V-SPEEDS

VX:
- Best/max angle of climb speed, climb at slower speed but steeper angle
- Max obstacle clearance
- Speed for which the ratio of climb & forward speed is maximum
- Max excess thrust (thrust available - thrust required = max = best angle)
- Max obstacle clearance with no high lift devices, may be lower or equal to V Y
VY:
- Best rate of climb speed, climb at shallower angle but reach altitude faster
- Speed for best rate of climb, maximum height in shortest time
- Maximum excess power (power available - power required = max = best R/C)

*** Remember power required curve vs drag/thrust curve. Tangent for power req = V MD & for drag/thrust req = 1.32
V MD

Jets:
- V MD = min thrust required/min drag speed (Min thrust = min drag)
- Best angle of climb V X = V MD = Best endurance = speed for max L/D = Holding speed
- Best rate of climb V Y = 1.32V MD = speed for best range = Best EAS/Drag ratio = Best NAM/kg

Propeller:
- Best angle of climb V X = V MP = Best endurance
- Best rate of climb V Y = V MD = Best range = speed for max L/D

Glide:
- V MP : For maximum glide endurance (Both jets & prop) min ROD
- V MD : Minimum drag for maximum range (Glide further) proportional to aircraft mass

Drift down:
- Best speed to descend after OEI (Jets): V MD = V X (Least rate of descent) (Best OEI angle of climb speed)
- Best speed to descend after OEI (Props): V MD = V Y (Best OEI rate of climb speed turboprops)
- V X – V XSE – V YSE – V Y

V S : Stall speed/min steady flight speed airplane is controllable

V SR : Reference stalls speed (6% higher than V S )
V SO : Stall speed/min steady flight speed airplane is controllable in landing configuration
V REF :
- Landing reference speed = V SO x 1.3
- Constant in turbulent conditions
- Landing speed: 1.23 V SRO = V REF (Up to 50ft)
V P : Aquaplaning speed
V LO : Maximum speed for landing gear operation
V LOF : Lift off speed
- Short runways higher flaps to take-off faster lower V LOF but lowers climb performance
- Distant obstacles lower flaps higher V LOF , higher ground roll distance
- Higher with increased mass
V MCG :
- Min control speed on the ground
- No nose-wheel steering & no crosswind used for determination
- Determined by engine thrust & rudder deflection
- Determined by primary aerodynamic control only
- V MCG < V EF < V 1
V1:
- Pilot decides to abort take-off AT V 1 (At the last resort)
- Limited by V MCG, V R & V MBE
- Min value V MCG , max value V R
- Must not be exceeded by V MBE
- Can be higher than V MU
- Value exceeds correct V 1 value = ASD will exceed the ASDA
- V 1 increase but V R the same = Increased ASD
- Higher value used with constant mass: TODR decrease & ASDR increase
- Reduced by inoperative anti-skid (Because you are braking manually you need a lower decision speed)
- OEI obstacle clearance reduces because of contaminated runway, but climb performance remains constant
- Increased with mass (Because higher mass requires more lift = more speed)
- Down slope decreases V 1
VR:
- Speed at which pilot should start to rotate the aeroplane
- If aircraft rotates earlier: Stabilizer trim setting miscalculated, centre of gravity too far aft (Miscalculated V R
does not cause early rotation, it is just a calculated value)
- Speed to which rotation to the lift off angle is initiated
- Must not be less than 1.05V MCA or V 1
V EF : 2 seconds are for recognition
V MBE (Max brake energy):
- Must not be exceeded by V 1
- If TOM is V MBE limited, an uphill requires less brake energy thus allows an increased mass (A good thing)
V2:
- Take-off safety speed/take off climb speed or speed at 35ft
- May not be less than 1.13 V SR for turbojets
- May not be less than 1.08 V SR for turboprops
- May not be less than 1.10 V MCA
- Limited by V MCA : Large flap angles, high air pressure & low aircraft weight (What is good for thrust also
increases adverse yaw OEI)
- Decreases with higher flaps
- Increased V 2 procedure(Improved take-off climb/climb performance procedure):
• Only possible when an excess field length is available (ASD is not limiting)
• Further screen height along runway
• Increases TODR & climb gradient for a given TOM
- V 2MIN :
• Decrease with higher flaps if not limited by V MCA
• Uses V SR & V MCA

V speeds affected by:

- Mass: Lower mass, lower speeds
- Density altitude: Density altitude increase, thrust decrease, lower V MCA to counteract yaw OEI
- Low field elevation = lower speeds
- Flap settings: Higher flaps = decreased stall speed
 Numbers, formulas & factors to remember
V speeds:
V Y (Jets) = 1.32V MD
V SR : Reference stalls speed (6% higher than V S )
V R : 1.05V MCA or V 1
V REF :
- Landing reference speed = V SO x 1.3
- Landing speed: 1.23 V SRO = V REF (Up to 50ft)
V2:
- 1.13 V SR for turbojets
- 1.08 V SR for turboprops
- 1.10 V MCA

Take off safety speeds Class B:

- Multi engine = 1.1 x V MC
- Single engine = 1.2 x V S1

Service ceiling:
- Piston ROC < 100ft/min
- Jet ROC <500ft/min
Absolute ceiling: ROC = 0ft/min

Clearway:
- 50% of TORA
- Area 152m (Min width 500ft) wide under control of airport authorities
TODA:
- 150% of TORA
No stopway & clearway:
- (TOD x 1.25) < or = TORA
With stopway & clearway:
- TOD < or = TORA
Upslope:
- TOD + 5% for each 1% upslope

