies and non-governmental organisations.

An important policy of the Central Government is also enshrined in the Seventh Plan .
It is that public services delivered by the municipalities will not be subsidised, and
that local resources will also be used to finance such services .

The Seventh Plan holds much promise for alleviating the serious and growing envi-
ronmental problems of Turkey, including those of solid waste management. Whether,
or the extent to which those promises will be delivered upon, only time will tell.

REFERENCES
Blight, G.E and Mbande, C.M (1998), ' Waste management in developing countries', in Proc .
Kriton Curi Int. Symp. Environmental Management in the Mediterranean Region, Vol. I,
pp. 372-383.
EFT (1990), Regulations Related to Turkish Environmental Law, Environmental Foundation
of Turkey, Ankara, Turkey .
Evliya, H, Gocuk, S and Altinok , A (1999), Analysis of Chemical Composition ofMunicipal
Waste for the Study of Regional Solid Waste Management for Adana-Mersin , Report of
Cukurova University, Adana , Turkey .
Ikegushi , T (1994), ' Progress in sanitary landfill technology and regulation in Japan ' , Waste
Manag ement & Research, Vol. 12, pp . 109-127 .
Kokusai , K (1999), A Study ofRegional Solid Waste Manag ement for Adana-Mersin in the
Republic ofTurkey, Interim Report, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey.
OG (1993) , Turkish Environmental Law, Official Gazette, Ankara, Turkey .
SIS (1997), Statistical Yearbook ofTurkey, State Institute of Statistics, Ankara, Turkey.
SPO (1995), The Seventh Five-year Plan, State Planning Office, Ankara, Turkey .
Ustun, R and Topkaya, B (1998), ' Environmenta l Impact Assessment Applications in Tur-
key', in Proc. Kriton Curi Int. Symp. Environmental Management in the Mediterranean
Region , Vol. I, pp. 79-85 .
 A SUSTAINABLE SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT SCHEME
PROPOSED ALONG THE COASTAL ZONE OF ANTALYA

Biilent TOPKAYA; Bahar KALKANOGLU

Akdeniz University, Faculty ofEngineering, Department ofEnvironmental Engineering
Antalya, Turkey

Abstract

The east and west coastal zones of Antalya City show a rapid development in population and
urbanization in the recent years. This trend has major negative effects on the environment. One
of the urgent problems is the solid waste management along the coastal zone . Transport and final
disposal of solid waste is becoming a serious problem especially in the summer months. The
majority of the municipalities along the coastal zone are little towns and villages which have
high summer population . They are technically not in the situation to develop and carryout solid
waste management strategies. In this work the current situation, solid waste production, existing
facilities and projection for the future are discussed.

Keywords: Antalya coastal zone, Solid waste management, Composting, Medical incinerator, Landfill,
Sustainability

1. Introduction

Antalya is the most popular province as a residence and tourism destination in Turkey. 640 km
coastal zone (Fig.I) contains approximately 40 % of the whole touristic bed capacity of Turkey.
4.5 million foreign and almost the same number of inland tourists visit the coastal zone during
the tourism season which lasts for 7 months from April to October. It is obvious that the
economic welfare of the province depends highly on tourism.

Most of the tourism centers in the province are little municipalities with moderate income. In
summer months the populations of these municipalities double, along with the amount of solid
waste (SW). Due to lack of finance sources, open (wild) dumping is the common practice. As a
result of the rapid urbanization, most of the dumping areas are now in the close vicinity of the
residential areas. This situation causes one of the most important environmental impacts in the
province which can no longer be tolerated . This SW disposal problem is also recognized by the
municipalities as well as the ministry of tourism and ministry of environment , which encourage
the municipalities to build sanitary landfills. The necessary finance for the construction of these
landfills will be supplied by the World Bank, Tourism Bank, Bank For Rural Settlements etc.
However, to find appropriate landfill locations is not an easy task, as the available lands
excluding the touristic centers are mostly valuable agricultural areas and the population in the
villages are strictly against a landfill site near their vicinity. On the other hand, the Mayors of the
residences are willing to get credit and build their own landfills. This tendency can lead to great
number of landfills which will be neither economical nor operable due to lack of technical
infrastructure of the municipalities.

To accomplish solid waste management, it is obvious that a different way of disposal, other than
proposed from the government , must be developed. In this study, a solid waste management
model based upon a regional planning scheme, which includes waste separation, recovery,
composting and transfer stations for the decade 2000 - 2025, will be discussed.
249
B. Nath et al. (eds.), Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region. 249-256.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
250

~ r. ".
'<",

.:

AKDENiz
(MEDlrERfL4N£AN SEA )

Fig. 1 Coastal zone of Antalya and the main residential areas

2. The Existing Solid Waste Management Along the Coastal Zone

2.1 Sources

Residential solid waste forms the main part (62 %) of the total waste collected in the province of
Antalya. Touristic facilities contribute to 10.6 % of the waste while commercial solid waste
production comprises 22.2 %. In the province, industrial facilities are negligible in terms of the
generated solid waste (3.1 %) . Medical waste generation lays by 1.2 %. (TBS, 1996 b;
Kalkanoglu,1999).

2.2 Seasonal variation

Seasonal variation of the solid waste production is the main feature of the coastal zone. As seen
in Fig.2 solid waste production increases during the tourism season.

2.3 Generation rate and density

According to results of the studies conducted by a World Bank financed environment project, the
specific waste production in the province is determined as 0.8 kg/cap/day for the non-tourist
season and 1.1 kg/cap/day for tourist season (TBS, 1996a; Delean,1993). It is envisaged that this
value will increase to 1.26 kg/cap/day until year 2020 (Kalkanoglu,1999). The waste production
rates vary between 1 - 3.3 kg/cap/day for USA (Tchobanoglous et.al.1993). The density of solid
wastes as delivered in compaction vehicles is determined as 345 kg/m' , which as comparison,
have been found to vary from 178 - 415 kg/m' for USA (Tchobanoglous et al. 1978).
 251

Fig.2 Distribution of solid waste production over the year (TBS, 1996 b)

2.4 Solid waste characteristics and production

Solid waste characteristics (composition, production per capita etc.) determined along the coastal
zone, shows differences from other parts of Turkey as well as from some industrialized
countries . The composition of solid wastes varies with social status as well as geographical
conditions. A comparative study is shown in Table I (Tchobanoglous et.al, 1993; Curi, 1994). In
order to calculate the required capacities, the waste generated is divided under three categories as
biological (suitable for composting), recoverable and unrecoverable (which must be transported
to the landfill sites). The main difference is seen by the amount of organic matter, as well as
recoverable materials. The high percentage of organic material is due to living habits of the
people. Reusable part of the waste is statistically low compared with the industrialized countries .
The main reason of this attribute is due to the fact that, majority of the recoverable material is
collected by scavengers before reaching landfills.

Table 1 Comparison of solid waste composition (%)

Component USA& Swed en France Israel Japan istanbul Ankara Antal ya

Canada
Orzanic" 15 12 24 71 37 43-61 50 40-66
Recoverable" 65 76 38 25 31 15-25 23 26
Unrecoverable" 20 12 38 4 32 14-42 27 7-33

"Organic: Food waste, gardenwasteetc.

"Recoverable: Paper, Glass, Plastics, Metal
"Umecoverable: Ash, Miscellaneous etc.

2.5 Solid Waste Collection and Disposal

In the main residential areas, solid waste collection is made by containers of 800 liter capacity
which are collected daily by pressurized solid waste trucks . The waste is transported to the non-
sanitary landfills which are located in agricultural areas and forests (Fig.3). These landfills are
hired to private firms by the municipalities. The separation and sale of the recoverable material is
conducted (under very unhygienic conditions) by these firms. In case of the province center of
Antalya, the landfill lies on travertine ground which is highly permeable and the main drinking
water aquifers lies directly beneath of the landfill. Besides this negative impact, the landfill lies
near to three villages which complain about the bad smell, rats etc.
252

In Antalya province, the sanitary solid waste disposal is accomplished only for two occasions:
The first one at Kerner Region, appr.40 km westwards of province center, where the biologic
solid waste is collected separately and disposed in the new constructed composting plant (150
t/day capacity). Whilst the recoverable material are packed and sell out on site, unrecoverable
material is carried to Antalya city dumping place. The second sanitary SW-disposal application
is for medical wastes, One of the first medical waste incinerators of Turkey exists in the campus
of Akdeniz University . Its capacity is ISO kg/h and it is sufficient for the whole province. The
only problem is the high cost of incineration which is currently about 70 cents/kg. This plant can
incinerate the medical waste of the whole province if an adequate collection and delivery system
is developed.

l-l

Fig. 3 Solid waste disposal sites according to existing plans

3. Sustainable Solid Waste Management

In order to develop a proper solid waste management scheme, the population increase must be
calculated for the coming decade as precise as possible. It is not an easy task for Antalya as the
touristic season population increases to 2-3 times of the winter season population. Province
center of Antalya city has a population increase rate of 4.42 % which is two times higher than of
Turkey. The population increase rates of the two touristic centers, namely Alanya and Manavgat,
were 10,54 % and 12,38% respectively for the period between 1990 - 1997. It is envisaged that, a
saturation point will be reached by the year 2005 and up to this year the increase rates will
remain appr. constant. In case of Antalya, after reaching the saturation point by 2005, the
increase rate will moderately go back to 2%, and stabilize by the year 2025. (This trend is also
assumed by the World Bank). For Alanya and Manavgat, the development is expected to
continue until 2020, by stabilizing at approximately two times the province population increase
rate. The estimated solid waste productions (1997 - 2020) based on the above calculated
population development are seen in Fig.4. Two touristic centers in the east of Antalya, Alanya
and Manavgat, are candidates for the leading solid waste producers for 2020. According to the
 253

existing plans, approximately 10 sanitary landfills (after rehabilitation of the exrsting main
landfills) with various capacities (60.000 m3 - 2.750.000 m3 ; total capacity 7.000.000 rn') are
necessary for the coastal zone as shown in Fig.3. On the other hand, the proposed sustainable
solid waste management scheme indicates that only 5 central plants which includes separation,
composting and residual-landfill, and 5 transfer stations would be sufficient as shown in Fig.S.
The advantages of the proposed scheme are; 1.800.000 tons of organic material will be
transformed to compost; 1.600.000 tons of material will be recovered and used by the industry.
Instead of 10 landfills, only 5 landfills with a total capacity of 1.400.000 m3 will be sufficient for
the next 20 years.

90000 ........•.................................................................... ...........

~ ~oooo

~ 7‫סס‬oo

~=
c
;;4‫סס‬oo
I-

f sooeo
~ 2‫סס‬oo
c 10000
o - n., n -Ilrlh-

zsoooo .............. .........................................................................

." 200000
I; ,
§"" 160000 -
.: 120000 - ~
1 ,,
f sooon -
,

~
----<
~
~ 010000 - ~.

1-
- n -..

Fig.4 Amount of solid wastes (1997-2020)

254

,-I

Fig. 5 Proposed solid waste disposal sites and types

4. Conclusions

For a developing country like Turkey, solid waste management is still an unsolved problem. A
solution which includes only sanitary landfills without waste separation, recovery, and
composting, can not be considered as sustainable management. Besides it is not easy and too
expensive to find an appropriate location and to construct a sanitary landfill for each of the
residential areas along the coastal zone.

As a coastal province, Antalya has two economic sides: The first is tourism which mainly takes
place along the narrow coastal zone, and the other is agriculture, practised on the hinterland and
along the coastal zone outside of the tourism centers. Solid waste management strategies for the
province must take these conditions into consideration. For the towns and villages along the
coastal zone, regional solutions should be strived. Integrated solid waste management in Kerner
region is a good example. The decision in favor of composting depends on the second economic
side of the province, agriculture. In thousands of greenhouses , vegetables and flowers are
planted. The producers who are now importing the peat used in their establishments, could be the
main customers of these composting plants.

It is shown that the feasible solution must include separate collection. To realize this goal, it is
advised to collect the waste in different boxes in houses as organic waste and recoverable
material as an initial step, which will also be collected separately by the municipality. Ultimate
separation will be accomplished in the five newly proposed central plants. The waste will be
transferred to these plants with five transfer stations. Organic waste will be transformed to
compost, while the recoverable material can be processed further in the province, which will
create new working areas.
 255

5. References

Curi,K., Istanbul'da Kat! Atiklar : Toplanmasi, nakli, depolanmasi ve bertarafi sorunlan. Kat!
Auk ve Cevre. Istanbul. 4 /1994 . pp. 6-15 .
Delcan ., Environmental Feasibility Study of the Kerner Region Turkey , Final Report . Antalya,
1993.
Kalkanoglu,B., Antalya by! Bolgesinde Kat! Auk Yonetimi Karsilasrlan Sorunla r-Cozum
Onerileri, Master Th. Akdeniz University. 1999.
Tchobanoglous,G., Theisen,H., Eliassen ,R., Solid Wastes. Engineering Principles and
Management Issues . McGraw-Hill. 1978.
Tchobanoglous,G., Theisen,H., Vigil,S., Integrated Solid Waste Management : Engineering
Principles and Management Issues . McGraw-Hill. 1993.
TBSa ., Antalya Water Supply and Sanitation Project . Design Report . Chapter 6.Antalya, 1996.
TBSb ., Antalya Water Supply and Sanitation Project. Environmental Impact Assessment.
Antalya, 1996.
256

"Everything animate or inanimate that is within

the universe is controlled and owned by the Lord.
One should therefore accept only those things
necessaryfor himself, which are set aside as his
quota, and one should not accept other things,
knowing well to whom they belong " 0

Mantra One, Sri Isopanisad

 ON THE STATISTICAL PROBABLISTIC MODELLING OF THE
DIFFUSION OF FINE SOLID MATERIALS

OLEG MAKARYNSKYY* and DINA MAKARYNSKAt

* lnstituto Superior Technico, DeCivil, Sec. Hidraulica, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1096 Lisboa Codex,
Portugal . E-mail: oleg@c ivil.ist.utl.p t
t Odessa Socio-Ecological Union, ulitsa Koblevska 38A, Apt. 1, Odessa, 270021 Ukraine.

ABSTRACT

A complex methodology is proposed in this paper for studying the transport and diffusion processes of
fine solid materials that occur in both air and water following the extraction of mineral resources. The
behaviour, dispersion and fate of such materials are closely linked to their potential for environmental
pollution. Therefore, a study of the above-mentioned processes would shed light on ways in which
such pollution could be alleviated or eliminated .

To begin with, a simple procedure is developed for processing the synoptic observed data and for
creating a database of climatic information on the region of interest. Discussion then moves on to the
simulation of synoptic episodes using the Monte-Carlo technique, based on the consistent patterns
emerging from the database. In the case of dust, this permits the modelling of the climatic main flows
of air and of the pollutants that are time-dependent and heterogeneous in space. An algorithm is then
presented for calculating pulsation of the main flow that allows the modelling of the diffusion process
of fine solid material using, once again, the Monte-Carlo method.

Finally the results of three series of numerical experiments are discussed. It is shown that the propo-
sed methodology can be used to predict the time it would take the experimental basins to self-cleanse
themselves of the suspended solid pollutants at different concentrations .

Keywords: Statistical ; probabilistic; solid; waste; fine; particulate ; materials ; mining ; Monte-Carlo
method; environment; pollution.

1. INTRODUCTION

A significant environmental impact of mining for mineral resources is that of the fine
solid waste released during mining operations. Coal mining is a typical example of this.
The problem is at its most acute in open-cast mining which releases clouds of dust and
fine particulate materials. These materials pollute the air, as well as soil, water and ve-
getation on which they settle through the mechanisms of dry and wet deposition .
Carried by wind and depending on wind speed and direction, these materials act as
pollutants to contaminate large areas. Furthermore, since the extracted materials like
coal are transported in bulk by ships, these pollutants also contaminate port areas
mainly during loading and unloading operations. Sea water is contaminated as a result
along with marine ecosystems .

257
B. Nath et al. (eds.), Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region, 257-270.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
258

An effective strategy to deal with the problem, aiming at reducing the environmental
impacts of such pollutants, comprises two distinct elements: (a) a study of how these
pollutants are transported and dispersed in air and water; and (b) the time it takes for
the recipient media (air and water) to self-cleanse themselves of these pollutants.

Accordingly, a study was undertaken to find a suitable methodology that could be em-
ployed to carry out climatic diagnoses and to predict the dispersion of these fine solid
pollutants in both air and water.

