Digital Techniques

Annexure -II

Micro-Project Report

Digital Technique design of 16:1 Mux using 8:1 Mux

1.0 Rationale

In the present scenario most of the electronic equipment like computers, mobiles, music
systems, ATM, automation and control circuits and systems are based on digital circuits which the
diploma electronic (also called technologists) have to test them. The knowledge of basic logic gates,
combinational and sequential logic circuits using discrete gates as well as digital ICs will enable the
students to interpret the working of equipment and maintain them. After completion of the course,
students will be able to develop digital circuits based applications.

2.0 Aims/Benefits of the Micro-Project

In this project we will study about digital techniques as, We currently live in the digital age.
As technology continues to develop, we’ve seen fascinating innovations throughout the years. For
example, we’ve gone from horse carriages to semi-automated cars, as well as, many other great
improvements that have vastly improved our productivity, communication, and standard of living.
These developments have also greatly impacted the business world & Design 16:1 MUX using 8:1
MUX.

3.0 Course Outcomes Achieved

a. Use number system and codes for interpreting working of digital system.
b. Use Boolean expressions to realize logic circuits.
c. Build simple combinational circuits.
d. Build simple sequential circuits
e. Test data converters and PLDs in digital electron

4.0 Actual Methodology Followed

In this collection, we define digital methods as the use of online and digital technologies to

collect and analysis research data. Our concern is not only with research that explores online
phenomena, but also with a broader interest in utilizing digital methods to engage with all aspects
of contemporary social life.

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5.0 Brief Information

In electronics, a multiplexer (or mux; spelled sometimes as multiplexor), also known as
a data selector, is a device that selects between several analog or digital input signals and forwards
the selected input to a single output line.[1] The selection is directed a separate set of digital inas
select lines. A multiplexer of {\displaystyle 2^{n}} inputs has {\displaystyle n} select lines, which
are used to select which input line to send to the output. A multiplexer makes it possible for several
input signals to share one device or resource, for example, one analog-to-digital converter or one
communications transmission medium, instead of having one device per input signal. Multiplexers
can also be used to implement Boolean functions of multiple variables. Conversely,
a demultiplexer (or demux) is a device taking a single input and selecting signals of the output of
the compatible mux, which is connected to the single input, and a shared selection line. A
multiplexer is often used with a complementary demultiplexer on the receiving end. An electronic
multiplexer can be considered as a multiple-input, single-output switch, and a demultiplexer as
a single-input, multiple-output switch.[3] The schematic symbol for a multiplexer is an isosceles
trapezoid with the longer parallel side containing the input pins and the short parallel side
containing the output pin.[4] The schematic on the right shows a 2-to-1 multiplexer on the left and
an equivalent switch on the right. The {\displaystyle sel} wire connects the desired input to the
output.

Schematic of a 2-to-1 Multiplexer. It can be equated to a controlled switch.

Schematic of a 1-to-2 Demultiplexer. Like a multiplexer, it can be equated to a controlled switch.

Applications

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The basic function of a multiplexer: combining multiple inputs into a single data stream. On the
receiving side, a demultiplexer splits the single data stream into the original multiple signals. One
use for multiplexers is economizing connections over a single channel, by connecting the
multiplexer's single output to the demultiplexer's single input. The image to the right demonstrates
this benefit. In this case, the cost of implementing separate channels for each data source is higher
than the cost and inconvenience of providing the multiplexing/demultiplexing functions. At the
receiving end of the data link a complementary demultiplexer is usually required to break the single
data stream back down into the original streams. In some cases, the far end system may have
functionality greater than a simple demultiplexer; and while the demultiplexing still occurs
technically, it may never be implemented discretely. This would be the case when, for instance, a
multiplexer serves a number of IP network users; and then feeds directly into a router, which
immediately reads the content of the entire link into its routing processor; and then does the
demultiplexing in memory from where it will be converted directly into IP sections. Often, a
multiplexer and demultiplexer are combined together into a single piece of equipment, which is
simply referred to as a multiplexer. Both circuit elements are needed at both ends of a transmission
link because most communications systems transmit in both directions. In analog circuit design, a
multiplexer is a special type of analog switch that connects one signal selected from several inputs
to a single output.

Digital multiplexers

In digital circuit design, the selector wires are of digital value. In the case of a 2-to-1 multiplexer, a
logic value of 0 would connect {\displaystyle \scriptstyle I_{0}} to the output while a logic value of
1 would connect {\displaystyle \scriptstyle I_{1}} to the output. In larger multiplexers, the number
of selector pins is equal to {\displaystyle \scriptstyle \left\lceil \log _{2}(n)\right\rceil } where {\
displaystyle \scriptstyle n} is the number of inputs.

For example, 9 to 16 inputs would require no fewer than 4 selector pins and 17 to 32 inputs would
require no fewer than 5 selector pins. The binary value expressed on these selector pins determines
the selected input pin.

A 2-to-1 multiplexer has a boolean equation where {\displaystyle \scriptstyle A} and {\

displaystyle \scriptstyle B} are the two inputs, {\displaystyle \scriptstyle S_{0}} is the selector
input, and {\displaystyle \scriptstyle Z} is the output:

{\displaystyle Z=(A\wedge \neg S_{0})\vee (B\wedge S_{0})}

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A 2-to-1 mux

Which can be expressed as a truth table:

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {\displaystyle \scriptstyle {\displaystyle \scriptstyle {\displaystyle \scriptstyle

S_{0}} A} B} Z}

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 1 0 1

0 1 1 1

1 0 0 0

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 0

1 1 1 1

Or, in simpler notation:

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle S_{0}} {\displaystyle \scriptstyle Z}

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0 A

1 B

These tables show that when {\displaystyle \scriptstyle S_{0}=0} then {\displaystyle \

scriptstyle Z=A} but when {\displaystyle \scriptstyle S_{0}=1} then {\displaystyle \scriptstyle
Z=B}. A straightforward realization of this 2-to-1 multiplexer would need 2 AND gates, an OR
gate, and a NOT gate. While this is mathematically correct, a direct physical implementation
would be prone to race conditions that require additional gates to suppress.[5]

Larger multiplexers are also common and, as stated above, require {\displaystyle \scriptstyle \

left\lceil \log _{2}(n)\right\rceil } selector pins for {\displaystyle n}  inputs. Other

common sizes are 4-to-1, 8-to-1, and 16-to-1. Since digital logic uses binary values, powers of
2 are used (4, 8, 16) to maximally control a number of inputs for the given number of selector
inputs.

4-to-1 mux

8-to-1 mux

16-to-1 mux

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The boolean equation for a 4-to-1 multiplexer is:

{\displaystyle Z=(A\wedge \neg {S_{0}}\wedge \neg S_{1})\vee (B\wedge S_{0}\wedge \neg

S_{1})\vee (C\wedge \neg S_{0}\wedge S_{1})\vee (D\wedge S_{0}\wedge S_{1})}

The following 4-to-1 multiplexer is constructed from 3-state buffers and AND gates (the AND
gates are acting as the decoder):

A 4:1 MUX circuit using 3 input AND and other gates

The subscripts on the {\displaystyle \scriptstyle I_{n}} inputs indicate the decimal value of the
binary control inputs at which that input is let through.

Chaining multiplexers

Larger Multiplexers can be constructed by using smaller multiplexers by chaining them together.
For example, an 8-to-1 multiplexer can be made with two 4-to-1 and one 2-to-1 multiplexers. The

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two 4-to-1 multiplexer outputs are fed into the 2-to-1 with the selector pins on the 4-to-1's put in
parallel giving a total number of selector inputs to 3, which is equivalent to an 8-to-1.

List of ICs which provide multiplexing

Signetics S54S157

The 7400 series has several ICs that contain multiplexers:

IC No. Function Output State

Digital
Quad 2:1
74157 Output same as input given demultiplexers
mux.
Demultiplexers
take one data
Quad 2:1
74158 Output is inverted input input and a
mux.
number of
selection inputs,
74153 Dual 4:1 mux. Output same as input and they have
several outputs.
They forward
74352 Dual 4:1 mux. Output is inverted input
the data input to
one of the
74151A 8:1 mux. Both outputs available (i.e., complementary outputs) outputs
depending on
the values of the
74151 8:1 mux. Output is inverted input
selection inputs.
Demultiplexers
74150 16:1 mux. Output is inverted input
are sometimes
convenient for
designing general-purpose logic because if the demultiplexer's input is always true, the
demultiplexer acts as a binary decoder. This means that any function of the selection bits can be
constructed by logically OR-ing the correct set of outputs.

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If X is the input and S is the selector, and A and B are the outputs:
{\displaystyle A=(X\wedge \neg S)}
{\displaystyle B=(X\wedge S)}

Example: A Single Bit 1-to-4 Line Demultiplexer

List of ICs which provide demultiplexing

Fairchild 74F138

The 7400 series has several ICs that contain demultiplexers:

IC No. IC No.
Function Output State
(7400) (4000)

Dual 1:4
74139 Output is inverted input
demux.

Dual 1:4
74156 Output is open collector
demux.

74138 1:8 demux. Output is inverted input

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74238 1:8 demux.

74154 1:16 demux. Output is inverted input

Output is open collector and same as

74159 CD4514/15 1:16 demux.
input

Multiplexers as PLDs

Multiplexers can also be used as programmable logic devices, specifically to implement Boolean
functions. Any Boolean function of n variables and one result can be implemented with a
multiplexer with n selector inputs. The variables are connected to the selector inputs, and the
function result, 0 or 1, for each possible combination of selector inputs is connected to the
corresponding data input. This is especially useful in situations when cost is a factor, for
modularity, and for ease of modification. If one of the variables (for example, D) is also available
inverted, a multiplexer with n-1 selector inputs is sufficient; the data inputs are connected to 0, 1, D,
or ~D, according to the desired output for each combination of the selector inputs.

8 to 1 Multiplexer

In the 8 to 1 multiplexer, there are total eight inputs, i.e., A0, A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, and A7, 3
selection lines, i.e., S0, S1and S2 and single output, i.e., Y. On the basis of the combination of
inputs that are present at the selection lines S0, S1, and S2, one of these 8 inputs are connected to
the output. The block diagram and the truth table of the 8×1 multiplexer are given below.

Block Diagram:

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Truth Table:

The logical expression of the term Y is as follows:

Y=S0'.S1'.S2'.A0+S0.S1'.S2'.A1+S0'.S1.S2'.A2+S0.S1.S2'.A3+S0'.S1'.S2 A4+S0.S1'.S2 A5+S0'.S1
.S2 .A6+S0.S1.S3.A7

Logical circuit of the above expression is given below:

16 to 1 Multiplexer

In the 16 to 1 multiplexer, there are total of 16 inputs, i.e., A0, A1, …, A16, 4 selection lines, i.e.,
S0, S1, S2, and S3 and single output, i.e., Y. On the basis of the combination of inputs that are
present at the selection lines S0, S1, and S2, one of these 16 inputs will be connected to the output.
The block diagram and the truth table of the 16×1

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Block Diagram:

Truth Table:

The logical expression of the term Y is as follows:

Y=A0.S0'.S1'.S2'.S3'+A1.S0'.S1'.S2 '.S3+A2.S0'.S1'.S2.S3'+A3.S0'.S1 '.S2.S3+A4.S0'.S1.S2'.S3'+
A5.S0 '.S1.S2'.S3+A6.S1.S2.S3'+A7.S0 '.S1.S2.S3+A8.S0.S1'.S2'.S3'+A9 .S0.S1'.S2'.S3+Y10.S0.S
1'.S2.S3 '+A11.S0.S1'.S2.S3+A12
S0.S1.S2 '.S3'+A13.S0.S1.S2'.S3+A14.S0.S1 .S2.S3'+A15.S0.S1.S2'.S3

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Logical circuit of the above expression is given below:

Multiplexers in Digital Logic

It is a combinational circuit which have many data inputs and single output depending on control or
select inputs. For N input lines, log n (base2) selection lines, or we can say that for 2n input lines, n
selection lines are required. Multiplexers are also known as “Data n selector, parallel to serial
convertor, many to one circuit, universal logic circuit”. Multiplexers are mainly used to increase
amount of the data that can be sent over the network within certain amount of time and bandwidth. 
 

Now the implementation of 4:1 Multiplexer using truth table and gates. 

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Multiplexer can act as universal combinational circuit. All the standard logic gates can be
implemented with multiplexers. 

Multiplexer

Multiplexing is the property of combining one or more signals and transmitting on a single
channel .This is achieved by the device multiplexer. A multiplexer is the most frequently
usedcombinational circuits and important building block in many in digital systems.These are
mostly used to form a selected path between multiple sources and a single destination. A basic
multiplexer has various data input lines and a single output line. These are found in many digital
system applications such as data selection and data routing, logic function generators, digital
counters with multiplexed displays, telephone network, communication systems, waveform
generators, etc. In this article we are going to discuss about types of multiplexers and its design.
The multiplexer or MUX is a digital switch, also called as data selector. It is a combinational circuit
with more than one input line, one output line and more than one select line. It allows the binary
information from several input lines or sources and depending on the set of select lines , particular
input line , is routed onto a single output line. The basic idea of multiplexing is shown in figure
below in which data from several sources are routed to the single output line when the enable
switch is ON. That is how the multiplexers are also called as ‘many to one’ combinational circuits.

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The below figure shows the block diagram of a multiplexer consisting of n input lines, m selection
lines and one output line. If there are m selection lines, then the number of possible input lines is
2m. Alternatively we can say that if the number of input lines is equal to 2m, then m selection lines
are required to select one of n (consider 2m = n) input lines.This type of multiplexer is referred to as
2n × 1 multiplexer or 2n -to-1 multiplexer. For example, if one of the 4 input lines has to be
selected, then two select lines are required. Similarly, to select one of 8 input lines, three select lines
are required.

Generally the number of data inputs to a multiplexer is a power of two such as 2, 4, 8, 16, etc. Some
of the mostly used multiplexers include 2-to-1, 4-to-1, 8-to-1 and 16-to-1 multiplexers.These
multiplexers are available in IC forms with different input and select line configurations. Some of
the available multiplexer ICs include 74157 (2-to-1 MUX), 78158 (2-to-1 MUX), 74352 (4-to-1
MUX), 74153 (4-to-1 MUX), 74152 (8-to-1 MUX) and 74150 (16-to-1 MUX).

2-to-1 Multiplexer

A 2-to-1 multiplexer consists of two inputs D0 and D1, one select input S and one output Y.
Depends on the select signal, the output is connected to either of the inputs. Since there are two
input signals only two ways are possible to connect the inputs to the outputs, so one select is needed
to do these operations. If the select line is low, then the output will be switched to D0 input,
whereas if select line is high, then the output will be switched to D1 input. The figure below shows
the block diagram of a 2-to-1 multiplexer which connects two 1-bit inputs to a common destination.

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The truth table of the 2-to-1 multiplexer is shown below. Depending on the selector switching the
inputs are produced at outputs , i.e., D0 , D1 and are switched to the output for S=0 and S=1
respectively . Thus, the Boolean expression for the output becomes D0 when S=0 and output is D1
when S=1.
From the truth table the Boolean expression of the output is given as

From the above output expression, the logic circuit of 2-to-1 multiplexer can be implemented using
logic gates as shown in figure. It consists of two AND gates, one NOT gate and one OR gate. When
the select line, S=0, the output of the upper AND gate is zero, but the lower AND gate is D0.Thus,
the output generated by the OR gate is equal to D0. Similarly, when S=1, the output of the lower
AND gate is zero, but the output of upper AND gate is D1. Therefore, the output of the OR gate is
D1. Thus, the above given Boolean expression is satisfied by this circuit.

In some cases, two or more multiplexers are fabricated on a single IC because simple logic gates
can implement the multiplexer. Generally four 2 line to 1 line multiplexers are fabricated in a single
IC as shown in figure below. Some of these ICs of 2 to 1 multiplexers include IC 74157 and IC
74158. The selection line controls the input lines to the output in all four multiplexers. The output
Y1 can be selected such that its value may be equal to A1 or B1, Y2 can be either A2 or B2 and so
on. The control input E enables and disables all the multiplexers, i.e., when E=1, outputs of all the
multiplexer is zero irrespective of the value of S

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4-to-1 Multiplexer

A  4-to-1 multiplexer consists four data input lines as D0 to D3, two select lines as S0 and S1 and a
single output line Y. The select lines S1 and S2 select one of the four input lines to connect the
output line. The particular input combination on select lines selects one of input (D0 through D3) to
the output.The figure below shows the block diagram of a 4-to-1 multiplexer in which the
multiplexer decodes the input through select line.

The truth table of a 4-to-1 multiplexer is shown below in which four input combinations 00, 10, 01
and 11 on the select lines respectively switches the inputs D0, D2, D1 and D3 to the output. That
means when S1=0 and S0 =0, the output at Y is D0, similarly Y is D1 if the select inputs S1=0 and
S0= 1 and so on.

 From the above truth table, we can write the output expressions as
If S1=0 and S0=0 then Y = D0
Therefore, Y = D0 (S1) ̅ (S0) ̅
If S1= 0 and S0=1, the Y = D1
Therefore, Y = D1 (S1) ̅ S0

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If S1=1 and S0=0, then Y = D2

Therefore, Y = D2 S1 (S0) ̅
If S1=1 and S0=1 the Y = D3
Therefore, Y = D3 S1 S0
To get the total data output from the multiplexer, all these product terms are to be summed and then
the final Boolean expression of this multiplexer is given as

From the above expression of the output, a 4-to-1 multiplexer can be implemented by using basic
logic gates. The below figure shows the logic circuit of 4:1 MUX which is implemented by four 3-
inputs AND gates, two 1-input NOT gates, and one 4-inputs OR gate.In this circuit, each data
inputline is connected as input to an AND gate and two select lines are connected as other two
inputs to it. The AND gate output is connected to with inputs of OR gate so as to produce the output
Y.

 Generally, this type of multiplexers is available in dual IC forms and most common type is IC
74153 which is a dual 4-to-1 line multiplexer. It consists of two identical and independent 4-to-1
multiplexers. It has two separate enable or strobe inputs to switch ON or OFF the multiplexers.
Usually, the enable input or strobe can be used to cascade two or more multiplexer ICs to construct
a multiplexer with large number of inputs. Each multiplier is supplied with separate inputs. The
figure below shows the pin diagram of IC74153.

8-to-1 Multiplexer

An 8-to-1 multiplexer consists of eight data inputs D0 through D7, three input select lines S2
through S0 and a single output line Y. Depending on the select lines combinations, multiplexer

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decodes the inputs. The below figure shows the block diagram of an 8-to-1 multiplexer with enable
input that enable or disable the multiplexer. Since the number data bits given to the MUX are eight
then 3 bits (23=8) are needed to select one of the eight data bits.

The truth table for an 8-to1 multiplexer is given below with eight combinations of inputs so as to
generate each output corresponds to input.
For example, if S2= 0, S1=1 and S0=0 then the data output Y is equal to D2. Similarly the data
outputs D0 to D7 will be selected through the combinations of S2, S1 and S0 as shown in below
figure.

From the above truth table, the Boolean equation for the output is given as

From the above Boolean equation, the logic circuit diagram of an 8-to-1 multiplexer can be
implemented by using 8 AND gates, 1 OR gate and 7 NOT gates as shown in below figure. In the
circuit, when enable pin is set to one, the multiplexer will be disabled and if it is zero then select
lines will select the corresponding data input to pass through the output.

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A typical IC 74151 is an 8-to-1 multiplexer with eight inputs and two outputs. The two outputs are
active low and active high outputs. It has three select lines A, B and C and one active low enable
input. The pinout of this IC is given below.

Application of Multiplexer

In all types of digital system applications, multiplexers find its immense usage. Since these allows
multiple inputs to be connected independently to a single output, these are found in variety of
applications including data routing, logic function generators, control sequencers, parallel-to-serial
converters, etc.

Data Routing

Multiplexers are extensively used in data routing applications to route the data to a one particular
destination from one of several sources. One of the applications includes the displaying of two
multidigit BCD counters, one at a time. In such application, 74157 multiplexer ICs are used to
select and display the content of either of two BCD counters using a set of decoder and LED
displays.

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Logic Function Generator

In place of logic gates, a logical expression can be generated by using a multiplexer. It is possible to
connect the multiplexer such that it duplicates the logic of any truth table. In such cases it can
generate the Boolean algebraic function of a set of input variables. This abruptly reduces the
number of logic gates or integrated circuits to perform the logic function since the multiplexer is a
single integrated circuit. In this kind of applications, multiplexers are viewed as logic function
generators. For example consider the below logic diagram to implement the ex-OR function of
three inputs. A 74151A 8-to-1 multiplexer is used in this logic generator. This multiplexer works
exactly similar to the set of logic gates implementing the same function. The output F is 1 for data
inputs D1, D2, D5 and D6 which are selected by making selection lines to 001, 010, 100 and 111
respectively.

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Parallel to Serial Conversion

A multiplexer circuit can be used to convert the parallel data to serial data, so as to reduce parallel
buses to serial signals. This type of conversion is needed in telecommunication, test and
measurement, military/aerospace, data communications applications. In digital systems, mostly data
processed in parallel for achieving higher speeds. But for transmission of the data signals over long
distances need more number of lines to process the data. In such cases parallel data is converted
into serial form using multiplexers. The figure below shows the parallel to serial data conversion
using an 8 input multiplexer. Parallel data from the data in or some other register is applied to the 8
input lines of the multiplexer. The selection codes for the multiplexer are generated by a 3-bit
counter. With the application of each clock pulse to the counter the data is serially out from the
multiplexer.

Other applications of multiplexers include control sequencers, pulse train generators, encoders,
register to register data transfer, waveform generators, etc.

16x1 Multiplexer

In this section, let us implement 16x1 Multiplexer using 8x1 Multiplexers and 2x1 Multiplexer.
We know that 8x1 Multiplexer has 8 data inputs, 3 selection lines and one output. Whereas, 16x1
Multiplexer has 16 data inputs, 4 selection lines and one output. So, we require two 8x1
Multiplexers in first stage in order to get the 16 data inputs. Since, each 8x1 Multiplexer produces

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one output, we require a 2x1 Multiplexer in second stage by considering the outputs of first stage
as inputs and to produce the final output. Let the 16x1 Multiplexer has sixteen data inputs I15 to
I0, four selection lines s3 to s0 and one output Y. The Truth table of 16x1 Multiplexer is shown
below.

Selection Inputs Output

S3 S2 S1 S0 Y

0 0 0 0 I0

0 0 0 1 I1

0 0 1 0 I2

0 0 1 1 I3

0 1 0 0 I4

0 1 0 1 I5

0 1 1 0 I6

0 1 1 1 I7

1 0 0 0 I8

1 0 0 1 I9

1 0 1 0 I10

1 0 1 1 I11

1 1 0 0 I12

1 1 0 1 I13

1 1 1 0 I14

1 1 1 1 I15

We can implement 16x1 Multiplexer using lower order Multiplexers easily by considering the
above Truth table. The block diagram of 16x1 Multiplexer is shown in the following figure.

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The same selection lines, s2, s1 & s0 are applied to both 8x1 Multiplexers. The data inputs of
upper 8x1 Multiplexer are I15 to I8 and the data inputs of lower 8x1 Multiplexer are I7 to I0.
Therefore, each 8x1 Multiplexer produces an output based on the values of selection lines, s2,
s1 & s0. The outputs of first stage 8x1 Multiplexers are applied as inputs of 2x1 Multiplexer that is
present in second stage. The other selection line, s3 is applied to 2x1 Multiplexer.

 If s3 is zero, then the output of 2x1 Multiplexer will be one of the 8 inputs Is7 to I0 based
on the values of selection lines s2, s1 & s0.

 If s3 is one, then the output of 2x1 Multiplexer will be one of the 8 inputs I15 to I8 based on
the values of selection lines s2, s1 & s0.

Therefore, the overall combination of two 8x1 Multiplexers and one 2x1 Multiplexer performs as
one 16x1 Multiplexer.

Properties
An advantage of digital circuits when compared to analog circuits is that signals represented
digitally can be transmitted without degradation caused by noise.[40] For example, a continuous
audio signal transmitted as a sequence of 1s and 0s, can be reconstructed without error, provided the
noise picked up in transmission is not enough to prevent identification of the 1s and 0s. In a digital
system, a more precise representation of a signal can be obtained by using more binary digits to
represent it. While this requires more digital circuits to process the signals, each digit is handled by
the same kind of hardware, resulting in an easily scalable system. In an analog system, additional
resolution requires fundamental improvements in the linearity and noise characteristics of each step

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of the signal chain. With computer-controlled digital systems, new functions to be added through
software revision and no hardware changes. Often this can be done outside of the factory by
updating the product's software. So, the product's design errors can be corrected after the product is
in a customer's hands. Information storage can be easier in digital systems than in analog ones. The
noise immunity of digital systems permits data to be stored and retrieved without degradation. In an
analog system, noise from aging and wear degrade the information stored. In a digital system, as
long as the total noise is below a certain level, the information can be recovered perfectly. Even
when more significant noise is present, the use of redundancy permits the recovery of the original
data provided too many errors do not occur. In some cases, digital circuits use more energy than
analog circuits to accomplish the same tasks, thus producing more heat which increases the
complexity of the circuits such as the inclusion of heat sinks. In portable or battery-powered
systems this can limit use of digital systems. For example, battery-powered cellular telephones
often use a low-power analog front-end to amplify and tune in the radio signals from the base
station. However, a base station has grid power and can use power-hungry, but very
flexible software radios. Such base stations can be easily reprogrammed to process the signals used
in new cellular standards.

A 4-bit ring counter using D-type flip flops is an example of synchronous logic. Each device is
connected to the clock signal, and update together. The usual way to implement a synchronous
sequential state machine is to divide it into a piece of combinational logic and a set of flip flops
called a state register. The state register represents the state as a binary number. The combinational
logic produces the binary representation for the next state. On each clock cycle, the state register
captures the feedback generated from the previous state of the combinational logic and feeds it back
as an unchanging input to the combinational part of the state machine. The clock rate is limited by
the most time-consuming logic calculation in the combinational logic.

Asynchronous systems

Most digital logic is synchronous because it is easier to create and verify a synchronous design.
However, asynchronous logic has the advantage of its speed not being constrained by an arbitrary
clock; instead, it runs at the maximum speed of its logic gates. Building an asynchronous system
using faster parts makes the circuit faster. Nevertheless, most systems need to accept external
unsynchronized signals into their synchronous logic circuits. This interface is inherently

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asynchronous and must be analyzed as such. Examples of widely used asynchronous circuits
include synchronizer flip-flops, switch debouncers and arbiters. Asynchronous logic components
can be hard to design because all possible states, in all possible timings must be considered. The
usual method is to construct a table of the minimum and maximum time that each such state can
exist and then adjust the circuit to minimize the number of such states. The designer must force the
circuit to periodically wait for all of its parts to enter a compatible state (this is called "self-
resynchronization"). Without careful design, it is easy to accidentally produce asynchronous logic
that is unstable, that is, real electronics will have unpredictable results because of the cumulative
delays caused by small variations in the values of the electronic components.

Register transfer systems

Example of a simple circuit with a toggling output. The inverter forms the combinational logic in
this circuit, and the register holds the state. Many digital systems are data flow machines. These are
usually designed using synchronous register transfer logic, using hardware description
languages such as VHDL or Verilog. In register transfer logic, binary numbers are stored in groups
of flip flops called registers. A sequential state machine controls when each register accepts new
data from its input. The outputs of each register are a bundle of wires called a bus that carries that
number to other calculations. A calculation is simply a piece of combinational logic. Each
calculation also has an output bus, and these may be connected to the inputs of several registers.
Sometimes a register will have a multiplexer on its input so that it can store a number from any one
of several buses. Asynchronous register-transfer systems (such as computers) have a general
solution. In the 1980s, some researchers discovered that almost all synchronous register-transfer
machines could be converted to asynchronous designs by using first-in-first-out synchronization
logic. In this scheme, the digital machine is characterized as a set of data flows. In each step of the
flow, a synchronization circuit determines when the outputs of that step are valid and instructs the
next stage when to use these outputs.

Computer design

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Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor

The most general-purpose register-transfer logic machine is a computer. This is basically

an automatic binary abacus. The control unit of a computer is usually designed as
a microprogram run by a microsequencer. A microprogram is much like a player-piano roll. Each
table entry of the microprogram commands the state of every bit that controls the computer. The
sequencer then counts, and the count addresses the memory or combinational logic machine that
contains the microprogram. The bits from the microprogram control the arithmetic logic
unit, memory and other parts of the computer, including the microsequencer itself. In this way, the
complex task of designing the controls of a computer is reduced to a simpler task of programming a
collection of much simpler logic machines.

Reliability

The "reliability" of a logic gate describes its mean time between failure (MTBF). Digital machines
often have millions of logic gates. Also, most digital machines are "optimized" to reduce their cost.
The result is that often, the failure of a single logic gate will cause a digital machine to stop
working. It is possible to design machines to be more reliable by using redundant logic which will
not malfunction as a result of the failure of any single gate (or even any two, three, or four gates),
but this necessarily entails using more components, which raises the financial cost and also usually
increases the weight of the machine and may increase the power it consumes.

Fanout

Fanout describes how many logic inputs can be controlled by a single logic output without
exceeding the electrical current ratings of the gate outputs. The minimum practical fanout is about
five. Modern electronic logic gates using CMOS transistors for switches have fanouts near fifty,
and can sometimes go much higher.

Speed

The "switching speed" describes how many times per second an inverter (an electronic
representation of a "logical not" function) can change from true to false and back. Faster logic can
accomplish more operations in less time. Digital logic first became useful when switching speeds

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got above 50 Hz, because that was faster than a team of humans operating mechanical calculators.
Modern electronic digital logic routinely switches at 5 GHz (5 · 109 Hz), and some laboratory
systems switch at more than 1 THz (1 · 1012 Hz).

Logic families

Design started with relays. Relay logic was relatively inexpensive and reliable, but slow.
Occasionally a mechanical failure would occur. Fanouts were typically about 10, limited by the
resistance of the coils and arcing on the contacts from high voltages. Later, vacuum tubes were
used. These were very fast, but generated heat, and were unreliable because the filaments would
burn out. Fanouts were typically 5...7, limited by the heating from the tubes' current. In the 1950s,
special "computer tubes" were developed with filaments that omitted volatile elements like silicon.
These ran for hundreds of thousands of hours. The first semiconductor logic family was resistor–
transistor logic. This was a thousand times more reliable than tubes, ran cooler, and used less
power, but had a very low fan-in of 3. Diode–transistor logic improved the fanout up to about 7,
and reduced the power. Some DTL designs used two power-supplies with alternating layers of NPN
and PNP transistors to increase the fanout. Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) was a great
improvement over these. In early devices, fanout improved to 10, and later variations reliably
achieved 20. TTL was also fast, with some variations achieving switching times as low as 20 ns.
TTL is still used in some designs. Emitter coupled logic is very fast but uses a lot of power. It was
extensively used for high-performance computers made up of many medium-scale components
(such as the Illiac IV). By far, the most common digital integrated circuits built today use CMOS
logic, which is fast, offers high circuit density and low-power per gate. This is used even in large,
fast computers, such as the IBM System z.

Digital Electronics Projects using Logic Gates

1). Detection of Keyboard Words

In this project, logic gates are used to design this project. This project a keyboard can be interfaced
to a logic circuit to detect the 5 letter words otherwise a particular word whenever a user types a
paragraph in English.

2). Controlling Mechanism of Water Tank

This water tank circuit is used to generate an alarming one the tank is overflow or when it includes
less water or below a fixed level. This circuit is designed with logic gates. In this project, when the

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level of water in the tank exceeds then an outlet valve can be opened. Similarly, when the water
level in the tank falls below the fixed level then the inlet valve can be opened.

3). LED-based Cube

This cube is multiplexed with LEDs to generate a 3D pattern. This cube is designed with a 6x6x6
otherwise a 7x7x7. Once the cube is switched ON, it displays patterns, text, etc. The designing of
this cube can be done using a single color LED or RGB LEDs.

4). Robot for Detecting Table Edge

This project is used to design a robot using logic gates. This robot is mainly used to detect the edge
of the table because when this robot moves in a straight line, it stops once it detects an edge of the
table. To overcome this, this robot is very useful in detecting the table edge. Once it detects, it
automatically changes its direction and moves in the forward direction.

5). Virtual Keypad using IR

This project is used to design a virtual keypad using IR to detect the user’s finger. Here, the keypad
used in this project is a minimum of 4×4 in size. This keypad is connected to eight 7 segment
displays. When a key is pressed on the keypad, then the display will move to the left & then the
new number will be displayed automatically on the right-side display.

Programmable Decoration Light using LEDs

LED technology plays an important role in today’s world. It is used to provide lighting in an
attractive manner. The project is designed for decorative lighting or fancy lighting purposes which
are used in shopping malls, commercial establishments, festival places, and on many other
occasions. This proposed system is designed with a number of LEDs that are used as a source for
lighting. Moreover, IR sensors are used instead of conventional switches to select a preferred effect.
This is one of the best-LED projects for electronic and electrical engineering students.

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Propeller Display of Message by Virtual LEDs

This project is designed to display a message virtually through a circular movement by using LEDs
mounted upon a PCB on a high-speed motor shaft. This project uses led circuits as a number of
LEDs placed in a single line. The proposed system uses only 20 LEDs to display the message by
rotating the circular movement. LED coordinates can be implemented through software. The LED
projects are used to display any messages in an attractive manner.

PC Controlled Scrolling Message Display for Notice Board using LEDs

Usually, the notice board is used to scroll the information, but scrolling various announcements
day-to-day is a difficult process. A person is separately required to take care of this notice board.
This system displays notices by a PC on notice boards. This system is designed to control
the scrolling message display my PC to display the scrolling information. It can also be used to
display updated information anywhere, such as colleges, shopping malls, bus stations, and other
places. The information is transmitted from a PC. The led based projects provide the ultimate
solutions for the users.

Vehicle Movement Sensed LED Street Light with Idle Time Dimming
This project is designed to detect vehicle movement on highways to turn ON only a block of LED
lights ahead of it (vehicle), and to switch OFF trailing lights to save energy. This project saves the
energy, which is achieved by sensing an upcoming vehicle, and then to switch ON a block of street
lights ahead of the vehicle. If there are no vehicles on the highway, then all the lights remain OFF
without human intervention. Thus, we can save energy using a flashing led circuit arrangement.

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Vehicle Movement Sensed LED Street Light

The intensity of street lights is required to be kept high during the crowning hours. As the traffic on
the roads tends to decrease slowly in late nights, the intensity can be reduced progressively till
morning to protect energy. Therefore, the street lights switch ON at the dusk and then switch OFF
at the dawn automatically. The process repeats every day.

ARM-based Solar Street Light

The project is designed for LED-based street lights with auto intensity control using solar power
from photovoltaic cells. As awareness for solar energy is increasing, more and more individuals and
institutions are opting for solar energy. Photovoltaic cells are used for charging batteries by
converting the sunlight into electricity. This is a microcontroller LED project that works based on
PWM pulses provided by the microcontroller to control the intensity of the light.
Solar Highway Lighting System with Auto Turn Off in Daytime
High-Intensity Discharge lamps (HID) generally used in urban street lights, which work based on
the principle of gas discharge, and thus, the intensity is not controllable by any voltage reduction
method as the discharge path gets broken. LED lights are the future of lighting, because of their
little energy consumption and long life they are fast replacing conventional lights world over. A
white light-emitting diode (LED) replaces the HID lamps where intensity control is possible
by pulse width modulation.

Solar Highway Lighting System

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This project is designed for LED-based street lights with auto intensity control using solar power
from photovoltaic cells interfaced to a Raspberry Pi board. The intensity control helps in saving
energy during late nights while traffic density on the streets is low. A Raspberry Pi board is
engaged to offer different intensities at the different times of night using PWM technique to save
the energy, and a charge controller is used to charging and discharging the battery.

Raspberry Pi based Solar Street Light

This project is designed to automatically control the intensity of light by an Arduino board using
solar power from photovoltaic cells. Present days, the usage of solar energy is increasing from
institutions to industries. Solar panels are used for charging batteries by converting the sunlight into
electrical energy. A charge controller circuit is used to control the charging of the battery. The
intensity of street lights is required to be kept high during peak hours. As the traffic on the roads to
decrease slowly in late nights, the intensity can be reduced gradually till morning to save energy.
Hence, the street lights switch ON at the dusk and then switch OFF at the dawn automatically.

Arduino based Solar Street Light

The proposed system used to control the intensity of light by developing pulse width modulated
signals that drives MOSFET to switch an LED bank accordingly to achieve the desired operation.
This is a simple led project, designed with a set of LEDs that consume less power. It has a long
lifetime, as compared to the conventional HID lamps. The intensity of LED projects can be
controlled as per the requirement during the off-peak hours which is not feasible in HID lamps.

Intensity Controlled Energy Saving LED Street Lights

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Nowadays digital electronics deal with the logic gates, flip-flops, CMOS – the foundation for
modern computers and digital communications. Such types of different digital logic circuits can be
built into a single integrated circuit to design microprocessors and other high-end computational
systems. These processors are capable of performing millions of operations per second. A digital
electronics system uses binary numbers of 1s and 0s to represent information. The following list is
some latest projects on digital electronics for the electronic engineering students, who can widely
implement them. Here is the list of such projects

Applications of Digital Techniques

In everyday life, we use digital electronics in home appliances like stoves, washers, mobile phones.
In offices, we use computers and tablets, and for personal purposes, we use watches, cameras, video
recorders, video games, and so on. This is the list of titles related to the digital electronic
projects, DIY LED projects, which are available in different online sites that are used in digital
communications as well as digital system implementation. Hope you have got the best list from this
article and we believe that you might have got satisfied with this article. Apart from this, if you
have any queries or suggestions regarding digital electronics projects, please write down in the
comments section given below, and therefore, for further help regarding the nonmicrocontroller
projects and suggestions you can write to us or comment in the comment section given below.
Multiplexer is one of the basic building units of a computer system which in principle allows
sharing of a common line by more than one input lines. It connects multiple input lines to a single
output line. At a specific time one of the input lines is selected and the selected input is passed on to
the output line.
                               Relation between multiple Input lines and Selection lines      
Input lines 16 = 24 i.e. 4 Selection lines
Input lines will be I0 – I15 
Selection lines will be S0 – S3
Block Diagram:

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Constructed Diagram:

The diagram will be same as of the block diagram of 16-to-1 line multiplexer in which 8-to-1 line
multiplexer Selection lines will be S0 – S2and S3will be connected to 2-to-1 line
multiplexer Selection and First 8-to-1 line multiplexer Input lines will be I0 – I7and Second8-to-1
line multiplexer Input lines will be I8 – I15

Conclusion

The balance between digital technology and social interaction is the key to taking advantage of all
of the affordances and minimizing all of the limitations that digital technology brings to children
and their education, whether it be knowledge based or practice based.

References

1. ^ Jump up to:a b Dean, Tamara (2010). Network+ Guide to Networks. Delmar. pp. 82–

85. ISBN 978-1423902454.
2. ^ Debashis, De (2010). Basic Electronics. Dorling Kindersley.
p. 557. ISBN 9788131710685.
3. ^ Lipták, Béla (2002). Instrument engineers' handbook: Process software and digital
networks. CRC Press. p. 343. ISBN 9781439863442.
4. ^ Harris, David (2007). Digital Design and Computer Architecture. Penrose.
p. 79. ISBN 9780080547060.
5. ^ Crowe, John and Barrie Hayes-Gill (1998) Introduction to Digital Electronics pp. 111-113

Mr. Wakchaure A.J.

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