Unit – I

DATA COMMUNICATIONS, DATA NETWORKS, AND THE

INTERNET

Data Communications and Networking for Today’s Enterprise

➢ In data communication world, data is generally defined as the

information stored in digital form.
➢ Data communication is the process of transferring digital information
between two or more points between two devices or between two
hosts or between two systems etc.,
➢ The fundamental quantity of the purpose of data communication is to
transfer digital information thus the data communication can be
summarised as transmission, reception and processing of digital
information.
➢ The original source of information can be in analogy form such as
human voice, music, picture or a binary coded numbers or
alphanumeric codes.
➢ The information in analogy form must be converted to digital from at
the source and converted back to analogy form at the destination.
➢ A network is a set of devices interconnected by transmission medium.
Data communication networks are computer systems and equipment’s
for effective and efficient data communication and networking
facilities to any enterprise.

Factors influencing data communication and networking

i. Traffic Growth
ii. Development of new services and advances in the technology

i) Traffic Growth

In today’s communication world both local and long-distance voice

transmission has been growing at a high rate for decade.

ii) Development of new services and advances in the technology

The increasing emphasis in office automation, remote accessing,

online transactions and other productivity measures shows the trend
continued in today’s enterprise.
Challenges of managers and communication networks engineers

i) Maximize the channel capacity.

ii) Minimize the transmission cost.
iii) Expansion of range of services.
iv) Implementing high speed networks to offer reliable services.

Technology Trends

Trends in technology enable the provision of increasing traffic capacity

and the support of a wide range of services. Four technology trends are
particularly notable:

(i) The trend towards faster and cheaper both in computing and
communication. For faster computation powerful computers are used
and in terms of faster transmission optical cables are developed with
less cost.
(ii) Both voice-oriented telecommunications networks, such as the public
switched telephone network (PSTN), and data networks, including the
Internet, are more “intelligent” than ever.
(iii) The Internet, the Web, and associated applications have emerged as
dominant features of both the business and personal world, opening up
many opportunities and challenges for managers.
Note: Web applications may use Internet and extranet.
(iv) There has been a trend toward ever-increasing mobility for decades.
Innovations include voice mail, remote data access, pagers, fax, e-
mail, cordless phones, cell phones and cellular networks, and Internet
portals.

A Communication Model:
 Fig(b): Simplified Communication Model

A simple model of communications, illustrated by the block diagram in

Figure (a).
The fundamental purpose of a communications system is the exchange of data
between two communication systems.
Figure (b) presents one particular example, which is communication
between a workstation and a server over a public telephone network. Another
example is the exchange of voice signals between two telephones over the same
network. The key elements of the model are as follows:
• Source: This device generates the data to be transmitted; examples are
telephones and personal computers.
• Transmitter: Usually, the data generated by a source system are not
transmitted directly in the form in which they were generated. Rather, a
transmitter transforms and encodes the information in such a way as to
produce electromagnetic signals that can be transmitted across some sort
of transmission system. For example, a modem takes a digital bit stream
from an attached device such as a personal computer and transforms that
bit stream into an analog signal that can be handled by the telephone
network.
• Transmission system: This can be a single transmission line or a
complex network connecting source and destination.
• Receiver: The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system
and converts it into a form that can be handled by the destination device.
For example, a modem will accept an analog signal coming from a
network or transmission line and convert it into a digital bit stream.
• Destination: Takes the incoming data from the receiver.

The Important tasks that must be performed in data

communication system:

i) Transmission system utilization

ii) Addressing
iii) Interfacing
iv) Routing
v) Signal generation
vi) Recovery
vii) Synchronization
viii) Message formatting
ix) Exchange management
x) Security
xi) Error detection and correction
xii) Network management
xiii) Flow control

Internet:

Fig: The key elements of the internet

The Internet evolved from the ARPANET, which was developed in 1969
by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. Department of
Défense.

Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn of ARPA started to develop methods and
protocols for internetworking.

