JAI GURU DEV

MAHARISHI VIDYA MANDIR, HYDERABAD

CLASS XII
PHYSICS RECORD
POINTS TO BE NOTED:
1. Complete 3 activities of term1, 4 experiments of term2 and 3 activities of term2.
2. Write experiments neatly and legibly. Please avoid overwriting and scribbling.
3. Write the experiment on ruled side with the following side headings.
Aim
Apparatus
Theory
Procedure
Calculations
Result
Precaution
Sources of error
4. Draw diagrams, observation tables and graphs [if any] with pencil on white side.
5. Use blue pen on ruled side. If interested Headings can be written with black pen.
6. Complete the index in order of the experiments written in the record.

Evaluation Scheme
Time Allowed: one and half hours Max. Marks: 15

Two experiments to be performed by students 8 marks

at time of examination
Practical record [experiments and activities] 2 marks
Viva on experiments, and activities 5 marks
Total 15 marks
 ACTIVITY 1

Aim
To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery, resistor/rheostat, key,
ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order and correct
the circuit and also the circuit diagram.

Apparatus and material

A battery eliminator or a battery (0 to 6 V), rheostat, resistance box (0 to 100 £2), two or one
way key. D.C. ammeter (0-3) A and a D.C. voltmeter (0-3) V.

Theory
An open circuit is the combination of primary components of electric circuit in a such a manner
that on closing the circuit no current is drawn from the battery.
Diagram

Procedure
Ammeter: It should be connected in series, with the battery eliminator.
Voltmeter: It should be connected in parallel to the resistor.
Rheostat: It should be connected in series (in place of resistance coil) with the battery
eliminator.
Resistance coil: It should be connected in parallel (in place of rheostat).
One way key: It should be connected in series to the battery eliminator.
Correct circuit diagram: (Components connected in proper order)

ACTIVITY 2
Aim
To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches,a fuse and a
power source.
Material required:
Three bulbs (6 V, 1W) each, fuse of 0.6 A, main switch a power supply (battery . eliminator),
three (on/off) switches flexible connecting wire with red and black plastic covering,a fuse wire.
Supplementary: Main electric board with a two-pin socket and main switch.

Theory
Electricity supplied to us for domestic purposes is 220 V A.C. and 50 Hz. The household circuit,
all appliances are connected in “parallel” with mains. The switches are connected in series with
each appliances in live wire. 5 A switches are required for normal appliances like, bulbs,
fluorescent tubes fans etc. 15 A sockets and switches are required for heavy load appliances ‘
like, refrigerator, air conditioner, geyser, hot plates etc. All appliances must have three wires
called live, neutral and the earth. Total power consumption ‘P’ at a time
P = P1 + P2 + P3 +………..
where P1, P2, P3 are the powers drawn by appliances.
To protect the appliances from damage when unduly high currents are drawn fuse of  little higher
rating, 10 to 20% higher than the current normally drawn by all appliances. For further safety, a
suitable value MAINS FUSE like rating 32 A is connected in series with supply source.

Diagram

Procedure

1. Connect the bulbs B1, B2 and B3 in series with switches S1, S2 and S3 respectively
and connect each set of B-S in parallel with each other.
 2. Connect main supply to a step-down transformer (battery eliminator) to get
required voltage from 0 to 10 V (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 V).
3. Connect the mains fuse M.S. in series with the power supply (battery eliminator).
4. Connect an A.C. ammeter in series with the B-S set.
5. Connect one end of power supply to one end of B-S set.
6. Check the circuit one again to ensure that household circuit is complete.
7. Gradually increase the current to 0.75 A, the fuse must bum off at about 0.6 A.

ACTIVITY 3:

Aim:
To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

Apparatus:
Apparatus: A voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range, a battery, a rheostat, one way
key.
Material: An unknown resistance or resistance coil, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper.

Diagram

Procedure

1. Connect the components (Resistors, inductors etc.) in series with each other as
shown in diagram and then in series with the battery.
2. Connect the ammeter in series with the circuit, to measure the current.
3. Connect the voltmeter in parallel to the resistor, to measure the potential difference.
4. Connect the switch in series with the battery.
5. Assembly of the electrical components in electric circuit is complete.
Utility 
It is used for measuring an unknown resistance.

TERM2 EXPERIMENTS

EXPERIMENT 1

Aim
To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of
incidence and the angle of deviation.