2. DEVELOPMENT OF A NUMERICAL MODEL FOR PROBLEM SOLUTION

As demonstrated in a number of earlier studies (Makarynskyy, 1995; Makarynskyy,

1998a; Makarynskyy and Makarynska, 1996), modelling of wind conditions using sta-
tistical-probabilistic methods permits the use of climatic information as well as the
simulation of the variability of wind fields that approximate to the real wind conditions
in terms of the key statistical parameters. Therefore , these methods can be employed
to predict the transportation and diffusion of the dust clouds under different climatic
conditions .

The study of the climatic conditions commences with the creation of a new database of
wind characteristics over the region of interest. A new database is needed because in-
formation available in the literature is not sufficiently detailed for the purpose, and,
consequently, it is practically useless for wind modelling. Furthermore, the following
information has to be included in the database : recurrence of each meteorological epi-
sode ; average and maximum duration of the meteorological episodes ; and the proba-
bility of transition of one type of episode to another.

In view of the above, it is necessary to develop a new method of analyzing meteorolo-

gical data for use in modelling studies, or alternatively and if possible, to upgrade
existing data and method . In this study we will use the ' eight-term' data on wind cha-
racteristics from the coastal synoptic stations in the following sequential order of pro-
cessing (Makarynskyy , 1995):

Y Reading of wind data encoded in the synoptic messages.

Y Re-coding of the data as per Table 1.
Y Calculation from the re-coded data of the probabilities of recurrence and transition
of each type of wind.
Y Calculation of the average duration of the episode of each type of wind and deter-
mination of the maximum continuous duration of each episode .
Y Finding average values of all the calculated statistical parameters by period and
standardising them for the purposes of modelling.
 259

Wind velocity and direction data in standard meteorological terms (i.e. in three-hourly
intervals) recorded during 1986-1991 were gathered from the synoptic station at the
Port of Odessa (Ukraine). They were processed using the proposed method of ana-
lysis. The purpose was to discover the common patterns in the wind conditions of the
region . Calculation of the regime characteristics was made for each month, each sea-
son and each climatic year . Data from this station were used for the first time in this
way to obtain the information required for the modelling study.

Table 1 Gradations of wind directions and velocities

and corresponding codes

Direction Code Velocity (mls) Code

North I 1-2 I
North-East 2 3-5 2
East 3 6-8 3
South-East 4 9-11 4
South 5 12-15 5
South-West 6 16-20 6
West 7 21-25 7
North-West 8 26-30 8
Calm 9 31-35 9

After re-coding, each item of data in the database was identified using a code number
corresponding to the synoptic episode with non-zero probability of occurrence. Since
the data in the database are totally random, the Monte-Carlo method (MCM) was used
to define their order. For this two main stages were realized consistently using the
MCM : definition of the type of episode and its number , and definition of the type of
action of the chosen type . Each element of the database was assigned a number within
the range of 1.. .. .Nm (total number of the types) .

Values P; denoting recurrence (Table 2) and transition probability (Table 3) were

standardized so that the sum of the elements of each row of the database was equal to
unity . P; here is considered as the probability of the episode with current occurrence
number of n. Thus, the definition of the episodic code number reduces to finding the
discrete random value n. For this it is necessary to obtain a random number, a, using a
procedure that generates equally distributed random numbers within the range of 0 to
1; to calculate the current number of type n from the following inequalities;

n-I n n-I
l:Pk < a s: l:Pk or 0 < a - l: Pk s pn (1)
k=1 k= l k= 1

and to determine the digit code of the type in question. These inequalities always make
sense because
260

Table 2 Recurrence (R%), averaged (A%) and maximum (M) duration of wind action in hours

Velocity gradation (mls)

Direction Characteristic 1-2 3-5 6-8 9-1 I 12-15 16-20 21-25
R
~ _· ' · "' * " * _ * "~_ ··"' M " * _"
1.60
" * _ '·_ ·· __M'_ _
5.10
. *_.. . .. _-*.. ._*.- ·_._·*._*"__.. H· . .. _ _. " _ "
4.70 1.40 _._.M._··..·.··___"_".....·····
0.40 __ .. _ · ••• _ _ _ · ~· _ .. _ _ "H _ _ •

N * .•_-
A ...*_... .....*-_.*_. 4.00 .._._._.*. 5.00 ...
_ . ~ ._
6.00 5.00 .•......_._2.00 *.*.M._*.._._...• ...... . * *_._____..__
.~ . * . _ _~ - * *-~ ._-
•• • _M ..

M IS 27 5I 33 51
R 0.50
......._ -...*-_..._.._- 1.40 2.00 0.80
.•...._.. _......·_·*._M .... _.....
0.10 -_......._. ..__.... ................
.* -.•._ ........ ,....

NE · . _*.. . A. *_·_."._*.*. 2.00*_._.-*._*.__..._

___.
*.*.~_ ·. · ·_. *_M.•
3.00 ..__.*.__..
..... -- * ,,* _ .... HM .
4.00 .H_._..2.00
.............._._.__. ...._...._-_ 1.00 ..._..__.. .. _."M_.........._...._....._. _ .. _ - -_ .... _ .•. ..•.• • *