The purpose of the Internet, of course, is to interconnect end systems,

called hosts; these include PCs, workstations, servers, mainframes, and so on.
Most hosts that use the Internet are connected to a network, such as a local area
network (LAN) or a wide area network (WAN). These networks are in turn
connected by routers. Each router attaches to two or more networks. Some
hosts, such as mainframes or servers, connect directly to a router rather than
through a network.

Host may send data to another host anywhere on the Internet. The source
host breaks the data to be sent into a sequence of packets, called IP datagrams
or IP packets. Each packet includes a unique numeric address of the destination
host. This address is referred to as an IP address, because the address is carried
in an IP packet. Based on this destination address, each packet travels through a
series of routers and networks from source to destination.

A key element of the Internet is the set of hosts attached to it. Hosts are
sometimes grouped together in a LAN. Individual hosts and LANs are
connected to an Internet service provider (ISP) through a point of presence
(POP).

A POP is the facility where the consumer can connect to the Internet
Service Provider network (ISP). ISP acts as a gateway to internet, providing
important services.

Network Access Point (NAP)

It is a physical facility that provides the infrastructure to more data

between connected networks. The networks connected at NAP are owned and
operated by Network Service Providers (NSPs).

The Need for a protocol Architecture:

Fig: Protocol Architecture and Networks

 A protocol architecture is the layered structure of hardware and software
that supports the exchange of data between systems and supports distributed
applications, such as electronic mail and file transfer.
At each layer of a protocol architecture, one or more common protocols
are implemented in communicating systems. Each protocol provides a set of
rules for the exchange of data between systems.
The above figure shows generalized protocol architecture and network,
where three communicating devices exchanging data through a communication
network. Each communicating device organised into three layers.
i. Network Access Layer
ii. Transport Layer
iii. Application layer

i) Network Access Layer

The network access layer is concerned with the exchange of data between
an end system (server, workstation, etc.) and the network to which it is attached.
The sending computer must provide the network with the address of the
destination computer.

Note: - IEEE 802.11is the standard communication network (Local Area

Network).

ii) Transport Layer

Which supports exchange of data with reliability which includes flow

control, error control, congestion control etc.,

iii) Application Layer

The application layer contains the logic needed to support the various user
applications such as http, ftp etc.,

Note: - Most widely used protocol architecture is TCP/IP protocol suite.

TCP/IP – Transmission Control Protocol or Internet protocol.

 Fig: TCP/IP layers and example Protocols
Note:

• IPV4 - INTERNET PROTOCOL VERSION 4

• IPV6 - INTERNET PROTOCOL VERSION 6
• ARP - ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL
• ICMP - INTERNET CONTROL MESSAGE PROTOCOL
• OSPF - OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST
• RSVP - RESOURCE RESERVATION PROTOCOL
• TCP - TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL
• UDP - USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL
• SMTP - SIMPLE MAIL TRANSFER PROTOCOL
• FTP - FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL
• SSH - SECURE SHELL
• HTTP - HYPER TEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol or Internet Protocol. It is

developed by the ARPANET funded by DARPA (Défense Advanced Research
Project Agency). It is generally called as TCP/IP Protocol Suite. It consists of
collection of protocols that have been issued as internet standards.
NOTE: Today internet standards are monitored and recommended by IAB
(Internet Activities Board).

The communication tasks or TCP/IP protocols are organised into five

relatively independent layers. They are:

(i) Physical layer

(ii) Network Access Layer
(iii) Internet layer
(iv) Transport layer
(v) Application layer

The above fig shows layered architecture of TCP/IP along with example
protocols.

(i) PHYSICAL LAYER:

It covers the physical interference between data transmission device and a

transmission medium or network. This layer is connected with specifying
characteristics of transmission medium, nature of the signal, data rate,
bandwidth etc.

(ii) NETWORK LAYER:

It is also called data link layer. It is concerned with access to and routing
across the network for two end systems connected to the same network.

(iii) INTERNET LAYER:

The devices connected to the different networks are required the

procedure to allow the data between transverse multiple interconnect networks.
It provides routing across multiple networks.

