GE 3: Mathematics in the Modern World

Sets
Learning Outcomes:
• Perform the operations of union, intersection, complement, and difference on sets
• Draw and interpret Venn diagrams of set relations and operations
• Use Venn Diagrams to solve problems

Learning Content

A set is simply a collection of objects. The objects are sometimes referred to as elements or members.

If a set is finite and not too large, we can describe it by listing the elements in it.
Example:
𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4} → describes a set 𝐴 made up of four elements 1, 2, 3 and 4.

If a set is a large finite set or an infinite set, we can describe it by listing a property necessary for membership.
Example:
𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 is a positive, even integer} → describes the set 𝐵 made
The vertical bar | is read as “such that”
up of all positive, even integers; that is, 𝐵 consists of the integers
2, 4, 6, and so on.

If 𝑋 is a finite set, we let |𝑋| = number of elements in 𝑋

If 𝑥 is in the set 𝑋, we write 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 and if 𝑥 is not in 𝑋, we write 𝑥 ∉ 𝑋.

Empty (or null or void) set is the set with no elements. It is denoted by ∅, ∅ = { }.

Two sets 𝑋 and 𝑌 are equal and we write 𝑋 = 𝑌 if 𝑋 and 𝑌 have the same elements.

Suppose that 𝑋 and 𝑌 are sets. If every element of 𝑋 is an element of 𝑌, we say that 𝑋 is a subset of 𝑌 (𝑋 ⊆ 𝑌).
Example:
If 𝐶 = {1, 3} and {1, 2, 3, 4}, then 𝐶 is a subset of 𝐴, or 𝐶 ⊆ 𝐴.

In symbols, 𝑋 is a subset of 𝑌 if ∀𝑥(𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 → 𝑥 ∈ 𝑌).

𝑋 is a subset of 𝑌 if ∀𝑥(𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 → 𝑥 ∈ 𝑌): 𝑋 is a subset of 𝑌 if for every 𝑥, if 𝑥 is in 𝑋, then 𝑋 is in 𝑌.

If 𝑋 is a subset of 𝑌 and 𝑋 does not equal 𝑌, we say that 𝑋 is a proper subset of 𝑌 (𝑋 ⊂ 𝑌). The set of all subsets (proper or
not) of a set 𝑋, denoted 𝒫(𝑥), is called the power set of 𝑋.
Example:
If 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}, the members of 𝒫(𝐴) are
∅, {𝑎}, {𝑏}, {𝑐}, {𝑎, 𝑏}, {𝑎, 𝑐}, {𝑏, 𝑐}, {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}All but {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} are proper subsets of 𝐴.

|𝐴| = 3
|𝒫(𝐴)| = 23 = 8

Subsets of 𝑋 that contain 𝑎 Subsets of 𝑋 that do not contain 𝑎

Given two sets 𝑋 and 𝑌, there are various set operations involving 𝑋 and 𝑌 that can produce a new set.

The set 𝑿 ∪ 𝒀 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝑌} is called the union of 𝑋 and 𝑌. The union belonging to either 𝑋 or 𝑌 (or both).

The set 𝑿 ∩ 𝒀 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝑌} is called the intersection of 𝑋 and 𝑌. The intersection consists of all elements
belonging to both 𝑋 and 𝑌.

The set 𝑿 − 𝒀 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝑌} is called the difference (or relative complement). The difference 𝑋 − 𝑌 consists of
all elements in 𝑋 that are not in 𝑌.
Example:
If 𝐴 = {1, 3, 5} and 𝐵 = {4, 5, 6}, then
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6}
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {5}
𝐴 − 𝐵 = {1, 3}
𝐵 − 𝐴 = {4, 6}
Notice that 𝐴 − 𝐵 ≠ 𝐵 − 𝐴.

Sets 𝑋 and 𝑌 are disjoint if 𝑋 ∩ 𝑌 = ∅. A collection of sets 𝑆 is said to be pairwise disjoint if whenever 𝑋 and 𝑌 are distinct
sets in 𝑆, 𝑋 and 𝑌 are disjoint.
Example:
The sets {1, 4, 5} and {2, 6} are disjoint. The collection of sets 𝑆 = {{1, 4, 5}, {2, 6}, {3}, {7, 8}} is pairwise disjoint.

Sometimes we are dealing with sets, all of which are subsets of a set 𝑈. This set 𝑈 is called a universal set or a universe.

Given a universal set 𝑈 and a subset 𝑋 of 𝑈, the set 𝑈 − 𝑋 is called the complement of 𝑋 (𝑋̅).
Example:
Let 𝐴 = {1, 3, 5}. If 𝑈, a universal set, is specified as 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, then 𝐴̅ = {2, 4}.

Venn diagrams provide pictorial view of sets. In a Venn diagram, a rectangle depicts a universal set. Subsets of the universal
set are drawn as circles. The inside of a circle represents the members of that set.

Example:
Among a group of 165 students, 8 are taking calculus, psychology, and computer science; 33 are taking calculus and
computer science; 20 are taking calculus, psychology; 24 are taking psychology and computer science; 79 are taking
calculus; 83 are taking psychology, and 63 are taking computer science. How many are taking none of the three subjects?