M IS 15 30 24 IS
.. ............... ....
*-~
R•.•._......
~~~~ _.... 1.50 .•._.._...... .•_....4.20
_~.~ ._ - ~ . _........._.•. ..•.- ....
~-~ _~
. ~ ~
3.40 1.60 _~
0.30
...._.........._....... ..._... .._....... __ ...._....... _..._.. ...._....... O.....10.._......_.. ..._......__.._.....
-~ _
E ~. _ ... ..~~
A
~-- -- ~- ~ -~--~" ~ _ ._.~-~"~
..... 3.00 5.00 .. ~ ...
~ _. ~ _._--~ _. ~ .~._ ~ ~ _ . _ ~ . ~ -~
5.00 ~
4.00
__
._~ . ._ ._ .~ .•.
.
2.00
_ . _ ~ . - _ . ....
~ _

.._1.00
- ~ .

.. ~ _ . ~. ~ ._... ~

~ .~
.... ~_ . _ - - -~.~ .-
_ -_ _. _ ~

M 12 24 48 54 24 IS
.. .. .. .... R
~-~ ~-~ ... ....__...
~_ ~_ ~
2.70 .......7.50
.. ...... .... _..__.....
_.~._-~_ _........... _._....- .. .~._
4.10 0.30 ...... .......... 0.10_....... _......._........
0.03 ....... .._......._............

SE -_...._..... .._....A.... .. .... ...._- ...4.00 ._._.... 5.00

. ...... 5.00 2.00
............ .. ... ._........1.00 ....__....... .. _._.._....... 1.00 ......._- .. ...._......._-......
.
.
~_._~ ~ . _ _._~H ~" ~ . ~-" ~ _~ ~_
_. ~ - - ~ _ _ ~ ~

M 12 30 27 18 IS 3
H~ . . .._..... . R................ ..._.... ._..• 3.00
~_~ ·_~ ~_
.. ...._....._- .......__6.30
_ ._ ~
..... __....._.
~ ~-_
2.30 0.10 0.05
...._..... _._-~ .... ...._.... .. _ ._

... . _. ~ - _

...
.
~ ~-- _ _. _. _ ~ _ .

~ - -- ~--_ ._ ~

S -_....._-... ..__.._A _ ~__ __.._-_._- ..__4.00

. _~ _ . ~
.__
.
5.00
.. ...._.. 5.00 .....1.00
. ...._..... .. ._.._....1.00 ......_..... .. _.............._.. ......_. .
.
.
---~ ~ ._ ~ ~ ~- " ~
~ ~ ~ _~ ~_ .
- .~.~ ._
~_ ._--~ - --

M 18 36 24 6 3
_......_.......__._._.......R .............__._._...._._.. _ 1.20
......... __..__...... ._._._....1.20.._--_ ..__._.- 0.20 0.07 .--.._._""-_.. ....-'" .. ........... ..•..._.. .. ..........._....... ~_ ._
_~ ._ _~_ ._
_ ~. ~. _

SW A...._....__ ...._...._.... ... .......

........._....._..................
3.00 _..... ·_. . 3.00 . .....·_.. 1.00 ..1.00
_.. .. .. . . .. ........ ... .. .......__..
.
~
~._ _-~ - - ~ . ~ ~ _~ H ~ ~_ H~
~- ~ ~_.~ ~_ ._~ ~ ~ ~ H~ _ ·_~_~~~_ ._ . _~
..~ ~._ ~ _~.~- ~ _ .

M 9 9 6 3
R
......................._......._......._......_......... .._.......
3.80
... _.._......_.... .....10.90 .. ..•..
5.90 .. 1.80 . ... . .0.30 __ . _0.02 _......__ .... _.__ .......
.
.
_-~ ~--~_ ~ -- - ~ · _ H~. _~._~ ~ _ ~_.~ ·

W _.._.. _ ~ - ..... A
_. ~ - ~ ~ .......__
. ~ .~._~,--_

.. 4.00 ..5.00
....._....... .. .._...
.~

~ ~ _ ._~-- ~ " ~ _ .~
-~ ~ _~ ~ _
5.00 5.00 ....._-........... 2.00 _..... .. .._. --.... 1.00 .... ~ -~ _ _ ~ _~ - _ ._ . _ .~-

M 15 27 30 33 12 6
R
........ .•.. .... .... .. ...... .... 1.70 . ..._. 5.00 4.50 I .70 0.50 . ·_·__0.04 . __ .. _0.01 _ ..-
_
.
_
.
~_ . _ ~ H ~ _._~
._~ ~. _ · _ · · ~ ~H

~. .~---_

NW A
.... - ..._. ... .... _......_......._..._.. ... _.._. ............._.. .
4.00 "
5.00.......__.. 6.00 ....__6.00
._.._... .•....._.. " ..3.00
..._._.. ....
_~

-_.... ....
1.00 ...__1.00
.__.._........._.
~-~ _._~-- _ . ~

M 18 27 33 24 24 6 3
.... .... ... R.... .. .•. .... 6.40.. ...._.......
_
.
~
.
~
.
.
_ ~ ~ _ .~ ~ .

Calm -~ .... .... ... A .._.. __.- .... 5.00

_~._ ~ _. ~ _ .~ .~-~ _ .._......._...._._.
_._~ . _~"

M 36

Tabl e 3 Probab ility (%) of change of wind direction

N NE E SE S SW W NW Calm
._N__
~. ~ . _ ._ . ~ _ ~ _ ~ .
55.7
_·'H"__ "_~. ~ ""_
6.0.
. ~ _.~.~ ._ ~ ~_ ~ _ .. ._ 4.5
_~.~ .~ ._ . _ ._ _ 5.2 l.l _~"~
0.4 _.~H~_ . _ ~. ... 6.7
__.__
~. ~ _ . ~ . .~_~ ...
18.4
__ _
._~ __ 1.9 _~. . _ ~ H ~ __
NE _ __
.._ _ ~ ._~ .~- _
23.1 _~ .~- ~ .. .. ~
42.1
.. ..•.
~ - ~ _~ ._- - _-..18.9
- _ . - ._- -~ . .
6.0 2.3 0.1..
..~". _ ~ ._. _ ~ ~_ . _ ~ -~
1.2..
_ . _-~ ~~"._ - _..-_ _ _._.._- 2.7
3.3
E _ ..
..._._ _.~ _~ ~"~ -
7.8
_ ~ _. ~ . ~ _ . ~ .~. - _._5.4.. _~ ~_. .. .. _63.7
._--_ _~ .. -_
14.1 _-~-_.... ~._-_
3.4
_--~. _ ..0.4
.._ _ -
~ ~_ -~ _2.1 ~_.~ ._
0.5
_ _- __.. 2.6__ -~ . ~ ._ -~ ._ .

SE 1.9 0.6 22.8 50.9 15.2 0.8 2.3 0.8 4.6

:$:::_:::::: -0:6-- ---i:-4---::::: ~I::: j~~Q::: :I~~I:: :: :: Iz=:::::I~::= --- 11~2---- -- --4ji-----
SW 0.8 0.1 1.9 3.5 10.5 19.5 30.7 30.0 2.8
Vi -- --------'- i 4- 0.4 ----1".4---- '-i 4---' ----1":6--' ---- i-i---- 7i o----·- ---14~-5-- - ---'--i-i-----
:_RW::::::.•.:::~II:: 0.6 - - -2~o- - - -T5-- - 0.7 I l -i6.T--:·:jII : -----z:T----
Calm 4.8 2.1 11.2 15.4 8.4 3.3 16.9 5.3 32.5
 261

n-l Nm
'l:>k S; I if n < Nm , LPk= (2)
k= l k=l

After selecting the episode it is necessary to determine the duration of its action . In the
database data on duration include two characteristics for each type of episode : average
duration b and the maximum duration c. It is assumed that the duration of the action of
a meteorological episode is random too, so that the procedure for its modelling redu-
ces to the following relationship :

r ~abc, when a s; '!.-

X=~l c-~(1-a)(c-b)c, when c a > ~b (3)

The value of x, given by equation (3), represents continuous duration of the type of
action under consideration.

Further modelling is carried out involving the transition probability data contained in
the database . The algorithm for calculating the code number of a new episode is also
based on the inequalities (1) (Makarynskyy, 1998b).

In the process of calculation a given episodic number can repeat itself. In such cases,
and providing that the episode remains unchanged, the entire continuous duration of
the episode in question is taken into account. Actions that occur during the episode are
limited by the time of the maximum continuous duration, and a number for the next
episode is selected from the transition probability accessed from the database .

These calculations have to be performed for each synoptic station from which data
were obtained with respect to the probability of different wind episodes occurring si-
multaneously. Thus, in each time-step a set of spatially variable wind vectors were
simulated. It was not difficult to simulate a model wind field over the area under consi-
deration using different methods of extrapolation and interpolation.

The model was verified using data accessed from the database . The results of verifi-
cation (not presented) showed that the model could predict the distribution of both
recurrence and transition probabilities of different wind types for the duration of the
climatic year (and also by months) fairly well and close enough to the real distribution .
The statistical structure of the regime characteristics was obtained by repeating the
procedure used for modelling wind conditions.

Thus the modelling approach adopted was capable of simulating climatic fields with
different and changing hydro-meteorological characteristics . These fields were time-
dependent as well as heterogeneous in space. Consequently, it was possible to calcu-
262

late the levels of air pollution in different parts of the area under investigation . Further-
more, if the fractional composition of the dust in the clouds is known, it is possible for
the model to calculate where each fraction will precipitate onto the surface of soil or
water.

The algorithm described above can also be used for simulating water currents. But this
would be contingent upon the availability of continuous data on current velocity and
direction in the region of interest. However, if such data are not available, variable cli-
matic wind field data can be used in hydrodynamic modelling as a free-surface boun-
dary condition to estimate the level of water pollution.

After obtaining information on the dynamic characteristics of the basin under consi-
deration , it would be necessary to determine the parameters of pollutant diffusion. This
can also be done by using the Monte-Carlo method which incidentally obviates some
of the limitations that are implicit in the use of different hypotheses for the closure of
the governing equations of motion .

The main feature of the method is the modelling of the movements of discrete parti-
cles. In the model each particle travels a certain distance in each time-step , il t. The
projection, (il x £, of the movement of particle k on axis (X) during a time-step can
j )

be described by the expression

j j j
(Ax , h =Vj M+(l] j h, (4)

(i =1,2,3; j =l ,....N, ; k =l ,...,N ),

in which vI denotes the projection of the current velocity vector onto axis X, for
time-step t. (I] d denotes random increment; N, the number of time-steps; and N the
j

number of particles .

The first term in equation (4) defines particle movement under the influence of average
field of currents, while the second term determines the movement under the influence
of random pulsation of the velocity field. (I] j ) £ is considered to have a random value
defined as

(5)

in which the values of Yk are equally but randomly distributed within the range of a to

1; K/ is the coefficient of turbulent diffusion at time-step j. The value of this

coefficient can be estimated theoretically or preferably from experimental field data .
 263

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Description ofthe test basins and otherinformation usedin modelling

The model described above was employed to study the diffusion behaviour of the par-
ticulate cloud for the following basin configurations :

(a) A rectangular basin with one fluid open boundary (Figure 1).
(b) A triangular basin with one open boundary and an internal obstacle (Figure 2).
(c) Real configuration of the Odessa Trade Port (OTP) with complex hydro-technical
structures located within its boundary (Figure 3).

All the basins were II m deep, just as the OTP basin. Item (c) above was selected as a
practical example of a highly polluted basin contaminated with a variety of solid subs-
tances of different chemical composition that occur in different concentrations. Usually
pollution of the basin occurs during loading and unloading of ships when mostly parti-
culate substances are released to the atmosphere in large quantities as dust clouds.
Depending on weather conditions , the particulate materials precipitate onto the water
through the mechanisms of dry and/or wet deposition . As a result, the water becomes
polluted in a relatively short period of time, more or less uniformly throughout the 11
m depth of the basin.

Considering that pollutant concentration can be time-dependent, five different model

experiments were carried out for each of the basins described in (a) to (c) above using
different time frames.

The total amount of the pollutants deposited to water was calculated on the basis of
the frequency of discharges resulting from loading/unloading operations. In the experi-
ments the time-interval of discharges was set at 200, 300, 400, 600 and 800 seconds.
In all cases the total duration of loading/unloading operations was taken as 12 hours,
which is also the duration of the working day at the OTP.

In the case of (a) above the pollution source was located exactly opposite to the centre
of the open boundary . In the case of (b) and (c), on the other hand, it was located as
far away as possible from the open boundary , reflecting the regular location of ships
discharging at the OTP as shown typically in Figure 3(a).

Wind fields, used in the experiments as the free-surface condition, were simulated by
the climatic regime characteristics of the month of January. This central winter month
was chosen because the waters in the north-western part of the Black Sea undergo
maximum mixing before and during this month. The climatic characteristics were cal-
culated from wind data recorded at the meteorological station at the Port of Odessa.
Currents were modelled using the equations of the Shallow Water Theory (Liu and
Leendertse, 1978; Makarynskyy and Tuchkovenko, 1995). The value of the coefficient
264

15

5
o
5 10 15 20

5 10 15 20

15 cY
0
>J c
o

, ,
5 10 15 20
Figure I Pollutant distribution in the rectangular basin obtained from the first series of model
tests . (A) initial distribution; (B) after 50% self-cleansing; and (C) after 95% self-cleansing.
 265

201

IS'

A
10
I
5

5 10 15 20

5 10 15 20
20
1
15

I ~ / C
/ -
101 0

5 10 15 20

Figure 2 Pollutant distribution in the triangular basin obtained from the second series of
tests. (A) initial distribution; (B) after 50% self-cleansing ; and (C) after 95% self-eleansing.
266

5 10 15 20

5 10 15 20

20

15
y~
S)
C
10

5 jj

5 10 15 20

Figure 3 Pollutant distribution in the OTP basinobtained fromthe third series of model
tests. (A) initial distribution; (B) after 50% self-cleansing; and (C) after 95% self-cleansing.
 267

of horizontal turbulent diffusion, K/in equation (5), was taken as 10 m' S- I based on
experimental data obtained from drifting indicators in the Odessa Bay (Makarynskyy
and Cisil, 1994). Spatial steps along the x- and y-axes were taken as 50 m, while the
time-step used was equal to lOs (Makarynskyy and Makarynska, 1996).

3.2 Results ofmodel tests

Three stages of idealized pollutant distribution were chosen for analysis in each of the
three cases, namely (a), (b) and (c) in 3. 1. The first stage was actually the initial stage
when concentration of the pollutant was a maximum. Case (A) refers to this stage in
Figures 1, 2 and 3. In this stage the difference between pollutant release rate and
pollutant dispersion rate was greatest, thus leading to maximum pollutant accumula-
tion and concentration in the basins.

The second stage was defined by the condition of 50 percent self-cleaning of the
basins. That is, when 50 percent of the total amount of pollutants released to water
was dispersed out of the basin boundary under consideration . Case (B) in Figures 1, 2
and 3 refers to this condition. The time taken for 50 percent self-cleansing varied signi-
ficantly depending on climatic condition and other factors. Similarly the third stage, to
which (C) in Figures 1, 2 and 3 refers, was defined by 95 percent self-cleansing.

The time it took to achieve 50 or 95 percent self-cleansing was found to depend on

basin configuration. For 50 percent self-cleansing the time taken was 54 hours for the
rectangular basin, 36 hours for the triangular basin, and 18 hours for the OTP basin.
These variations can be explained by differences in the area of the basins. As the rect-
angular basin had the largest area of water surface, it took the maximum time of 54
hours for 50 percent self-cleansing (Figure I(B)) . At the other extreme the OTP basin
which had the smallest area, the time taken was only 18 hours (Figure 3 (B)).

The 50 percent self-cleaning time for each basin was found to vary with the time inter-
val between successive pollutant discharges. For all the three series of the numerical
experiments performed , the time taken for 50 percent self-cleansing was found to
decrease with increasing time interval between successive pollutant discharges. In
general, the relationship between self-cleaning time and the time interval between suc-
cessive discharges can be expressed approximately by the equation

in which Pd denotes time interval between pollutant discharges in seconds ; T, denotes

time needed for 50 or 95 percent self-cleaning in hours; and a; and be are empirical
constants . From regression analysis the respective values of these constants for 50 per-
cent self-cleansing were found to be as follows: - 0.0 11 and 55.7 for the rectangular
basin; - 0.007 and 37.0 for the triangular basin; and - 0.005 and 18.5 for the OTP
268

basin. The respective values for 95 percent self-cleansing were : - 0.045 and 167.2 for
the rectangular basin; - 0.014 and 70.9 for the triangular basin; and - 0.008 and 33.7
for the OTP basin.

The time taken to reach 95 percent self-cleansing (third stage) can be considered to be
the time needed for complete self-cleansing of the basin by hydrodynamic processes.
Because, after that time only an insignificant amount of the polluting substances re-
mained either in the remote parts of the basin or trapped between obstacles within the
basin boundary . Also, the time taken for self-cleaning was found to depend directly on
the area of the basin under consideration . Consequently and as we might have expec-
ted, values of the constants, a, and be, for the third stage were greater than their res-
pective values in the second stage .

3.3 Observations
The following observations are made from an analysis of the results obtained from the
model tests :

(a) For the wind conditions used in the model tests, the basin self-cleansing process
starts after the pollution release episode is complete. Prior to that time the concen-
tration of the polluting substances rises constantly.
(b) The time needed for self-cleansing depends on the water surface area of the basin
under consideration.
(c) The time needed for self-cleansing also depends on the concentration of substances
released to water.
(d) The relationship between self-cleansing time T, and the time interval between suc-
cessive pollutant discharges Pa can be expressed approximately by equation (6).

4. CONCLUDING REMARKS

The methodology we have presented in this paper is for simulating time-dependent

hydro-meteorological fields and for modelling the diffusion of polluting substances
using the Monte-Carlo method . As we have demonstrated , it can be used to obtain re-
liable estimates of the time that a given basin would take to self-cleanse itself of pollu-
tants at different concentrations. In principle the methodology presented is also valid
for basins of arbitrary configurations and climatic conditions. However, further studies
would be needed to confirm this.

To date the methodology has been used for studying the diffusion of pollutants in the
following ports : Kherson on the Dnipro River; Reni on the Danube River; Nikolaev on
 269

the Southern Black Sea; and Odessa and I1ichevsk seaports. In all cases dimensionless
results (coefficients of pollution) were obtained for idealized substance diffusion under
typical meteorological conditions. The results of these studies are currently being used
at those ports.

REFERENCES

Liu, S.K and Leendertse, 1.1 (1978), ' Multidimensional numerical modeling of estuaries and
coastal seas ' . Advances in Hydroscience, II , Academic Press, New York, pp. 95-164.
Makarynskyy, O.N (1995), 'On the question of wind situation statistical modeling',Meteoro-
logy, Climatology and Hydrology, No. 32, Midina, Odessa, pp. 37-50 (in Russian) .
Makarynskyy, O.N (1998a), 'On the usage ofprobabilico-statistical approach to computation
of pollutant diffusion on the basis of climatic data ' . Extended Synopses, in Proc. Interna-
tional Symposium on Marin e Pollution, Monaco, 5-9 October, pp. 333-334 .
Makarynskyy O.N (l998b), ' On the problem of probabilico-statistical description of wind con-
ditions in the modeling of shelf aquatory pollution', Abstracts, NATO ASI 'Deposit and
Ceo-environmental Models f or Resource Exploitation and Environmental Security ', Sep-
tember 6-18, Matrahaza, Hungary, pp. 48-54 .
Makarynskyy, O.N and Cisil, S.Y (1994), ' Complex approach to research on hydrodynamics
in the region of the Odessa Bay' , SCientific Works of VlNITI, No. 10 (264), Moscow, p.19
(in Russian)
Makarynskyy , O.N and Makarynska, D.G (1996), 'The influence of the water environment' , in
Environmental Impact Assessment ofthe Mineral Fertilizers and Cereal Cargoes Reload-
ing Process in the Odessa Sea Trade Port, Publication of the Southern Scientific Research
Institute for the Black Sea Fleet, Odessa, pp. 38-49 (in Russian).
Makarynskyy, O.N and Tuchkovenko, J.S (1995), ' On the question on the usage of the proba-
bilico-statistical method of wind conditions variability imitation in the applied problems of
ecology' , Meteorology, Climatology & Hydrology, No. 32, Odessa: Midina, pp. 215-224
(in Russian).
270

"The great nations have always acted like

gangsters, and the small nations like prostitutes. "

Stanley Kubrick
The Guardian. 5 June 1963
 URBAN WASTE MANAGEMENT IN ROMANIA - A CASE
STUDY IN IASI CITY
ALEXEI ATUDOREI
Research and Engineering Institute for En vironment, Splaiul Independentei 294, Sector 6,
77703 Buchar est, Romania.

ABSTRACT

This paper is concerned with the status of urban solid waste management in Romania with reference to
legislation, the National Environmental Action Plan, and other germane issues.

Discussion begins with the current state of affairs with particular reference to the Waste Inventory of
1997. Based on it, key national data on domestic, industrial, agricultural and hazardous waste are pre-
sented along with key data on recycling and reuse. The current status of urban waste management is
then discussed at length along with existing and emerging legislation. It is argued that the problem of