Apparatus
Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half-metre scale, office pins,
graph paper and a protractor.

Theory
The refractive index in) of the material of the prism is given by

where, Dm angle of minimum deviation and A angle of the prism.

Diagram

Procedure

1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins or
tape.
2. Draw a straight line XX’ parallel to the length of the paper nearly in the middle of
the paper.
3. Mark points Q1, Q2, Q3,… on the straight line XX’ at suitable distances of about 5
cm.
4. Draw normals N1Q1, N2Q2, N3Q3,… on points Q1, Q2, Q3,…  as shown in diagram.
5. Draw straight lines R1Q1, R2Q2, R3Q3,… making angles of 35°, 40°, … 60° (write
value of the angles on the paper) respectively with the normals.
6. Mark one comer of the prism as A and take it as the edge of the prism for all the
observations.
7. Put it prism with its refracting face AB in the line XX’ and point Q1 in the middle
of AB.
8. Mark the boundary of the prism.
9. Fix two or more office pin P1 and P2 vertically on the line R1Q1. The distance
between the pins should be 10 mm or more.
10. Look the images of point P1 and P2 through face AC.
11. Close your left eye and bring open right eye in line with the two images.
12. Fix two office pins P3 and P4 vertically, and 10 cm apart such that the open right
eye sees pins P4 and P3 and images of P2 and P1 in one straight line.
 13. Remove pins P3 and P4 and encircle their pricks on the paper.
14. Repeat steps 7 to 13 with points Q2, Q3,… for i = 40°,…, 60°.
To measure D in different cases
15. Draw straight lines through points P4 and P3 (pin pricks) to obtain emergent rays
S1T1,S2T2,S3T3,……
16. Produce T1S1, T2S2, T3S3, … inward in the boundary of the prism to meet produced
incident rays R1Q1, R2Q2, R3Q3,… at points F1, F2, F3,…
17. Measure angles K1F1S1,K2F2S2,K3F3S3,…….. These give angle of deviation
D1,D2,D3,….
18. Write values of these angles on the paper.
To measure A
19. Measure angle BAC in the boundary of the prism. This gives angle A.
20. Record your observations.

Observations
Angle of prism ‘A’ =……

Calculations
Plot a graph between angle of incidence ∠i and angle of deviation ∠D by taking ∠i along X-axis
and ∠D along Y-axis. From this graph, find the value of single of minimum deviation
Dm corresponding to the lowest point of the graph.
Result

1. i-D graph indicates that as the angle of incidence (i) increases, the angle of
deviation (D) first decreases, attains a minimum value (Dm ) and then starts
increasing for further increase in angle of incidence.
2. Angle of minimum deviation, Dm = ……..
3. Refractive index of the material of the prism, n = ……….

Precautions

1. The angle of incidence should lie between 35°-60°.

 2. The pins should be fixed vertical.
3. The distance between the two pins should not be less than 10 mm
4. Arrow heads should be marked to represent the incident and emergent rays.
5. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observations.

Sources of error

1. Pin pricks may be thick.

2. Measurement of angles may be wrong.

EXPERIMENT 2

Aim
To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.

Apparatus
Three glass slabs of different thickness but same material, a travelling microscope, lycopodium
powder.

Theory

A slab is a piece of transparent material with rectangular faces. All faces are transparent and
opposite faces are parallel. The dimension along with the light travels inside the slab is called its
thickness.
A Short Description of a Travelling Microscope
It is a compound microscope fitted vertically on a vertical scale. It can be moved up and down,
carrying a Vernier scale moving along the main scale.
In any position, the reading is taken by combining main scale and vernier scale reading.
Diagram

Procedure
Adjustment of travelling microscope

1. Place the travelling microscope (M) on the table near a window so that sufficient
light falls on it.
2. Adjust the levelling screws so that the base of the microscope becomes horizontal.
3. Make microscope horizontal. Adjust the position of the eye piece so that the cross
wires are clearly visible.
4. Determine the vernier constant of the vertical scale of the microscope.
Other steps
5. Make a black-ink cross-mark on the base of the microscope. The mark will serve as
point P. ,
6. Make the microscope vertical and focus it on the cross at P, so that there is no
parallax between the cross-wires and the image of the mark P.
 7. Note the main scale and the vernier scale readings (R1) on the vertical scale.
8. Place the glass slab of least thickness over the mark P.
9. Raise the microscope upwards and focus it on the image P1 of the cross-mark.
10. Note the reading (R2) on the vertical scale as before (Step 7).
11. Sprinkle a few particles of lycopodium powder on the surface of the slab.
12. Raise the microscope further upward and focus it on the particle near S.
13. Note the reading (R3) on the vertical scale again (Step 7).
14. Repeat above steps with other glass slab of more thicknesses.
15. Record observations in tabular form as given below.