Let CALC, PSYCH, and COMPSCI denote the set of students taking calculus, psychology, and computer science, respectively.
Let 𝑼 denote the set of all 165 students.
Since 8 students are taking calculus, psychology and computer science, write 8 in the region representing CALC ∩
PSYCH ∩ COMPSCI.
Of the 33 students taking calculus and computer science, 8 are also taking psychology; thus 25 are taking calculus
and computer science but not psychology. Write 25 in the region representing CALC ∩ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
PSYCH ∩ COMPSCI. Similarly,
write 12 in the region representing CALC ∩ PSYCH ∩ COMPSCI and 16 in the region representing ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ CALC ∩ PSYCH ∩
COMPSCI.
Of the 79 students taking calculus, 45 have now been accounted for. This leaves 34 students taking only calculus.
Write 34 in the region representing CALC ∩ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
PSYCH ∩ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
COMPSCI. Similarly, write 47 in the region representing ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
CALC ∩
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
PSYCH ∩ COMPSCI and 14 in the region representing CALC ∩ PSYCH ∩ COMPSCI. At this point, 156 students have
been accounted for. This leaves 9 students taking none of the three subjects.

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GE 3: Mathematics in the Modern World

Let 𝑈 be a universal set and let 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 be subsets of 𝑈. The following properties hold.
a) Associative laws: (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶), (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
b) Commutative laws: 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∪ 𝐴, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∩ 𝐴
c) Distributive laws: 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶), 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)
d) Identity laws: 𝐴 ∪ ∅ = 𝐴, 𝐴 ∩ 𝑈 = 𝐴
e) Complement laws: 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴̅ = 𝑈, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴̅ = ∅
f) Idempotent laws: 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴 = 𝐴, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴 = 𝐴
g) Bound laws: 𝐴 ∪ 𝑈 = 𝑈, 𝐴 ∩ ∅ = ∅
h) Absorption laws: 𝐴 ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝐴, 𝐴 ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝐴
i) Involution law: 𝐴̿ = 𝐴
j) 0/1 laws: ∅̅ = 𝑈, 𝑈 ̅=∅
k) De Morgan’s laws for sets: (𝐴 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
∪ 𝐵 ) = 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵̅, (𝐴
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
∩ 𝐵 ) = 𝐴̅ ∪ 𝐵̅

A partition of a set 𝑋 divides 𝑋 into nonoverlapping subsets. A collection 𝑆 of nonempty subsets of 𝑋 is said to be a partition
of the set 𝑋 if every element in 𝑋 belongs to exactly one member of 𝑆. Notice that if 𝑆 is a partition of 𝑋, 𝑆 is a pairwise
disjoint and ∪ 𝑆 = 𝑋.
Example:
Since each element of
𝑋 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
is in exactly one member of
𝑆 = {{1, 4, 5}, {2, 6}, {3}, {7, 8}},
𝑆 is a partition of 𝑋.

A set is an unordered collection of elements, that is, a set is determined by its elements and not by any particular order in
which the elements are listed.

An ordered pair of elements, written (𝑎, 𝑏), is considered distinct form the ordered pair (𝑏, 𝑎), unless, of course, 𝑎 = 𝑏.

If 𝑋 and 𝑌 are sets, we let 𝑋 and 𝑌 denote the set of all ordered pairs (𝑥, 𝑦) where 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 and 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌. We call 𝑋 × 𝑌 the
Cartesian product of 𝑋 and 𝑌.
Example:
If 𝑋 = {1, 2, 3} and 𝑌 = {𝑎, 𝑏}, then

𝑋 × 𝑌 = {(1, 𝑎), (1, 𝑏), (2, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (3, 𝑎), (3, 𝑏)}
𝑌 × 𝑋 = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑏, 1), (𝑎, 2), (𝑏, 2), (𝑎, 3), (𝑏, 3)}
𝑋 × 𝑋 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}
𝑌 × 𝑌 = {(𝑎, 𝑎), (𝑎, 𝑏), (𝑏, 𝑎), (𝑏, 𝑏)}

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GE 3: Mathematics in the Modern World

Assessment:
Let the universe be the set 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, … , 10}. Let 𝐴 = {1, 4, 7, 10}, 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and 𝐶 = {2, 4, 6, 8}. List the
elements of each set.
1. 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶
2. 𝐵 − 𝐴
3. 𝑈 − 𝐶
4. 𝐵̅ ∩ (𝐶 − 𝐴)
5. 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)
6. (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − 𝐶
For items 7 − 10, refer to a group of 191 students, of which 10 are taking French, business, and music; 36 are taking French
and business; 20 are taking French and music; 18 are taking business and music; 65 are taking French; 76 are taking business;
and 63 are taking music. Use Venn diagram to illustrate.
7. How many are taking French and music but not business?
8. How many are taking none of the three subjects?
9. How many are taking business and neither French nor music?
10. How many are taking French or business (or both)?

Let 𝑋 = {1, 2}, and 𝑌 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}. List the elements in each set.
11. 𝑋 × 𝑌
12. 𝑋 × 𝑋
13. 𝑌 × 𝑌

14. List the members of 𝒫({𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}). Which are proper subsets of {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}?
15. List the members of 𝒫({𝑎, 𝑏}). Which are proper subsets of {𝑎, 𝑏}?