Chapter-01

Credit and It’s Classification

The two main functions of a bank are borrowing money from public as deposit and lending to trade, commerce,
industry and persons. The making of loans and advances is a prominent and profitable function of a bank.
Advances are made by the banks as Overdraft, Cash Credit, Term Loan, Short Term Loan, LBP, LTR, L/C etc.
Banks follow some process through which they sanction loans and disburse Loans. At first they select
appropriate borrower, process the loan proposal, attach security through applicable charge, complete
documentation, Disburse Loan, supervise and realize loan. Lending procedures commonly known as Credit
management.

Credit management is the process of accomplishing various tasks relating to deciding grant or not granting
credit to others, determination of terms and conditions, proper documentation, frequent monitoring and
reviewing the performance of borrowers and taking necessary steps to ensure smooth recovery of credit which
ensure profit maximization of the bank.

Credit management task starts from making strategic targets for credit markets and end with recovery of credit.
Broadly credit management involves the following main steps:
First, one must determine priority sectors he/she is interested to lend and prohibited sectors he/she is not
interested to lend (Credit policy formulation),
Second, one must determine which borrowers are likely to pay their debt (Credit investigation and analysis).
Third, one must decide how much credit he/she is preparing to extend in each borrower (Credit approval).
Fourth, he/she must decide what evidence he/she need of indebtedness (Documentation).
Fifth, after ha/she has granted credit, he/she has the problem of collecting the money when it becomes due. How
does he/she keep track of payments? (Monitoring, Review, and Loan recovery).

Types of Credit Facilities: TraditnalView

Bank credit can be categorized according to maturity, method of disbursement and repayment, origin, purpose
and security. A combination of these aspects may be used for the purpose of a categorization. According to
BRPD circular no. 16/98 loans and advance are classified as under:

i. Continuous loan: A continuous loan has no specific repayment schedule. Rather it has only limit and
an expiry date. Examples of continuous loan are OD, CC and LIM facilities.
ii. Demand loan: Loan that is repayable on demand by a bank is termed demand loan; Examples of
demand loan are PAD, forced LIM, FBP and IBP.
 iii. Fixed/time/term loan: These kinds of loans are repayable according to a pre-determined schedule.
According to the repayment time, these loans are again classified as:
a. Short term loan - Repayable within 12 months.
b. Medium term loan - Repayable within 12-60 months.
c. Long term loan - Repayable after 60 months.
iv. Short term agricultural and micro credit: Loans which are disbursed under the loan program of the
Agricultural Division of Bangladesh Bank are termed as short term agricultural loan.
BASIC Bank offers term loans to industries especially to small-scale and micro enterprises, working capital
finance in processing and manufacturing units, financing and facilitating international trade and commercial
activities. These all can be categorized as under:

i. Funded facilities
a. Term loan
 For small scale projects of fixed cost up to Tk. 50.00 lac.
 For other small and medium scale projects
 Other commercial (HBL, transport, NBFIs etc.) purpose
 Staff loan (HBL, 3 Basics, Computer, Consumer, against PF)
b. Micro credit
 For NGO
 For individual
c. Working capital [CC (H & P), ECC, SOD, TOD, PC, LTR, LIM, LBP, FBP, LAFB etc.]
 For small-scale projects of fixed cost up to Tk. 50.00 lac.
 For other small and medium scale projects
 Other commercial purpose
d. Demand loan
e. Other special programs
 Employee Separation Program (ESP)
 Black Bengal Goat Rearing Credit Guarantee Scheme
ii. Non-funded Facilities
a. L/C, BB L/C
b. Bank guarantee (Bid bond, PG, APG, Customs bond)

Different type of funded facilities

In Bangladesh lending products of banks are limited and have remained the same over the years, except that
lease finance and hire purchase have come into use recently. Based on the modes of making disbursement and
operation of accounts, the major types of bank advances are: loan, overdraft, cash credit and foreign trade
related advances namely payment against documents (PAD), loan against imported merchandise (LIM), loan
against trust receipt (LTR), export cash credit (ECC), packing credit (P.C) and bill purchase (LBP/FBP).
However, BASIC has not yet introduced lease finance and hire purchase facilities.
 i. Term/ time/ fixed loan
In the case of a loan the entire amount is disbursed in one or a number of phases by debiting the loan account.
Repayment of the loan can be made either in one or’ more than one installments. Amounts repaid cannot be
redrawn. Interest is calculated OH the outstanding balance. Short-term loans with repayment period, usually one
year are sanctioned mostly to meet seasonal working capital needs, particularly seasonal agricultural activities.
Long-term loans, 3 to 10 years, are sanctioned for acquisition of capital goods for development of
manufacturing / processing industry as well as agriculture. This type of account is not suitable for trading
purposes, particularly trading activities with a number of repetitive operating cycles in a year or season. The
security is usually mortgage of immovable property, hypothecation of machinery, pledge of fixed deposit
receipts, other financial obligations etc.

ii. Micro credit

Pursuant to the objectives of the Bank and recognizing the need for helping the destitute low-income group of
the population, the Board of Directors of BASIC Bank in 1994 formulated a micro-credit scheme for the poor.
The Bank since then has been providing funds to destitute individual and to NGOs for onward lending to their
poor members.

Although according to The Commission of the European Communities, a micro-enterprise has to satisfy the
criteria for the number of employees, which is maximum 10, Basic Bank do not have any official definition in
this respect. However, it perceives that micro-enterprises are generally of cottage industry nature and have the
following characteristics:

 Run by owner and his family members.

 Outside labor employment is low.
 Traditional, indigenous technology.
 Mixed with household economy.
 Few fixed assets.
 Little or no reinvestment.
 Low skill requirement.
 Low literacy.
 Often part-time and / or seasonal.
 No or few written business records.
 Not taxable.
 Highly diverse and multiple activities.
 Market entry relatively easy but numerous competitors.
 Local markets.
 Informal economy.
 Generate high and rapid return to capital employed.
 Tend to be more concerned with access to credit than its cost.
 Very few grow into larger scale businesses.
  Highly risky, frequent business failures, but
 Owner cannot afford to go "out of business" - and will often turn to another enterprise if first one fails.

iii. Overdraft
Overdraft facilities are allowed in current deposit accounts only. It represents permission to overdraw a current
account up to a sanctioned limit. Unlike loans, withdrawals and deposits can be made any number of times,
provided the debit balance does not exceed the agreed limit is usually allowed against excusable securities such
as fixed deposit, other financial obligations, assignment of bills collaterally secured by mortgage of property.
Sometimes overdraft is allowed without any security for a very short period.

The use of overdraft facility is discouraged for commercial purposes.

iv. Cash Credit

Cash credit is an account operated almost like an overdraft facility in current deposit account, except that a
separate account is opened and the account in general, cannot be in credit balance. It can be in debit and nil
balance. Cash credit limit is sanctioned for a specific period, usually a year or shorter period. Withdrawals from
deposits cash credit account can take place without restrictions, provided debit balance remains within the
sanctioned limit

v. Payment Against Document (PAD)

The Bank, which establishes the letter of credit, is bound to honor its commitment to pay for import bills when
these are presented for payment, if drawn strictly in terms of the letter of credit. The foreign correspondent,
which negotiates the documents, gets payment as per stipulated reimbursement terms of the L/C to the debit of
the account of the L/C opening bank's F.C. account. The opening bank lodges the shipping documents in their
books and responds to the debit advice originated by foreign correspondent to the debit of payment against
document (PAD) account. In fact, the amount stands as advance to the importer which is adjusted by delivery of
documents against payment or by allowing post import finance such as LIM or LTR.

vi. Loan Against Imported Merchandise (LIM)

Loan against imported merchandise is allowed against imported merchandise storing the same in bank's custody.
The bank through its approved clearing agent clears the merchandise. The advance is adjusted by delivering the
goods against payment by the importer. The documents remain with the Bank

vii. Loan against Trust Receipt (LTR)

Loan against Trust Receipt is a form of short-term loan where the bank delivers the import documents against a
trust receipt given by the importer to pay the bank's dues within a stipulated time limit. LTR is allowed to only
first class tested parties when the documents covering an import shipment or other goods pledged to the Bank as
security are given without payment.

viii. Export Cash Credit (ECC)

Export Cash Credit is allowed as cash credit against hypothecation of raw materials for processing goods for
export. The advance is usually adjusted from the export proceeds.
 ix. Packing Credit (P.C)
Packing credit is essentially a short-term advance granted by a Bank to an exporter for assisting him to buy,
process, manufacture, pack and ships the goods.

x. Purchase and Discounting of Bills

In the case of purchase or discounting of a bill, the banker credits the customer's account with the amount of the
bill after deducting his charges. The demand bills are repayable on demand, no time period being allowed for
maturity. The banker is entitled to demand their payment immediately on presentation to the drawee. This
practice, adopted in the case of demand bills (viz. - Cheque, bill drawn on sight L/C etc.) is known as purchase
of bills.

xi. Leasing Finance and Hire Purchase

Leasing Finance: Leasing is a commercial arrangement whereby an equipment/asset owner the lessor coveys to
the equipment user (the lessee) the right to use the equipment in return for the payment of specified rentals over
an agreed period of time. The ownership remains with the lessor. There are two principal types of leasing
arrangement: a finance lease and an operating lease.

Hire purchase: Hire-purchase is a type of installment credit under which the hire-purchaser, called the hirer,
agrees to take the equipment on hire with an option to purchase at specified rental, which is inclusive of
repayment of principal as well as interest. Hire-purchase agreement generally includes the following terms:

1) Possession of equipment is delivered by the owner to the hirer on condition that the hirer pays
periodical installments as agreed.
2) The ownership of the equipment is to pass to the hirer on payment of the final installment; and
3) The hirer has a right to terminate the agreement at any time before the ownership so passes.

Different type of Non-funded facilities

i. Letter of Credit (L/C or DC)

L/C is a form of guarantee of payment issued by a bank on behalf of a borrower that assures the payment of
interest and repayment of principal on bond issues.

ii. Bank Guarantee (BG)

Any one negotiating a contract naturally wants to be sure that the other party involve will perform as promised.
Bank Guarantees are widely used to provide this assurance

BGs are used for so many purposes. So, types of guarantee depend on which type of transaction is guaranteed.
Very popular types of guarantees are:

1) Bid-bond: A tenderer participating in tender must submit bid-bong along with its offer Stipulated in the
terms of tender, usually the amount vanes from 1% to 5% of the amount of the offer.
 2) Performance Guarantee (PG): To assure payment to the beneficiary, the guaranteed amount in the event
the supplier / seller has not me! or insufficiently fulfilled his contractual obligations. Stipulated in the
contract, usually the amount varies from 5% to 20% of the value of contract.
3) Advance Payment Guarantee (APG): As per terms of payment for major sale, the buyer usually pays an
installment for purchase of raw materials and cost of production.
4) Bill of lading Guarantee
5) Custom Guarantee
6) Counter Guarantee: It is an irrevocable undertaking of the instructing party to the guarantor to
compensate at the event.

Types of Credit Facilities: Islamic View

Investment is the action of deploying funds with the intention and expectation that they will earn a positive
return for the owner. Funds may be invested in either real assets or financial assets. When resources are used
for purchasing fixed and current assets in a production process or for a trading purpose, then it can be termed
as real investment. Specific examples of financial investments are: deposits of money in a bank account, the
purchase of Mudaraba Savings Bonds or stock in a company. Since Islam condemns hoarding savings and a
2.5 percent annual tax (Zakat) is imposed on savings, the owner of excess savings, if he is unable to invest in
real assets, has no option but to invest his savings in financial assets.

Objectives and Principles of Investment

The objectives and principles of investment operations of the Bank are:

 To invest fund strictly in accordance with the principles of Islamic Shariah.