Observations and calculations

Vernier constant (least count) for vertical scale of microscope =……cm.

Result

Precautions

1. In microscope, the parallax should be properly removed.

2. The microscope should be moved in upper direction only to avoid back lash error.

Sources of error
The microscope scale may not be properly calibrated.

EXPERMENT 3
Aim
To find the refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane mirror.

Apparatus
A convex lens, a plane mirror, clean transparent liquid in a beaker, an optical needle, an iron
stand with base and clamp arrangement, plumb line, plane glass slab, a spherometer, half metre
scale etc.

Theory 
If f1 and f2 be the focal length of glass convex lens and liquid lens and F be the focal length of
their combination then,

Liquid lens formed is a planoeconcave lens with R1= R (radius of curvature of convex lens
surface), R2 =∞
Diagram

Procedure
(a) For focal length of convex lens

1. Take any one convex lens and find its rough focal length.
2. Take a plane mirror and place it on the horizontal base of the iron stand.
3. Place the convex lens on the plane mirror.
4. Screw tight the optical needle in the clamp of the stand and hold it horizontally
above the lens at distance equal to its rough focal length.
5. Bring the tip of the needle at the vertical principal axis of the lens, so that tip of the
needle appears touching the tip of its image.
6. Move the needle up and down and remove parallax between tips of the needle and
its image.
7. Measure distance between tip and upper surface of the lens by using a plumb line
and half metre scale.
8. Also measure distance between tip and the surface of its plane mirror.

(b) For focal length of the combination

 1. Take a few drops of transparent liquid on the plane mirror and put the convex lens
over it with its same face above as before (A piano concave liquid lens is formed
between plane mirror and convex lens).
2. Repeat steps 6, 7 and 8.
3. Record your observations as given below.

Observations

1. Rough focal length of convex lens =……… cm.

2.                                                   Table for distance of needle tip from lens and
mirror

Calculations

Precautions

1. The liquid taken should be transparent.

2. Only few drops of liquid should be taken so that its layer is not thick.
3. The parallax should be removed tip to tip.

Sources of error

1. Liquid may not be quite transparent.

 2. The parallax may not be fully removed.

EXPERIMENT4

Aim
To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse
bias.
Apparatus
A p-n junction (semi-conductor) diode, a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt battery, a high resistance
rheostat, one 0-3 volt voltmeter, one 0-50 volt voltmeter, one 0-100 mA ammeter, one 0-100 μA
ammeter, one way key, connecting wires and pieces of sand paper.

Theory
Forward bias characteristics: When the p -section of the diode is connected to positive terminal
of a battery and n-section is connected to negative terminal of the battery then junction is said to
be forward biased. With increase in bias voltage, the forward current increases slowly in the
beginning and then rapidly. At about 0.7 V for Si diode (0.2 V for Ge), the current increases
suddenly. The value of forward bias voltage, at which the forward current increases rapidly, is
called cut in voltage or threshold voltage.
Reverse bias characteristics: When the p -section of the diode is connected to negative terminal
of high voltage battery and n-section of the diode is connected to positive terminal of the same
battery, then junction is said to be reverse biased.
When reverse bias voltage increases, initially there is a very small reverse current flow, which
remains almost constant with bias. But when reverse bias voltage increases to sufficiently high
value, the reverse current suddenly increases to a large value. This voltage at which breakdown
of junction diode occurs (suddenly large current flow) is called zener breakdown voltage or
inverse voltage. The breakdown voltage may start from one volt to several hundred volts,
depending upon dopant density and the depletion layer.
Diagram

Procedure
For forward-bias

1. Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram.

2. Make all connections neat, clean and tight.
3. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA).
4. Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near negative end and insert
the key K. Voltmeter V and milli-ammeter mA will give zero reading.
5. Move the contact a little towards positive end to apply a forward-bias voltage (VF)
of
0. 1 V. Current remains zero.
6. Increase the forward-bias voltage upto 0.3 V for Ge diode. Current remains zero,
(It is due to junction potential barrier of 0.3 V).
7. Increase VF to 0.4 V. Milli-ammeter records a small current.
 8. Increase VF in steps of 0.2 V and note the corresponding current. Current increases
first slowly and then rapidly, till VF becomes 0.7 V.
9. Make VF = 0.72 V. The current increases suddenly. This represents “forward
break-down” stage.
10. If the VF increases beyond “forward breakdown” stage, the forward current does
not change much. Now take out the key at once.
11. Record your observations as given ahead.

For reverse-bias

12. Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram.

13. Make all connections neat, clean and tight.
14. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter (μA).
15. Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near positive end and insert the
key K Voltmeter V and micro-ammeter μA will give zero reading.
16. Move the contact towards negative end to apply a reverse-bias voltage (VR) of 0.5
V, a feebly reverse current starts flowing.
17. Increase VR in steps of 0.2 V. Current increases first slowly and then rapidly till
VR becomes 20 V. Note the current.
18. Make VR = 25 V. The current increases suddenly. This represents “reverse break-
down” stage. Note the current and take out the key at once.
19. Record your observations as given ahead.

Observations
For forward-bias
Range of voltmeter                        = …..V
Least count of voltmeter              = …..V
Zero error of voltmeter                = …..V
Range of milli-ammeter              = …..mA
Least count of milli-ammeter    = …..mA
Zero error of milli-ammeter      = …..mA

Table for forward-bias voltage and forward current

S.No Forward voltage(Vf) Forward current (if)

For reverse-bias
Range of voltmeter                     = …..V
Least count of voltmeter           = …..V
Zero error of voltmeter              = …..V
Range of micro-ammeter          = …..μA
Least count of micro-ammeter = …..μA
Zero error of micro-ammeter    = …..
2.                        Table for reverse-bias voltage and reverse current

S.No Reverse bias Reverse current (IR)

voltage(VR) (V) (µA)
Calculations
For forward-bias
Plot a graph between forward-bias voltage VF (column 2) and forward current IF (column 3)
taking VF along X-axis and IF along Y-axis.
This graph is called forward-bias characteristic curve a junction diode.

From graph, For change from point A to B

ΔVf = ……………V ; ΔIf = ……………………mA

Hence junction resistance for forward bias,

r= ΔVf / ΔIf = ………………………………..

For reverse-bias
Plot a graph between reverse-bias voltage VR (column 2) and reverse current IR (column 3)
taking VR along X-axis and IR along Y-axis.
This graph is called reverse-bias characteristic curve of a junction diode.

From graph, For change from point A to B

ΔVR= ……………V ; ΔIR = ……………………µA

Hence junction resistance for reverse bias,

r= ΔVR / ΔIR = ………………………………..

Result
Junction resistance for forward-bias = ………….. ohms
Junction resistance for reverse-bias = ………….. ohms.

Precautions

1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not being used.
3. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
4. Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
Sources of error
The junction diode supplied may be faulty.

ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITY - 1

Aim
To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed
collection of such items.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: Multimeter.
Material: Above mixed collection of items.

Theory
For identification, appearance and working of each item will have to be considered.

1. A diode is a two terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and does not
conduct when reverse biased. It does not emit light while conducting. Hence, it
does not glow.
2. A LED (light emitting diode) is also a two terminal device. It also conducts when
forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light while
conducting. Hence, it glow.
3. A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals represent emitter (E), base (B)
and collector (C).
4. An IC (integrated circuit) is a multi-terminal device in form of a chip. [See figure
(UM 3482 IC Tone Generator)]
5. A resistor is a two terminal device. It conducts when either forward biased or
reverse biased. (Infact there is no forward or reverse bias for a resistor). It conducts
even when operated with A.C. voltage.
6. A capacitor is also a two terminal device. It does not conduct when either forward
biased or reverse biased. When a capacitor is connected to a D.C. source, then
 multimeter shows full scale current initially but it decay to zero quickly. It is
because that initially a capacitor draw a charge.
The components to be identified are shown in figure.

Procedure

1. If the item has four or more terminals and has form of a chip, it is an IC (integrated
circuit).
2. If the item has three terminals, it is a transistor.
3. If the item has two terminals, it may be diode, a LED, a resistor or a capacitor.
To differentiate proceed as ahead.
4. Put the selector on resistance R of multimeter for checking the continuity. The
probe metal ends are inserted in terminal marked on the multimeter as common and
P (or + ve).

If such that the black one is in common and red probe is in P (or + ve). On touching the two ends
of the device to the two other metal ends of probes.

1. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when
reversed and there is no light emission, the item is a diode.
2. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when re-
versed and there is light emission, the item is a LED.
3. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and also when reversed, the
item is a resistor.
 4. If pointer does not move when voltage is applied in one way and also when
reversed, the item is a capacitor.

Observations

ACTIVITY 2

Aim
To obtain a lens combination with the specified focal length by using two lenses from the given
set of lenses.

Material Required:

A set of thin convex lenses, one of these is of given focal length (say 15 cm), (we have to select
a second lens such that the combination gives a single lens of focal length  fc = 10 cm), lens
holder with stand, a white painted vertical wooden board with broad stand, half metre scale.

Theory

1. The reciprocal of focal length in metre is called power of lens in dioptre (D).

2. With a convex lens, the real image of a distant object is formed at a distance equal
to its focal length.
 3. If  f1 and  f2 be the focal lengths of the two lenses and F be the focal length of the
combination.

Diagram

Procedure

1. Keep the white painted vertical wooden board to serve as a screen.

2. The convex lens (known focal length f1 = 15 cm), fixed into a holder stand is put
on the left of the screen. There are sunlight illuminated green trees at large distance
on the left of the lens.
3. The lens is moved towards and away from the screen till a sharp, inverted image of
trees is formed on the screen.
4. Distance between central lines of the screen and holder stand is measured by a half
metre scale.
5. The distance gives the focal length of the convex lens about 15 cm.
6. Replace first lens by second convex lens of required power and repeat the steps
from 2 to 5. This gives the focal length of second convex lens.
 7. Now bring both lenses in contact and repeat the steps from 2 to 5. This gives the
combined focal length.
8. Determine the focal length with other given lens. Determine the focal length of
about six of the convex lenses.

Calculations

Following combinations will be suitable.

Verification
The above combinations may be tried and result verified.

Precautions

1. Thin lenses should be taken.

2. Lenses should have same aperture.

Sources of error

1. Lenses may not be thin.

2. Lens apertures may not be same

ACTIVITY 3

Aim
To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass slab.
Apparatus
Glass slab, drawing board, white paper sheet, drawing pins, office pins, protractor.

Theory
When a ray of light (PQ) incident on the face AB of glass slab, then it bends towards the normal
since refraction takes place from rarer to denser medium. The refracted ray (QR) travel along
straight line and incident on face DC of slab and bends away from the normal since refraction
takes place from denser to rarer medium. The ray (RS) out through face DC is called emergent
ray.
From the following diagram

1. The incident ray is parallel to the emergent ray i.e. i = e.

2. The emergent ray is laterally deviated from its original path (incident ray) by a
distance d = t sec r sin (i – r).

Diagram

Procedure
Fix a white paper sheet by drawing pins on a drawing board.
Take a glass slab and put it symmetrically in the middle of the paper and mark its boundary
ABCD.
Draw a normal at point Q on face AB and draw a line PQ making an angle i with the normal. PQ
will represent an incident ray.
Fix two pins at points 1 and 2 on the line PQ at distances 1 cm or more between themselves.
See images of these pins through face DC and fix two more pins at points 3 and 4 (1 cm or more
apart) such that these two pins cover the images of first two pins, all being along a straight line.
Remove the glass slab. Draw straight line RS through points 3 and 4 to represent emergent ray.
Join QR to represent refracted ray.
Draw normal at point R on face DC and measure angle e. It comes to be equal to angle i. Produce
PQ forward to cut DC at T. Draw TU perpendicular to RS. TU measures lateral displacement d.
Now take another set for different angle of incident and measure the lateral displacement.

S.No Angle of incidence(i) Angle of Difference(i-e)

(degree) emergence(e)
(degree)

1 30 31 1

2 45 45 0

Conclusions

1. Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of emergence (e).

2. The lateral displacement increases with the increase in the thickness of the slab.
3. The lateral displacement increases with the angle of incidence (i).