EV20001: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Lecture #5
Air Pollution-Part III

Dr. Aditya Kumar Patra

Department of Mining Engineering
03 & 10 January 2022 Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
E-mail: [email protected]
Air quality index
 The air quality index (AQI) is an index for reporting air quality on a daily basis.

 The AQI is based on measurement of PM2.5 and PM10, O3, NO2, SO2, CO, NH3 and Pb
emissions.

 Every day, monitors record concentrations of the major pollutants. These raw
measurements are converted into a separate AQI value for each pollutant using standard
formulae developed.

 The purpose of the AQI is to help people know how the local air quality impacts their health.
It quickly disseminates air quality information in real-time.

 The higher the AQI value, the greater the level of air pollution and the greater the health
concerns.
Air quality index

National Air Quality index (AQI) was launched in April,

2015 starting with 14 cities and now extended to 34 cities.

National Air Quality Index combines the effect of all air

quality parameters and generates a single number.
Air quality index - Sub index function

Sub-index function represents the relationship between pollutant

concentration Xi and corresponding sub index Ii. It is an attempt to reflect
environmental consequences as the concentration of specific pollutant
changes.

It may take a variety of forms such as linear, non-linear and segmented

linear. Usually, segmented linear functions are used.

The sub-index (𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝) for a given pollutant concentration (𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃) is calculated using
the following equation (based on ‘linear segmented principle’).

𝑰𝑰𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯 − 𝑰𝑰𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳
𝑰𝑰𝒑𝒑 = 𝑪𝑪𝑷𝑷 − 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 + 𝑰𝑰𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳
𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯 − 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳

Where,
BPHI = Breakpoint concentration greater or equal to given concentration
BPLO = Breakpoint concentration smaller or equal to given concentration
IHI = AQI value corresponding to BPHI
ILO = AQI value corresponding to BPLO
Air quality index – Sub index breakpoints
AQI Sub Index break points for different pollutants

AQI category PM 10 PM 2.5 NO2 O3 CO 8- SO2 NH3 Pb

(Range) 24-hr 24-hr 24-hr 8-hr hr 24-hr 24-hr 24-hr
Good (0-50) 0-50 0-30 0-40 0-50 0-1.0 0-40 0-200 0-0.5
Satisfactory (51- 51-100 31-60 41-80 51-100 1.1-2.0 41-80 201-400 0.5-1.0
100)
Moderate (101-200) 101-250 61-90 81-180 101-168 2.1-10 81-380 401-800 1.1-2.0
Poor (201-300) 251-350 91-120 181- 169-208 10-17 381-800 801-1200 2.1-3.0
280
Very Poor (301- 351-430 121-250 281- 209- 17-34 801-1600 1201- 3.1-3.5
400) 400 748* 1800
Severe (401-500) 430+ 250+ 400+ 748+* 34+ 1600+ 1800+ 3.5+
1) Unit of CO: mg m-3; all other units: μg m-3
2) *One hourly monitoring

Breakpoints for each pollutant is arrived thorough research/review of dose response

relationships. Breakpoints adopted by other countries/agencies (USEPA 2014; U.K. 2013;
Malaysia 2013; GVAQI 2013; Ontario 2013) have also been examined for using these in
IND-AQI.

Inappropriate adoption of breakpoints could lead to incorrect information to general public

(on health effects) and decisions taken for pollution control may be incorrect.
AQI – Sub-index calculation
The sub-index (𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝) for a given pollutant concentration (𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃) is calculated using the following equation (based on ‘linear
segmented principle’).

𝐼𝐼𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 − 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝 = 𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 − 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 − 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
Where,
BPHI = Breakpoint concentration greater or equal to given concentration
BPLO = Breakpoint concentration smaller or equal to given concentration
IHI = AQI value corresponding to BPHI
ILO = AQI value corresponding to BPLO
Suppose we have the following data for a location (PM10=121 μg m -3, O3=57 μg m -3). What are the values of sub
indices?