 To diversify its investment portfolio by the size of investment, by sectors (public & private), by
economic purpose, by securities and by geographical area including industrial, commercial, and
agriculture.
 To ensure mutual benefit both for the bank and the investment-client by professional appraisal of
investment proposals, judicious sanction of investment, close and constant supervision and
monitoring thereof.
 To make investment keeping the socio-economic requirement of the country in view.
 To increase the number of potential investors by making participatory and productive investment.
 To finance various development schemes for poverty alleviation, income and employment
generation with a view to accelerating sustainable socio-economic growth and uplift of the society.
 To invest in the form of goods and commodities rather than give out cash money to the investment
clients.
 

Investment Modes of IBBL

The investment modes of IBBL are set by head office of the bank and then followed by selected branches.
Thus, efforts have been made in this report to reveal the investment modes of IBBL in order to explore the
investment modes of IBBL.
When money is deposited in the IBBL, the bank, in turn, makes investments in different forms approved by the
Islamic Shariah with the intention to earn a profit. Not only a bank, but also an individual or organization can
use Islamic modes of investment to earn profits for wealth maximization. Some popular modes of IBBL’s
Investment are discussed below.
Islami Bank Bangladesh Ltd. operates its investment activities mainly through three (3) mechanisms:

1. Bai Mechanism 2. Share Mechanism 3. Ijara Mechanism

Bai- Murabaha a. Mudaraba a. Hire Purchase

b. Under Shirkatul Melk
Bai- Muajjal Musharaka b. Ijarah
Bai- Salam

Istishna’a

Bai- Mechanism:

Under Bai- Mechanism Islami Bank Bangladesh Ltd. practiced different kinds of investment modes. These are
given below:

4.3.1.1 Bai-Murabaha (Contract Sale on Profit)

Meaning and Definition:

d. Istishna’a
“Bai-Murabaha” means sale on agreed upon profit. Bai-Murabaha may be defined as a contract between a Buyer
and a Seller under which the Seller sells certain specific goods permissible under Islamic Shariah and the
Law of the land to the buyer at a cost plus an agreed profit payable today or on some date in the future in lump-
sum or by installments. The profit may be either a fixed sum or based on a percentage of the price of the goods.

Features of Bai- Murabaha: 

 A client can make an offer to purchase particular goods from the bank for a specified agreed
upon price, including the cost of the goods plus a profit.

 A client can make the promise to purchase from the bank, that is, he is either to satisfy the
promise or to indemnify any losses incurred from the breaking the promise without excuse.
  It is permissible to take cash/collateral security to guarantee the implementation of the
promise or to indemnify any losses that may result.

 Documentation of the debt resulting from Bai-Murabaha by a Guarantor, or a mortgage, or

both like any other debt is permissible. Mortgage/Guarantee/Cash Security may be obtained
prior to the signing of the Agreement or at the time of signing the Agreement.

 The bank must deliver the goods to the client at the date, time, and place specified in the
contract.

 The purchase price of goods sold and profit mark-up shall separately and clearly be
mentioned in the agreement.

 The price once fixed as per agreement and deferred cannot be further increased.

 It is permissible for the Bank to authorize any third party to buy and receive the goods on Bank’s

behalf. The authorized must be in a separate contract.

Application of Bai-Murabaha:
Murabaha is the most frequently used form of finance in IBBL throughout the world. It is suitable for financing
the different investment activities of customers with regard to the manufacturing of finished goods,
procurement of raw materials, machinery, and other required plant and equipment purchases.  It is used widely
about 53%.
Bai-Muajjal (Deferred Sale)
Meaning and Definition:
“Bai-Muajjal” means sale for which payment is made at future fixed date or within a fixed period. In short, it is
sale on Credit. The Bai-Muajjal may be defined as a contract between a buyer and a seller under which the
seller sells certain specific goods, permissible under Shariah and law of the country, to the buyer at an agreed
fixed price payable at a certain fixed future date in lump sum or in fixed installments.
Features of Bai-Muajjal:
 It is permissible and in most cases, the client will approach the bank with an offer to purchase a
specific good through a Bai-Muajjal agreement.

 It is permissible to make the promise binding upon the client to purchase the goods from the bank.

 It is permissible to take cash/collateral security to guarantee the implementation of the promise or to

indemnify the bank for damages caused by non-payment.

 It is also permissible to document the debt resulting from Bai-Muajjal by a Guarantor, or a mortgage
or both, like any other debt. Mortgage/Guarantee/Cash security may be obtained prior to the signing of
the Agreement or at the time of signing the Agreement.
  All goods purchased on behalf of a Bai-Muajjal agreement are the responsibility of the bank until they
are delivered to the client.

 The bank must deliver the goods to the client at the time and place specified in the contract.

 The bank may sell the goods at a higher price than the purchase price to earn profit.

 The price is fixed at the time of the agreement and cannot be altered.

 The bank is not required to disclose the profit made on the transaction.

Bai- Salam (Advance Payment)

Meaning and Definition:
“Bai- Salam” means advance sale and purchase. Bai-Salam may be defined as a contract between a buyer and a
seller under which the seller sells in advance the certain commodity/products permissible under Islamic Shariah
and the law of the land to the buyer at an agreed price payable on the execution of the said contract and the
commodity/products are delivered to the buyer as per specification, size, quality, quantity at a future time in a
particular place.

Features of Bai- Salam:

 Bai-Salam is a mode of investment allowed by Islamic Shariah in which

commodity(ies)/product(s) can be sold without having the said commodity(ies)/ product(s) either in

existence or physical /constructive possession of the seller. If the commodity (ies)/product(s) are ready

for sale, Bai- Salam is not allowed in Shariah. Then the sale may be done either in Bai-Murabaha or

Bai-Muajjall mode of investment.

 Generally, industrial and agricultural products are purchased/sold in advance under Bai-Salam mode of

investment to infuse finance so that product is not hankered due to shortage fund/cash.

 It is permissible to obtain collateral security from the seller client to secure the investment from any

hazards via non-supply/partial supply of commodity (ies)/product(s), supply of low quality commodity

(ies) /product(s).

 It is also permissible to obtain Mortgage and /or Personal Guarantee from a third party as security

before the signing of the Agreement or at the time to signing the Agreement

 Bai-Salam on a particular commodity (ies)/product(s) or on a product of a particular field or firm

cannot be affected (for Agricultural Product(s) only).

  The seller (manufacturer) client may be made agent of the Bank to sell the goods delivered to the Bank

by her provided a separate agency agreement is executed between the bank and the client (agent).

 
Application of Bai- Salam:
Salam sales are frequently used to finance the agricultural industry. Banks advance cash to farmers today for
delivery of the crop during the harvest season. Thus banks provide farmers
21
with the capital necessary to finance the cost of producing a crop. Salam sale are also used to finance
commercial and industrial activities. Once again the bank advances cash to businesses necessary to finance the
cost of production, operations and expenses in exchange for future delivery of the end product. In the
meantime, the bank is able to market the product to other customers at lucrative prices.   In addition, the Salam
sale is used by banks to finance craftsmen and small producers, by supplying them with the capital necessary to
finance the inputs to production in exchange for the future delivery of products at some future date.

Istishna
Meaning and Definition:
Istishna'a is a contract between a manufacturer/seller and a buyer under which the manufacturer/seller sells

specific product(s) after having manufactured, permissible under Islamic Shariah and Law of the Country after

haying manufactured at an agreed price payable in advance or by go downs within a fixed period or on/within a

fixed future date on the basis of the order placed by the buyer.

Features of Istishna:

 Istishna’a is an exceptional mode of investment allowed by Islamic Shariah in which product(s) can be

sold without having the same in existence. In the product(s) are ready for sale. Istishna'a is not allowed

is Shariaf. Then the sale may be done either in Bai-Murabaha or Bai-Maajjal mode of investment. in

this mode, deliveries of goods are deferred and payment of price may also be deferred.

 It facilitates the manufacturer sometimes to get the price of the goods in advance, which he may use as

capital for producing the goods.

 It gives the buyer opportunity to pay the price in some future dales or by go downs.

 It is a binding contract and no party or is allowed to cancel the Istishna'a contract after the piece is paid

and received in full or in part or the manufacturer starts the work.

  Istishna'a is specially practiced in manufacturing and industrial sectors; however, it can be practiced in

agricultural and constructions sectors also.

Application of Istishna:

The Istishna'a contract allows IBBL to finance the public needs and the vital interests of the society to develop
the Islamic economy in accordance with Islamic teachings. For example Istishna'a contracts are used to finance
high technology industries such as the aviation, locomotive and ship building industries. In addition, this type
of business transaction is also used in the production of large machinery and equipment manufactured in
factories and workshops. Finally, the Istishna'a contract is also applied in the construction industry such as
apartment buildings, hospitals, schools, and universities to whatever that makes the network for modern life.
One final note, the Istishna’a contract is best used in those transactions in which the product being purchased
can easily be measured in terms of the specified criteria of the contract. 

Share Mechanism:
Mudaraba (Investment made by the entrepreneur)
Meaning and Definition:
The word Mudaraba has been derived from Arabic word “Darb/Darbun” which means “Travel”. Thus the word
Mudaraba means travel for undertaking business.
It is a form of partnership where one party provides the funds while the other provides the expertise and

management. The first party is called the “Sahib-Al-Maal” and the latter is referred to as the “Mudarib”. Any

profits accrued are shared between the two parties on a pre-agreed basis, while capital loss is exclusively borne

by the partner providing the capital.

Features of Mudaraba:

 Bank supplies capital as Sahib-Al-Mall and the client invest if in the business with his experience.

 Administration and management is maintained by the client.

 Profit is divided as per management.

 Bank bears the actual loss alone.

 Client cannot take another investment for that specific business without the permission of the bank.
Musharaka (Partnership based investment)
Meaning and Definition:
The word “Musharaka" has been derived from Arabic words "Sharikat" or "Shirkat". In Arabic Sharikat and
Shirkat means partnership or sharing. Thus the word "Musharaka" means a partnership between two or more
persons or institutions.
Musharaka means a partnership established between two or more persons or institutions for purpose of a
commercial venture participated both in the capital and management where the profit may be shared between
the partners as per agreed upon ratio and the loss, if any is to be borne by the partners at per capital/equity ratio.
In this case of Investment, "Musharaka" meaning a partnership between the Bank and the Client for a particular
business in which both the Bank and the Client provide capital at an agreed upon ratio and manage the business
jointly. Share the profit as per agreed upon ratio and bear the loss, if any in proportion to their respective equity.
Bank may move itself with the selected Client for conducting any Shariah permissible business under
Musharaka mode.

Features of Musharaka:

 Bank and client both supply capital unequally/equally.

 Profit is divided as per agreement and actual loss is divided as per equity.

 Client will maintain all accounts properly bank or its agent may verify or audit it.

 Banks can advice the client in such a business in respect of the business

 All partners can participate in the management of the business and can work for it.

 The liability of the partner is normally unlimited. Therefore, all the liabilities shall be borne
proportionately by all the partners.

Ijarah Mechanism:
Hire Purchase Under Shirkatul Melk

Meaning and Definition:

Hire Purchase Under Shirkatul Melk is a Special type of contract that has been developed through practice.
Actually, it is a synthesis of three contacts:
i) Shirkat
ii) Ijarah and
iii) Sale

These may be defining as follows:

 i) Shirkatul Melk: ‘Shrkat’ means partnership. Shirkatul Melk means share in ownership. When two or
more persons supply equity, purchase an asset and own the same jointly and share the benefit as per
agreement and loss in proportion to their respective equity, the contact is called Shirkatul Melk. In the
case of Hire Purchase under Shirkatul Melk, IBBL purchase assets to be leased out, jointly with client
under equity participation, own the same and share benefit jointly till the full ownership is transferred
to the client.

ii) Ijara: The term Ijara has been derived from the Arabic words “Air” and “Ujrat” which means
consideration, return, wages or rent. This is really the exchange value or consideration, return, wages,
rent of service f an asset. Ijara has been defined as a contract between two parties, the Hiree and Hirer
where the Hirer enjoys or reaps a specific service or benefit against a specified consideration or rent
from the asset owned by the Hiree. It is a hire agreement under which the Hiree to a Hirer against
fixed rent or rentals hires out a certain asset for a specified period.

iii) Sale: This is a sale contract between a buyer and a seller under which the ownership of certain goods
or asset is transferred by seller to the buyer against agreed upon price paid / to be paid by the buyer.