Glide slope = descent angle

Descent gradient = tan descent angle x 100
Climb gradient % = ((Thrust – drag) ÷ weight) x 100

Climb: Thrust = Drag + Wsiny

Descent flight: T + Wsiny = D
Lift = Wcosy

C L /C D max at 4o

Specific fuel consumption (Jet): Fuel flow ÷ unit of thrust

Specific range (SPEED OVER DRAG RATIO):
- Number of miles per unit mass of fuel
- TAS ÷ fuel flow (Prop = V MD , Jets = 1.32 V MD )
- Propeller aircraft at medium altitude better engine efficiency (Power required increases with altitude)
Runway factor Class B:
Landing: x 1.43(Regulatory factor) x 1.15 (Grass up to 20cm) x 1.15 (Wet paved)
Take-off: x 1.2 (Dry) x 1.3 (Wet) x 1.0 (Wet paved)

Runway without stopway or clearway available:

- TORA: 1.25
Runway with stopway or clearway:
- ASDA: 1.3
- TODA: 1.15
- TORA: 1.0
*(ASS 1.3, TOD 1.15, TOR 1)

Slope factor:
1% = + 0.05 for UPSLOPE FOR TAKE-OFF
1% = + 0.05 for DOWNSLOPE FOR LANDING

Rate of climb = Gradient % x ground speed

Net take-off flight path: Clears obstacle distance of beginning 50ft to 1500ft
Climb rate requirement: 300ft/min with all engines operating at max continuous power

Drift down procedure: Procedure for one engine inoperative

Gross gradient of climb: - 0.5%
Gross gradient of descent: + 0.5%

Compliance planning stage: 300ft/min climb with all engines operating

After take-off:
Bank angle below 50ft (screen height) = 0 after take-off

0 – 15o 15o
VMC 300m 600m
IMC 600m 900m

Clearance width (D = Distance from end of TODA):

Wingspan > 60m: 90m + 0.125D
Wingspan < 60m: 60m + (1/2 wingspan) + 0.125D

Turning after take-off:

- No turns below 50ft
- 15o from 50 – 400ft
- 25o >400ft

Climb angle (o) = Climb gradient (%) x (3/5)

ROC = Still air climb gradient (%) x TAS

ROC = Effective wind climb gradient (%) x GS
More accurate formula: ROC = Climb gradient (%) x TAS x (6080/6000)

Gradient % = (Altitude difference x 100) ÷ horizontal distance

Vertical height clearance = [Screen height + altitude difference] – obstacle elevation

Gradient % = (T/W – D/L) x 100

Solving questions:
ROC in VMC = ROC all engine x 0.77
ROC in IMC = Assume OEI ROC

Time to climb to cloud base:

(Cloud base – screen height) ÷ ROC in VMC

Time to climb from cloud base to above height clearance over obstacle:
[(Obstacle height + clearance) – cloud base] ÷ ROC OEI

Distance = GS x total time

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

Starts 35ft Gear up Retracting flaps & accelerating to V FTO Flaps up, V ZF , MCT
Actions Select gear up Climb to >400ft Retract flaps, accelerate to V FTO Climb to 1500ft
Ends Gear up >400ft Flaps up, V FTO , MCT 1500ft
Thrust Take-off Take-off Take-off MCT
Speed V2 V2 V 2 - V ZF - V FTO V FTO
2 engines Positive 2.4% 1.2%
3 engines 0.3% 2.7% 1.5%
4 engines 0.5% 3% 1.7%

PCN/ACN:
ACN may exceed the PCN by 10%
- 1st acronym: Load capacity
- 2nd acronym: F = +10%, R = + 5%

MTOM calculation:
Gradient (%) = (T – D)/W x 100
*Determining MTOM assume one engine fails

Climb gradient (%) = ((Thrust – drag) ÷ weight) x100 = constant ÷ weight x 100
Net flight path gradient is smaller than gross

Gross gradient:
- 0.8% - 2 engine
- 0.9% - 3 engine
- 1% 4 engine

Drag = W ÷ L/D ratio

Gradient = (T – D)/W x 100

Class A vertical interval during drift down = 2000ft

Maximum landing distance at destination & alternate (Always the same) Class A:
Turboprop = x 0.7
Jet = x 0.6 (Jet & wet 1.92 because (1 ÷ 0.6) x 1.15)
Wet safety factor: ÷ 1.15 (+15%)
Theory to just remember:
- FOR JET PROPELLED: Speed over drag ratio is maximum RANGE SPEED
- Aeroplane with reciprocating engine flying at constant AOA, mass & configuration with increasing altitude
the drag remains unchanged but the TAS increases
- Altitude increase effect on V X & V Y in IAS: V X constant & V Y decrease
- Maximum horizontal speed occurs when: Maximum thrust = total drag
- Any acceleration during climb with power constant decreases ROD & angle of climb
- Minimum gross gradient does not account for wind
- Take off performance data is generally determined by the manufacturers by calculations only a few values
are verified by flight tests
- V MCG found with nose wheel steering inoperative as it must be valid in both wet & dry conditions
- Glide range increases when C L is reduced
- Fuel mileage in NM/KG: Lowers with FORWARD CG
- Down slope reduces V1 & reduces TODR (More than increases ASDR)

Important to understand
- Effect of GLIDING/DESCENDING: When you descend at constant MACH, your IAS increases (as you are
pitching down) so decreases coefficient of lift, descent angle increases (Because pitching down makes it
steeper)
- Turboprops are CLASS A, pistons/reciprocating are class B