200 − 101
𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃10 = 121 − 101 + 101 = 114 114.289
250 − 101
100 − 51
𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝 𝑂𝑂3 = 57 − 51 + 51 = 57
100 − 51
AQI Calculation

Indian Air Quality Index – How it is calculated

AQ sub-index and health breakpoints are evolved for eight pollutants (PM10, PM2.5,
NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3, and Pb) for which National Ambient Air Quality Standards are
prescribed.

The sub-indices for individual pollutants at a monitoring location are calculated using
its 24-hourly average concentration value (8-hourly in case of CO and O3) and health
breakpoint concentration range. A minimum of 16 hours’ data is considered necessary
for calculating sub-index.

The worst sub-index is the AQI for that location.

All the eight pollutants may not be monitored at all the locations. Overall AQI is
calculated only if data are available for minimum three pollutants out of which
one should necessarily be either PM2.5 or PM10. Else, data are considered
insufficient for calculating AQI.

There are six AQI categories, namely:

Good, Satisfactory, Moderate, Poor, Very Poor, and Severe.
AQI – Range, Category and Implications
INDIA-AQI Category and Range
(Central Pollution Control Board)

AQI AQI categogy Possible health impact

(with colour code)

0-50 Good Minimal impact

51-100 Satisfactory Minor breathing discomfort to sensitive people

101-200 Moderate Breathing discomfort to the people with lungs, asthma and
heart diseases
201-300 Poor Breathing discomfort to most people on prolonged exposure
301-400 Very Poor Respiratory illness on prolonged exposure
401-500 Severe Affects healthy people and seriously impacts those with
existing diseases
Air quality index - Examples

Responsible parameter – PM10

Responsible parameter – PM2.5

Air quality index - Examples

Responsible parameter – PM10

Responsible parameter – PM2.5

Responsible parameter – PM10

NAQI – Real-time data
(Central Pollution Control Board, India)
NAQI – Real-time data
(Central Pollution Control Board, India)
NAQI – Real-time data
(Aqi.in)

AQI India, an inception of Purelogic Labs India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi
The First Ever Pollution Control platform in India
NAQI – Real-time data
(Aqi.in)

Shows AQI for major Indian cities

NAQI – Real-time data
(Aqi.in)

AQI – Dash board

Click on any state and you get details of AQI stations in the list and corresponding AQI data
AQI calculation - Examples
Question 1.

The 24 hour average concentrations of air pollutants (8 hour average for CO

and O3) at a location are given below.

PM10 - 80 µg m-3
PM2.5 - 60 µg m-3
NO2 - 30 µg m-3
SO2 - 40 µg m-3
CO - 2 mg m-3
O3 - 40 µg m-3
NH3 - 24 µg m-3

Calculate the AQI.

Which pollutant is the responsible parameter for the AQI?
To which category the AQI belongs?

Ans: 100, PM2.5, Satisfactory

AQI calculation - Examples
Question 2.

The 24 hour average concentrations of air pollutants (8 hour average for

CO and O3) at a location are given below.

PM10 - 40 µg m-3
NO2 - 30 µg m-3
SO2 - 40 µg m-3
CO - 1 mg m-3
O3 - 30 µg m-3

Calculate the AQI.

Which pollutant is the responsible parameter for the AQI?
To which category the AQI belongs?

Ans: 50, CO, Satisfactory

AQI calculation - Examples

Question 3.

The concentrations of air pollutants (24 hour average) for a location on 11

June 2019 are given below.

PM10 - 70 µg m-3
NO2 - 30 µg m-3
SO2 - 40 µg m-3

The next day the PM10 sensor malfunctioned and therefore no data for PM10
was available; however O3 was measured to be 30 µg m-3.

What was the AQI on 11 and 12 June 2019?

Ans: AQI on 11 June 2019 - 70, AQI on 12 June 2019 – cannot be calculated
AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

The objectives of air quality standards are:

• To indicate the levels of air quality necessary with an adequate margin of

safety to protect the public health, vegetation and property
• To assist in establishing priorities for abatement and control of pollutant level
• To provide uniform yardstick for assessing air quality at national level;
• To indicate the need and extent of monitoring programme.

Accordingly most of the nations across the world have published the NAAQS.

The NAAQS for India was published by the Central Pollution Control Board for the first
time in 1994.
NAAQS - 1994
NAAQS - 2009

REVISED NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS (NAAQS), INDIA

(Central Pollution Control Board, 16 November 2009)

The following are the major changes have been effected.

1. As against three [(i) Industrial Area (ii) Residential, Rural & other areas (iii)
Sensitive Area] areas, the new standards is applicable for only two areas viz.
(i) Industrial , Residential , Rural, and other areas (ii) Ecologically Sensitive
Area (Notified by Central Government )

2. The Industrial area, Residential, Rural, and other areas have been clubbed.
Ecologically Sensitive area to be notified by Central Government.

3. The new parameters included are PM2.5, Ozone, ammonia (NH3),

Benzene, Benzo(a)pyrene(BaP), Arsenic (As) and Nickel (Ni).
NAAQS - 2009
Concentration in ambient air
Time
Sl. Unit of Ecologically sensitive
Pollutant weighted Industrial, residential,
No. measurement area (Notified by Central
average rural and other areas
Government)

Annual 50 20 Time weighted average – Annual

1 Sulphur dioxide (SO2) µg/m3
24 hours 80 80 Annual arithmetic mean of 104
Annual 40 30 measurements in a year at a particular site
2 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) µg/ m3 taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform
24 hours 80 80
intervals
8 hours 2 2
3 Carbon monoxide (CO) mg/ m3 Time weighted average – 24 hours/ 8
1 hour 4 4 hours/ 1 hour
8 hours 100 100
4 Ozone (O3) µg/ m3 24 hourly or 8 hourly or 1 hourly monitored
1 hour 180 180 values, as applicable, shall be complied with
Annual 100 100 98% of the time in a year.
5 Ammonia (NH3) µg/ m3
24 hours 400 400 2% of the time, they may exceed the limits
but not on two consecutive days of
Particulate matter with size Annual 60 60
6 µg/ m3 monitoring.
less than 10µm (PM10) 24 hours 100 100
Annual 40 40 Whenever and wherever monitoring results on
Particulate matter with size
7 µg/ m3 two consecutive days of monitoring exceed the
less than 2.5µm (PM2.5 ) 24 hours 60 60 limits specified above for the respective
Annual 0.5 0.5 category, it shall be considered adequate reason
8 Lead (Pb) µg/ m3 to institute regular or continuous monitoring and
24 hours 1.0 1.0 further investigations.
9 Arsenic (As) ng/ m3 Annual 6 6
10 Nickel (Ni) ng/ m3 Annual 20 20
11 Benzene (C6H6) µg/ m3 Annual 5 5
Benzo pyrene (BaP) –
12 ng/ m3 Annual 1 1
particulate phase only
NAAQS - USA
The Clean Air Act established two types of national air quality standards.

Primary standards - It set limits to protect public health, including the health of "sensitive" populations such as
asthmatics, children, and the elderly.

Secondary standards - It set limits to protect public welfare, including protection against decreased visibility,
damage to animals, crops, vegetation, and buildings.

The 6 principal pollutants included in NAAQS are known are Criteria Pollutants.

Pollutant
Prim ary/Secondary Averaging Tim e Level Form

8 hours 9 ppm
Carbon Monoxide (CO) primary Not to be exceeded more than once per year
1 hour 35 ppm
Rolling 3 month
Lead (Pb) primary and secondary 0.15 μg/m3 Not to be exceeded
average
98th percentile of 1-hour daily maximum concentrations,
primary 1 hour 100 ppb
averaged over 3 years
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
primary and secondary 1 year 53 ppb Annual Mean

Annual fourth-highest daily maximum 8-hour

Ozone (O3) primary and secondary 8 hours 0.070 ppm
concentration, averaged over 3 years

primary 1 year 12.0 μg/m3 annual mean, averaged over 3 years

PM2.5 secondary 1 year 15.0 μg/m3 annual mean, averaged over 3 years
Particle Pollution
(PM) primary and secondary 24 hours 35 μg/m3 98th percentile, averaged over 3 years

Not to be exceeded more than once per year on average

PM10 primary and secondary 24 hours 150 μg/m3
over 3 years
99th percentile of 1-hour daily maximum concentrations,
primary 1 hour 75 ppb
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) averaged over 3 years
secondary 3 hours 0.5 ppm Not to be exceeded more than once per year
NAAQS - EU
Permitted
Averaging
Pollutant Concentration Legal nature exceedences
period
each year
3
Fine articles 25 µg/m *** 1 year Target value entered into force n/a
(PM2.5) 1.1.2010
Limit value enters into force
1.1.2015
3
Sulphur 350 µg/m 1 hour Limit value entered into force 24
dioxide (SO2) 1.1.2005
3
125 µg/m 24 hours Limit value entered into force 3
1.1.2005
3
Nitrogen 200 µg/m 1 hour Limit value entered into force 18
dioxide (NO2) 1.1.2010
3
40 µg/m 1 year Limit value entered into force n/a
1.1.2010*
3
PM10 50 µg/m 24 hours Limit value entered into force 35
1.1.2005**
3
40 µg/m 1 year Limit value entered into force n/a
1.1.2005**
3
Lead (Pb) 0.5 µg/m 1 year Limit value entered into force n/a
1.1.2005 (or 1.1.2010 in the
immediate vicinity of specific,
notified industrial sources; and a
1.0 µg/m3 limit value applied from
1.1.2005 to 31.12.2009)
3
Carbon 10 mg/m Maximum Limit value entered into force n/a
monoxide (CO) daily 8 hour 1.1.2005
mean
3
Benzene 5 µg/m 1 year Limit value entered into force n/a
1.1.2010**
3
Ozone 120 µg/m Maximum Target value entered into force 25 days
daily 8 hour 1.1.2010 averaged
mean over 3 years
3
Arsenic (As) 6 ng/m 1 year Target value enters into force n/a
31.12.2012
3
Cadmium (Cd) 5 ng/m 1 year Target value enters into force n/a
31.12.2012
3
Nickel (Ni) 20 ng/m 1 year Target value enters into force n/a
31.12.2012
3
Polycyclic 1 ng/m 1 year Target value enters into force n/a
Aromatic (expressed as 31.12.2012
Hydrocarbons concentration of
Benzo(a)pyrene)
NAAQS – China (2012)
PRIMARY STANDARD ADDITIONAL STANDARD

Limit Limit
Pollutant Averaging time Unit Pollutant Averaging Unit
Class 1 Class 2 time
Class 1 Class 2
annual 20 60
Total annual 80 200
SO2 24 hours 50 150 Suspended
Particles
hourly 150 500 (TSP) 24 hours 120 30
µg/m 3

annual 40 40 annual 50 50

NO2 24 hours 80 80 NOx 24 hours 100 100

hourly 200 200 hourly 250 250 µg/m3

24 hours 4 4 annual 0.5 0.5

CO mg/m3 Lead (Pb)
hourly 10 10 seasonal 1 1
daily, 8-hour maximum 100 160 annual 0.001 0.001
O3 Benzopyrene
hourly 160 200 (BaP)
24 hours 0.0025 0.0025
annual 40 70
PM10 µg/m3
24 hours 50 150
annual 15 35
PM2.5
24 hours 35 75

Class 1 standards apply to special regions such as national parks.

Class 2 standards apply to all other areas, including urban and industrial areas.
National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Programme

CPCB is executing a nation-wide National Air Quality Monitoring

Programme (NAMP).

The ambient air quality monitoring network has 793 operating stations
in 344 cities/towns in 29 states and 6 Union Territories of the country.

In addition, presently about 219 Continuous Ambient Air Quality

Monitoring stations (CAAQMS), located in 20 States, are operating in
the country. Delhi has 10 Manual Stations and 18 CAAQMS.
Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring stations (CAAQMS)
Mobile APP ‘SAMEER’ for AQI display and Public Complaints

An APP ‘Sameer’ is developed and available for Android and iOS devices, to display of AQI at city
and station level, AQI Bulletin.

A Public Forum is available at the APP, which helps the public in submitting suggestions or
complaints related to air pollution issues along with photos in support of complaint.

Sameer provides the hourly update of the National Air Quality Index (AQI)
published by Central Pollution Control Board.
VEHICLE EXHAUST STANDARDS
Overview of the vehicle emission norms in India

1991 – Idle CO limits for petrol vehicles and free acceleration smoke for diesel vehicles, mass emission
norms for petrol vehicles.

1992 – Mass emission norms for diesel vehicles.

1996 – Revision of mass emission norms for petrol and diesel vehicles, mandatory fitment of catalytic
converter for cars in metros on unleaded petrol.
1998 – Cold start norms introduced.

2000 – India 2000 (equivalent to Euro I) norms, modified IDC (Indian driving cycle), Bharat Stage II
norms for Delhi.

2001 – Bharat Stage II (equivalent to Euro II) norms for all metros, emission norms for CNG and LPG
vehicles.
2003 – Bharat Stage II (equivalent to Euro II) norms for 13 major cities.

2005 – From 1 April, Bharat Stage IV (equivalent to Euro IV) norms for 13 major cities.
2010 – Bharat Stage IV emission norms for 2-wheelers, 3-wheelers and 4-wheelers for the entire country,
whereas Bharat Stage IV (equivalent to Euro IV) for 13 major cities for only 4-wheelers.

2017 – Bharat Stage IV norms for all vehicles.

01 April 2020 –Bharat Stage VI norms for cars, (skipping Bharat Stage V)
Pollutant emissions from vehicles

Passenger cars and light duty commercial vehicles are contributing to NOx and
fine particle emissions and with this indirectly to the ozone formation.

Pollutant emissions from light duty vehicles, also called criteria emissions, are
mainly:

Carbon monoxide (CO) - highly toxic, measured in mg/km

Unburned hydrocarbons (HC) - toxicity depends on the detailed chemical
composition, measured in mg/km
Nitrogen oxides NO and NO2 (commonly treated as NOx ) - harmful to
human health and photochemical effects in the atmosphere, measured in
mg/km
Particulates (soot and ash), measured as PM in mg/km and Particle
Number (PN) measured in number/km
NH3 and specific hydrocarbon components as aldehydes.
VEHICLE EXHAUST STANDARDS

(Source: www.cpcb.nic.in)
BS-VI Emission Norms
Supreme Court of India has ruled that no Bharat Stage IV vehicle shall be
sold across the country with effect from April 1, 2020. Instead, the Bharat
Stage VI (or BS-VI) emission norm would come into force from April 1, 2020
across the country. In 2016, the Centre announced that the country would
skip the BS-V norms altogether and adopt BS-VI norms by 2020.

How is BS-VI Different from BS-IV?

The major difference between the BS-IV and BS-VI norms is the presence of
sulphur in the fuel. While the BS-IV fuels contain 50 parts per million (ppm)
sulphur, the BS-VI grade fuel only has 10 ppm sulphur content.

Also, the harmful NOx (nitrogen oxides) from diesel cars can be brought down by
nearly 70%. In the petrol cars, they can be reduced by 25%.

However, when we talk air pollution, particulate matter like PM2.5 and PM10 are
the most harmful components and the BS-VI will bring down the cancer causing
particulate matter in diesel cars by a phenomenal 80%.
Indoor Air Pollution
Indoor air pollution
 Indoor air contains higher concentrations of pollutants than outdoor air.

 Indoor air pollution usually is a greater threat to human health than outdoor air pollution.

 Developed countries – chemicals used in building materials and products.

 According to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), four most dangerous indoor
air pollutants in developed countries include tobacco smoke, formaldehyde, radioactive
radon-222 gas and very small (ultrafine) particles.

 Less-developed countries – indoor burning of wood, charcoal, dung, crop residues, coal,
and other fuels in open fires.
Important indoor air pollutants
Important indoor air pollutants
Preventing indoor air pollution
Preventing air pollution
Preventing air pollution
Photochemical Smog
(Local Impact)
Ground level ozone
 Description: Highly reactive, irritating gas with an unpleasant odor that forms in the
troposphere as a major component of photochemical smog.

 Major human sources: Chemical reaction with volatile organic compounds (VOCs, emitted
mostly by cars and industries) and nitrogen oxides to form photochemical smog.

 Health effects: Breathing problems; coughing; eye, nose, and throat irritation; aggravates
chronic diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, and heart disease; reduces
resistance to colds and pneumonia; may speed up lung tissue aging.

 Environmental effects: Ozone can cause more damage to plants than any other
pollutants; smog can reduce visibility.

 Property damage: Damages rubber, fabrics, and paints.

Ozone in the atmosphere
Bad ozone
 Ground level or “bad” ozone is not emitted directly into the atmosphere but is created by
chemical reactions of oxides of nitrogen (NO X) and volatile organic compounds (VOC) in
the presence of sunlight.
Bad ozone makes photochemical smog
 Noxious mixture of pollutants (mostly ozone, aldehydes, and peroxyacetyl nitrate) formed
when NO X, VOCs, and hydrocarbons, mainly from motor vehicle and industrial emissions,
react in presence of sunlight, creating a reddish brown haze above cities.
Bad ozone makes photochemical smog
Effect of photochemical smog on plants
 Ground level ozone causes more damage to plants than all other air pollutants combined.

 Ozone enters leaves through stomata during normal gas exchange. As a strong oxidant,
ozone causes several types of symptoms including chlorosis and necrosis.

 High concentrations of ozone cause plants to close their stomata, slowing down
photosynthesis.

 Prolonged ozone exposure reduces health and productivity of crops.

 High ozone concentrations can also affect soil fertility. Plants that are exposed to high
ozone concentrations metabolize less carbon dioxide, so less carbon is available in the
soil, and fewer soil microbes grow and thrive.
Effect of photochemical smog on humans
 Ozone air pollution causes over 150 thousand premature deaths every year, and millions
more chronic diseases, particularly in children and the elderly.
Preventing photochemical smog
NOX Control: Selective Catalytic Reduction
 Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) is an advanced NO X emissions control technology that
injects a liquid-reductant agent through a special catalyst into the exhaust stream of a diesel
engine. The reductant source is usually automotive-grade urea, otherwise known as diesel
exhaust fluid (DEF). The DEF sets off a chemical reaction that converts NO X into nitrogen
and water, which is then expelled through the vehicle tailpipe.
Acid Deposition
(Regional Impact)
Acid deposition (acid rain)
 The accumulation of acids or acidic compounds on land, in water, or in the tissues of
vegetation, as a result of acid precipitation or of the settling or absorption of such
compounds directly from the atmosphere.
Acid deposition is a regional problem
Chemistry of acid deposition
 Both sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide are acidic oxides and react with water to form
acids.

 Sulphur dioxide reacts with water to form sulphurous acid.

SO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO3 (aq)

 Substances in the upper atmosphere then catalyse the reaction between sulphurous acid
and oxygen to form sulfuric acid.

2H2SO3 (aq) + O2 (g) → 2H2SO4 (aq)

 Similarly, nitrogen dioxide reacts with moisture to form a mixture of nitric acid and nitrous
acid.

2NO2 (g) + H2O (g) → HNO3 (aq) + HNO2 (aq)

 Substances in the atmosphere then catalyse the reaction between nitrous acid and oxygen
causing the formation of more nitric acid.

2HNO2 (aq) + O2 (g) → 2HNO3 (aq)

Effect of acid rain on terrestrial ecosystems
 Acid rain causes demineralization of soil. Base cations like Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and K+ are
leached away and replaced by acid cations such as H+, Al3+ ions.

 Nitrogen fixation ability of nitrifying bacteria diminishes rapidly below pH 6.

 Acidification of soil adversely affects soil fauna and lead to reduced forest productivity.

 Acid rain also retards the growth of vegetables, such as pea, beans, raddish, spinach, etc.
Effect of acid rain on aquatic ecosystems
 Many bacteria and blue green algae are killed due to acidification, disrupting the whole
ecological balance.

 Acidic water can also leach aluminium from the soil. This runoff carry dissolved aluminium
to lakes, rivers and streams causing massive fish death by clogging their gills and thus
them depriving of oxygen.

 Fresh water lakes are fairly alkaline with Ca2+ and Mg2+ and HCO3– as the dominant ions.
Phytoplankton and zooplankton are affected by acidity of water.

 Snails, clams, oysters etc. having their shells of calcium carbonate are among the first
animals to die in acidic lakes.
Acid rain is responsible for the destruction of thousands of lakes
and streams in the United States, Canada and parts of Europe.
Effect of acid rain on vegetation
 Acid rain does not kill trees directly. Instead, it weaken trees by damaging their leaves,
limiting the nutrients available to them, or exposing them to toxic substances slowly
released from the soil. Quite often, injury or death of trees is a result of these effects of
acid rain in combination with one or more additional threats.
 Acid rain increases the concentration of Al3+ in groundwater, thereby
adversely affecting plant growth. Large sections of established
forests have been severely damaged in many areas of the eastern
United States.
Effect of acid rain on architecture
 Acid rain causes extensive damage to monuments and stone sculptures of marble,
limestone, slate etc. The damage caused to rocks and marble by acid rain is called as
marble-leprosy or stone-leprosy.

CaCO3 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + H2O + CO2

 Acid rain corrodes houses, buildings, bridges, fences and railing that require huge cost for
maintenance every year.

Cu + H2SO4 → CuSO4 + H2
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2

 Acid precipitation causes damage to steel, oil based paints and automobile coatings. It
also disintegrates textile, paper etc.
 The shiny white marble facade of the Taj Mahal, one of the seven
wonders of the modern world, is turning yellow due to acid rain.
Effect of acid rain on humans
 Acid rain does not directly affect human health.

 The acid in the rainwater is too dilute to have direct adverse effects.

 The particulates responsible for acid rain (sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides), however,
effect the human nervous system, respiratory system and digestive system.

 Acidification of drinking water reservoirs and concurrent increase in heavy metal

concentration can have serious health effects.
Preventing acid deposition
SO2 control: Flue gas desulfurization
 Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) technology employs a slurry of pulverized limestone
mixed with water to remove SO2 from the combustion exhaust gas of power plants via
chemical reactions that take place in a vessel commonly known as scrubber.

CaCO3 + H2O SO2 + (CaCO3 +

2H2O) + 1/2O2 →
CaCO3 + H2O
CO2 + (CaSO4.2H2O)

CaSO4.2H2O
SO2 control: Flue gas desulfurization

Example : SO2 emissions from a coal-fired power plant

A 500 MW power plant burns 2 × 108 kg coal per year. Calculate the annual
emission of SO2 from the power plant, assuming that the coal contains 1.5%
sulfur by weight and that 97% of the sulfur is converted to SO2. The plant
decides to install a wet limestone FGD system to reduce its current SO2
emissions by 95%. The FGD system requires a reagent stoichiometry of 1.03
(i.e., 3% more limestone than theoretically needed to remove a mole of SO2).
Calculate (a) the new annual SO2 emissions and (b) the annual quantity of
limestone required by this power plant.
SO2 control: Flue gas desulfurization

Example : SO2 emissions from a coal-fired power plant

Solution:

The relevant chemical reaction is

S + O 2 → SO 2
Thus, 32 g of S produces 64 g of SO2.

The mass ratio of SO2 to S is therefore

Mass SO 2 64 g
= =2
Mass S 32 g
 SO2 control: Flue gas desulfurization

Because the power plant burns 2 × 108 kg coal per year, the total mass of S
entering the plant is

msulfur = (0.015) ( 2 × 108 kg / year ) = 3 × 10 6

kg / year

Of this, 97% is converted to SO2.

The total annual mass of SO2 is therefore

 kg SO 2 
=
mSO2 (0.97) (3 × 10 kg S / year)  2
6

 kg S 
= 5.82 × 106 kg SO 2 / year
SO2 control: Flue gas desulfurization
The FGD system will reduce SO2 emissions by 95%. Thus, the new
emissions will be 5 percent of the current value.

SO 2 removed = (0.95) ( 5.82 × 106 kg / year )

= 5.53 × 106 kg / year
SO 2 emissions with FGD = (0.05) ( 5.82 × 106 kg / year )
= 2.91 × 105 kg / year
(b) SO2 is removed according to the following reaction:
1
SO 2 + (CaCO3 + 2H 2 O) + O 2 → CO 2 + (CaSO 4 .2H 2 O)
2
The theoretical reagent requirement is 1.00 mol Ca/mol SO2 removed.
However, the actual requirement is 1.03 mol Ca/mol SO2 removed.
SO2 control: Flue gas desulfurization

Thus a stoichiometric ratio of 1.03 corresponds to a mass ratio of

mCaCO3  mol Ca   100 g CaCO3 / mol Ca 

= 1.03  
mSO2  mol SO 2   64 g SO 2 / mol SO 2 

g CaCO3 kg CaCO3
= 1.6094 = 1.6094
g SO 2 removed kg SO 2 removed

The annual mass of limestone required is thus

mCaCO3 = (1.6094) (5.82 × 106 ) =

9.37 × 106 kg CaCO 3 / year
Preventing outdoor air pollution
Ozone Depletion
(Global Impact)
Ozone depletion
 Gradual thinning of Earth’s ozone layer caused by the release of certain chemical
compounds from industry and other human activity that contain gaseous chlorine.

 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other halogenated ozone depleting substances (ODS)

such as hydrochlorofluorcarbons (HCFCs), halons, methyl chloroform and carbon
tetrachloride are mainly responsible for man-made chemical ozone depletion.

 Dramatic loss of ozone in the lower stratosphere was first noticed in the early 1970s. The
thinning was most pronounced in the polar regions, especially over Antarctica and has
been called ozone hole.

 Ozone depletion is a major environmental problem because it increases the amount of

ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches Earth’s surface, increasing the rate of skin cancer,
eye cataracts, and genetic and immune system damage.
Ozone depletion
 Satellites observed the largest ozone hole over Antarctica in September, 2006. The center
of this image shows a large area where the concentration of ozone decreased by 50% or
more.

24 September 2006
Stratospheric ozone depletion
Ozone hole is a springtime phenomenon
 The ozone hole is not technically a “hole” where no ozone is present, but is actually a
region of exceptionally depleted ozone in the stratosphere over the Antarctic that happens
at the beginning of Southern Hemisphere spring (August–October).

 The hole forms in the Antarctic because cold air is trapped as a result of the polar vortex
― strong, circulating winds.

 The cold temperatures allow the formation of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs), or ice
clouds.

 These PSCs are conducive to the breakdown of chlorine-containing compounds, which

are there because of our production of CFCs. This makes the area especially susceptible
to ozone depletion.

 When the sun hits the PSCs in early spring, large amounts of chlorine are from CFCs and
ODS.

 Fortunately, by early summer, ozone from other areas comes in to help fill this hole.
However, due to continued CFC production, the hole returns next year.
Environmental effects of ozone depletion
Reversing ozone depletion
 The Montreal Protocol on ‘Substances that deplete the ozone layer’ is a landmark
international agreement designed to protect the stratospheric ozone layer.

 The treaty was originally signed in 1987 and substantially amended in 1990 and 1992.

 The Montreal Protocol stipulates that the production and consumption of compounds that
deplete ozone in the stratosphere are to be phased out by 2000.

 The Montreal Protocol has, contributed to a significant drop in total global production and
consumption of ozone depleting substances used in agricultural, consumer and industrial
sectors around the world.

 It has also generated climate benefits as some of these substances are greenhouse
gases, too.
Reversing ozone depletion
 The Montreal Protocol has been keeping our planet cool for years by phasing out ozone-
depleting substances that are also potent global-warming gases.
Recovery stages of global ozone