Thus,in Hire purchase under Shirkatul Melk mode both the Bank and the
Client supply equity in equal or unequal proportion for purchase of an asset like land, building, and machinery,
transport etc. Purchase the asset with that quit money, own the same jointly, share the benefit as per agreement
and bear the loss in proportion their respective equity. The share, part of portion of the asset owned by the bank
is hired out to the client partner for a fixed rent per unit of time for a fixed period. Lastly the bank sells and
transfers the ownership of its share/part/portion to the client against payment of price fixed for the either
gradually part by part or in lump sum within the hire period or after expire of the hire agreement.

Stages of Hire Purchase Under Shirkatul Melk:

Hire Purchase under Shirkatul Melk Agreement has got three stages:
1) Purchase of asset under joint ownership of the lessor and the lessee.

2) Hire, and

3) Sale and transfer of ownership by the lessor to the other partner – lessee.

Features of Hire Purchase Under Shirkatul Melk:

 In case of Hire Purchase Under Shirkatul Melk transaction the asset/property involved is jointly
purchased by the lessor (bank) and the lessee (client) with specified equity participation Under a
Shirkatul Melk contract . Under this agreement the lessor and the lessee become co-owners of the asset
in proportion to their respective equity.
 In Hire Purchase Under Shirkatul Melk Agreement the exact ownership of both the lessor (bank) and
lessee (client) must be recognized.  However, if the partners wish and agree the asset purchased may be
registered in the name of any one of them or in the name of any third party clearly mentioning the same
in the Hire Purchase Shirkatul Melk Agreement.

 The share/part of the purchased asset owned by the lessor (bank) is put at the disposal possession of the
lessee (clients) keeping the ownership with him for a fixed period under a hire agreement in which the
amount of rent per unit of time and the benefit for which rent to be paid along with all other agreed upon
stipulations are clearly stated. Under this agreement the lessee (client) becomes the owner of the benefit
of the asset not of the asset itself, in accordance with the specific provisions of the contract that entitles
the lessor (bank) the rentals.

 As the ownership of leased portion of asset lies with the lessor (bank) and rent is paid by the lessee
against the specific benefit, the rent is not considered as price or part of price of the asset.

 In the Hire Purchase Under Shirkatul Melk Agreement the Hire (Bank) does not sell or the Hirer (Client)

does not purchase the asset but the Hire (Bank) promise to sell asset to the Hirer (Client) part by part

only, if the Hirer (Client) pays the cost price / equity / agreed price as fixed for the asset as per

stipulations within agreed upon period on which the Hirer also gives undertakings.

 The promise to transfer legal by the Hire undertakings given by the Hirer to purchase ownership of the

hired asset upon payment part by part as per stipulations are effected only when it is actually done by a

separate sale contract.

 As soon as any part of Hire's (Bank's) ownership of the asset is transferred to the Hirer (Client) that

becomes the property of the Hirer and hire contract for that share / part and entitlement for rent thereof

lapses.

 In Hire Purchase under Shirkatul Melk Agreement, the Shirkatul Melk contract is affected

from the day the equity of both parties deposited and the asset is purchased and continues

up to the day on which the full title of Hire (Bank) is transferred to the Hirer (Client).

 The hire contract becomes effective from the day on which the Hire transfers the possession of the hired

asset in good order and usable condition to the Hirer, so that the Hirer may make the agreement.
  Effectiveness of the sale contract depends on the actual sale and transfer of ownership of the asset by the

Hire to the Hirer.

Quard-E-Hasana:

The literal meaning of Quard is giving “Fungible goods” for use without any extra value returning those goods.

Through these modes, bank provides loan to customer or staff for a certain period which bear no

profit/loss/compensation, especially for stuff from self contributory from provident fund.

Chapter-02

CREDIT MANAGEMENT: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Overview
Credit is the heart of banks. The success and failure of banks depend largely on efficient
handling of their fund. In the past i.e. 70 to 80 years ago credit was simple because at that
time lenders personally knew the borrowers. As commerce and industry grew, the activities
of credit management have changed. In the past, credit management was only concerned
about the protection of lenders’ own funds but in the modern banking lenders are not
concerned about the protection of their own funds but also concerned with the future of the
industry which borrowers own and the protection of borrowers’ funds. In credit management,
a credit officer has to do a lot of works. For deciding to grant credit, he has to apply his
common sense. Commonsense like, what he has to ensure the safety if he wants to invests his
own fund. For investing own funds one has to ensure the (1) Safety of his own money; (2)
recovery of his own money; and (3) actual help to others in times of need (Srinivasa 1986, 1).
 Like own funds, in making granting decision, a credit officer should satisfy
himself/herself about the safety, recovery of his funds, and needs of the borrowers. In
granting decision, a credit officer should be careful because a little bit of unconsciousness
and ignorance can lead to heavy losses to the bank. This knowledge of lending cannot be
taught nor learnt by reading an expertise book but by ones own experience and commonsense
and helping attitude (Srinivasa 1986, 2).

Definition of Credit
Encyclopedia of Banking and Finance describes the origin and defines credit as,

Credit derived from Latin word “credo” means “I believe”, and usually define as the ability to
buy with a promise to pay, or the ability to obtain title to, and receive goods for enjoyment in
the present although payment is deferred to a future date.

Report of the Committee on Consumer Credit, (Vol. Cmnd. 4596, HMSO, London, 1971,
Para.1.2.2) defines credit and explains its function in this way,

Credit is the provision of financial accommodation to a person, in return for a promise to

repay it at some future date. It may be extended as cash, or supply of goods or services. The
former type of credit is called lender credit and later is referred as vendor credit. Whatever the
classification may be, the economic function of credit is, it enables a person to spend in
excess of his/her actual means in present.

In an economy there exist two units. One is a surplus unit and other is a deficit unit. The
normal characteristics of credit is that, the surplus unit in the economy, it may be an
individual, a corporate body or a governmental institution, has surplus money but denies
himself the immediate use of money already in his possession. On the other end, the deficit
unit in the economy has an immediate need for the use of the money. Surplus unit makes this
money available on a temporary basis to deficit unit in the economy. This kind of transfer of
purchasing power from savers (the lenders) to users (borrowers) termed as credit and it paces
the economic activities and supports maximum growth and development in the economy
(Stals 1998, 1).

Credit Management
In the simplest form, management is the process of getting things done by others. In the
broader concept, management involves various systematic plan and actions to achieve the
goal of the organization. Here credit means bank credit which banks generally grant to an
individual or a corporate or a government organization with specific interest rate and specific
repayment program. Banks take various steps and accomplish various tasks to invest their
fund and to ensure smooth recovery of their fund which generally termed as credit
management. Hence, credit management is the process of accomplishing various tasks
relating to deciding grant or not granting credit to others, determination of terms and
conditions, proper documentation, frequent monitoring and reviewing the performance of
borrowers and taking necessary steps to ensure smooth recovery of credit which ensure profit
maximization of the bank.

In making successful recovery of a loan, effective credit management is needed.

Diana and Clayton (1997) identified well developed credit policies and procedures; strong
portfolio management; effective credit controls; and most critical elements of all, a well
trained staff are the key elements of effective credit management. Credit is the heart of the
banking business and by which the quality and the performance of banks are judged. The
credit management deserves special emphasis because proper credit management greatly
influences the success or failure of financial institutions. Studies of banking crisis throughout
the world have concluded that the most frequent factor in the failure of banks has been poor
asset (usually loan) quality (Diana and Clayton 1997, 31). Effective credit management
would help to prevent and minimize debt default. The ultimate gain from credit management
is higher economic growth. Without sound credit management, no economy can grow to its
potential (Meyer 2000, 8).
Credit management involves an effective processing of the entire loan transaction,
proper evaluation of credit risk, accurate documentation of the loan, security agreements and
systematic monitoring of the progress of the loans that will help to minimize loan defaults.
Beyond the bank’s institutional objectives’ sound credit management supports broader
national policy objectives by allocating scare financial resources efficiently and it foster
economic growth and minimize losses to the economy (Diana and Clayton 1997, 31).
Efficient credit management ensures the quality of credit although it significantly influenced
by other factors, such as government policy, macroeconomic condition, political influence
and the like. Banks in the developing countries are facing the various problems in managing
credit and these are government control, external and internal political pressures, production
difficulties, financial restrictions, market disruptions, delays in production schedules, and
instability in the business environment.

Banks in the developing countries often do not have a well developed credit management
process and the main deficiencies of this are:
(1)The absence of written policies; (2) The absence of portfolio concentration limits
excessive centralization or decentralization of lending authority; (3) Poor industry analysis;
(4) A cursory financial analysis of borrowers; (5) An excessive reliance on collateral; (6)
Infrequent customer contact; (7) The Inadequate checks and balances in the credit process;
(8) Absence of loan supervision; (9) A failure to improve collateral position as credit
deteriorate; (10) Poor control on loan documentation; (11) Excessive overdraft lending; (12)
Incomplete credit files; (13) The absence of asset classification and loan loss provisioning
standards; and (14) A failure to control and audit the credit process effectively (Diana and
Clayton 1997, 32).
Changing Status and Qualifications of Credit Management (Evolution of credit
management)
The major factor contributing to the changing status and qualifications for credit management
has been the rapid and tremendous growth of industry and commerce. When business was
mostly under the control of a sole proprietor and relatively small in size, the approval of
credit was simple and personal matter. 50 to 70 years ago, it was customary that lenders were
to visit markets once or twice in a year. At that time borrowers were personally known to
lenders, the size of business was small and for a number of year’s bookkeepers were in
control of the credit management task. With the pace of development of commerce, the
personal relationship was lost and some other basis was needed to manage commercial credit.
It was logical that the task should fall on someone within the company. As commerce and
industry grew, it became apparent that the work of the “bookkeeper-credit man” would have
to be divided. Parallel to the commercial and industrial developments of the last couple of
centuries a high degree of administrative efficiency has been attained through better
organization and specialization. With the organization of the National Association of Credit
Management in U.S.A. in 1896 and several other developments supported the significance of
professional credit management. Improved sources of credit information; better accounting
methods, redefinition of the techniques of financial statement analysis recognized the
professional character of credit work. Significant relationships of credit to business finance,
production, marketing and financial operations of the business sought out credit work as
group and need an increased number of highly qualified people The complexity of modern
day business and the need for specialization created this conditions, and it fostered the status
held by today’s credit managers. Now credit management has moved up to the status of an
established business group, with prerogatives, responsibilities, standards, and ethics.

Formerly, a credit officers’ attitude was depends largely on the safety of lenders fund.
Now this attitude has changed and it includes the attitude of how can I help my customers?
Many beneficial results have come from this creative helpful attitude and it was entertained
by a number of business and educational people. Modern business techniques and the
operation of an effective credit department demand that credit manager will be intimately
knowledgeable about the relationships of credit to business finance, production, marketing,
and other aspects of the business. All this has entailed a broadening the base of qualifications
of a credit manager with greater emphasis upon formal training in both the specialized and
general areas of credit management. In the past, in considering a loan proposal, the principal
consideration was given on the safety of money lent by banks. In other words, the primary
view point was that of the banks protection. Now, lenders are more concerned about
borrowers and their business. By using more scientific approach, the credit analyst has been
able to discern with greater accuracy the trends of customer’s business and its future events
with somewhat greater degree of confidence than in the past. This increased efficiency has
enabled him to view the problem in another light. Kreps et al. divide this changing attitude of
a credit manager in three ways namely:

1) The protective attitude: it is primarily concerned for the banks protection,

2) The constructive attitude: it is concerned about intelligent and exacting analysis by
which a salient trend is brought out and future events are prophesied with greater
accuracy,
3) The creative attitude: It includes informing the customer of these trends and helping
him to avoid unfavorable contingencies (Kreps et al. 1973, 222).