(iv) TRANSPORT LAYER:

It is also called host to host layer. It provides reliable end to end service, that
includes error control, flow control, congestion.

(v) APPLICATION LAYER:

It provides logic need to support various user applications, for reach type of
application a separate module is needed. i.e., particular to the application. It
provides access to the TCP/IP environment and also provides distributed
information services.

NOTE:

(i) The fundamental internet protocols are IPV4 and IPV6.

(ii) Most of the applications in TCP/IP environment running with TCP and
UDP protocols.

TCP AND UDP:

Most of the applications in TCP/IP architecture running with TCP

protocol. It provides reliable connection to transfer the data between
applications (It is a temporary logical association between the applications).

The above fig.(a) shows TCP header which is a minimum of 20 Octates

or 160 bits. The source port and destination port identify the application that are
using particular connection.
Sequence number, acknowledgement number and window fields provide
flow control and error control. Check sum is 16-bit frame used to detect errors
in the TCP segment and rectified with the
help of urgent pointer, flags reserved etc.
UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol. Its header format is shown in
fig.(ii). UDP does not guarantee delivering. preservation of sequence and
protection against duplication. But it enables procedures, send the messages to
other procedures with minimum protocol mechanism, such as SNMP (Simple
Network Management Protocol).

STANDARDIZATION WITHIN A PROTOCOL:

Fig(i): A protocol Architecture as a frame works for standardization.

Fig(ii): Layer-Specific Standards

A protocol architecture such as TCP/IP architecture as OSI reference model
provides a framework for standardization within the model. One or more
protocols can be developed at each layer. This can be carried by two ways:
(i) Standards can be developed independently and simultaneously for
each other. This speedup the standards making process.
(ii) The developed protocol need not to affect already existing software’s
in the layer or other layers. This makes easier to introduce new
standards.

The above fig(i) shows the nature of standardization require at each layer. It
concentrates on the major parameters:
(i) Protocol specification
(ii) Service definition
(iii) Addressing

(i) Protocol specification:

This includes the format of protocol data units exchanged between the
systems and all other sequences.

(ii) Service definition:

This defines functional description of services provides.

(iii) Addressing:

It is referenced by means of port or Service Access Point or Network

Service Access Point (NSAP).

SERVICE PRIMITIVES AND PARAMETERS:

Service primitives specifies the function to be performed and service

parameters are used to pass the data control information.
Four types of service primitives are used in the standardization architecture:

(i) Request
(ii) Indication
(iii) Response
(iv) Confirm

The below fig. shows the sequence diagram for service primitives.
TRADITIONAL INTERNET BASED APPLICATIONS:

A number of applications have been standardized to operate in PCP

environment. The most commonly used applications are:

(i) SMTP
(ii) FTP
(iii) SSH

(i) SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): It provides basic electronic

mail transport facility.SMTP features includes mailing lists, written
receipts and mail forwarding etc. SMTP does not specify the way in
which the message is created.
(ii) FTP(File Transfer Protocol): It is used to send files from one system
to another by using user command.Both text and binary files are
accomodated.FTP sets up a connection to the target system by the user
ID and password.
(iii) SSH(Secure Shell): It provides secured remote log in capability
which enables the user to log on and function directly between local
server and remote server.

MULTIMEDIA:

With the increasing availability of broadband access to the internet has

come an increased interest in web based and internet-based multimedia
applications. The multimedia terminologies are:
 (i) Media: Refers to the form of information includes text, still images,
audio and video.
(ii) Multimedia: Human-computer interaction involving text, voice and
video. It is referred to as storage devices thar are used to store
multimedia content.
(iii) Streaming Media: It refers to the multimedia files such as video clips
and audio that begin playing immediately or within seconds after it is
received by a computer rather than downloading i.e., consumed as it is
delivered from the server.

Multimedia types:

Typically, the term multimedia refers to four distinct types of media such
as text, audio, video and graphics. The below figure shows 'Multimedia
Taxonomy'

Multimedia (MM) Applications: