PS-II (BLLB-202) Unit-III (A)

KARL MAX

DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM & MODE OF PRODUCTION

 INTRODUCTION

Karl Marx (1818‐1883) was a famous German economist and

social philosopher of the 19th century who is the chief exponent of
Marxism.
Marx was also an outstanding social scientist, historian and
revolutionary who undertook a critical analysis of capitalist
society, propounded materialist interpretation of history, and
showed the way for the transition to communism.
Marx was born into a professional middle‐class family. His father
was an enlightened lawyer with a rational outlook.
Marx studied philosophy and history at several German 
universities including the University of Berlin where he took a 
keen interest in G.W.F Hegel’s (1770‐1831) political philosophy. 
Marx developed his radical outlook in his early days which
prevented him from securing an academic position– his favourite
job. So he turned to journalism.
Because of his extremely radical views, he not only lost his job
but was also expelled from the country. Then he moved to
France– the home of socialist thought where he became an
ardent communist.
In 1842 Marx met Engels in Paris. Engels was a brilliant
intellectual who agreed with Marx on most of the social and
economic issues. This marked the beginning of their lifelong
friendship and collaboration.
He moved to Paris first [1843] and then to Brussels [1845] and
finally England [1849] where he lived rest of his life and
produced most of his prominent works until he died at the age
of 65 [1883].
KARL MARX WAS INFLUENCED BY FOLLOWING FACTORS

HEGEL’S IMPACT: When he was studying philosophy at Berlin

University, he came under the influence of Hegelian philosophy. He
became a member of ‘Young Hegelians’.
IMPACT OF SOCIALIST: After his education, he worked as a journalist
and turned to the study of economics and politics. Due to his radical
and revolutionary writings, his newspaper was suppressed by the
Prussian government; hence, he had to flee to Paris. There he came in
contact with French socialist. He was influenced by the Socialist. Marx
has taken the central idea of socialism from the early socialists.
ACTIVIST: Karl Marx was not only ‘a man of words but also a man of
action.’ He had taken an active part in the Revolution of 1848 in
France and Prussia. He was expelled from Prussia for his radical
views. He went to London and lived the rest of his life among the
workers in their slums and suffered the hardships that workers
suffered. In 1864, Marx was active in organizing the International
workingmen’s Association in London.
MATERIALIST PHILOSOPHY: Marx was influenced by Ludwig
Fearbach for his materialist philosophy. The central idea of his
materialism is his refusal to accept God and Religion. Marx
condemned religion as the opium of the masses.
BRITISH POLITICAL ECONOMY: Marx was inspired by the classical
school of the British political economy. Classical economists like Ricardo
developed the theory of value. Marx used that theory in his theory of
surplus‐value. In this way, most of the ideas of Marx were anticipated
by his predecessors in Germany, France and England.
INFLUENCE OF CONTEMPORARY SITUATION: In the 17th and 18th
century, the bourgeois revolution destroyed the feudal system. It was
replaced by capitalism, and the bourgeoisie conquered political power
and established their domination.
 Result of this system was inequality, impoverishment of the workers. It
created large scale dissatisfied in the working class. They tried to rebel.
But their rebel was unorganized, Marx felt that first of all political
structure is to be changed. In a bourgeois set up, workers cannot
improve their economy. The state is the instrument of exploitation in
the hands of the bourgeois.
 Marxism, in its proper sense, first appeared in the middle of the
19th century in response to the oppressive conditions created by
the capitalist system.
 With its doctrine laissez‐faire and free‐market economy liberalism
had achieved the goal establishing capitalism under which a tiny
class of capitalists enjoyed special power and privileges at the
expense of the large majority of the working class, it made
tremendous economic inequalities and injustice.
 Response to this horrible condition came in the form of socialist
movement by early socialists like Saint‐Simon, Louis Blanc, Robert
Owen, Chals, P.J. Proudhon, etc. These thinkers arrived at a correct
diagnosis of the ills of the capitalist system but had no clear
conception of the remedy. They are, therefore, called ‘utopian
socialist.’
 Marx and Engels sought to replace utopian socialism by scientific
socialism for the analysis of social problems and finding their
solution. The solution came in the form of an elaborate philosophy
which is now recognised as Marxism.
 Marxism can be defined as a set of political and economic principles
founded by Karl Marx and Fredric Engels in order to lay the scientific
foundations of socialism.
 It seeks to understand the problems of human society through
historical analysis and treats history as a process of conflict between
antagonistic forces and classes.
 This conflict arises from the faults in the mode of production in which
one class comes to gain ownership and control of the means of social
production (land, building, mines, forests, machinery and capital, etc.)
and compels the other class to work on terms and conditions dictated
by itself.
 This conflict can be resolved only by overthrowing capitalism, placing
all means of social production under social ownership and control,
enforcing universal labour and ensuring the full development of the
forces of production.
 Marx & Engels made an immense contributions to political
philosophy, sociology, economics, philosophy, so on. Their major
contribution to political philosophy are Dialectical Materialism,
Historical Materialism, Theory of Revolution, Doctrine of Class
Conflict, Concept of Surplus Value, Theory of Freedom and Role of
Private Property.
 DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM
 Dialectical materialism represents the philosophical basis
(philosophical speculation) of Marxism. Historical materialism
represents its empirical basis (the subject of social and historical
investigation).
 Dialectics is a theory of development. It is the soul of Marxism.
 Dialectics is the method of arriving at the truth by discussion after
presenting contradictory propositions.
 Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel had tried to explain the mechanism
of social change through the dialectical method.
 Marx was influenced by Hegel and his concept of dialectics.
 Hegel used this method to explain the process of History and the
origin of the state.
 Marx applied dialectics to show the process of the development of
communism.
 In fact, Marx borrowed his dialectical method from German
philosopher G.W.F Hegel and sought to combine it with his
materialism.
 Hegel considered ‘idea’ or ‘consciousness’ was the essence of the
universe, and the human idea is the ultimate reality. It was the force
behind all historical development.
 The term dialectical originally referred to the process whereby ideas
are formed and clarified in the course of intellectual debate.
 A proposition, or thesis, is first advanced, and then challenged by a
counter‐proposition or anti‐thesis.
 Since both are apt to be partly true, the normal outcome of their
encounter is a revised proposition, or synthesis, that combines the
valid elements of the two.
 In other terms, the idea evolved into new forms because of its
inherent tension, exemplified in the clash between a thesis (a
proposition/ partially truth) and anti‐thesis (a counter‐proposition/
opposite of thesis, again partially truth) resulting in synthesis (a
revised‐proposition/ which is nearer the truth).
 As long as synthesis itself contains partial truth, it takes the
role of thesis and undergoes the same process until this
process reaches absolute truth, exemplified in ‘absolute idea’
or ‘absolute consciousness.’
 Hegel believed that social institutions only reflect the ideas
behind them and that it is the movement of ideas, through the
dialectical process, which is responsible for the development
of social institutions.
 He further said nation‐state is the highest stage of social
evolution, as the embodiment of truth– the perfect form of
social institutions.
 However, Marx believed that ‘matter’ (not idea) was the essence of
the universe and ultimate reality.
 According to Marxism, material conditions of human life which paves
the way for social progress.
 Class conflict is also a manifestation of this process. He emphasized
that it is the material factors which are responsible for the
development of history.
 Hegel believed that idea or consciousness as the real force behind
social evolution and historical development, but Marx refused to
recognize that.
 Instead, Marx argued that social institutions are shaped by the material
conditions of human life, which are determined by the mode of economic
production in society.
 Thus Marx sought to replace Hegel’s ‘dialectical idealism’ by his own
‘dialectical materialism.’
 For Marx, each stage of social development represented the
corresponding stage of development of the material conditions of
society.
 The dialectical process determined social development throughout
history.
 Historical progress is achieved through a series of contradictions.
 Every stage of social development contains the seeds of its own decay is
followed by a higher stage of development until a perfect society is
evolved.
 The driving force of social change is the struggle between the
opposites. The struggle is between the economic classes. Thus Marx
held that materialism was realistic and scientific.
 This philosophy is based on the materialist conception of history, the
belief that economic factors are the ultimately determining force in
human history.
 The opening sentence of the Communist Manifesto (1848) reads;
The history of all hitherto society is the history of class struggle.
 According to Marx, the struggle is between social classes rather
than nations, and the power is economic rather than political,
political power being in Marx’s theory a consequence of economic
position.
 HISTORICAL MATERIALISM & MODE OF PRODUCTION

 While dialectical materialism represents the philosophical basis of

Marxism, Historical Materialism represents its empirical basis. That
means historical materialism is a subject of social and historical
investigation like an empirical science.
 All types of social relations prevailing at any stage of historical
development are determined by the economic conditions.
 According to Marx, the survival of man depends upon his efficiency in
the production of material things. Production is the most important of
all human activity.
 Society comes into existence primarily for the purpose of economic
production. A perfect society will secure all the necessities of life to
the satisfaction of all its members.
 According to the dialectic concept, perfection comes through a very
long process of conflict between antagonistic elements.
 Society, since its inception, has always been subject to internal
stresses and strains. Unsatisfied needs are, therefore, the result of
the defective modes of production.
 Man’s knowledge of truth is also imperfect, and he has always
imagined another world where all his needs would be met. Thus
religion comes into existence.
 Marx dubbed religion ‘the opium of the people,’ because when no
one’s needs are fully met in society, religion is the resort of all.
 As the process of material production holds the key to man’s social
life, changes in this process are responsible for all historical
development.
 The economic mode of production of any society constitutes its
base.
 In other terms, the mode of production in a given society
constitutes its ‘base’ (economic structure); legal and political
institutions, religion and morals, etc., constitutes its ‘superstructure’
which are shaped according to the changing character of the ‘base
(economic structure).’
 During the course of social development, the changes in the base
led to corresponding changes in the superstructure.
 Mode of production (economic structure of society) means the
prevalent method by which goods and services are produced for the
larger society, such as slave‐labour, agriculture or mechanised
industry.
 Mode of production in a given society depends on the nature of
tools and equipment as well as the level of human knowledge and
skills applied during the process of production.
 Forces of poduction and relations of production collectively known
as mode of production.
 Forces of production comprise two elements (a) means of
production (tools, machines, factories, so on), (b) labour‐power (the
skills, knowledge, experience and other human faculties used in
work).
 Relations of production are constituted by the pattern of economic
ownership of means of production.
 At every stage of historical development, owners of means of
production constitute the dominant class, and those left with
labour‐power only constitute the dependent class.
AN OUTLINE OF HISTORICAL MATERIALISM (Process of Historical Development)
Society

Base Superstructure
(Legal & Political Structure, 
Religion, Morals, Social Practices, 
Mode of Production Literature, Art, Culture, etc.)

Forces of Production Relations of Production

Labour Power Social Formation Contending Classes

Means of Production
(Human knowledge & 
(Tools & Equipment) Slave‐Owing Society Master & Slave
Skills)

Feudal Society Lord & Serf

Capitalist Society Capitalist & Worker
 Man’s constant search for improvement of production (due to
scarcity) leads to the development of forces of production.
 Means of production are improved by the scientific discoveries and
invention of new techniques and implements while labour‐power is
developed by the acquisition of new knowledge, education and
training.
 The development of the forces of production leads to the
contradiction between the forces of production and the relations of
production.
 The intensification of this contradiction ushers in a stage when the
existing relations of production are no longer compatible with the
level of development of forces of production.
 It results in the breakdown of the existing mode of production
along with its superstructure.
 Eg‐with the rise of industrialisation in the sphere of forces of
production, the pre‐existing feudal system in the sphere of relations
of production (that is the division of society into lords and serf) is
bound to collapse which is now replaced by a new capitalist mode
of production.
 In other words, as a result of some new invention or discovery, the
productive forces come into conflict with the existing relations of
production, particularly with the prevailing property system.
 With the development of the forces of production one mode of
production is replaced by another, but class conflict (between the
new social classes) reappears under the new social formation.
 Thus ancient slave‐owning society was characterised by the class
conflict between masters and slave; medieval feudal society by the
class conflict between lord and serf; and the modern capitalist
society by the class conflict between the bourgeoisie (capitalists)
and proletariat (workers).
 According to the dialectical logic, every stage of social development
which falls short of perfection contains the seeds of its own decay.
 As a result of the clash between the existing social relations and the new
productive forces, a new revolutionary class emerges which overthrows
the existing order in a violent revolution.
 Changes in mode of production give rise to different social formations
which are associated with different historical age.
 Marx said the system of household‐based small‐scale production gives
rise to slave‐owning society; the medieval system of agriculture‐based
large‐scale production gives rise to feudal society; the modern system of
machine‐based large scale production with private ownership of major
means of production gives rise to capitalist society.
 Slave‐Owing Society‐Master and Slave
 Feudal‐Society‐Lord and Serf
 Capitalist Society‐Capitalist and Worker
 MARXIAN ACCOUNT OF THE HISTORY OF CONFLICT
Sl. Historical Epoch Prevailing Mode of Cause of Class Social Contending
No. Production Division Formation Classes

1. Ancient Times Household-based small- Emergence of Slave-Owning Master and Slave

scale production private Society
property
2. Medieval Times Large-scale agriculture- Rise of Feudal Society Lord and Serf
based production Feudalism

3. Modern Times Large-scale machine- Rise of Capitalist Capitalist and

based production Capitalism Society Worker

4. Future-I -do- Socialist Socialist Workers in Power

Revolution Society and the Former
Capitalists

5. Future-II -do- No Class Communist No Contending

Division Society Classes
 All types of social relations prevailing at any stage of historical
development are determined by the economic conditions.
 As the process of material production holds the key to man’s social
life, changes in this process are responsible for all historical
development.
 According to Marx history is driven forward through a dialectical
process in which internal contradictions within each ‘mode of
production’ reflected in class conflict, lead to social revolution and
the construction of a new and higher mode of production.
 The class which owns the forces of production is always the ruling
class. With the change in the nature of productive forces, relations
also undergo changes creating a space for violent revolution and
overthrow of the existing order. This is known as historical
materialism in Marxist theory.
 The conflict between the productive forces and the relations of
production is the economic basis of social revolution. The basis of
the relations of production is ownership of the means of
production.
 The old order gives way to the new‐‐‐slave society is replaced by
feudal society; feudal society is replaced by capitalist society;
capitalist society is replaced by a socialist society.
Karl Marx & Engels identified four main stages of past historical
development:
1. The primitive communism in which forms of production are slight
and communally owned;
2. Ancient slave‐owning society in which the means of production
are owned by masters and labour for production is done by the
slaves;
3. Medieval feudal society in which the means of production are
owned by feudal lords and labour for production is done by the
serfs;
4. Modern capitalist society in which the means of production are
owned by capitalist and labour is done by the proletariat– the
property less workers.
 At each stage society is divided into antagonistic classes; the class which
owns the means of production and controls the forces of production,
dominates the rest, thus perpetuating tension and conflict.
 At each stage of historical development, the forms or conditions of
production determine the structure of society.
 Therefore all the social, political and intellectual relations, all religious
and legal systems, all the theoretical outlooks which emerge in the
course of history are derived from the material conditions of life.
 Marx believed that the socialist revolution would pave the way for the
termination of the era of exploitation.
 The outcome of this class‐struggle will be the establishment of a society
where there shall be no class and, therefore, no class struggle.
 ANTONIO GRAMSCI
Antonio Gramsci (1891‐1937) was a talented Italian Marxist who tried to
reinterpret marxism.
His philosophy regarded as an important link between the classical Marxism
and Neo‐Marxism.
In 1921 he helped to found the Italian Communist Party and became its
General Secretary in 1924.
Italy’s fascist dictator Benito Mussolini (1883‐1945) saw Gramsci as a threat
to his authority.
So Gramsci was imprisoned in 1926, and he remained a prisoner until his
death in 1937.
During his confinement, he wrote miscellaneous notes and essays which
embody his views on politics, philosophy, socio‐linguistics and literary
criticism.
These were published posthumously as Prison Notebooks (1929‐35). This
work is treated as the main source of his political thought.
 As per the conventional Marxist theory, the economic mode of
production of any society constituted its base while its legal and
political structure and various expressions of its social consciousness
including religion, morals, social custom and practices constituted
its superstructure.
 It believed that the character of the superstructure was determined
by the prevailing character of its base.
 During the course of social development, the changes in the base
led to corresponding changes in the superstructure.
 So it focused on changes in the base; the superstructure was not
regarded to deserve independent analysis.
 But, Gramsci did not accept this position rather suggested that the
superstructure of contemporary Western society had attained some
degree of autonomy, so its analysis also necessary.
 Gramsci particularly focused on the structures of domination in the
culture of capitalist society.
 He identified two levels of superstructure:
 Political Society or State: which applies coercion to maintain its
domination. The whole organization of government, including police,
judiciary, prisons, etc. comes within its purview. The structures
associated with this part of the superstructure are called ‘structures of
coercion’.
 Civil Society: which seeks to obtain consent of the citizens to maintain its
domination. This part of the superstructure is closer to the base, and it is
relatively autonomous. The structures associated with this part are called
‘structures of legitimation’. Gramsci pays special focus to this part of the
superstructure.
 GRAMSCI’S ANALYSIS OF CAPITALIST SOCIETY
Capital Society

Base Superstructure

Capitalist Mode of Legal & Political Structure, Religion,

Production Morals, Social Practices, etc.

Structure of Domination

Civil Society Political Society

Family, School, Church, etc. Governmental Organization

Structure of Legitimation Structure of Coercion

 Gramsci said the real sources of strength of the ruling classes in the West
is manifested in their spiritual and cultural supremacy.
 The capitalists manage to inculcate their value system in the mind of their
people through the institutions of the civil society.
 According to Gramsci, the institutions of civil society—family, school and
church familiarize (impart) the citizens with the rules of behaviour and
teach them to show natural respect to the authority of the ruling classes.
 These structures lend/give legitimacy to the rule of capitalist class so that
even injustice involved in this rule would carry the impression of justice.
 That is why these called ‘structures of legitimation’. They enable the
capitalist society to function in such a manner that the ruling classes
seem to be ruling with the consent of the people.
 When the power is apparently exercised with the consent of its subject, it
is called ‘hegemony.”
 Gramsci pointed out that the ‘structures of legitimation’ within the
capitalist society tend to prevent any challenge to its authority.
 Capitalist society largely depends on the efficiency of these structures for
its stability.
 It is only when civil society fails to prevent dissent that political society is
required to make use of its structures of coercion, including police,
courts, and prisons.
 Therefore he said that the strategy of communist movement should not
be confined to the overthrow of the capitalist class, but it should make a
dent in the value system that sustains the capitalist rule.
 This value system is likely to persist through the institutions of civil
society even under the socialist mode of production.
 Fresh efforts will have to be made to transform the culture of that society
by inculcating socialist values in the minds of the people.
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