Definition of some terms: Some terms uses in banking business. Definitions of these terms
are given below:

The Lending Credit Officer/ Credit Officer

Rwegasira (1992) defined a lending credit officer as,
 The credit officer will be defined to be any individual working on behalf of a bank and
empowered to decide whether or not to lend to bank customers at some determined
interest rate” (Rwegasira 1992, 2).

In his word, a lending credit officer is economically rational and expected to be utility
maximizer. For attaining the objective of utility maximization, credit officer would try to
trade-off between risks and returns. In this case, the relevant returns or income is in the form
of interest payments to the bank, and the risk is in terms of default of a business firm or a
company.

The Credit Officer’s Decision Making Process

Credit officers’ decision-making activity can be compared with production and accounting
process. Each of these systems is characterized by specific inputs, a process and output. The
following figure exhibits the production, accounting and lending credit officer’s decision
making process:
 Credit Officer’s Decision Making Process
Production Process
A Firm’s Materials Productive transformation Goods and
Input output Manpower process services Market
Process Employment
Energy Etc

I P O
Accounting Process
Accounting Data Financial Statement Users
Unit of a Firm Skills Data Processing Reports
GAAP

I P O
Credit officer Decision Making Process

1.Financial
information
2.Non-financial Lending decisions
information e.g., Whether or
A Credit officer Decision process
3.Skills not to grant loan.
4.Goals
5. Perceptions
of analysts

I P O
(Source Rwegasira 1992, 6)
The actual inputs of a productive unit include material, manpower, equipments, energy and
other monetary and non-monetary economic resources from the environment. The process of
the firm consists of the productive transformation of inputs into goods and services i.e.
creation of form/service utility. The task of a credit officer is like as production unit and
he/she is interested in finding out the ability and willingness of the firm to service the loan to
be advanced. To perform this analysis, the credit officer has to acquire various type of
information regarding the prospective borrowers’ integrity, history, intention and perhaps
most important of all his financial ability to service the debt (Rwegasira 1992, 7).
Flow Chart of Credit Management
From scholarly literature, the study develops the following flow chart of credit management.
Credit Management

Strategic plan for target markets

Credit policy Formulation

Initiation, Client request, Relationship marketing

Client interview

Credit investigation

Credit analysis, Purpose, Business, Management Figures, Credit rating

Credit Analysis Report

Credit Approval

Credit Structuring, Pricing, Repayment

Credit Negotiation(Tenor, Pricing, Repayment, Covenants, Security, and others)

Documentation

Credit Disbursement
[

Internal Audit (To ensure regulatory compliance)

Credit monitoring and Review

Handling Problem Credit

Recovery of Credit

1. Strategic Plan for Target Markets

Every bank should develop a strategy by targeting markets where they are interested to
invest in current year and in future. For formulating this strategy, every bank must have
adequate data about the economy and the prospect of the sectors. By analyzing these data,
bank management can be able to determine which sectors would be profitable for them and
how they would invest in these particular sectors.
 2. Credit Policy
The primary task of the banks is to collect deposit and to lend it. To ensure efficiency in this
process a bank must decide what types of loans they will or will not make, in which sector
they will invest in and where not, what types of loan they will make and what not, to whom it
will lend and to whom not and what are the conditions, one has to fulfill to receive loans.
Bank credit policy usually reflects the above directions. Credit policy reflects the wisdom of
banks and their intention about what they are actually wanted to do and what not. As for any
business, credit management in the bank lending aims to measure and control the risk
exposure and to achieve maximum profits by limiting exposure to defaults that is default rate.
The restriction placed by law, administrative agencies, and bank examiners regarding lending
cannot ensure the profitable lending. For this, to establish credit policy and guidelines bank
typically integrate business strategy with legal and regulatory constraints. Individual bank
credit policy reflects guidelines regarding the size of the loan portfolio, the maturity of the
loans, prohibited loans, limits of loans and the type of loans to be made. These policies
regarding lending are best described in the bank’s credit policy. Credit policy helps an
institution develop strategies consistent with the profitability expectations of the institution
within an expected level of assets quality. A credit policy gives loan officers and bank
management specific guidelines in making individual loan decisions and in shaping the
bank’s overall loan portfolio. Credit policy is an anchor for a bank from which a boat swings
with wind and tide. The anchor keeps a boat from drifting in the changing condition. Like an
anchor, a strong credit policy keeps a bank tied to the bedrock of basic credit standards
(Mueller 1994.Quoted from Altman et al 1995, 11). Mott (1977, 4) views that credit policy
should include: legal consideration; delegation of authority; types of credit extension; pricing;
market area; loan standards; and credit granting process.

Components of a Standard Credit Policy

Gupta (1995) recommended thirteen aspects for a good lending policy. The aspects are: (1)
Corporate mission statement, (2) Analysis of the present credit portfolio, (3) Broad objectives
of the policy, (4) Preferred area of lending, (5) Discouraged areas of lending, (6) Strategies to
achieve the above objectives, (7) Exposure limits, (8) Liquid gap analysis, (9) Spread
management, (10) Credit expansion policy, (11) Combating the growing menace of NPA’s
(12) Industry wise specialization, and (13) Pricing strategy.
In addition to the above components, credit policy may contain: (1) Specification of
the lending authority given to each loan officer and loan committee (measuring the maximum
amount and types of loan that each person and committee can approve and what signatures
are required), (2) Credit granting process, (3) Lines of responsibility in making assignments
and reporting information within the loan department, (4) Operating procedures for soliciting,
reviewing, evaluating, and making decisions on customer loan applications, (5) Lines of
authority within the bank, detailing who is responsible for maintaining and reviewing the
bank’s credit files, and (6) A discussion of the preferred procedures for detecting, analyzing,
and working out problem loan situations.

3. Credit initiation/ Client request/ Relationship Marketing

Traditionally, borrowers apply to the bank for loan. Most banks in Bangladesh follow this
tradition. This tradition has changed. Now in the most developed countries, commercial
banks have introduced the relationship marketing which means credit officers are
approaching borrowers for marketing their credit. Most of the banks in developing countries
and also banks in Bangladesh are now thinking to introduce relationship marketing.

4. Loan Interviewing
Commercial credit is viewed as a screening process in which the first stage is the loan
interview. Clemens (1973, 125) states that

It is an education to watch and study a man of real stature as he deals with a top-level
customer.

The goal of loan interview primarily is to collect information to judge the creditworthiness of
borrowers. But this is not the only goal of loan interview. Pace et al. (1977) identified
multiple goals of loan interview such as:

1) There is a unique opportunity to convince customer that he has chosen the best bank in
town which ultimately enhances the goodwill of the bank.
2) It facilitates the collection of necessary information to reach a loan decision.
3) It gave an opportunity to build new bank business.
4) Credit interview enables credit officer to obtain enough data and understanding to ensure
that the loan can be collected.
After interviewing the borrower, the loan officer will be in a position to make decision
whether he will continue with the lending process or not.

5. Credit Investigation
The basis of extension of credit is the credit officer confidence about borrowers' willingness
and ability to discharge his obligation in accordance with the terms of the agreement (Kreps
et al. 1973, 141). If a credit officer confirms after interviewing that the amount and the
purpose of the loan falls within the bounds of the banks lending policy and the loan meets the
bank’s most basic lending criteria, the next step of credit is credit investigation (Ruth 1990,
97). Credit investigation is the process of acquiring enough information from different
sources to determine the loan applicant’s willingness and capacity to service the proposed
loan. Upon completion of credit investigation, the loan officer should have a sufficient idea of
the client’s reputation, character and experience; the company’s past and present record and
probable future performance. Some commercial banks have both commercial loan
department and credit department. If banks have both departments, credit department has
done most credit investigation activities. For meaningful investigation one has to follow some
steps. Kreps et al. (1973, 124-125) identified the following steps of credit investigation:

In credit investigation first step is to decide what questions justify the work of obtaining
answers. Second, the credit officer should determine who is best suited to handle credit
investigation. Third, what are the probable sources of information?

For conducting credit investigation, a credit officer must have adequate knowledge about
information need and sources. If a credit officer needs any assistance, he/she should give
explicit, clear directions to anyone who will assist him/her in the credit investigation.
Effective investigation needs delegation of jobs to those best qualified to execute them.

Qualifications of a Credit Investigator

There is no basic boundary of qualification for an investigator. It is customary that an
investigator should have knowledge in several basic fields. Since financial statement
information is a key in lending decision, the educational background of an investigator should
include knowledge of accounting. When the investigator looks at information from financial
statements, he or she should be able to focus on what the questionable or missing items are
and how these should be collected. An investigator should be familiar with financial data
such as; composition of assets and liabilities, operating percentages, and basic ratios. He/she
must also have the capability to spot working capital deficiencies, inventory buildups, equity
needs, and other sign of problems that an investigator thinks relevant to ask. An investigator
should be familiar with credit and financial terminology. The terms in this area are trade
term, description of different forms of lending arrangements, terms commonly used by banks
and business credit personnel in describing business and financial conditions. He/she should
also be knowledgeable with the code of ethics for the exchange of credit information and the
statement of principles for the exchange of credit information between banks and business
credit grammars. An investigator should be fully aware of the legal ramifications involved in
the exchange of commercial credit information. Knowledge of business law and law of
contracts also becomes a necessity in understanding many transactions, especially those
dealing with documents, negotiability, ownerships, dealers, agents, consignments, and the
like. An investigator should also be able to contact consulates, embassies, and trade
development offices (Heinemeyer 1980, 24-26).
Sources of Information
The sources from where information can be obtained may be classified into four general
groups: (a) Information supplied by the credit applicant, (b) Lending officer query (c) Internal
sources of information and (d) Information furnished by other sources.

(A) Information Supplied by the Credit Applicant: The following information can be
obtained from the applicant (1) Type and amount of loan, (2) Proposed sources of repayment,
(3) Plan of repayment, (4) Name of collateral or guarantors, (5) Names of previous and
current creditors, (6) List of primary customers and trade suppliers, (7) Firms account, (8)
Principal officers and shareholders, (9) Personal and business history, (10) Three or more
years financial statements, (11) Personal income tax returns, (12) Borrowing authorities and
(13) Insurance and continuing guarantees.

(B) Lending Officer’s Query: The lending officer may inquire information relating to (1)
Characteristics of borrowers market, (2) Sales and distribution channels, (3) Production
process, (4) Labor relation, (5) Experience and educational background of principal owner or
executives, (6) Name of the person who will take charge in absence of current Chief
Executive Officer (CEO), (7) Firm strategic planning program, (8) Tentative difference of
present market and future market opportunity, (9) Comprehensive strength and weakness of
the firm, and (10) Personal liabilities of applicants and guarantor.

(C) Internal Sources of Information: Information may also be collected from the following
sources:
(1) Credit file of present or previous borrowers, (2) Deposit account of present and previous
customers, (3) Past payment performance, (4) Principal customer, suppliers and other
creditors (Through account analysis of applicant), (5) Income from investment and
employment, (6) Income tax returns, (7) Depreciation and other information from income tax
returns.

(D) External Sources: Following external sources may also be used to collect information
about borrowers and his business:
1) Central bank credit information bureau (CIB) 2) Commercial publications: a) Stock
exchange publications, b) Special purpose directories, c) Articles on published trade
publications.

There are other sources like banks and trade checks, credit reporting agencies, reference
materials and periodicals, public records, government agencies, Income tax/ wealth tax/ sales
tax assessment orders, newspaper reports, market bulletins, etc.