urban waste can be alleviated only through the upgrading of the existing landfills that were poorly
constructed and have been improperly managed, and through formulating and rigorously enforcing
necessary laws and regulations .

The paper concludes with a description of the integrated urban waste management project proposed for
the City of lasi. It is argued that, if properly implemented , this project would not only serve the local
community well , but also act as a model to be emulated by the other municipalities in Romania to alle-
viate their growing problem of urban waste.

Keywords: Romania ; Iasi: domestic; industrial ; hazardous; solid; waste; management.

1. INTRODUCTION

Romania is an eastern European country with a population of 22.5 million, of which

about 56 percent lives in urban settlements. In common with the region's other econo-
mies in transition, Romania's transition to free-market economy has brought about
temporary economic decline as reflected by the key indicators of macroeconomic
performance. And this is the main reason why Romania is at present not in a position
to allocate necessary financial resources to deal effectively with a variety of serious
and growing environmental problems besetting the country .

In Romania, as elsewhere, there are two main anthropogenic sources of environmen-

tal pollution - ' point' and' non-point' . The point sources usually refer to identifiable
and concentrated sources of pollution mainly in the industrial and agricultural sectors
such as factories emitting smoke, wastewater, etc. Non-point sources are, on the other
hand, diffuse sources that lack a focal point and are distributed spatially, usually over

271
B. Nath et al. (eds.), Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region. 271-284.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers .
272

large areas. Agricultural pollutants such as synthetic fertilisers and pesticides carried
by surface waters are a typical example of a non-point source of pollution.

In Romania all tasks relating to the monitoring of environmental pollution are orga-
nised at the national level. The facilities for this include a supervisory network for the
monitoring of environmental quality and for the collection of data on pollutant emi-
ssion and transmission as well as for the storage and processing of such data . Data
transmission is the responsibility of the local Dispatcher Centre under the auspices of
the Ministry of Waters, Forests and Environmental Protection (MWFEP) . A ' fast' and
a 'slow' track are used as necessary for the transmission of environmental data and
information. Usually the fast track is used to deal with environmental emergencies
and disasters, and the slow track for the purposes of normal, day-to-day environmen-
tal management.

It was through the work of the above-mentioned monitoring network that more than
25 localities in the country have so far been identified as environmental ' hot-spots' .
These include Zlatna, Copsa Mica, Baia Mare, Ploiesti, Iasi, Bacau, Tg. Mures and
Govora. Each of these hot-spots is characterised by one or more type of pollution that
poses serious threat to both health and the environment.

However, a growing and serious problem in both urban and rural areas of Romania is
that of solid waste - its proper management and safe disposal in particular. Accord-
ing to the 'Strategy for Environmental Protection (SEP)' of the MWFEP, at present
the major aspects of this problem refer to the following :

y It is only recently that there has been concern in Romania about the safe and pro-
per disposal of solid waste and recycling . It is now acknowledged in the highest
circles that industrial wastes impact negatively on the environment by polluting
all three environmental compartments, namely air, water and soil. And that muni-
cipal waste, especially from the urban areas, can pose serious threat to both health
and the environment unless it is properly managed in terms of collection, storage,
treatment and final disposal.

Y At present top priority is to be given to the proper management and safe disposal
of domestic solid waste . However, current arrangements for the collection, trans-
portation and final disposal of such wastes is grossly inadequate to say the least .
Consequently, such wastes are dumped haphazardly almost anywhere and every-
where without any control or supervision, and this is posing serious threat to both
health and the environment. Subject to the socio-economic conditions and cons-
traints of the country, well-designed and regulated landfills are needed to address
this serious problem .

y The methods and procedures used for monitoring solid waste should be improved
in order to enhance confidence in the reported data. At present such data lack reli-
ability and inspire little confidence.
 273

Y Although industrial wastes account for about 60 percent of solid waste generated
in Romania, at present there is little reliable information on the type or composi-
tion of such wastes, or on the precise modalities of their final disposal. Targeted
programmes should be developed and implemented to address this deficiency .

2. WASTE INVENTORY DATA FOR ROMANIA IN 1997

A systematic waste inventory was organised in Romania in 1994. Since then there has
been a steady improvement in the quality of both collected and processed data achie-
ved through the country's integrated environmental monitoring system. It would be
instructive to examine some of the key data on solid waste taken from that inventory.

2.1 Key national solid waste data

According to that inventory, in 1997 the total quantity of solid waste generated in the
whole country was 217.5 million tonnes, which was considerably less than that gene-
rated in 1996 (Table I) . This decrease was due to much reduced economic activities,
mining activities in particular . The main categories of waste generated in 1997 were
(in million tonnes) : industrial waste (209; about 96%); ashes (6; about 3%); and agri-
cultural waste (2.7; about 1.2%).

2.2 Key industrial, agricultural and hazardous solid waste data

According to the inventory, the main categories of industrial and agricultural waste
generated in Romania in 1997 were (in million tonnes) : mining waste (169.8); ashes
(11.2); metallurgical waste (4.7); industrial sludge (3.4); and chemical waste (2.6).
The chemical waste contained cleaning sludge from agriculture and food industries
(2.6%); metallic waste (2.0%); and manure (1.5%).

Classified according to the List of Hazardous Wastes of the EC (Council Decision no.
94/904) and the European Catalogue of Waste (Commission Decision no. 94/3/1993),
that are adopted in Romania for statistical reporting, 1.7 million tonnes of Hazard-
dous waste were produced in the country in 1997.

The main categories of hazardous waste generated in 1997 were (in thousand tonnes)
phos-phogypsum (215); organic chemical waste (101); residual alkaline solutions
(64); tars (25); lead (23); clinical waste (5); petroleum waste (2); and asbestos (0.7).

2.3 Key data on urban waste

Total urban waste generated in 1997 was about 6 million tonnes, broken-down as (in
million tonnes) : domestic waste and waste generated by economic enterprises (4.5);
274

street waste (0.7); sludge from wastewater treatment plants (0.6); and others (0.2).
Table 1 shows changes in the amounts of urban waste generated during 1995-1997.

Table 1 Per capita urban waste generatedin Romania (1995-1997)

Urban waste Domestic waste
Year kg/year kg/day kg/year kg/day
1995 300 0.82 186 0.51
1996 304 0.83 194 0.53
1997 263 0.72 203 0.56

2.4 Key data on reuse, recycling andfinal disposal ofwaste

In 1997 only 5.5 percent of the total solid waste generated in Romania was reused and
recycled . Of this 47 percent was reused by the producers themselves; 27 percent by
other economic enterprises; 5 percent by the specialised state enterprise (REMAT);
and 21 percent was reused through trade operations by selling . The main categories of
waste that were reused or recycled were glass, ferrous and non-ferrous metals, paper
and cardboard, organic materials, textiles and wood .

In Romania landfilling continues to be the favoured disposal opt ion for solid wastes.
In 1997 a total of202.5 million tonnes were disposed to landfills, representing 93 per-
cent of all solid waste generated in the country in that year. The break-down of waste
disposed to landfills was as follows : 93 percent of all industrial waste; 23 percent of
all agricultural waste; and 90 percent of all urban waste .

There are about 1000 landfill sites in Romania occupying an area of more than 11,000
ha. Eighty-five percent of the sites are located outside of the settlements, while 23
percent are improperly located on river banks. Only 11 percent of the sites have envi-
ronmental permits.

At present only a small proportion of the waste, only from some industries and hospi-
tals, is incinerated. The total quantity of waste incinerated in 1997 was only about 0.3
million tonnes .

3. URBAN WASTE MANAGEMENT IN ROMANIA

3.1 Some salient aspects ofurban waste management

Current methods and practices of urban waste management, as well as legislation and
regulations, fall far short of what is needed to address the serious and growing envi-
ronmental problems of Romania that have serious implications for both health and the
environment. In particular, inadequate legislation , lax enforcement of existing regula-
 275

tion, improper management oflandfill sites, and low level of public participation have
been identified as the main causes of the poor state of urban waste management in
Romania . The two aspects discussed below are especially relevant to the context.

(A) Inadequate legislation

Romanian legislation on urban waste management had many gaps as wel1 as missing
standards and norms with regard to final disposal. At present there are some legal acts
referring to the disposal of urban waste, while the development and implementation
of legislation on domestic waste continues to be an on-going and evolutionary pro-
cess. Inadequacy of the existing financial mechanisms and lack of funds are mainly to
blame for the fact that the problem of urban waste management has not been accorded
the priority it deserves . Hence the inadequacy of legislation .

(B) Improper management oflandfil1 sites

Except for the seven incineration plants in Romania with a combined capacity of 5
tonnes of urban waste per hour, landfil1ing is the main option for the final disposal of
urban waste . But most of the landfil1s are poorly constructed and improperly mana-
ged. The main reasons for their improper management are discussed below .

Societal attitude and insuffici ent inspection: there are two main reasons for this. First,
working in landfil1s is regarded by society as a low or very low type of job, fit only
for people with a low or very low level of education . The second reason is that of in-
sufficient inspection. Because the landfil1 sites are not properly constructed to high
technical specifications, they are not considered to be environmentalIy sound by the
inspectors who also realise that improvements cannot be made overnight. Thus, their
only concern is to ensure that the so-cal1ed 'Compliance Programme' is respected by
those using the landfil1s. General lack of interest of staff and the low level of their sa-
laries are also responsible for insufficient inspection.

Inappropriate equipment: proper landfil1 management is contingent upon efficient

and reliable waste collection, sorting and transportation. But even these relatively
simple tasks cannot be performed properly and reliably because proper equipment
including modern trucks is not available, and/or because available equipment is not
used properly . Also, since the landfills had not been constructed with impermeable
barriers, in many parts of the country groundwater is being contaminated by urban
waste disposed to landfills .

Lack ofaccess roads and insuffi cient landfill capacity: in many cases access roads to
landfills are absent , or they are grossly inadequate if present. Furthermore, with rising
amounts of waste going to landfil1s due increased production and consumption, avail-
able landfill capacity is diminishing at an increasing rate, and this is exacerbating the
problem of disposal.
276

Improper disposal of hazardous waste: because waste is not separated at source, all
kinds of hazardous waste such as batteries, mercury lamps, etc. are disposed to land-
fills along with other kinds of waste, notably domestic waste.

Low level ofpublic participation: there is considerable public apathy to the manage-
ment of urban solid waste . At present public participation in decision-making is virtu-
ally non-existent, and there is little activity in the country for raising public awareness
of the need to manage urban waste in a sustainable manner. In this regard communi-
cation with the mass media is poor in the sense that it appears to have little effect in
terms of educating the public or raising public awareness.

3.2 Environmental impacts

Current methods and practices of urban waste management in Romania are having in-
creasingly serious impacts on both health and the environment. Greatest impact is on
both surface and ground waters that are being contaminated not only by pollution cre-
ated in Romania, but also by trans-boundary pollution . The upshot of this is that the
environmental integrity of Romania is being relentlessly eroded along with people 's
quality of life and standard of living. Some of the major impacts arc discussed below.

Micro-biological contamination of surf ace and ground waters: in Romania there is

poor control of micro-organisms present in wastewater discharged into water bodies.
Responsible for causing diseases such as typhoid and cholera, micro-organisms can
also alter the taste and/or odour of drinking water and corrode structures made of con-
crete or metal. Prolific microbial growth can degrade the water quality of lakes. In-
adequate wastewater management and inefficient pre-treatment may cause micro-
biological contamination already reported from the Romanian towns of Sebes-Alba,
Alexandria and the Danube River Delta where there have been episodes of dysentery
and cholera. Improper disposal of wastewater, and especially latrines located near
drinking water wells, contaminates drinking water. Micro-biological contamination of
lakes and other water bodies can seriously diminish their recreational utility. There
have already been episodes of this kind near Bucharest. Micro-biological contamina-
tion of drinking water sources can also be caused by improperly designed and mana-
ged landfills, but so far there has been no reported episode of this kind in Romania .

Pollution caused by toxic substances: the main toxic substances that affect the envi-
ronment in Romania are heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Hg and Zn), cyanides and pesticides .
Heavy metals from industrial plants are discharged into rivers with little or no pre-
treatment. Wastewater treatment plants, if available in the area in question , do not eli-
minate heavy metals or cyanides using the traditional method of unit operation . Since
batteries, mercury, etc. are disposed to landfills along with other wastes, these heavy
metals as well as other hazardous substances disposed to landfills are contaminating
groundwater which is a major source of drinking water. Surface water is also being
contaminated by heavy metals in landfill leachate which is seldom collected properly
or disposed of safely . Synthetic fertilisers and pesticides are also a cause for much
 277

concern because of their potential for contaminating both ground and surface water
resources with serious implications for health.

Nutrient pollution: nitrogen and phosphorus, mainly in domestic waste or wastewater,

create serious problems in lakes and slow-moving water bodies that can ultimately
lead to their eutrophication. In many of the river abstraction schemes in Romania for
water supply, raw water is stored in reservoirs prior to treatment. Even low nutrient
contents (N and P) in the water can result in prolific growth of algae, thus making the
water much more difficult to treat than the original river water. It is worth pointing
out here that at present there is no municipal wastewater treatment plant in Romania
equipped with tertiary treatment facility for removing N or P.

To summarise, leachate from badly designed and poorly managed landfills - and
there are far too many of them in Romania - and wastewater (domestic and indus-
trial) is causing serious environmental damage in Romania, notably the following :

).- Contamination of both ground and surface water resources .

}- Diminishing the recreational utility of water bodies such as lakes .
}- Adverse impacts on aquatic life.
}- Creation of nuisances, mainly appearance and odour.
}- Hindrance to navigation caused by banks of deposited solids .

3.3 Implementation ofproper management of urban waste

In the light of the problems and issues discussed above, it is clear that priority must
be given to improving the current methods and practices of urban waste management.
For without it no meaningful improvement to the deteriorating situation could be real-
ised . In particular, ways and means must be found to upgrade, shut down or rehabi-
litate the existing landfills as necessary so that they would no longer pose a threat to
health or the environment.

To this end the role of proper and efficient waste collection and disposal cannot be
over-stated within the overall framework of proper urban waste management. The
tasks necessary for achieving this are described below.

Selective waste collection

By all accounts selective waste collection, or waste separation at source, is key to the
efficient and effective management of urban solid waste . Implementation of selective
waste collection in the Romanian context would entail the following :

).- A comprehensive appraisal of the present situation with particular regard to waste
composition, how the waste is disposed of, and public attitude to selective waste
collection.
278

y A feasibility study to assess the practical feasibility of selective waste collection

with particular regard to costs and benefits .

y Identification of the technical alternatives for selective waste collection, if any.

y Strategies for involving the public and other responsible bodies, including appro-
priate non-governmental organisations (NGOs) . Involving the public, and secur-
ing their enthusiastic support, is crucially important to the success of a selective
waste collection scheme . Also, the public should be offered a tangible incentive to
enhance their motivation for selective waste collection.

y Finance to be made available for the provision of multiple containers to house-

holds into which different kinds of waste (e.g. paper, textile, batteries, etc.) could
be placed separately .

y Effective strategies must be implemented for educating the public on the need for
and importance of separating waste at source.

y The public must have easy access to information on waste collection, transport-
ation and disposal.

Y Necessary infrastructure should be developed . The pre-collection system should

be developed or enlarged as necessary for the efficient collection of separated
waste from residential blocks and for their transportation.

The following actions are proposed for the above:

(a) Setting-up oftraining centres: such centres should be set up to train both house-
holders and responsible professionals on how to separate waste at source effici-
ently. They should be established in the major cities like Bucharest, Timisoara,
Cluj, Constanza and Iasi, or, alternatively , at local neighbourhoods where they
might be more effective .

(b) Equipment: multiple containers should be provided for the collection of sepa-
rated waste . Also, efforts should be made to increase the efficiency of waste
transportation. In particular, an assessment should be made of the existing fleet
of trucks, and ways and means should be sought for improving the efficiency of
their operation .

(c) Campaign for raising public awarene ss: dedicated programmes should be deve-
loped and implemented for this using information leaflets, posters, other audio-
visual aids, the mass media and public meetings. The purpose is to involve the
public and to inform them of the need to achieve even a modest degree of sus-
tainable solid waste management through waste separation. Such campaigns are
instrumental in exerting pressure on policy-makers to formulate and implement
more robust legislation for the proper management of solid waste.
 279

(d) Measures to facilitate the optimisation ofurban waste management

• Assessment of the status of urban waste management: the existing situation
should be assessed as precisely and comprehensively as possible to prepare a
reliable inventory of existing unit operations used for urban waste disposal
with a view to developing an optimum urban waste management regime .
• Introduction of appropriate measures to alleviate the environmental impacts
ofurban waste: this is necessary for realising the main environmental factors
that might be affected by urban waste management, and for determining how
those impacts could be alleviated by taking appropriate measures .
• Legal compliance: procedures and regulations to be applied for authorising
some of the economic activities should contain specific obligatory actions to
be taken for avoiding environmental damage that might be caused by those
activities .
• Development of measures in line with international legislation : international
legislation, especially ED legislation, should be considered when developing
measures for urban waste management. Rules governing the import and ex-
port of waste should be established, especially for hazardous wastes .
• Incentives: incentives should be offered to those that manage urban waste
properly in order to enhance motivation . In Romania, as elsewhere, coercive
measures may be less effective than encouraging measures.
• Educational programmes: appropriate educational programmes should be
implemented so that the public responds positively to actions to be taken for
the proper management of urban waste .
• Enf orcement of laws and regulations : laws and regulations on urban waste
management should be rigorously enforced through coercion or incentives.
At present such laws and regulations are being discussed in the Romanian
Parliament.
• Environmentally sound and economically viable measures to abate the envi-
ronmental impacts of existing landfills: existing landfills are not environ-
mentally safe mainly because they lack an impermeable layer to protect the
groundwater. Appropriate technical solutions should be sought for address-
ing this deficiency . Also, the exhausted landfills should be rehabilitated for
other land use.
• Dissemination ofexperience : some of the companies in Romania have achie-
ved good results and valuable experience of managing urban waste. A forum
or facility should be established for the dissemination of their experience to
the other companies and organisations that might benefit from it.
• Investment in urban waste management projects: determined efforts should
be made to attract foreign direct investment for such projects .
• Financial mechanisms for urban waste management: a review the current
mechanisms should be undertaken to assess their efficiency and effectiveness
280

and determined efforts should be made to revise them, or to put in place new
mechanisms based on coercion and incentives, if and as necessary.

3.4 Strategy and the National Environmental Action Programme

In response to the obligations incumbent upon all those involved in environmental
protection activities, in 1994 the MWFEP elaborated the 'Strategy for Environmental
Protection in Romania' (SEP) . SEP is required to observe both the targets established
at the national level and those that Romania is expected to observe by virtue of inter-
national conventions . The SEP defines the principal directions, targets and criteria
leading to the sustainable development of Romania under the conditions and cons-
traints of a transition economy with ambition for accession to the European Union.

Romania's National Environmental Action Programme (NEAP), which is linked to

the Action Programme for Environmental Protection in Central and Eastern Europe as
per the Lucerne Declaration of 1993, emanated from the SEP. The NEAP contains
concrete objectives and targets defined in terms of space, time and costs. It was elabo-
rated in 1996 by the MWFEP, and, after successive revisions to improve it, at present
it comprises about 300 different short- and long-term projects.

Both SEP and the NEAP address the problems of urban waste management among
many other environmental issues and problems.

4. A CASE STUDY IN IASI CITY, ROMANIA

4.1 New waste disposalfacilities and other relevant matters

Iasi City, located in the north-eastern part of Romania, is the capital of Iasi County.
Current population of the City is about 378,000, representing approximately 84 per-
cent of the total urban population of the County. Industry is a significant element of
the County's economy. Due to its proximity to an international border, there is also a
significant military presence in the County.

Iasi County, like the rest of Romania, is characterised by a number of serious and
growing environmental problems. The problem of urban waste management is consi-
dered to be of particular concern.

This case study refers to a major urban waste management project in Iasi City. It in-
volves the building of a new sanitary landfill and an incineration plant for municipal
solid waste that would ensure the controlled disposal of 150,000 tonnes of waste per
year. After their commissioning, it is estimated that these facilities would reduce the
total amount of pollutants discharged to water by about 10 percent and emissions to
the atmosphere by about 5 percent. In addition, it would allow the restoration of the
 281

old landfill site at Tomesti whereby it could be returned to other land use . Another
important aspect to be noted in this context is that the water supply and wastewater
treatment facilities are to be privatised, and, after their privatisation they would be
required to comply fully with relevant environmental laws and regulations in force.
This is expected significantly to contribute to improving the County's environment.

The project is considered to be extremely important for the implementation strategy

of the relevant ED Directives and Regulations, as well as for the National Plan for the
Adoption of the Acquis Communautaire in the medium-term . This refers to Directive
75/4421EEC amended by Directive 91/156/EEC (Framework Directive on Waste),
Directive 369/1989/EEC amended by Directive 429/19891EEC (Municipal Waste In-
cineration) and Directive 80/19861EEC (Groundwater and Dangerous Substances
Impact) .

Included in the NEAP, this project is given top priority in the list of priorities of the
working group on 'Waste Management, Urban Engineering & Transport'. The muni-
cipal authority of Iasi City is ready to start the project and to provide a co-funding of
50 percent. Total cost of the project is estimated at 8 million Euro of which 4 million
Euro is budgeted for the construction of the incinerator. As the first major and com-
prehensive urban waste management project in Romania, the project is expected to
serve as a 'pilot project' to be emulated by the other municipal authorities of the
country.

The project has to pay particular attention to wastewater treatment because the waste-
water generated in the County is discharged into the Frumoasa River which supplies
the Ciurbesti Lake whose volume is 2.15 million m' . The quality of the lake's water
is of third category surface water (STAS 4706/1988) suitable for recreation, fishing
and irrigation.

Implementation of the project will be in full compliance with standard PHARE proce-
dures. It will be managed by a Project Management Unit (PMU) at the MWFEP or at
the Ministry of Public Works . This would ensure that project management tasks are
performed, and management responsibilities discharged , efficiently and on time.

4 .2 Main outputs ofthe project

}- A controlled sanitary landfill, equipped with facility for recovering reusable and
recyclable waste as well as a waste incineration plant, that complies with the re-
quirements of public health and environmental protection .

}- Improved waste collection service and an intermediate disposal system for the
areas formerly served by the landfill that is now to be closed down.

y A system for monitoring the environmental impacts of the landfill and the incine-
rator on the environmental compartments (air, water and soil).
282

> Restoration of the old landfill site at Tomesti and its return to other land use.

> Transfer of technology and know-how from foreign experts to the local experts on
the operation and management of modern solid waste disposal facilities .

The project complies with the provisions of Romania 's Environmental Protection
Law 137/1995, Chapter IV, Article 64, paragraph (a) which stipulates that 'the central
environmental protection authority shall elaborate and promote the national environ-
mental strategy for sustainable development' . And Article 22 (Chapter II, Section 2)
which stipulates that the central environmental protection authority shall elaborate
regulations with regard to the following :

> Placement, management and supervision of different types of waste.

> Waste collection, processing, treatment, neutralisation as well as recycling of suit-
able waste fractions .
> Waste transportation.
> Restoration and recovery of the affected areas.
> Equipment for incinerating domestic, industrial, agricultural and other wastes .

4.3 Optionsfor the local authority

With regard to the precise configuration of the project, the local authority has three
different options to choose from, namely realisation of the project

> Without recovery of the reusable and recyclable waste fractions but without the
incineration facility .
> With recovery of the reusable and recyclable waste fractions to be delivered to the
Iasi County Society for Reusable Waste Recovery (REMAT).
;... With recovery of the reusable and recyclable waste fractions and with the incine-
ration facility.

Clearly, the particular option to be chosen would be determined mainly by the amount
of available finance and long-term plan for urban solid waste management. It is also
clear that the cost of building the landfill would be determined by its planned service
life and technical specifications. These options and their respective costs and benefits
are currently under discussion and evaluation.

5. CONCLUDING REMARKS

In common with the other transition economies of the region, Romania is beset with a
wide range of growing and serious environmental problems, most of which owe their
 283

origins to the country's erstwhile Socialist past. The impacts of these problems are
becoming increasingly serious, while their alleviation is proving to be difficult and
even intractable because of a number of reasons that are in the main socio-economic
as well as societal. But appropriate measures must be taken now in order to arrest, or
reverse if possible, these impacts in the interests of protecting both health and envi-
ronmental integrity.

Proper and safe management of the mounting volumes of urban solid waste is consi-
dered a priority in Romania . But the development and implementation of policies and
technologies is being thwarted by shortage of funds and, perhaps more importantly,
by public apathy and public attitude to waste management. Clearly, effective and ima-
ginative programmes are needed as a matter of priority to educate the public on the
need for proper and safe management of solid waste with a view to achieving at least
a modest degree of sustainability .

The proposed integrated urban waste management project in lasi City, which com-
prises a sanitary landfill, an incinerator, and reuse and recycling facilities (albeit as
options), holds out much promise for alleviating the growing problem of urban solid
waste management in Romania . Its successful completion and operation , it is hoped,
would serve as a model to be emulated by the other municipalities in Romania .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MWFEP (1996) , Environmental Strategy in Romania, Ministry of Water, Forests and Envi-
ronmental Protection , Government of Romania , Bucharest, Romania .
MWFEP (1998), State of the Environment in Romania, Ministry of Water, Forests and Envi-
ronmental Protection, Government of Romania, Bucharest, Romania.
284

"All that is opulent and glorious in creation

sp rings fro m but a spark oj My splendour. "
Text 41, chapter 10, of the Bhagavad-Gita

" What right have we, mere mortal s, to exploit and

destroy that which we cannot create or restore
and much of which we do not even understand ."

An observation by Julius Robert Oppenheimer

on thc above tex t
 PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF SUSTAINABLE SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT IN ROMANIA

AURELIU LECA . MIHAl MANOLIU and GABRIEL-P AUL NEGREANU

UNESCO Chair ofEngineering Sciences, Poly technic University ofBucharest,
3 13 Splaiul Indepen dentei, Sec tor 6. 77206 Bucharest. Romania.
E-Mail: negreanu({/ieeee.uncsca.pub.ro

ABSTRACT

Th is paper presents the current situation in Romania with regard to solid waste manag ement. Focusing
on the main strategies being adopted by the developed countries in their efforts to alleviate the serious
and growing problem of solid waste . recent developments in Romania in solid waste management are
discu ssed by making comparisons where appropriate with the developed countries.

The main strategies of waste minimisation, recycling and reuse , collection, transportation, processing
and final disposal are discussed from the point of view of their technical efficiency and economical vi-
abili ty. A set of institutional and legislative measures is then proposed for implementation in Romania.
It is argued that. if implemented, these measures would go a long way to alleviating Romania's inhe-
rently difficult solid waste management problems aiming at sustainabili ty.

Keywords : Romania: solid: waste; compos ition ; managemen t monitoring; minimisation; economics;
recycli ng ; reuse : landfill; inci neration.

I . INTRODUCTION

All human activities generate waste and most create pollution. Indeed, the very act of
living - however humbly or luxuriously - generates waste and creates pollution, as
sober reflection would no doubt confirm. In this context we may paraphrase Rene
Descarte s' observation 'Dubito, ergo cogito. Cogito, ergo sum' aptly to mean '1 exist,
therefore I generate waste ' (RG, 1999).

Humankind has evolved to its current status by dint of labour which pervades all our
endeavours, material as well as spiritual. Using labour and raw materials, or more
precisely the 'factors of production' as in neo-c1assical economics, humankind has
been transforming raw materials or low-quality goods into high-quality products for
consumption. However, as it happens, a price has to be paid for all our activities -
apparently we cannot do anything with impunity - and the price to be paid for our
economic activities includes production and post-consumption wastes to be disposed
of, and consumption of energy and raw materials, as shown schematically in Figure I .
It is difficult to find any economic activity that does not generate waste and/or create
pollution to degrade the natural environment.

285
B. Nath et al. (eds.), Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region, 285-298.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
286

In the generic sense we may think of waste not only as discarded, post-consumption
materials that may be solid, liquid or gaseous , but also as unproductive labour or
effort, or irrationally or imprudently used resources such as water, fuel, energy, raw
materials, etc. However, regardless of how waste is defined, the crux of the matter is
that our relentless economic pursuits are generating waste and consuming raw mate-
rials in ways that cannot possibly be sustained over time, especially in the long-term.
This unsustainable pattern of development has serious implications for future genera-
tions, because, if it persists, they would inherit a polluted world whose denuded re-
sources could deny them an acceptable quality of life.

Energy -+ ECO OMIC -+ Final prod

Raw materials -+ ACTIVITIES -+ Waste

Figure I Schematic of the input-output of economic activities.

Clearly therefore, our economic activities must be organised along sustainable path-
ways. In this context there may be three different approaches to sustainable develop-
ment :

~ The economic approach : it means maximising the profit generated, and, at the
same time, maintaining the potential value or capital of industrial, natural and hu-
man resources needed for economic development.
~ The ecological approach : it focuses on maintaining the biological and physical
integrity of ecosystems and their ability to adapt to changes imposed by man or
evolution.
~ The socio-cultural approach : it means trying to maintain the stability and inte-
grity of social and cultural systems by reducing or eliminating conflicts, and by
encouraging pluralism and cultural diversity.

Against the background painted above, our purpose in this paper is to focus on the
current status of solid waste management in Romania and to make some strategic pro-
posals for its improvement aiming at sustainability .

2. BASIC INFORMATION ON ROMANIA

Romania is situated in the south-eastern part of Central Europe, to the north of the
Balkan peninsula in the Danube Basin with a relatively short Black Sea coastline. The
country 's territory measures 238,391 km2, of which 31 percent is occupied by moun-
 287

tains, 33 percent by hills, and 36 percent by plains. Total population is about 22.8
million living in 260 cities and towns (8 with populat ions of more than 300,000 each
and 25 with more than 100,000 each) and 2,688 communes with 13,000 villages . The
country 's capital is Bucharest whose population is approx imately 2 million living
mainly in blocks of flats built during 1960-1990, although there are also low-rise ur-
ban and suburban residential districts .

About ten years have elapsed since Romania 's democratisation. Officially it is now a
transition economy, meaning a country in transition from its former centrally-planned
economy to free-market economy, and from dictatorship to democracy . And, like the
other transition countries of the region, Romania is currently facing serious economic,
social, environmental and political problems that are an enduring legacy of its Com-
munist past.

3. SOME KEY DATA ON SOLID WASTE GENERATED IN ROMANIA

It is only recently that a system was established in Romania for monitoring the quality
and quantity of wastes generated. The system relies on the following authorities that
are legally obliged to perform waste monitoring activities :

}o- Ministry of Waters , Forests and Environmental Protection (MWFEP) which is the
state authority charged with the responsibilit y for environmental protection .
}o- Ministry of Industry and Trade (MIT) which owns the power generating facilities
including mines, oil fields, power plants as well as steel production facilities , etc.
);- The State Ownership Fund which owns the companies to be privatised .
}o- The local authorities responsible for managing municipal waste .

Probably because of the involvement of these different authorities with diverse inter-
ests, functions and expertise, the respective data collected by them vary a good deal.
However, the aggregate picture to emerge shows that industrial waste, which contains
a high proportion of mining waste, accounts for 90.5-96.0 percent of all solid waste
generated . Municipal waste accounts for only 2.8-5 .9 percent and agricultural waste a
mere 1.2-3.4 percent. Another interesting statistic is that only 6 percent of the Envi-
ronmental Protection budget is allocated for the collection, transportation and dispo-
sal of wastes .

Waste is mainly disposed to landfills and only a small proportion is recovered for re-
use or recycling . Ferrous metal tops the list of materials recovered for recycling . In
1997 a total of 2.5 million tonnes were recycled compared to a total production of 6.4
million tonnes ; and 2.3 million tonnes in 1998 (of which 800,000 tonnes were ex-
ported) compared to a total production of 6.2 million tonnes. Forty-five state-owned
REMAT (REcycling MATerial) companies and about 1500 private businesses are in-
288

volved in recycling activities, and they all deal only in sorted waste materials . Loca-
ted in the county capitals, the REMAT companies have branches in the main cities