Centralization versus Decentralized Investigation

The success of bank’s credit investigation depends largely on the bank’s organizational
structure and the scope of its responsibility. Structure of investigation varies from bank to
bank. Some uses centralized and some decentralized form of credit investigation. Several
variations of centralization and decentralization exist among the banks and have been created
to meet individual bank and customer needs. Some of the basic ones categorized are as
follows:

1) Completely Centralized: In a completely centralized investigation system, one unit is

responsible for all foreign and domestic account investigations and answering of references
inquiries on customer accounts. This form is usually adopted by banks with a limited number
of branches and where lending to major customers is done from the main office.

2) Partially centralized: a) Foreign-domestic: Foreign investigations are decentralized

while domestic investigations are completely centralized. It is applied where there is a large
overseas network. This separation also occurs when a bank is structured around international
and domestic departments and each department services its own customers.
b) Accounts-non accounts: Non-account investigations are centralized, but account
investigations and the answering of inquiries on accounts are decentralized i.e. they are
handled by the appropriate branches.
c) Centralized with exceptions: These exceptions usually include specialized departments
such as real estate, consumer lending, personnel, finance companies etc. All other
departments would work through centralized account and non-account investigation units.
3) Completely Decentralized: In this form, each department or branch services its own
needs and possibly those of its customers, including account and non-account investigations.
This situation usually occurs where banks assign customers to specific groups that are
responsible for all services (Heinemeyer 1980, 27-28).

A complete credit investigation should result the accumulation of adequate information with
respect to every significant factor pertinent to the applicant. Now the question is, what are the
significant pertinent factors should be collected by investigator? Heinemeyer (1980, 144-147)
suggested the following principal factors on which attention should be given at the time of
credit investigation:
(a) Antecedent history of the company, (b) Experience and ability of the company’s
management, (c) Exact nature of the company’s operation, (d) Company’s present financial
condition and conditions that existed for the past three to five years, including a review of
financial statement and other statements, (e) Conditions of the company’s plant, (f)
Experience and opinion of banks regarding the company, (g) Trade opinion and ledger
experience of concerns from which the company has been purchasing, (h) Trade
competitor’s opinions, (i) Conditions both within and without the industry, and (j) Extent and
nature of government competition and regulation, and effect of present or prospective
legislation.

6. Credit Analysis
Shanmugam et al. (1992, 358) defined credit analysis in this way

Credit analysis is the process whereby both quantifiable and subjective factors are
evaluated simultaneously and judged.

Libby (1979, 35) describes the main task of credit analysts, is to judge the prospective
borrowers’ ability and willingness to pay the obligation as stated in the loan agreement. It
also analyzes many other internal factors of bank’s such as portfolio composition, regulatory
constraints etc. Credit analysis is not a new concept. It is the shorthand interpretation of
information in which the organization is interested (Rwegasira 1999, 9). The end objective of
credit analysis is to minimize loan losses and non-performing loans. From very beginning of
the history of credit, a credit officer tries to ensure the safe return of their investment by
analyzing the creditworthiness of the borrowers. But the formal credit analysis system has not
developed many years ago. Beaver (1966) initiated most sophisticated model for credit
analysis. Following the work of Beaver, Altman (1969) the pioneer of model based credit
analysis developed a score based credit analysis model. After that many researchers have
developed various credit analysis models around the world (Present value model, Judgment
model etc.). In recent past a lot of quantitative and qualitative models have been developed
for credit analysis. One of the most recent models is VaR †. But these sophisticated models
require extensive data and authentic information. Bangladesh has been suffering from
extensive data and authentic information availability and unable to adopt these kinds of
models in credit analysis. Despite various model developed across country for credit analysis,
Altman "Z" score model still widely use in the world, no exception in Bangladesh.

Credit analyses are made to identify and isolate financial and other non-financial
strengths and weakness of the borrowers or his/her organization. For accepting a company,
financial analysis i.e. financial returns and costs of a company, economic analysis i.e. effect
of the company or business operation on the economy are generally measured. In credit
analysis, financial and non- financial factors of the loan applicant must be taken in to
consideration. Non financial factors analyses are purely based on judgment. In judgmental
system, credit analyses rely on the credit officer’s experience and insight. In this method of
credit analysis, subjective judgment can be made by evaluating applicant’s credit history, the
past payment record, apparent sincerity, banking history and others. Empirical credit analysis,
referred as credit scoring, where assign point values to various components. These points are
added to award the applicant a numerical score which is then compared with a predetermined
accept- reject score. Statistically credit-scoring systems have two technical flaws that are
commonly cited. First, the borrowers use data which are historical and might be obsolete in
detecting current predictors of creditworthiness.

_______________________
† Value at risk is a recently develop ed statistical model for credit analysis
Second, the data consist of only those loan applications that have been accepted and omit
applications that have been rejected (Libby 1979, 362).
Financial statements are one of the most important sources of information used by credit
officers and credit analyst in determining whether to lend money or grant credit, and how
much. But in using corporate financial statements, credit officers and credit analysts need to
have some assurance that the figures contained therein are reliable. In using credit analysis
models, a credit officer uses information collected from various sources but models based on
information from companies annual financial statements are better able to predict bankruptcy.
However, a qualified audited statement may reinforce the models findings and thus give
greater prediction confidence that the company will be in financial trouble (Firth 1980).
Credit analysis is an art, not a science. Experienced lenders will frequently
acknowledge the difficulties of credit analysis. Reasons for this complexity are; the inherent
uncertainty in forecasting financial performance, the difficulty of making character
assessments, the wide range of factors that can cause credit problems. Ultimately, credit
officers need to make judgments based on less-than perfect information. (Calhoun 1992, 37)

Role of Financial Information in Credit Decision Making

In order to talk meaningfully of the specific role of financial information and analysis in the
credit officer’s decision making process, it is necessary to know more specifically how the
credit officer arrives at his decisions. For this discussion, Rwegasira (1992) developed and
used a simple and perfectly specified decision model to study the role of information in credit
decision making process and the model is:
Assume that a credit officer is faced with:

(1) a set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive courses of action to be denoted by α. A

specific course of action will be symbolized by a, where a € α, to simplify the analysis,
assume that the credit officer evaluating the loan application can choose one- and only one–
of the two possible actions: a1 –grant the loan, a2 –do not grant the loan. This characterizes
the basic and essential feature of the decision, he has to make on every loan.

(2) a set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive future outcomes associated with each possible
action in the set a, to be signified by B with a specific outcome denoted by b € β. This set also
will be assumed to have only to outcomes: b 1- the loan will be repaid and b2- the loan will be
defaulted. Only one of the two will occur.

(3) a set of probabilities P(b) attached to the future outcomes. In this case P (b 1) and P (b2)
correspond to the two assumed future possible outcomes.
(4) a set of utilities indicating the credit officers’ subjective preference with respect to the
possible outcomes. These utilities are defined for each possible combination of action –
outcome and denoted by U (a, b).
If the credit officer behaves according the expected utility theory, he will be choose action a €
α with the highest expected value of utility. The expected utility from selecting a specific
course of action a, to be denoted by E(U/a) is :
1.1 E(U/a) = ∑ U(a,b) P(b)
b€B
and the optimal action would be :
1.2 E(U/a) = max E(U/a)=max∑ U(a,b) P(b)
a€α a€α b€B
For our simplified credit officers decision settings, if Ǿ ij (i =1,2; j = 1,2) represents
the utilities for a combination of action i and outcome j, i.e, Ǿij = U (ai, bj ), the credit
officer will choose to grant the loan, if :
E(U/a1) ≥ E(U/a2 ), or
 2 2
∑U(a1/bj) P(bj)≥ ∑(a2/bj) P(bj)……from 1.1
j=1 j=1
in other words,
U(a1/b1)P(b1)+U(a1/b1)P(b2) ≥ U(a2/b1)P(b1)+U(a2/b2)P(b2)
which means,
1.3 Ǿ11 P(b1)+ Ǿ12 P(b2) ≥ Ǿ21 P(b1) + Ǿ22 P(b2)
Otherwise, he will not grant the loan.
From the mathematical expression 1.3, it is clear that once the set of actions, the set of
outcomes and utilities (present in figure #3.3), are known, they are fully specified and, by
definition, are unaffected by information. Therefore, the information in general will serve the
purpose of aiding the credit officer in arriving at probabilities associated with various future
outcomes. Thus, the role of financial information within this context is to assist the credit
officer, in conjunction with the non-financial information, to arrive at default probabilities of
prospective business borrowers.
Figure# 3.3
Default probabilities of prospective business borrowers
Outcome bj (Repayment) (Default)
b1 b2
action a1
(grant) a1 Ǿ11 Ǿ12
(do not grant) a2 Ǿ21 Ǿ22
Source: Rwegasira 1992, 9-11)

Optimal Approach to Lending Credit officer’s Financial Analysis (An integrated

analysis)
Rwegasira(1992) argued that credit officers credit analysis approach should has to have a
good balance of both financial(accounting) data and non-financial factors, with the
information about the latter forming a contextual stage for the analysis and appreciation of
the former. He opined that such an approach should take advantage of an integrated analysis,
which mixes intuitive sensitivity and analytical incision, responds to qualitative as well as
quantitative data, and blends insight and wisdom with management science. His suggested
approach, illustrated in fig #3.4, can be outlined in a number of the following sequential
steps. The credit officer should:
 Optimal Approach to Lending Credit officer’s Financial Analysis (An integrated
analysis)

1. Review and analyze socio-Economic and

Political Environment

2. Study Nature and Purpose of Loan

No
3.Is the loan broadly
Reject & Advise
consistent with the bank
lending policy?

Yes

No
Yes 4.Borrowere personality
acceptable.

Yes Can security or other

consideration
5. Classify loan(s) according compensate for
to money volume and priority deficiency?

6. Do financial analyses
No

Yes Reject & Advise

7a. Is financial standing

of borrower sound Grant loan
enough?

Yes
7b. Can security of other Grant loan
consideration compensate
for deficiency?

No

Reject & Advise

Step 1. Review and analyze the socio economic and political environment, always looking
for those factors or developments (esp. in industry) of significant bearing to the lending
decisions.
Step 2. Examine the nature and purpose of the loan.
Step 3. Compare the loan with the general bank lending policy. This assumes the bank
lending policy will provide broader guidelines as to implications of economic and social
policy and law; stipulate the range and degree of risks acceptable; and indicate delegated
authority in lending decisions at various levels of organization. However, it is also assumed
that the policy will be broad enough to leave some amount of discretion at every level of
decision making.
Step 4. Scrutinize the borrower’s personality and assess if it is acceptable. For an individual,
one would be looking at his character, but for a company one should look at what may be
called “corporate personality” in organizational behavior. Such a scrutiny may help in
assessing the willingness to pay, which is generally taken for granted in many lending
institutions. Where the character or personality of borrower is deficient, one has to check if
such deficiency can be offset by the security.
Step 5. Classify the loan(s) according to money volume involved and degree of national as
well as organizational priorities. The consideration of money volume is supposed to reflect
also the degree risk associated with the loan. This procedure may be a necessary step before
financial analysis is done. This type of classification is relevant even with industrial or
similar categories of loans.
Step 6. Do the financial analysis. Classifying before doing financial analysis implies that
varying emphasis is going to be put on the results of this analysis itself is going to be
approached slightly different from one class of the loans to another. The goal of financial
analysis is to diagnose ability to pay.
Step 7. Check for security offered or some other consideration which may meaningfully
compensate for deficiency, if any, in financial strength or character.
Step 8. Provide financial advice which could preferably be used to reshape the credit
application where possible and necessary (Rwegasira 1992, 48-49).

Components of Credit Analysis

Scholarly literature has developed some basic components of credit analysis which we term
as “Cs of credit”. Here is a brief description of the principal Cs of credit:
C: Character, C: Capital C: Capacity C: Collateral C: Consequences C: CashFlow C:
Condition C: Current information C: Customer relationship C: Corporate life cycle has been
developed C: Economic Condition.
Character
In commercial lending, character refers to the client’s willingness and determination to meet
loan obligations. Unlike the financial performance indicators that appear on balance sheet,
character is an inner quality that is exhibited by such qualities as integrity, stability and
honesty. Responsibility, truthfulness, serious purpose, and serious intention to repay all
monies owed make up what a credit officer calls character (Rose 2002, 528). For a single
person it is the character and for big companies or firms it is the corporate personality. The
concept of corporate personality is a relatively new construct even in organizational theory.
Corporate personality or character is related to the profile of behavioral characteristic which
distinguishes a firm as an individual entity and gives it its image identity and guides its
decisions. One of the early writers to affirm the existence of corporate personality was W. H.
Newman. Thereafter, a number of writers have been observed drawing the concept into
various scenes, including even some who attempt to show that corporate personality could in
one way be determined through the analysis of accounting and financial reports, and
particularly the depreciation policies (Sorter and Becker 1964, 183-196 Quoted from
Rwegasira 1992,71). The character of a business client is best judged through years of
dealing with that person. However, many first time loan applicants are unfamiliar to
commercial loan officers and usually take more than one interview and credit investigation to
make an accurate appraisal of character. Lucas (1973, 66-76) suggested the followings; a
credit officer should look at the answer of these questions for judging character of a
borrower:

1) Does he have proven honesty? What is his past credit history? 2) What is his experience in
this field? 3) What is his expertise in his field? 4) What are his administrative abilities? Is he
an organizer-planner-can he supervise people? 5) Intelligence- is he quick to see a problem
and then act to correct? 6) Is he ambitious or lazy? 7) How does he communicate with you as
a loan man? 8) What are his habits and how does he conduct his personal life?

Clemens (1973) adds ‘frankness’ and integrity of individual(s) to the above components of
character. The corporate firm’s character or personality fundamentally influence and reflected
by things like quality of management, the firms management philosophy and culture, the past
record of achievements and failures, organizational effectiveness, organizational efficiency,
its social commitments and the like (Rwegasira 1992, 74). Organizational effectiveness can
be measured through economic (Profitability, growth, etc.) and behavioral (Consumer
satisfaction, workers satisfaction, labor and executive turnover etc.) aspects.

Capital
Capital represents the funds available to operate a business, of which there are two portion
viz. equity capital that is invested in the business by the owners and the borrowed capital that
is borrowed from other sources. Credit officer should concern about the equity capital
because more the equity capital more sincere would be the owner about their stake hence
more safeguard will be the borrowed funds. Lucas (1973, 66) advocates that a credit officer
can judge the stake of owner by investigating the following aspects:

1)The value of assets, 2) The value of liabilities 3) Whether equities he has in his assets give
adequate backup for his loan request, 4) Whether capital increased from profits or form
appreciation in stating assets 5) What assets and liabilities does he have outside the business?
Capacity
Ruth (1990, 99) defines capacity as,
Management ability to generate enough cash to satisfy all obligations is defined as
capacity.

Capacity also means borrowers’ business acumen and management ability to deal with men
and matters so that he would be able to make effective and profitable use of funds, thereby
able to repay the dues (Srinivasa 1986, 18). It is easier to evaluate the capacity of a going
concern by past financial performance and reputations. It is easy to judge the ability of
repayment of a going concern through past record of accomplishment. If the business is new,
it is relatively more difficult to evaluate the capacity of it. The followings are the indicator by
which one can judge the repayment capacity of borrowers: (1) Collection of notes and
accounts receivable, (2) Income, earnings, or new equity contributions, (3) Borrowing from
other source, (4) The education and experience of each member of management (5)
Involvement in other enterprises etc.

Collateral
Collateral is the secondary sources of repayment. If the cash for repayment of a loan is not
available from the earning of the business then collateral is used for repayment of the loan.
Collateral offsets the weakness of other cash. In most of the banking system, collateral is
mandatory. However, in modern and aggressive banking collateral is less important. The key
aspect in the collateral is the use of a test of reasonableness about true current values.
Maintenance of adequate margin collateral is only as good as the documentation required to
perfect it. Dealing with collateral, a credit officer should keep in mind the followings: (1)
Possession of the assets, (2) Valuation, (3) Age, condition, technology, (4) Marketability etc.

Consequences- Purpose
In making granting decision, a credit officer should confirm the purpose of the credit. Lucas
(1973, 66) suggested that to gain an insight into the purpose of the credit, a credit officer
should inquire about the questions: (1) Is the loan a productive one? (2) Does the loan replace
other creditors? and Why? (3) Will the borrower and the bank benefit on both short term and
long-term basis? How is it in each case?

Cash flow
Credit from banks can be paid only with cash. Banks cannot barter with a loan of grain, a bale
of cotton, and a piece of equipment or an account receivable. In judging credit request, the
credit officer must be sure that, the borrowers have the ability to generate enough cash, in the
form of cash flow, to repay the loan. There are three sources of generating cash to repay the
loan: (1) Cash flow from sales or income; (2) Sale or liquidation of assets or; (3) Funds raised
by issuing debt or equity securities. However, credit officers have a strong preference for
cash flow from sales or income as a principal source of repayment. Traditional lender may
never address the importance of cash flow analysis. In modern bank credit, lender should
know the concept of what cash flow is; why it is needed, and how to confirm there is enough?
The objective of cash flow analysis is to evaluate how well a company has generated cash
flow internally to supports assets needs caused by growth, to repay interest and principal. By
analyzing cash flow the lender can get two answers: (1) Will the expected cash receipts of a
business during the term of a loan be adequate to meet all required cash payments? (2) Has
the firm the financial flexibility to survive a period of adversity where the firm failed to
generate enough cash flow? By analyzing cash flow lender can also gain an insight into
causes of loan purpose, repayment sources, estimation of fund needed to finance operation or
capital investment cycle, and arrangement of loan terms that assures repayment of borrowed
money (Nordren 1986, 3-17). Now the question is how a credit officer will conduct cash flow
analysis? What are the available formats for cash flow analysis? There are a lot of formats for
cash flow analysis but generally two formats namely top-to-bottom format; and asset
conversion format are widely used by credit officers in cash flow analyses.
Conditions
Condition means market or economic condition is one of the traditional Cs. Conditions
suggest a forecast of the most likely sale figure and profitability for the coming year. By
analyzing economic, industry, or business conditions, a credit officer can get an answer to the
question: Can the borrowers repay? When times are good and things are going well, almost
all customers can repay. However, when times are hard or things are not going well, a credit
officer should search to find the answer to the question: Can the customer still have the
ability to repay the loan? To get the answer sensitivity of conditions analysis is also a critical
issue in credit analysis (White 1990, 11). There is an alternative interpretation of conditions.
The essence of condition risk is the sensitivity of a borrower to general business conditions.
In other words, how vulnerable is the borrower to change in the economy? When the general
economy turns sour, just how badly will your client business be affected? To credit analysts it
is important to know just what regularities (relation) exist and what changes might be
occurring with the changing economic condition. Now the question is how we can measure
the sensitivity. One simple and direct approach is to examine the stock market pricing data
for various kinds of companies. The common instrument for measuring sensitivity is widely
used statistical tool “beta coefficient”. Beta shows how a stock’s return is moving relative to
return in the overall stock market. We use market price of stock for publicly traded
companies to measure beta. Often, of course the bank client will not be a publicly traded
firm. In this case, a look at the betas of other companies may be informative to the analysts.
In other words, check and compare the betas of publicly traded companies in the industry
where the client belongs. While betas for other companies are certainly not definitive
measure of a particular client risk, they may provide a “feel” for the potential market
vulnerability of the client. Finally an evaluation of conditions enables analyst to know
something about how certain businesses react to changing business environment. (Lepley
2004, 62-65). Whether we like it or not, risk is common for loan package. Unfortunately, we
don’t always get a clear idea about the magnitude of it. To identify the risk the credit
analyst’s job is to look for clues, compare it with others from the past. The basic idea is to
think about what could go wrong in a given loan request, based on the borrowers
characteristics and the accepted wisdom on how similar businesses tend to behave. Better
yet, how about future cash flow from operation? But economic experts among us do not have
excellent result when they come to forecast business.
Current Information
To make good commercial lending decisions, credit officers need useful information about
certain critical variables (Kemp et al. 1990, 47). Information is of two types: financial and
non-financial. To make a good credit judgment financial as well as non financial information
should be taken into consideration. A credit analyst can get financial information from the
published financial statements and other published records. For getting non financial
information credit analysts should look at the management ability and uses his/her experience
for analyzing it. Financial statements contain lot of information. There is a debate that which
information is more important to lender in their lending decisions, and to what weight should
be given to particular information. A lot of models have been developed for credit analysis
where financial (Altman “Z” score) and financial and non financial information (LRA †, VaR
etc) were given proportionate weight

Customer Relationships
Customer relationships come into play in answering the question “Will the customer repay.”
If credit officers have existing relationships with customers, then they have additional
information and experience to bring to the analysis. If credit officers do not have this
experience, they will need to gather information to decide whether they want to have a
relationship with these customers or not. It is a conception that a customer of another
institution approached for credit will be treated as “red flag”. In this case a credit officer
should look for the answer why didn’t the customer borrow from his or her existing
institutions? In today’s highly competitive banking environment, however, banks are actively
trying to take away good customers from other. Customer relationships also relate to the
question “can the customer repay”. A credit officer can procure the answer from information
about past credit experience with his/her institution (White 1990).

Corporate Life Cycle

There are three stages of corporate life cycle viz. “growth” “mature” and decline stage (Kane
et al. 2003). Growth stage firms are characterized by younger, smaller, less well capitalized,
limited line of credit. Suppliers are reluctant to extend liberal terms of credit to these firms
and these firms have limited access in the capital market. Declining firms are characterized

________________________
LRA: Lending risk analysis(LRA) is a model adapted in Bangladesh for assessing creditworthiness of borrower
by limited access in the line of credit, high cost of financing. For both growth and declining
firm’s internal cash resource is important to avoid distress. For credit analysis in case of
growth and declining firm’s credit officer should look through the liquidity ratio that proxy
for internal cash resources. For mature firms one should expect that firms be relatively more
focused on cost efficiency. For mature firm analysts should look at whether firms are in
maintaining sufficient competitive advantage and related efficiency such as “economics of
scale” premium pricing from effective product and service differentiation, and / or low cost
advantage from inputs such as labors, suppliers, and so forth. Thus, net income-based ratios
should be most useful in assessing the creditworthiness of mature firms. Kane et al. (2003)
viewed that consideration (incorporation) of corporate life cycle in existing statistical models
that are used to predict financial distress greatly enhance the explanatory and predictive
ability.

Economic Condition
For credit analysis, analysts should consider the economic indicators. Literature supports that
(Liu et al. 2003) economic indicators like unemployment rate, inflation rate, bankruptcy
filings, and stock markets return have strong power for forecasting credit risk.

Credit assessment is not an exact science. There is no single item of information, such
as a single financial ratio can ever be appropriate to decide whether a company is a good
credit risk or not. The analyst must assemble a variety of information, both financial and non-
financial, to make a well-reasoned assessment of the risk involved in giving credit to the
customer. In many cases, different items of information about a company could seem to
conflict and point to a different conclusion (Credit Risk Management Series 1992, 2). For
credit analysis, there are myriad credit concepts and analytical techniques developed in the
world wide. With the innovation of computer and modern mathematical tools it is possible
within minutes to conduct an extensive analysis of ratios, trends, margins, industry
comparison, working capital need, liquidity, leverage, capital adequacy, assets turnover, and
cash-flow (Still 1984, 2). Deregulations and increased competition force banks to grant more
unconventional longer-term credit facilities to maintain market share and profit margins.
Increasingly, banks are basing their credit decisions for these facilities on sophisticated
financial analysis (Rizzi 1984, 2). The tool and aids of credit analyses have advanced to a
sophisticated level; yet an improvement in the quality of analytical tools does not ensure an
improvement in credit decision making (Still 1984, 2).
 7. Credit Analysis Reports /Preparation of Proposal
Credit analysis reports are part of a loan approval process. This process attempts to determine
repayment ability, so analyst’s reports are vital to communicate analytical findings as quickly
as possible. A credit officer of a bank branch where a borrower applied for credit usually
assembles and transmits the credit department the financial and credit information relevant
and necessary to the preparation of a credit analysis. The officer usually provides instructions
detailing the proposed loan request or the work required of the credit department. The credit
department manager typically determine the scope, depth, and completion date of the
analytical work requested in accordance with the credit officer’s proposal and time
constraints. Scope refers to the number of entities to be analyzed, and depth refers to the
degree of historic and forecasted information to be evaluated. In general, scope increases as
the number of borrowers, endorsers, and guarantors and size of the collateral base increase.
Depth increases with the increases of terms of the accommodation, amount of the credit and
the risk. The report should always describe the proposed loan structure, appraise repayment
ability, summarize strengths and weakness, and recommended alternatives that reduce credit
risk. (Levine et al.1985, 45-49). Credit reports are seen in a decentralized credit analysis
system. By using credit analysis report, a credit officer generally prepares credit proposals. In
Bangladesh credit analyses are fully centralized. Credit analyses are usually done by the
credit officer of the branch where a borrower submits loan application form and then the
credit officer sends it to the committee for sanction.

Types of Credit Reports

Credit reports are of two types: basic reports and update reports. Basic reports are the reports
that have not been analyzed before. The basic difference between basic reports and update
reports is that the later describes and examines significant changes, events, and data
subsequent to the time period covered in the basic report. Basic reports usually update in first
and second year and revises in the third year. The length of the report determines its scope
and depth, and the terms of full report, partial report, and credit memo describes the three
basic lengths. Full reports are the most detailed and most complete credit analysis. Partial
reports are written when there is little information, unsubstantiated data, or volatile
performance. Such circumstances are likely to preclude or limit industry comparisons, trend
analysis, background data, and financial analysis. Credit memos are written to answer
specific questions or resolve particular problem (Levine et al.1985, 47- 49).
 8. Credit Approval
Credit approval is the important step in credit management. Commercial banks usually follow
either committee or sequential process of credit approval. Under credit committee system, the
credit officer of the branch where borrowers applied makes necessary appraisal and sent it to
the committee for the sanction. Credit committee examines the credit officer’s proposal and
makes decision whether approve it or not. On the other hand, sequential process involves an
approval chain of individual credit officers with ascending levels of authority. There are
debates in the academician circle about superiority of the system. Proponents of the
committee system argue that it provides the maximum level of decision-making capability
because it combines the experience of the committee members. The sequential process
proponents claim that the committee system are suffering by lack of responsibility,
specialized knowledge because credit committee customarily formed by the senior members
of management and head of the lending areas. It also suffers from the lack of responsibility
and accountability. In most cases committee decisions are made without allowing sufficient
time to analyze applications. On the other hand, sequential process gives the every loan
officer an opportunity to examine the loan application, ask pertinent questions, and make
independent decisions. In committee system the responsibility of committee members cannot
be assigned. Decisions are made by voice vote or raising hands. In sequential process
accountability can be attributed more easily which compel them to be more responsible in
decision making. Banks in Bangladesh follow the committee system for loan approval.

9. Credit Structuring
Credit structuring means determination of loan tenure, it pricing, repayment mode, covenants,
security and others. There are various types of credit in banking. Each type of credit requires
unique credit structuring. Short term credit structuring is different from term loan structuring.
In case of short term loan, repayment is generally made on the expiry of its tenure. On the
other hand, term loans are related with the earning power of the borrowers. Hence, in this
case repayments are generally made on the installment basis. Pricing of loan also differ from
loan to loan. Tenure and risk play important role in pricing the loan. In case of short term
loan, inventory or working assets and for tong term loan immovable assets are generally
taken as collateral. In credit structuring, credit officer have to be careful because logically un-
sounds credit structuring might results the non-performing loans.
 10. Credit Negotiation
After approval and structuring credit, a credit officer prepares an offer letter which contains
terms and condition lay down in the credit structuring and sends it to the borrower for
acceptance. If borrower accepts the proposal, he/she sign the letter and return it to the credit
officer. Borrower may appeal to the bank to change the terms and conditions of the letter and
the bank may accept it or not.

11. Credit Documentation

The quality of bank loan portfolio depends mostly on the quality of a bank’s loan
documentation. Improper or faulty documentation may result non recovery of credit. The
legal relationship between the borrowers and the lender establish through documentation.
Similarly, bank’s legal relations with the third party also establish through guarantee
agreement, hypothecation agreement, and/or subordination agreement. These legal
relationships and the quality of documentation will not be tested until a loan problem occurs.
If documentation fails to maintain its proper legal procedure and formalities, the bank may
not only lose its collateral, but may be unable to collect the loan either from the primary
debtor or from guarantor. Behrens (1990, 90-96) in his edited books explore ten most
common problem areas in loan documentation which need to be carefully handled and the
areas are: proper entity, names and signatures, evidences of authority and capacity, collateral
descriptions, filling or recording, title and record searches, guarantee agreements, collateral
valuations, security position, and casualty insurance coverage.

Brown (1986, 36-36) suggested some good ideas to improve loan documentation and
these are:
(1) Hire experts from outside the bank to work on documentation, (2) Sign all notes by
borrowers and at least by two credit officers, (3) Loan document should be typed by one
secretary and it must be signed by him, then one can easily identify who is accountable for
type, (4) Double-check the documents to ensure that it contains the entire necessary
signatures, (5) Document appraisals, title searches for real estate secured loans. Include in
files supporting documents such as corporate resolutions, articles of incorporation, by-laws,
credit file memos, workout, and terms of loan agreement, (6) File borrowing authorization
form, (7) Record real estate and commercial collateral from UCC, (8) Maintain records on
insurance, (9) Maintain financial statements of borrowers and guarantors, (10) Arrange loan
files in logical order for easy references-financials, insurance, collateral, correspondence,
application, credit reports, and credit loan files and grouped the files as commercial,
consumer, real estate and so on, (11) Attach to each file what should be a dwindling list of
document exceptions in need of correction.

12. Credit Disbursement

After completion of documentation, bank makes disbursement. How loan will be disbursed is
generally mentioned in the credit negotiation. It is customary that term loans are disburse on
installment basis and short term loans are transfer to borrowers’ account. Borrowers can
withdraw from his/her account when deem it necessary.

13. Internal Audit/ management audit

It is necessary to audit the credit to verify whether credit has been made by following all the
guidelines of credit set in the credit policy. Responsibility of internal audit is to identify
criticized credit and to make recommendation to take necessary action against person
involved in the criticized credit.

14. Credit Monitoring and Review

After disbursing credit, credit officer’s task is to continuously monitor and review the
performance of borrowers. By regular monitoring and reviewing the performance of
borrowers, a credit officer can able to detect the signs of problem loans and can take right
actions to minimize loan losses.

Credit Monitoring
It is usual that after booking the loan, a credit officer will regularly monitor the loan and will
provide advisory service to the borrowers at the time of adverse situation in order to maintain
the quality of loan portfolio and to achieve target profit of the bank. Many business
executives complain that credit officers virtually disappear after the loan has been made.
Credit officer’s query about borrower’s business condition, growth and others motivate
borrowers to think that bank and borrowers are partners with the common goal of having the
business prosper. By maintaining good communication with the borrowers, by providing
advisory services at the time of adverse situation and by collecting information from outside
such as client’s competitors, suppliers, customers, and regulators and also from published
reports in the daily newspapers, magazines and trade publications, a credit officer can prevent
the problem loan before happening.


Criticized credits are those credits which were sanctioned by not maintaining rules of the credit.
 Credit monitoring was not a serious problem a half century ago when almost every
borrower was known by face, first name, and reputation. Credit officers were intimately
aware of every detail of borrowers. Today, financial institutions have mushroomed in terms
of staff, multiple banking locations, loan volume, and expand service areas. This growth
precludes the direct personal involvement of senior lenders in all loans. At the same time, the
complex economy and diversified loan portfolio directs credit officers to pay attention more
on loan review than before. The loan review function now receives much interest as credit
officers strive to improve and maintain their quality of loan portfolios. Credit review
performs the task of analyzing sample of credit to detect increases or decreases in credit
quality and documents the causes of the credit quality changes (Nobles 2003, 28).

Basel II requires that banks should evaluate their internal processes for determining
credit quality. A critical area in assessing the bank’s credit quality is credit review. The
amount of bank capital depends on the quality of credit. Credit review has the authority to
upgrade or downgrade the credit quality and it ultimately affects the amount of capital the
bank is required to set aside for loan losses. In the past, credit review was basically
concentrated on the risk rating of obligor but Basel II emergences an interesting technique
that affects credit review in the concept of two dimensional risk rating. Under Basel II
requirements, credit analysts should rate the obligor that will indicate the probability of
default for the obligor as well as the portfolio risk associated with this particular loan or
facility.
There is no hard and fast rule about what components should includes in review
program. It varies from bank to bank even loan to loan. Ruth (1990, 429) suggested that most
bank loan monitoring program should include:
(1) A periodic review of all or selected loans to ensure that they are consistent with bank
loan policy, documentation requirements, profitability requirements, and so forth; (2) A
grading of loan quality as measured by key indicators; and (3) External and internal audit that
consider not only the quality of banks portfolio, but may also encompass the entire lending
function from bank loan policy on down.
Scope of Review
Scope of review is a subject that is widely debated. Some banks are doing review nearly 100
percent and some as little as 40 percent. The size and condition of loan portfolio, cost and
staffing considerations are some of the factors that have a bearing on which loans will be
reviewed, when they will be reviewed, and who has the responsibility for reviewing them. A
bank with a portfolio of loans to businesses in a troubled industry may opt to review all of its
loans every three months until conditions in the industry improve. A loans meeting the


It is a report of a committee formed by Bank of International Settlement (BIS).
highest credit quality criteria may be reviewed annually. Some banks cannot afford a frequent
review of all loans, use review system based on quality of each loan. Decisions about which
loans to be reviewed and how often largely depends on loan size, complexity, and the credit
review policy of the institution. Credit review policy of the institution set guidelines which
area of lending, what maximum amount of credit, what percentage of total credit and the
circumstances of review. Some institutions determined that all loans or commitments of over
certain amount or more, regardless of location, lending area, are eligible for review. Credit
review policy might include large loans and collateral that could rapidly deteriorate in value
for regular reviews, while loans that fall bellow a certain amount threshold might not be
reviewed at all (Ruth 1990, 434-435).

Approaches of Loan Review

Munson et al. (1984, 3) suggested two approaches for loan review. One is passive and the
other is active. In passive approach of loan review, credit reviewers review the credit files
and other loan documents available to them with or without discuss with the lending officers,
even the problem loans cases. The objective of this review is primarily to identify how each
borrowing customer should be ranked on the basis of the accepted quality rating system.
After identifying the loan as problem or potentially troublesome then action to be taken is left
on either the credit officers or some other division within or outside the organization. In
active approach, the reviewer reviews up to date credit file, comments, appraise value of
equipment or real estate, examine receivables, payables, inventory, personal statements, more
recent financial statements and so forth in addition to passive approach.

Goal of Loan Review Function

Prime goal of loan review is to detect problem loan to reduce loan losses. This goal can be
achieved by accomplishing review program, by evaluating the quality and administration of
loans after they are booked, assisting loan officers in strengthening their loans, and informing
management about the condition of the loan portfolio on a regular basis by way of written
and oral reports. Credit reviewer prepares a review report for the credit officer and for the
top management to take necessary actions. Proctor (1984, 22 ) suggested the following
summary statistics and comments to be included in the report:

(a) Soundness of loan portfolio, its liquidity and profitability; (b) Evaluation of loan officers,
loan officer supervision, adherence to laws and regulations, loan policy, and loan approval
procedures; (c) Note and collateral departments’ operations.
A Loan Review Checklist
Ruth (1990, 436-440) recommended that a loan reviewer should concentrate his/her attention
to the following areas: (1) Purpose: The reviewer should consider whether the borrowers use
the loan stated for the purpose, (2) Loan repayment sources and term: Both repayment
sources and term stated in the loan documents. The reviewer should evaluate whether loan
repayment and sources are in conformity with the terms and condition stated in the loan
documents, (3) Financial condition of the borrowers: Loan reviewer reviews the key elements
of the financial statements of the borrowers and makes comment on whether any
improvements or deterioration in the borrowers cash flow, key ratios, and so forth, (4)
Documentation: By physical inspection of documents, the borrowers’ compliance with the
agreement’s affirmative and negative covenants should be verified, (5) Collateral: Many loan
losses are a direct result of collateral that was lost, improperly documented or in such poor
condition that it had little liquidation value. The loan review should include physical
inspection of collateral and an examination of collateral records, (6) Credit checks, (7)
Profitability, and (8) Regulatory compliance.

Loan Review Systems

Ziegler (1980, 40) classifies loan review system as automated reporting and actual review. In
automated reporting, banks use a software package which ensures the automated reporting of
new and renewed loans, loans over certain limit, past due loans, loans by rate level,
participation relation analysis, officers portfolio profile, loans over bank limit. Banks make
these reports available periodically at various places within the organization. The intent of
this review is not only to monitor individual position of credit but also to detect trends which
may require in-depth analysis and possible management action. In actual system there are
three tier loan review system. In three tier systems, all loans are classified as first tire, second
tire, and third tire on the basis of loans volume and some other selected criteria.

Risk Coding/ Loan Grades

The aim of the loan monitoring is to updating the grade of the credit risk. Risk grading varies
across country and even among banks in a country. There is no basic formula for grading the
loan. Proctor (1984, 34-35) developed the following risk coding/grading:

Grade Criteria
1 Entities with unquestionable financial strength, highly liquid, ability to repay obligations in
the ordinary course of business. Individuals with a satisfactory financial condition with fully
secured credit by cash deposits, cash value life insurance, readily marketable collateral,
Govt, securities etc.

2 Entities that exhibits a strong financial condition with excellent earnings records. High
quality well managed, and would be expected to meet obligation when mature, alternate
financial access when needed.
For individuals with substantial net worth, above average liquidity, and good income.

3 Entities with a satisfactory financial condition and earning history with indication that trend
will continue. Working capital is considered adequate. Should be able to handle normal
credit needs in a satisfactory manner.
Individuals with a satisfactory financial condition and liquidity. Income is adequate to repay
debt as schedule.

4 Entities with leveraged financial condition and marginal liquidity. Sporadic profitability.
Primary sources of repayment still appears available, no alternative sources of financing,
unable to servicing debt during periods of unfavorable economic condition.
Individuals having relative weak financial condition with recent history of slow pay;
however primary source of repayment is identified and appears adequate to service the debt
as schedule.

5 Entities that arte highly leveraged and experiencing adverse trends in earnings and
qualitative working capital. Would appear to be having some difficulty in servicing debt as
schedule. If adverse trends continue, credit would warrant reclassification under schedule 1.
Individuals with a highly leveraged financial condition and experiencing some difficulty in
paying debt as schedule from primary source previously identified. Availability of secondary
sources of repayment is questionable. If situation does not improve, reclassification under
schedule 1 may be warranted.
Borrowers’ statements indicate an ability to repay, but debt has become stale because appte
loan supervision/administrative action is lacking. In some cases, better financial information
is needed to clearly established borrowers’s ability to repay.

6 Borrowers’ statements indicate possible inability to repay debt as structured in the normal
course of business. In some situation, debt restructured may improve ability to repay.
Prospects are reasonably good that borrowers’ financial condition will improve. Collateral or
guarantee endorsement appears adequate but reliance on these resources for repayment does
not appear necessary at present time.

7 Borrowers’ statements indicate possible inability to repay in the normal course of business,
even if restructured. Prospects are not good that borrowers’ financial condition will improve.
Therefore, liquidation of collateral or calling on guarantor/endorser appears necessary to
collect in full.

8 Borrowers’ statements indicate inability to repay; questionable collateral or

guarantee/endorsement. In order to collect loan, strong collection effort, foreclosure, or legal
action probable. Some loss potential-up to 10% of principal.

9 10% to 50% loss potential.

10 Possible loss on account of over 50%.

Key Ingredients in the Loan Review System
A good loan policy is a guide line for the credit officers. A good credit policy, a good
administrative system, accurate information and, of course, a savvy† senior management are
key for success in loan review. Reviews are made on the basis of information, and the success
of review greatly depends on the accuracy of information. To ensure its accuracy,
information must be tested from an independent, unbiased perspective. For making loan
review accurate, a separate loan review department headed by one man with commercial
lending experience and common sense is needed.

Principles of Effective Loan Review

Wood (2003) suggested the following 10(ten) elements for an effective loan review
operation:
1) Avoid the gotcha† approach in words and actions,
2) Communicate in timely way. Do not spring surprises, touch base with the involved
parties, and get the full story,
3) Give credit where credit is due; acknowledge when the line initiates action.
4) Use the team approach. Ask “How can we fix this?” versus “How did this get broken?”
5) Avoid sharp and prickly adjectives,
6) Keep materiality in mind: “Nice to have” versus “need to have”; and underwriting
oversight on an isolated basis should not be a cause for a public humiliation; an issue on
a $10,000 loan probably is not an important issue on a $10 million loan,
7) Avoid jumping to conclusions, especially when you have not discussed the issue with
all parties involved,
8) Recognize signals you may be giving; don’t start out with “we are right and you are
wrong” body language and verbal cues. After all, you may be wrong. Listen at least as
much as you talk,
9) Make sure your constituents know that you recognize risk grading is as much art as it
may be science and that you are equally open to upgrading as downgrading, and
10) If it does not make sense, it is probably wrong.

__________________________
† Savvy: Savvy means have a practical knowledge and understanding
† Gotcha: Gotcha means yes I understand.
Which System is best?
A loan review system is the best for a bank is dependent on the risk tolerance and credit
culture of the bank. System which is best suited in one bank may not be completely
applicable to another bank. In some respect it also takes into consideration the overall
financial condition of the bank, its size, and its geographic footprint, the mix of the bank’s
portfolio among consumer loans, small-business loans. Large commercial loans may
influence the direction and scope of a loan review process.

15. Problem loans Identification and Resolution

Loan losses can be minimized by early detection of problem and its efficient handling. The
next sub sections will illustrate the definition of problem loans, causes of problem loans,
early detection of problem loans and techniques of handling problem loans.

Definition of Problem Loan

Behrens (1998) defines problem loan as:
[

A problem loan can also be defined as one in which there is a major breakdown in the
repayment agreement resulting in an undue delay in collection, or one in which it appears
legal action may required to effect collection.

Banking Company (Revised) Act 2001 gave definition of problem loan in this way:

(1) In case of continuous loan or call loan: On the expiry of due date, (2) Term loan (Maturity
less than 5 Year): On the expiry of installment due date, (3) Term loan (Maturity more than 5
years): On the expiry of 6 month of the installment date, (4) Agriculture and small loan: On
the expiry of 6 month of the due date, and (5) Any overdue loan should be treated as problem
loans. (BRPD Circular No.10 May 14, 2001)

Early Sign of Problem loans

The most important function of loan review department is the early identification of loan
problems because the earlier the bank begins to deal with the problem, the greater are its
alternatives for achieving a solution as well as lesser chance of losses. Literature has
identified the followings as the sign of problem loans:
(1) Lack of profitability, (2) High/rising leverage, (3) Low/decreasing liquidity, (4) Low
collection of accounts receivables, (5) Slow turn of inventory, (6) Weak/decreasing equity,
(7) Increase in accounts payable, (8) Loans to officers and stockholders, (9) Fraudulent of
financial information, (10) Delinquency or other default, (11) Failure to provide information,
(12) Family and marital problems, (13) Rapid business expansion, (14) Changes in
management, (15) Change in accountants, (16) Declining sales, (17) Change in product mix,
(18) Loss of key employees, (19) Collateral problems, (20) Large/Rising insider transactions,
(21) Changes in accounting methods or auditors, (22) Re-negotiations of loan covenants, (23)
Cancellation of insurance, (24) Investment in non-related venture, (25) Judgments and tax
liens, (26) Concentrations, and (27) Changes in customer mix.

Causes of Problem Loans

Loans may turn in to problem loans if lenders fail to pay attention on the followings areas:
(1) Not paying attention to written loan policy, (2) Having no real initiative to determine the
purpose of the loan, (3) Doing improper credit work, (4) Not understanding the business
being financed, (5) Failing to address repayment realistically, (6) Relying too heavily on
collateral, (7) Refusing to admit a problem, (8) Being lax with borrowers who are past due,
(9) Procrastinating, and (10) Failure in to the renewal/reduction syndrome.

Handling Problem loans/ Loan work-out

The following techniques are usually used for handling problem loans:
(1) Providing advisory/counseling services, (2) Deputing representatives in the management
position of borrowers’ organizations, (3) Rescheduling of credit, and (4) Waiver of interest.

Alternatives to Collect Problem Loans

A loan default occurs when the debtor failed to make repayment as agreement or violate
some other provisions of loan documents. When a default occurs, the lender usually gives the
debtor an opportunity to repay the loan. If borrower fails to repay the loan as arrangement,
bank usually takes legal actions to recover the loan. Usually loan recovery drives can be: (1)
Compromise settlement, (2) Creditor’s arrangement, (3) Involuntary bankruptcy, (4) No
action, (5) Voluntary liquidation, (6) Legal action for repossession and sale of collateral, (7)
Legal action against borrowers, (8) Legal action against guarantor, (9) Sale of loan to
independent organization (Behrens 1998, 253-258), and (10) Appointment of an organization
for recovery of default loan.

16. Recovery of Credit

Recover of credit is the last step of credit management process. It is expected that loan will be
repaid after its tenure. In most of the cases this practice is hold good. But a problem arises
when loan becomes a problem loan. Banks are using many alternatives for recovery of
problem loans. Some banks are using moral persuasion to recover problem credit, some
banks sale the loan to other party, some appoint third party to recover loan. If all these
techniques come in to failure to recover credit then lenders have no alternative rather taking
legal action against borrower to recover loan. In the past, traditional laws for recovery of bad
loans in Bangladesh were inadequate and cumbersome. Long times were needed to settle a
dispute. The situation has changed with the introduction of Artha Rin Adalat Act 2003 . In
the past, independent organization was not found in Bangladesh to take the responsibility to
recover the bad loans. In the recent past, some organizations have come forward and shown
their keen interest to assume the responsibility of recovery the bad loans. Securitization  and
sales of loans are widely used in the advanced economy to handle bad loans.

Conclusion
Like planning in management, credit management starts with strategic plan for target markets
and ends with recovery of loan. Existence of huge non performing loans around the globe,
especially in the developing countries emerge the vigorous conceptual development on credit
management. By recognizing the importance of credit management, plenty of researches have
been undertaken around the world to make credit management efficient and to develop
techniques of handling nonperforming loans.


It is an Act for the recovery of default loans in Bangladesh in addition to the existing laws. It was enacted
from March 10, 2003.

Securitization means selling of debt instruments by pledging credit.