and towns. Recycling of other wastes such as paper, board, textiles, etc. is encoura-
ged, but the market prices they command are lower than that of ferrous metal.

Incineration, used almost exclusively for the disposal of hospital waste, is currently
not a significant solid waste management option in Romania . Usually these plants
operate intermittently, and their capacities are around 0.5-5.0 tonnes/hour. Energy
recovered from incineration is negligibly small. Open burning of agricultural and yard
waste is common practice in the rural areas.

Per capita municipal waste generated in Romania varies between 1.4 and 1.5 kg/day
which is higher than the corresponding average value in the western countries . The
comparison shown in Table 1 is interesting to note. Considering the higher proportion
of organic waste generated in Romania, composting would appear to be an attractive
option . The calorific value of western waste varies between 8,000 and 11,000 kJ/kg,
while that of Romanian waste lies within the range of2,400-2,800 kJ/kg.

Table 1 Solid wastegeneratedin Romania and the westerncountries by

Composition (in percentage of total)
Organics Paper Plastics Glass Metals Textiles Others
I Romania 60 8 4 8 4 5 11
Westerncountries 30 25 7 10 8 10 10

4. THE STRUCTURE OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

4.1 Integrated resource management

Solid waste management strategy should be geared to allocating human and financial
resources in a way that would minimise pressure of waste on the environment. The
activities to be undertaken to this end should include minimising waste generation, re-
cycling and reuse of waste, collection and transportation, and energy to be recovered
from waste by employing economically viable and efficient methods and practices.
The overall objective is to achieve at least a modest degree of sustainability .

Increasingly waste management is being seen in terms of 'Integrated Resource Mana-

gement' (IRM) . It is a new concept emanating from the developed countries. The aim
ofIRM is in line with sustainable development in that it confers upon future genera-
tions their rights of access to energy and raw materials for meeting their own needs .

With regard to solid waste, IRM includes methods and practices of waste collection,
transportation, processing, and final disposal for achieving highest possible material
 289

and energy recovery rates. It may also be regarded as a logistical network (Figure 2)
which takes into account economic, social and ecological aspects in selecting reco-
very methods and practices that would minimise the amount of waste to be finally
disposed of, and, at the same time, maximise the flows of recovered materials and
energy.

Minimised waste

i
B LA CE
(economic, socia l a nd ecologica l)

Energy recovery ! i ! Materials recycling

ECO 0 IY

Figure 2 Schematic of Integrate d Resource Management (IRM)

4.2 Characterisation ofsolid waste and its importance

Waste characterisation is essential for planning management systems. It establishes
waste flows from different sources (e.g. household, industry, business, tourist resorts)
in terms of quantity and provides information on the primary composition of waste .
Knowledge of such data and information is essential for the proper design and effi-
cient operation of waste management systems (Savage, 1996), and in particular for:

Y Minimising the number of waste collection trucks and their fuel consumption, and
for optimising their operation.
Y Maximising energy generated from incineration plants.
Y Maximising the flow-rate ofbiogas generated in modern sanitary landfills .

Such information and data is also needed for designing primary storage facilities, as
well as for optimising waste collection and transportation networks and final disposal.

The physical and chemical characteristics of a given waste determine its most appro-
priate treatment option (recycling, reuse, incineration or composting) . In particular,
the calorific value of waste helps engineers to design appropriate systems for incine-
ration or pyrolysis. The following are relevant in this context:

Y Lack of data on the composition of solid waste, which is improperly or illegally

disposed to landfills, makes it impossible to apportion blame or responsibility to
the perpetrators of such acts. Even if analysis of waste composition costs money,
290

the amount spent would be small compared to that needed to identify the perpetra-
tors without the aid of waste composition data.

y Particle size of waste is an important parameter. Unprocessed waste may contain

particles of wide-ranging sizes, varying from one millimetre or smaller to one
metre or larger. Simultaneous occurrence of small particles (limestone, polysty-
rene, etc.) and large items (tyres, furniture, electrical appliances, etc.) is a cha-
llenge to the waste processors whose systems are designed to treat only one of the
categories of waste with limited size tolerance.

y Both characteristics and composition of waste are changing over time. Now the
growing trend is for industry to produce 'environmentally friendly' goods which,
it is claimed, exert little or no pressure on the environment and/or their associated
waste is easier to recycle. Unfortunately, this is being used as an argument by
some to play down the need for and importance of proper and safe management of
solid waste .

4.3 Waste minimisation

As a management option waste minimisation is now top priority, as in EU's hierarchy
of waste management options for example. The idea is to minimise the amount of
waste generated, so that the amount of waste to be processed and finally disposed of
is also minimised . Effective waste minimisation requires each and every section of
society to play its part in the process, as described below.

(A) Role of business and industry

y Optimise resource consumption and reduce environmental burden: in practice
these objectives are achieved by using one or more of the following tools: Life-
Cycle Analysis (LCA), Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Eco-balancing,
Material Flow Analysis, Cradle to Grave Analysis, etc. Typically, the procedure
for an accurate analysis of the burden placed on the environment by the manufac-
turer of a certain product would entail two main tasks: data collection and data
interpretation. LCA enables the manufacturer to quantify how much energy and
raw materials are used in production and how much solid, liquid and gaseous
waste is generated at each stage of the product's life. The outcome of the analysis
is used to develop environmental standards and norms; to improve both techno-
logy and product quality with particular reference to environmental impacts; and
to provide consumers with environmental information on the product with which
to make purchasing decisions.

From the point of view of waste management, such analyses serve two purposes :
recovery rates of energy and waste materials are enhanced; and the product's
environmental burden is reduced.
 291

~ Increase product durability : obviously a product will contribute less to the waste
flow generated if it lasts longer than the earlier model. However, because increa-
sed product durability means that a reduced number of units would now be sold,
the price of the more durable product would be higher, and this may have implica-
tions for manufacturer's competitiveness in the market place.

~ Reduce the number ofcomponents: the cost of dismantling a product for recycling
rises with the number of its components - the greater the number of components,
the higher the cost and vice versa. For example, a car manufactured today con-
tains only 4 or 5 types of rubber components compared to 15-20 different types in
the 1970s.

~ Use environment-friendly packaging materials: new biodegradable packaging

materials are more environment friendly and lighter than traditional materials.
The practice of refilling beverage bottles is returning along with the reuse of
dishes in fast food outlets. Also, many of the stores are now accepting 'empties'
(i.e. empty plastic bottles for cosmetics and toiletries, oil cans, etc.) while selling
new products. All these developments augur well for solid waste management.

~ Optimise transport costs: this is to be achieved by optimising transportation rou-

tes so that fuel consumption is minimised, and damage to roads is reduced along
with pollutant emissions to the atmosphere.

(B) Role of the central and local authorities

Clearly, both the central and local authorities have key roles to play in waste mini-
misation, especially in developing and implementing policies. Their main role would
be to :

);- Impose legislative measures, economic instruments and institutional norms: these
measures, instruments and norms should be applied in a way that rewards compli-
ance through incentives and penalises non-compliance with levy or tax . In parti-
cular, a robust enforcement regime must be put in place.

);- Develop and implement educational programmes: dedicated and imaginative pro-
grammes should be developed and implemented in order to educate the public at
large on the need for waste minimisation, what it entails, and what the public is
expected to do for its realisation. The objective is to achieve widest dissemination
of information on waste minimisation.

y Develop and implement new and more efficient methods of waste collection , sor-
ting and transportation: emphasis to be given to the separation of waste at source .
This would involve, once again, public education and information on how best to
carry out this activity . Methods and practices adopted in other countries should be
scrutinised for their possible adaptation to Romanian conditions.
292

~ Develop efficient methods ojprocessing municipal solid waste: most of these me-
thods provide for energy recovery to offset processing costs. For example, energy
can be recovered by incinerating waste in special furnaces (e.g. steam cycles with
28-35 percent efficiency in power generation, 75-80 percent in co-generation, and
85-90 percent in combined gas-steam cycle co-generation). Incineration plants of
this type are designed to ensure a prescribed quality standard for the flue gases
and residual water. Another method of processing, which is suitable for wastes
rich in organic matter, is storage in sanitary landfills with gas extraction facility .
This method reduces greenhouse gas emissions (mainly CO2 and C~) and makes
possible the rehabilitation of the landfill site after 50-100 years of operation .
Anaerobic fermentation (composting), which produces good-quality manure, is
recommended for rural households.

(C) Role of the public

As we have already pointed out, enthusiastic public participation is vitally important
to the successful implementation of any solid waste management programme. In this
context the role of the public would be to :

~ Respect the norms and regulations stipulated by the authorities, especially for the
implementation of waste sorting and collection programmes.

~ Buy only durable products, and only in necessary quantities .

~ Use water, energy, fuel, food and other resources prudently and without wastage .

~ Support the authorities in making decisions on the location and commissioning of

waste processing facilities . What is called the NIMBY (not in my backyard) prin-
ciple operates in selecting sites for facilities such as landfills and waste incinera-
tion plants, because, although everyone agrees on the need for such facilities, they
do not want them to be located in their own neighbourhoods. Often this leads to
poor planning decisions.

4.4 Economics ojwaste processing

(A) Waste collection and transportation

Waste collection and transportation costs depend on a number of factors . Depending
on truck capacity, number of operators, average distance between stops, and espe-
cially the degree of waste separation, the cost of collecting a tonne of waste from the
kerbside varies between 90 and 150 US dollars (NSWMA, 1994). Actual costs are
calculated on the basis of 'pay as you throw' . That is, the costs are calculated on the
basis of the volume or weight of waste collected from each waste generator, taking
into account any tax exemption or incentive to which the generator might be entitled .
 293

(B) Recycling
The economic viability of a recycling scheme is determined by the ratio of the value
of the raw materials recovered from waste to the cost of implementing the scheme . In
order to compare recycling schemes in different geo-political and socio-economic en-
vironments, a relative approach is adopted that is independent of factors such as price
of land, and labour and capital costs. The central question to be addressed here is this:
how much additional capital need'! to he invested in order to add a new recycling
scheme to an existing waste management programme, and what revenue could he
generated from the materials recovered with that additional investment? The follow-
ing ratios are useful in answering this question (Hummel , White and Wilmore, 1996):

Diversion rate (%) = (AlB) x 100 (1)

Cost difference (%) = (C - D) x lOOID (2)

in which A denotes the quantity of raw materials recovered from waste ; B the total
quantity of available waste ; C the cost of waste management with recycling; and D
the cost of waste management without recycling .

The costs are also influenced by internal and external factors . The internal factors
refer to modifying the management system to include recycling, while the external
factors refer to the market prices of the raw materials recovered for recycling and the
final disposal costs of the residual or unprocessed waste.

An analysis based on equations (1) and (2), and the internal and external factors, leads
to the two scenarios represented by curves A and B in Figure 3.

Scenario A (curve A): recycling is viable when disposal costs are high and the reve-
nue generated from the sale of the recovered materials is also high. In general , this is
the situation in the developed countries. Under some conditions it would be more
efficient to implement a recycling programme than simply to dispose waste to landfill
(zone C in Figure 3).

Scenario B (curve B): when the market price of recyclable materials is low and the
costs of disposal are low too, it would not be economically viable to implement a re-
cycling programme, unless there is a dramatic increase in the cost difference. This is
the current situation in a transition country like Romania.

(C) Final treatment

The final treatment of waste is very difficult to quantify economically. A comparison
between incineration and landfill disposal raises the following issues :

;... Price oj land: in countries such as the Netherlands, where land prices are prohibi-
tive, the landfill option would be very unviable economically.
294

~ Location offacilities and securing permits : in order to minimise transportation

costs, the waste processing facilities should be located as close as possible to
where the waste is generated. In the case of municipal solid waste this means near
the settlements. It can be a daunting task to obtain all the operating licences, in-
cluding those relating to environmental protection . In Romania this would involve
protracted negotiations with bureaucrats as well as the local communities. Also,
the efforts of the owner of the facility will be hindered by the fact that in Romania
people involved in waste management are accorded low social status.

high disposal costs,

high sales revenues

B
low disposal costs,
low sales revenues

<- decrease Cost difference (%) increase ->

Figure 3 Influence of internaland externalfactors in recycling

~ Environmental pollution costs: the most important pollutants produced are green-
house gases , namely CO 2 produced during incineration and a mixture of CO 2 and
CH 4 produced during anaerobic fermentation in landfills . Some calculations show
that a landfill generating biogas produces 50 percent less of these pollutants than
an incineration plant burning the same quantity of waste (Wallis, 1994).

). Initial investment and operational costs: the capital to be invested for building
and commissioning a large sanitary landfill is roughly the same as that needed for
a comparable incineration plant . Therefore, a rigorous cost-benefit analysis should
be undertaken in making decisions on the option to be selected .

Incineration is an attractive proposition for the treatment of municipal solid waste . It

is widely used in Sweden and Denmark to burn 50-60 percent of the waste, followed
by France, Germany and the Netherlands where 30-40 percent of the municipal solid
waste is incinerated.
 295

During incineration solid waste is transformed into a solid phase (ash and slag) and a
gaseous phase (flue gases), whereupon waste volume is reduced by about 90 percent
and waste mass by about 70 percent. Consequently, transportation and final disposal
operations become more manageable and less costly .

The main problem of incineration is neither economic nor technical per se. It is envi-
ronmental. Because, if the waste contains a relatively large proportion of plastics -
and most municipal solid wastes do - some chlorinated products such as dioxins and
polychlorophenols will be produced during combustion. These 'micro-pollutants' ,
released to the environment by the flue gases, can cause serious health problems for
both humans and animal s.

In order to reduce these harmful pollutants, it has been a requirement since 1985 for
incinerator design to include secondary and tertiary combustion chambers with air in-
jection to ensure the complete destruction of the micro-pollutants, or to transform
them into less harmful products. Three conditions should be satisfied to this end :

(a) Flue gas temperature at the input section of the secondary combustion chamber
must be higher than 950°C.

(b) Concentration of oxygen in the same section must be more than 6 percent, and

(c) Residence time of flue gas in the secondary combustion chamber must be longer
than 2 seconds .

Conditions (a) and (b) are satisfied by using secondary or tertiary air injection in the
input section of the secondary combustion chamber. Condition (c) is satisfied by de-
signing the geometry of the secondary combustion chamber in such a way that the
flue gas velocity ensures a minimum residence time of2 seconds.

Working in collaboration with colleagues from the Polytechnic of Turin, Italy, the au-
thors have used proprietary computer modelling software to study how best the con-
ditions of (a) to (c) could be satisfied for a real incinerator burning municipal solid
waste (Anglesio and Negreanu, 1998). Figure 4 shows a typical output of that study
including some key thermodynamic parameters.

Apart from technical considerations, it is clear that a rigorous cost-benefit analysis as

well as environmental impact assessment should be undertaken in selecting incinera-
tion as the preferred waste management option . Also, there should be a guaranteed
throughput of waste for the incinerator in order to ensure its uninterrupted operation.
Naturally, the communities living in or near the proposed incinerator site will be con-
cerned about its impacts, especially health impacts . Imaginative and effective public
relations exercises must be undertaken to address those concerns.

Landfills are not a viable disposal option in the long-term. The option of incineration
with power generation should therefore be carefully considered.
296

',"

L
::': '. FLUENT ::': '. FLUENT

1._
~...,

I ........

I._
! •..-J:.

,......
L ......

~
I
.....
~1S-tZ

.ce-e

L L.
~': • FLUENT ~:': '. FLUENT
N.· .SlOOQE+Q2 H IlQIUJI • L*X • • 2.30000E-0t LMIN• • 0.000011:+00 l-lI lOW. x

Figure 4 Numerical modelling of the processes inside the furnace of a municipal

solid waste incinerator equipped with step-grate

5. CONCLUDING REMARKS

Since its democratisation Romania has been going through a difficult transition, from
a centrally-planned economy to a free-market economy, characterised by a low level
of industrial activity and consumption. Consequently, at present the quantity of waste
generated in the country is less than it would have been otherwise. This situation is
really an interregnum in the sense that the quantities of both municipal and industrial
wastes will begin to increase as the economy recovers .
 297

This interregnum should be seized as a window of opportunity to develop and estab-

lish necessary infrastructure, institutions and legislation for the proper management
and safe disposal of waste with a medium to long-term planning horizon. Otherwise it
is hard to see how even a modest degree of sustainability could ever be achieved in
waste management.

Based on the above and the discussion presented in this paper, we draw attention to
the following recommendations in the particular context of Romania:

~ There is no universal panacea to the growing and serious problem of proper and
safe management of solid waste . The sensible approach is to implement effective
step-by-step or incremental policies within the framework of a coherent national
strategy aiming at sustainability.

~ Public education, awareness and participation are central to any effective waste
management programme. Determined efforts should therefore be made to educate
the public, raise their awareness, and to involve them at strategic levels of deci-
sion-making. In particular, imaginative educational programmes should be deve-
loped aiming at school children and young people whose attitudes are generally
easier to change than those of adults .

~ Determined efforts should be made through educational programmes and campai-

gns to educate the public on how to minimise and recycle waste, and on the need
to do so in order to achieve at least a modest degree of sustainability. Obviously
the mass media have an important role to play in this .

~ In developing policies, all available tools - economic, regulatory, political and

societal - should be carefully evaluated for their efficacy and effectiveness. Par-
ticular attention should be paid to environmental (or waste) taxes and incentives,
and to the 'polluter pays ' principle.

REFERENCES

Anglesio, P and Negreanu, G.P (1998), 'Performance of a municipal solid waste incinerator
predicted with a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code', PowerGen Europe '98 Con-
ference and Exhibition , June, Milan, Italy.
Hummel, J, White, P.R and Wilmore, J (1996), ' Affordable recycling: the critical factors',
Warmer Bulletin, No. 48, February, pp. 6-7.
NSWMA (\994) , The Cost of Recycling at the Kerb, publication of the National Solid Waste
Management Association, Washington DC, USA.
RG (\999) , Official website of the Governmentof Romania(www.kappa.ro).
Savage, G.M (\996), 'Assessing waste quantities and properties: a vital requirement for suc-
cessful solid waste management and planning', Warmer Bulletin , No. 49, May, pp. 18-22.
Wallis, M (\994), 'Waste incineration reassessed', Warmer Bulletin, No. 41, May, pp. 18-19.
298

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anon (1972), Mic Dictionar Enciclopedic, Editura Enciclopedica Romana, Bucuresti, pp. VII
(in Romanian) .
Anon (1994), 'Waste minimisation ', Warmer Information Sheet, Warmer Bulletin, No . 42,
August.
Leca, A and Manoliu, M (1997), Principles of Energy Management , Technical Publishing
House and UNPD, Bucharest, Romania, pp. 34-35.
 ON THE MANAGEMENT OF SOLID WASTE GENERATED AT
THE CONSTANZA SHIPYARD, ROMANIA

NICOLAE PERIDE*, PAUL HARTESCU t and ADINA GOGAN*

* 'Ovidius ' University ofConstanza , J24 Mamaia Street, 8700 Constanza, Romania.
E-Mail: [email protected]
t Constanza Shipy ard, lncinta Port, 8700 Constanza, Romania.

ABSTRACT

Management of solid waste generated at the Constanza Shipyard in Romania is the subject matter of
this paper. Discussion begins with a description of the different types of waste generated by the tech-
nical and engineering operations at the shipyard, their quantities, recycling, reuse and methods of dis-
posal. Industrial as well as domestic waste, the latter generated by crews of ships under repair at the
shipyard , are discussed along with recycling and reuse efforts.

At the time when it was built, and later during its expansion , enforcement of environmental laws and
regulations existing at the time was lax and the shipyard was under no compelling obligation to comply
with them. However, the current situation is very different. Like all other industrial enterprises in Ro-
mania, it is now under mounting pressure of monitoring and properly managing the waste it generates
in compliance with existing and evolving environmental laws and regulations. This evolving scenario
is described along with the shipyard 's efforts at achieving at least a modest degree of sustainable solid
waste management to be realised through waste minimisation , recycling and reuse.

Keywords: Romania ; Constanza ; shipyard; solid; waste; industrial; domestic; recycling; reuse.

1. INTRODUCTION

Situated on the Black Sea coast, the Constanza Shipyard is Romania 's largest ship-
yard. It has developed over the years to become one of the major shipyards of the
region. Its scope is international , and the tonnage of shipping it handles annually has
been rising over the years. The yard has also been expanding to undertake ship repair-
ing, servicing and other activities associated with international shipping . Unfortunate-
ly, at present it is going through hard times economically, like the other industries in
Romania, as the country negotiates its transition to the free-market economic system
which is proving to be more difficult and protracted than expected .

Increasing shipbuilding and ship overhauling activities at the shipyard are generating
increasingly greater amounts of solid waste to be managed. At the same time, the yard
is under mounting obligation to comply with tough new environmental legislation and
regulations passed by the Romanian Parliament, in particular legislation on the mana-
gement of waste materials . The objective of such legislation is to reduce, or eliminate

299
B. Natb et al. (eds.), Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region, 299-306.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
300

if possible, the adverse environmental impacts of pollution as a matter of priority. The

general framework of this legislation is enshrined in Romania's Environment Protec-
tion Law. According to Local Public Administration Law No. 69/1991, the local au-
thorities are charged with the responsibility for the proper and safe management of
solid waste generated within their respective jurisdictions.

In this paper we describe the sources of solid waste generated in the Constanza Ship-
yard, along with the types and amounts of waste generated and the management sys-
tem currently in place for waste treatment and disposal.

2. TYPES OF WASTE AND PROCEDURES FOR THEIR MANAGEMENT

2.1 Solid waste generated at the shipyardfrom technical operations

The major types of solid waste generated by the different technical and engineering
operations at the Constanza Shipyard can be categorised as follows:

;.. Metal cutting operations (Plates 1 to 4): in this operation the total throughput of
metal is about 36,000 tonnes/yr . and the wastes generated from it are about 720
tonnes/yr. of ferrous oxide and about 2,880 tonnes/yr. of technical processing re-
mains. The slag resulting from these operations is collected in special trays that
are placed in 6-tonne containers and transported by freight trains to Sidex Galati .
However, the revenue generated from this operation is not sufficient to cover the
costs of collection, transportation and management.

Remains from the technical processing of metal cutting, which can no longer be
used, as well as those resulting from repair operations, are also placed in 6-tonne
containers and transported in the same way as slag. The revenue generated from
this operation covers the costs of recycling.

;.. Electrodes andfathoming wires: electrodes and fathoming wires used in the ship-
yard amount to about 680 tonnes/yr., and the wastes they generate are about 41
tonnes/yr. of slag and about 27 tonnes/yr. of electrode terminals and wires that
can no longer be used.

The procedure adopted for the electrode terminals and wires is the same as that
for the metal cutting wastes described above. The revenue generated from these
wastes covers all costs. The slag is collected from all the work units, placed in 3-
tonne containers, and transported to the town's waste dump for disposal. In this
case disposal costs are not covered.

~ Carbide proce ssing to produce acetylene: total throughput of this operation is

about 700 tonnes/yr., and the wastes it generates are about 500 tonnes/yr. of calci-
um hydroxide solution and about 400 tonnes/yr. of calcium carbonate .
 301

Plate I Collection of metal waste from the plasma cutting machine

Plate 2 Collection of metal waste from the oxyacetylene cutting machine

302

Plate 3 Containers for collecting garbage , and metal and paper waste

Plate 4 External platform for collecting and loading metal waste

 303

All wastes are collected in 20 m3 bunkers . The process of separation involves

large losses of hydroxide to the sea through the pluvial sewerage system . It is for
this reason that acetylene production was discontinued at the carbide plant. At
present acetylene is obtained from other sources .

);> Zinc-plating of mechanical elements: total throughput of this operation is about

55 tonnes/yr. , and the wastes it generates are about 2 tonne/yr . of zinc oxide and
about 3.5 tonnes/yr. ofFe-Zn alloy. Zinc oxide is collected from the surface of the
vat in 50 kg boxes in the form of bricks, while the Fe-Zn alloy deposited in the vat
is collected only after the zinc has been consumed . The alloy is cast in 50 kg
moulds. Both these products are recycled and the costs are covered by exchanging
them for type D metaIlic zinc from the Copsa Mica factory.

);> Electrolytic plating: electrolytic plating of mechanical elements with chromium,

nickel and cadmium generates about 40 kg/yr. of mud containing these heavy
metals and about 10 kg/yr. of mud containing cyanides.

Because of the high toxicity of these wastes, metal-plating operations are carried
out in special workshops following strict procedures. These workshops have
dedicated facilities for manipulating , neutralising, separating and collecting such
waste products that are continually monitored throughout the entire process.
Collected in tubs sealed with lids, the mud is sent for recycling to specialised en-
terprises under the auspices ofthe Territorial Office for Environmental Protection,
and, if necessary, they are kept in very secure and safe storage .

);> Sanding: sanding of metaIIic surfaces with granulated slag (grit), which amounts
to about 8,500 tonnes/yr ., generates approximately 9,000 tonnes/yr . of granulated
slag mixed with rust as waste. Depending on circumstances different methods are
employed for sanding, which is carried out in dedicated stations, specialised hang-
ers or in open spaces, as well as for collecting the resulting waste for disposal,
reuse or recycling.

In the stations the technical processes are mechanised involving the following
operations :
(a) Sorting of the grains according to size.
(b) Dusting of the used grains.
(c) CoIIection of both the sanded material, which contains up to 80 percent fer-
rous oxides, and the used grains of smaller diameter (20 percent with 0.5 mm
diameter) . These waste materials are put to good use at Sidex Galati and the
costs are recovered .

Sanding of the large-size items, such as block-sections of ships measuring up to

12 m x 12 m x 8 m and weighing up to 200 tonnes, is carried out in specialised
hangers equipped with grain collecting and dusting equipment. Welding is used
304

for repairing or reinforcing deteriorated surfaces and those damaged by sanding.

The used grains are collected by automatic loaders and transported in containers
to the dusting stations where they are sorted and dried for reuse. The waste re-
sulting from this operation contains 70-75 percent of grains of diameter 0.2 mm,
10-15 percent ferrous oxides, and 10-20 percent non-metallic impurities. Because
they are not useful, the non-metallic impurities are disposed to the city's garbage
dump.

For repairing operations, or for removing rust or paint, sanding is carried out in
open spaces. The waste from this operation contains 30-50 percent grains, 20-30
percent paint and organic oxygen residues, and 20-50 percent ferrous oxides. The
waste is collected on a concrete platform and periodically transported for disposal
to the city's garbage dump.

The method of hydro-sanding, in which water under a pressure of 1000 bars is

used, is employed at the shipyard to remove vegetation as well as paint and rust
from below the plimsoll line of ships. The waste generated from this cleaning
operation contains about 90 percent organic matter. It is collected and transported
to the city's garbage dump for disposal within 24 hours of removal in order to
avoid its putrefaction .

2.2 Solid waste from ships

In addition to the industrial waste discussed in 2.1, the amount of which in 1998-1999
was estimated at about 900 tonnes, the shipyard is also faced with the day-to-day
problem of managing the domestic waste generated by crews of ships under repair. At
any given time, on average there are 10-11 ships under repair, each generating 250-
300 kg of solid waste per week. This amounts to 130-200 tonnes of additional solid
waste to be collected and disposed of annualIy. The organic content of the waste is
about 70 percent with potential to generate 0.4 m3 of methane gas per kg of waste that
could be utilised to produce electrical power or for cooking.

A proposal for generating methane gas in this way is currently being considered by
the shipyard authorities, along with a paralIel proposal to produce compost from the
waste.

3. RECYCLING AND REUSE OF WASTE

Waste resulting directly from metal-cutting and welding operations is transported in

containers to the Sidex Galati factory for recycling. However, the recycling of slag
does not justify the costs involved. It makes economic sense only when it is reused
for building padding structures (i.e. crystalIine and insoluble structures) for the exten-
sion of Constanza harbour .
 305

Waste generated at the carbide processing factory can be put to good use as follows :

)- Calcium hydroxide to treat acidic soil in farms. For example, if the pH value of
the soil is 5.0, it can be treated with calcium hydroxide to increase pH to its nor-
mal value of6.5.
)- Calcium carbonate to be used as mortar and paint in the building industry . This
has much potential for generating revenue .

Wastes resulting from zinc-plating operations are recycled at the Copsa Mica factory,
while the mud generated from these operations, which contains cyanides, is collected
and transported to specialised facilities where they are neutralised. The costs of these
operations are included in production costs .

Waste materials (grains, rust and other impurities), resulting from sanding operations
carried out in specialised hangers, are chemically inert. They are used when necessary
for building padding materials and structures for harbour protection and extension
works. There was an attempt to use the grit in making concrete . But it was not sucess-
ful because hydration of the ferrous oxides caused unacceptable levels of shrinkage of
the concrete made in this way.

4. CONCLUDING REMARKS

At the time of building the Constanza Shipyard, and later when it was extended, the
environmental laws and regulations existing at the time were not respected, neither
were they enforced with the necessary degree of rigor. However, the current situation
is very different for two main reasons . First, driven by Romania's ambition for acce-
ssion to the European Union, environmental laws and regulations of the country are
becoming tougher as they converge to those of the EU. And second, the enforcement
regime is becoming much more rigorous than before whereby all industrial concerns
are now under mounting pressure of monitoring and properly managing the wastes
they generate .

At the same time, industrial activities at the shipyard are increasing, and so is the re-
sulting amount of waste emanating from those activities. Thus, monitoring and proper
management of solid waste in compliance with increasingly tougher laws and regula-
tions is becoming a major activity for the shipyard authorit ies. Moreover, since sus-
tainability is the focus of Romania's evolving environmental legislation, it is clear
that the shipyard's environmental management regime must aim at achieving at least
a modest degree of sustainability to be realised through waste minimisation , reuse and
recycling.

With regard to the above and the discussion presented in this paper, the following
points are made in conclusion :
306

» Grit mixed with rust, and waste generated from various technical processes, cons-
titutes by far the greatest proportion of solid waste produced at the shipyard . At
present much of this waste is being recycled and efforts are being made to achieve
100 percent recycling .

» However, there are other wastes generated at the shipyard that are not being recy-
cled at present because it is not economically viable to do so. New methods and
financial resources are being sought for their recycling or reuse.

» The concept sustainable solid waste management, and indeed that of sustainable
development, is new in Romania. Acquisition of knowledge and skills through
effective know-how transfer, especially for the practical implementation of sus-
tainable methods and practices, is thus a priority .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Rojonschi, V (1992), Economia si Protecia Mediului , Colectia Ghid Professional, No. 116,
Bucharest(in Romanian) .
Macoveanu, M (1994), Studiu de Impact Asupra Mediului , (in Romanian), Research contract
between Constanza Shipyardand the Technical University of Iasi, No. 3324, Constanza.
 IMPORTANCE OF WASTE BIOMASS FROM HOUSEHOLD,
AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE FOR
A SUSTAINABLE FARMING SYSTEM

MARIA ZLATEVA DOICHEVA

Federation lnter-Eco, Block 5a, Apartment 32, J.K. Strelbishte, ul. Kostenski Vodopad,
1404 Sofi a, Bulgaria

ABSTRACT

It is not over-stating the case to say that sustainable development has found its true
meaning in ecology, and its starting point could only be Earth itself which gives birth
to life, supports development, and carefully preserves the achievements in the evolu-
tion of life, both animate and inanimate. Therefore , in order to achieve sustainable
ecology, our attention should be focused on soil recovery . Healing of nature and soil
recovery are related to waste bio-mass, the secrets and full potential of which are yet
to be discovered .

By assuming that ' nature has survived by composting its own waste', we have related
two technologies for bio-mass processing into organic compost, one for solid house-
hold waste and the other for agricultural waste . It is to be noted, however, that com-
posting must become a state policy in order successfully to promote eco-farming to
produce ecologically clean food and fibre.

The process of composting is controlled by three parameters: pH, moisture and tem-
perature . Hourly electronic monitoring of these parameters ensures continuous control
over the various strains of aerobic microflora, and this shortens the production cycle
to 5 days compared with the existing worldwide practice of 10-30 days. This leads to
greater production efficiency of more than 20 percent by reducing the overall opera-
ting costs of the mechanical composting system. Also, the proposed technological
process preserves the organic components of the final product to a maximum .

Organic compost is a rich soil nutrient, containing as it does large quantities of orga-
nic matter . It is rich in enzymes, biogenic chemical elements, micro-elements and
various microflora that help the process of humus formation in the soil, thus making it
more fertile. Organic compost is the only material capable of neutralising the toxic
substances remaining in the soil from the usage of synthetic fertilisers and pesticides.
It also helps prevent the penetration of heavy metals into underground waters that
pollute countless hectares offertile land.

Organic compost with different pH values otTers the possibility of conducting suc-
cessful experiments on the re-cultivation of soils polluted by toxic heavy metal emi-

307
B. Nath et al. (eds.), Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region, 307-308.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
308

ssionsin the vicinity of mines and ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgical plants, and
land polluted by cement and oil production wastes and by construction debris . Re-
cultivation was carried out following a predetermined process schedule based on the
preliminary analysis of the polluted soils under investigation and the specific charac-
teristics of the organic compost used. The results give us grounds to hope that only
the natural fertilisers will heal nature and help it to survive.
 PROSPECTS FOR SUSTAINABLE WASTE MANAGEMENT IN GEORGIA

MAK A TZERETELI and TIN ATIN TET VADZE

International Relations Division, Environmental Policy Department, 68a Kostava Street,
3800 15 Tbilisi, Georgia

ABSTRACT

Waste management in Georgia is a largely neglected field of environmental manage-

ment. Since neither a comprehensive waste management system nor a co-ordinating
authority existed in the Soviet times, it has been usual pract ice to dispose of waste
without due consideration for environmental protection. Municipal waste was fre-
quently mixed with industrial waste for disposal, and disposal of hazardous waste
from hospitals, military and radioactive installat ions and other sources was largely
unregulated. At present legal landfill s operate under minimal standard requirements.
Also, because urban waste collection system s are barely functional , there are many il-
legal dumping sites . Known waste disposal sites for hazardous waste are overloaded,
and generally they are not adequately isolated for environmental protection. In short,
environmental impacts of uncontrolled disposal of solid waste in Georgia are enor-
mous, but the effects are virtually unknown at present.

In 1992, when the econom y began to collapse , the total amount of solid waste genera-
ted in the country was in excess of 60 million tonnes , of which 70 percent was in-
dustrial waste. No reliable inventory is maintained at present. According to some
estimates 1.3 million tonn es of hazardous wastes have accumulated throughout the
country. Although most of the ' hot-spots' are known, at present it is not possible to
make any impro vement due to lack of financial resource s.

Uncontrolled and missing radioacti ve wastes are another problem that has already
caused damage to human health . Former Soviet military bases are the cause of even
more serious problems. In 1997 nine servicemen from a training detachment near
Tbilisi developed local radiation-induced skin diseases in various parts of their
bodies . An investigation revealed several Cs-137 and Co-60 radiation sources. In
November 1998 a Government Commission was established under the authority of
the Georgian Ministry of the Environment to inspect all such bases . Some radioactive
sources have already been detected in those bases.

As there is no operational site in Georgia to treat radioactive waste , 800g of burnt nu-
clear fuel from the Atomic Research Centre near Tbilisi (which was decommissioned
ten years ago) were taken out of the country for treatment with the assistance of the
governments of the USA and the UK.

309
B. Nath et al. teds.), Sustainable Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region. 309-3 10.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
310

In general, trans-boundary movement of chemical substances and wastes also needs

to be addressed and regulated. The Ministry of Environment is officially responsible
for their control, but because of financial constraints and unclear responsibilities there
are great difficulties in carrying out even the basic preliminary activities. The Basel
Convention came into force in Georgia on 18 August, 1999.

Formulation of Georgia's Waste Management Law is posing important problems .

Dealing with large gaps in existing Environmental Legislation on waste is considered
to be of top priority . At present it is being developed , and hopefully it will incorporate
the EU and Basel Conventions including relevant requirements and standards.

Georgia's National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) has been prepared . Among
the environmental priorities identified in the NEAP is the need for strengthening the
capacity for monitoring and implementing environmental legislation . There is how-
ever a need, it is felt, to streamline the legislation dealing with waste issues as well as
to develop policies and institutional arrangements for assessing and monitoring envi-
ronmental impacts caused by poor waste management. Strengthening of the legal
framework should improve environmental management and at the same time reduce
environment impacts . This is especially so in the environmentally risky waste dispo-
sal sectors that have great potential for attracting foreign investment to Georgia.
 TREATMENT OF SOLID WASTE IN THE MUNICIPALITY OF
NEW ORESTIADA, GREECE
Mayor ANGELOS PAPAEOANU
City Council, II Vas. Konstantinou , 68200 New Orestiada, Greece

ABSTRACT

The population of the Municipality of New Orestiada is about 30,000, and they gene-
rate around 10,000 kg of solid waste annually. An analysis of the waste revealed the
following : plastics (7 percent) ; paper (18 percent) ; metals (3.5 percent); fermentable
organic matter (60 percent); glass (2 percent); and others (9.5 percent) .

Solid waste generated in the Municipality is collected on a daily basis and disposed to
a landfill. It is pointed out, however, that at present the Municipality does not have
any sanitary landfill facility or other means of treatment. Also, quite often the waste is
not disposed to a landfill at all, and this creates environmental problems with implica-
tions for health and the environment.

The planned Fifth Council of Orestiada District which is within the jurisdiction of the
Municipality of Orestiada but does not exist at present, has decided to build a sani-
tary landfill. The following steps have so far been taken for its construction:

)i- The site of the landfill has been selected at a location between the villages of Pyr-
gos and Lagos.
)i- The Prefecture of the Evros authority has provided a site which is suitable for the
proposed sanitary landfill.
)i- The authorities of the neighbouring regions of eastern Macedonia and Thrace
have given their approval for the site boundaries .
)i- An Environmental Impact Assessment of the proposed landfill site has been con-
ducted and approved by the Prefecture Council of Evros.
)i- The Physical Planning and Public Works Division of the Ministry of Environment
has given its approval for the Environmental Terms and Conditions for the dispo-
sal of solid wastes to the proposed sanitary landfill .
)i- A preliminary study has been conducted of the proposed landfill site.

This paper focuses on the management of solid waste management in the Munic ipa-
lity of New Orest iada; including the benefits that the proposed sanitary landfill is
expected to bring.

311
B. Nath et al. (eds.), Sustainable Solid Waste Managem ent in the Southern Black Sea Region, 311.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
 HIGH HUMIDITY DOMESTIC SOLID WASTE PYROLYSIS
WITH A PRE-DRYING SYSTEM

NICOLAE ANTONES CU and NICOLAE N. ANTONESCU

Technical University fo r Civil Engineering Bucharest. Pache Protopopescu Blv. No. 66,
Sector 2. Bucharest. Romania

ABSTRACT

This paper is concerned with the thermal treatment of domestic solid waste by gasifi-
cation. It is argued that such treatment has much potential as a management option for
solid wastes; and that it needs to be considered carefully in the particular context of
Romania where, from the technological point of view, the process for low calorific
power fuels is well known. In fact, comprehensive studies on the subject were initia-
ted in Romania more than twenty years ago based on coal gasification.

However, the problem of directly applying existing technologies is that domestic wa-
stes have high humidity, in some cases reaching even 60 percent. This problem can be
overcome, it would appear, by adopting a specific system design for pyrolysis ins-
tallat ion. The superior energy type (ga s fuel) that can be obtained from such installa-
tions and the ecological qualities of this kind of thermal treatment recommend them
from the point of view of sustainable solid waste management.

The application of pyrolysis to deal with domestic solid waste offers a number of im-
portant advantages compared to disposal by incineration. In the main these advan-
tages derive from the low temperature level in the gasification process, approximately
750 to 800°C, which compares with the furnace burning process in which the tem-
perature is usually between 1000°C for the layer burning process and 1300°C for the
fixed carbon stage burning. In general, the advantages of thermal treatment are the
followin g :

~ In the low temperature process NOx production is significantly below 10 ppm and
dioxin emission is also considerably reduced.

y Due to low gas speed in the system, dust transport becomes unimportant.

~ The process can be easily controlled during exploitation by maintaining a pre-set

temperature level in the reduction zone. This can be done without difficulty by
controlling the flows of air (or oxygen) and vapour.

Pyrolysis gases can be used to generate power, because their calorific value is high,
around 1900 to 2300 kcal/Nrnc.

313
B. Natb et al. (eds.}, Sustainabl e Solid Waste Management in the Southern Black Sea Region, 313.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
 31 5

NAME INDEX

Aival iot is, V, 45 Cebul a, J, 233 Georgiev, B, 80

Aksan, Y, 234 Cecch i, F, 139 Gcorgi ev, P.S, 189
Aldy, J.E, 233 Chefetz, B, 233 Gerba, cr. 139
Allan, DJ , 24 Chen, Y.N , 233 Gocuk, S, 248
Altinok, A, 248 Chilton, C.H, 234 Gogan, A.. 299
An derson, F.H, 24 Christensen, T.R 138-140 Golueke, c.o. 156
Angelov, AT, 189 Cib a, J, 233 Gotaas, R B, 233
Anglesio. P, 297 Cis iL S.V, 269 Grae tz, D, 234
Antonesc u, N, 3 13 Clark e, D, 24 Grainger, J.M, 139
Antonescu, N.N, 3 13 Cole, J.R, 139 Gra y, L, 25
Apostolo v, A, 79 Collins, HJ , 138 Gronow, J.R 139
Arms trong, M .D, 139 Compton, P, 25 Groudev, S.N, 189, 194
Artis , MJ, 24, 97 Cook, B.D, 233 Grubb, M , 25
Atkinson, G, 25 Cooke, AJ, 139 Gruncharov, I, 79
Atudorei, A.. 271 Cossu, R, 67, 138- 140 Guresinl i, C;, 207
Cullimore, D.R, 139 Guven, Y, 234
Babachev, G, 79 Curi, K, 68 , 255
Badr, 0 , 233 Cuyper. J, 187 Hadar, Y, 233
Ba gchi , A, 233 Ha ith, D .A, 233
Barbiroli , G, 206 Daniel, D.E, 97 Halb ach, T.R 233
Basturk, A, 67 Daskalopoulos, E, 233 Halisdem ir, B, 22 7, 234
Batem an, I, 25 Dawson, A, 155 Ham , cr. 139
Batt istoni, P, 139 Da x, P, 79, 157, 167 Hanert, RH, 138
Baydar, G, 234 De Caevel , B, 141 Hanley, N, 25
Bea van, R.P, 139, 140 De Sombre, E, 25 Hardin, G, 25
Benn et, P.T, 139 Delcan, E, 255 Hartescu, P, 299
Blakey, N, 138 Delchev, P, 79 Hatcher , L, 25
Blight , G.E, 248 Devuyst, D, 25 Hatcher, P.G, 233
Bloom , P.R 233 Diaz, L.F , 156 Haug, R.T, 233
Boj inova, V, 80 Dimi trov, D, 206 Heddin, R.S, 194
Boneva. N, 171 Dirnitrova, Z, 79 Hens, L, 25, 80
Bori sova, P, 157, 167 Dimov, K, 206 Hoel sch er, H.E, 97
Boyle, G, 24 Dish ovski , M, 103, 155 Hummel , J, 297
Brad shaw, K, 138 Dodd s, D.E, 25, 98
Bratko va, S.G, 194 Dombalov, I, 79 Iankova, K, 171
Bri ssio n, I, 155 Ikegushi , T, 248
Brown, C, 155 Eliassen , R, 255
Bro wn , G, 79 Erd in, E, 2 19, 226 Kalkanoglu , B, 249, 255
Bro wn , L, 24 Evan s, i.c , 80, 112 Kar aca, Y, 217
Brune, M, 138 Eve rett, J.W, 45 Kell er , DJ, 233
Brunne, c .t, 233 Evliya, H, 235 , 248 Kiku chi , R 80
Brunner, D.R, 233 Klarcr, J, 180
Buckingham. P.L, 80 , 112 Field , B.C, 45 Klei nmann, R.L.P , 194
Buekens, A, 141, 155 Fleming, LR, 139 Kl inkarovski, S, 97
Buswell, A.M, 139 Fonteyne, J, 45 Kno x, K, 138, 139
Fricilli, P.W, 233 Kocas oy, G, 47, 68
Cakyr, o, 233, 234 Koch, M, 25
Ca mbridge , M, 194 Gaskell , D, 155 Kokusai , K, 248
Campbell, DJ.V, 139 Gaydardj iev, S, 181, 187 Komnitsas, K, 189, 194
316

Koning, H.I , 80 Paksy, A, 139 Stoffella, P.I, 234

Kozarev, N, 69 Palmisano , AC, 139 Stoyanov , S.K, 69, 195
Kuenen, J.G, 139 Panagiotakopoulos, C, 27, 45 Sturz, H, 139
Kulisheva, E, 171 Panagiotakopoulos, D, 27, 45 Suflita, J.M, 139
Papaeoanu, A, 311 Sullivan, F, 25
La Grega , M.D, 80, 112 Pavan, P, 139
Lang, 1, 25, 80 Pearce, D, 25 Talay , I, 25
Leca, A, 285 , 298 Peeling, L, 139 Taner, F, 227, 234
Lee, N, 24, 97 Pehlivan,E, 234 Tanrivermis, H, 25
Leenderste, J.J, 269 Pelovski , Y, 69, 79, 80 Tarvin, D, 139
Lesser, AL, 25, 98 Peri de, N, 299 Tchobanoglous, G, 68
Liu, S.K, 269 Perry , RH, 234 Teidje, J.M, 139
Loffler, F.E, 139 Petkov , K, 80 Terlemesian, E, 195,206
Long , B, 25, 98 Poats , R.M, 98 Terzieva, S, 171
Longstaffe, F.J, 139 Porter, W.J, 156 Tetvadze, T, 309
Ludtke, P, 80 Powrie, W, 113, 139, 140 Theisen, H, 68, 255
Probert, S.D, 233 Thompson, K, 25
Macoveanu,M,306 Psalti, A, 45 Tokgoz ,S,219
Makarynsk~ D,257,269 Toman, M, 25
Makarynskyy, 0 , 257, 269 Ramke , H.G, 138 Topkaya, B,248,249
Manoliu, M, 285, 298 Rathje , W.L, 139 Tuchkovenko, J.S, 269
Marinova, L.S, 81 Rees, J, 139 Turner, R.K, 25
Mata-Alvarez, J, 139 Reinhart, D.R, 139 Tzereteli , M, 309
Mbande,C.M,248 Reynolds, P, 138
McCarty, P.L, 139 Rittmann, B.E, 139 Ustun , R, 248
McDouga l, F, 45 Robertson, L.A, 139
Mehandjiev, M, 80 Robinson, J.P, 25,80, 113, 139 Van de Graaf, A, 139
Meszaros, E, 25, 80 Roe, N.E, 234 Veleva, S, 206
Meyer, J, 206 Rojonschi, V, 306 Vergiev, D, 103, 155
Miranda, M.L, 233 Rowe, R.K, 139 Vid~ G, 26
Mladenov, I, 206 Vigil, S.A, 68, 255
Modak, AR, 45 Salam , Sir Abdus , 98
Moldan, B, 180 Sanford , RA, 139 Wallis, M,297
Moutsiou, M, 45 Savage , G.M, 156, 297 Walker, A.N, 140
Mulder, A.A, 139 Scharge, L, 45 White, P.R, 297
Munson, A, 25 Shogren, J.F, 25 Wilmore, J, 297
Musacco , A, 139 Simitzis, J, 206 Wilson, D.C, 45
Skinner, J.R. 68
Nairn, R.W, 194 Sollow, R, 25 Yiannakopoulou, T, 45
Na~B, 1,25,80,81,98 Spasova, I.I, 189
Negreanu, G.P, 285, 297 Spassova, S, 187 Zerbe, RO, 25, 98
Staynov,M, 103, 155 Zlatev, V, 206
Odabasy , E, 227, 234 Stegman, R, 138, 139 Ziateva , M, 307
Oud enne, P.D, 187 Stepanek, Z, 25 Zolotajkin, M, 233
 317

SUBJECT INDEX

Action plan, 104 ED standard, 84, 85

Appropriate technology, 205 , 228, 243, 246,
247 Factors of production, 285
Aristotelian world view , 15 Fibre
man-made, 195
Basel Convention, 115, 116,213,310 natural , 195
Best available technology, 74 PA,196
Biogas, 31,49, 228 PAN , 195, 197, 199,200
' Bring system ' , the, 148 PET, 196, 197
Brundtiand Commission Report, 2 synthetic, 196
Bulgaria, 69, 103, 158, 162, 167, 171, 181, Framework directive, 116,117
201 Feasibility test, 36

Capital bequest, 13 GDP, 16

Co-disposal, 216 Geomembrane, 130
Compost, 66, 228, 229, 253, 307 Georgia, 309
Composting,77, 112,222,231 ,255 Gold-bearing, 181
Cost-benefit, 31,66,77,278,295 Greece , 28, 34, 69, 311
Cradle-to-grave analysis, 290 Greek mythology, 6
Curriculum development- 94
Heavy metals, 191,276
Deep green movement, 13 High density polyethylene, 64, 130,
Dehalogenation react ions, 128 131, 136
Desulphurisation system , 72 Hospital waste . 65
Developing countries, 53 Human development index, 18
Diffusion of dust clouds, 258
Discount rate, 30 Incineration, 246, 288, 294, 295
Dung-hill, 105, 107 Incineration facility , 251
Incineration plant, 64, 65, 275, 280, 292
Environmental Integrated resource management, 288
action programme, 114 Istanbul , 48
awareness, 216
impact, 89, 114, 181,257,276,279,300 Laissez-faire economic system , 5, 9, 78
impact assessment, 65, 161, 165,237, Landfill
239,290,295,311 bioreactor, 113, 121, 131, 165
law, 223 directive , 109, 119, 120, 130, 166
legislation, 83 ED-standard, 161, 166
management, 83 gas. 90, 129, 135
policy, 83 , 114, 227, 247 gas management, 136
protection, 92, 138, 172,237,238,287 leachate, 53. 64, 129, 132
quality , 272 leachate management, 132
sustainability, 113 leachate recirculation, 134, 135
Equity management of, 121, 122, 164
intergenerational, I, 13 mining, 122
intragenerational, I regional , 162, 163
ED directive, 77, 87, 104, 108, 110, 115, sanitary , 38, 64, 66, 84, 146, 151,216,
160,281 240,246,252,253 ,280,311
ED environmental law, 117 site, 31, 87,107,120,275
ED legislation, 112 uncontrolled site, 37, 104
318

Life-Cycle Analysis (LCA), 290 Selective collection, 147, 148

Leachate treatment, 246 Shipyard (Constanza) , 299
Leaching, 181, 184 Single European Act, 114
Life expectancy, 19
Linear programming model, 29 Solid waste
Local Agenda 21, I agricultural , 49, 73, 77, 273
Local Sustainable Human biodegradable municipal, 119
Development Indicator (LSHDI), 18 calorific value of, 72, 73, 289, 313
Low-cost technology, 164 characterisation of, 289
characteristics of, 51, 290
Macedonia, 81 collection of, 28, 52, 251
Material Flow Analysis, 290 commercial , 48
Materials recycling , 141 composition of, 48, 50,63,71 ,73,88,
Methane gas, 66 220,221 ,250,289,290
Micro-biological contamination, 276 construction and demolition, 49, 105
Monitoring, 272 control regulation, 54, 63, 66, 209
Monte-Carlo method, the, 259, 268 disposal of, 53, 59, 66, 251
disposal tax, 66
National Environment Fund, 161 domestic , 272
NATO, 69,81 ,84 final disposal, 66, 236, 272
NATO project, 84, 88, 96 functional elements of management, 52
NIMBY syndrome, the, 20 I generation of, 52, 62, 63
Nutrient pollution, 276 hazardous , 49, 105,273
industrial, 49, 70, 105, 106,201,273
Ohrid Lake, the, 87 institutional , 49
Open-cast mining, 257 integrated management , 254
Open dump, 55, 59, 64, 209,220,236, management of, 27, 29, 50,51,59,74,
240,242,251 ,252 III , 178, 187,201 ,227,235
Open dumping , 53 management model, 33, 39
management plan, 41, 241, 246
Perfect substitutability, 14 management policy, 65
pH, 185, 186, 192, 305, 307 management system, 3 1, 33, 44
PHARE , 161,281 monitoring, 272, 305
Planning horizon, 30, 44 municipal, 65, 73, 84, 135, 157, 174,227,
Platonic world view, 15 239,292,294
Polluter pays principle , 115, lSI, 152,297 non-hazardous , 64
Population growth, II processing of, 52
Precautionary principle , liS pyrolysis, 313
Public awareness, 66, 224, 247,278,297 recovery of, 54
Public education, 224, 253, 278, 291, 297 recycling of, 54, 112, 138, 144, 274
Public involvement, 253, 278 recycling centre, 66
Public participation, 104, 243, 275, recycling plant, 58
276,297 recycling programme, 59
Public-private partnership, 160 recyclable materials , 58, 66
reuse of, 112, 138, 274
Quality of life, 17, 223 regional model, 39
regulation of, 54, 222, 226
Rehabilitation of open dumps, 66 residential , 48
Recycling chain, 142, 144, 147, 152 separation , 52
Recycling of packaging material , 211 special, 49
Recycling industry, 142 sustainable management of, 82, 86, 95,
Retail price index, 20 112,172,201 ,205,207,249,252,306
Risk assessment, 120 transformation of, 52
Romania, 271, 285, 286, 299 transportation of, 28, 52
 319

treatment of, 28 Waste

agricultural, 287
Statist ical-probabilistic modelling, 257 adsorpti ve capaci ty of, 134
Strategic mana gement, 141, 254 collection of, 209
Sustai nability compo sition. 145, 273, 277
capital rul e. 14 compo sting, 210, 239,252
degree of. 67, 17 1, 224 . 226. 232. 254, construction. 175
255, 288,297, 305 disposal of, 119, 209
economic. 29 domesti c, 105
environmental, 28, 92, 113 dumps , 174, 176
strong, 14 hazardous, 115, 177. 211, 213 , 236, 240,
weak , 14. 16 276, 309
Sustainable hospital, 215, 217, 236, 240,251 ,288
bioreactor, 120, 134 industrial, 175,212,273,287
development , I. 69. 237, 286. 306, 307 integrated management of, 104, 138. 252,
ecology , 307 255
environmental management. 237 inventory , 273
farming system, 307 medical . 251
landfill , 121 minimi sation. 44, 65, 93, 118, 197,205.
level of consumption. 9 209,210,21 6,224,232,244,252,253,
pathw ays, 286 290,305
waste management, 171 monitoring, 171. 174, 175, 179
Sustainable development municipal, 287
bottom -up approach to, 3, 17 non-h azardous. 115
classical definition of. 2 organic , 165
measurement of, 16 packaging. 118
of south-east Bulgari a 69, 79 preventi on of, 117
operatio nal defini tion of, 2 properties of. 13 I
Technology transfer, 82, 96, 149, 153, 236. radioactive, 309
282 recovery of, 117, 209, 210. 225,244
Thiourea , 181 recycling of, 115. 117. 197, 210,225,232,
Thrace region of Greece, 28 239, 252. 253, 274, 288, 293,304,305
Tragedy of the commons. 10 reuse of. 115. 210. 225, 232, 253. 304,
Trailing pond s, 75 305
Transfer station. 38, 64, 138, 252. 255 selecti ve collection, 277
Treaty of the European Union, 7, 17, 92 separation, 228, 252
Turkey, 47. 53, 69, 207 , 212, 2 14, 219. 227, sustainable mana gement of, 103
232.235. 238,246,249 treatment, 293
Ukraine, 257 urban . 271. 273
Urban waste management, 274, 275, 277 Water balance. 133
USEPA ,131 Willingn ess to pay, 245