Land of Romania

Romania is bounded by Ukraine to the north, Moldova to the northeast, the Black Sea to the
southeast, Bulgaria to the south, Serbia to the southwest, and Hungary to the west. There is a
certain symmetry in the physical structure of Romania. The country forms a complex
geographic unit centred on the Transylvanian Basin, around which the peaks of
the Carpathian Mountains and their associated subranges and structural platforms form a
series of crescents. Beyond this zone, the extensive plains of the south and east of the country,
their potential increased by the Danube River and its tributaries, form a fertile outer crescent
extending to the frontiers. There is great diversity in the topography, geology, climate,
hydrology, flora, and fauna, and for millennia this natural environment has borne the imprint
of a human population.

Romania
Romania comprises a number of geographic regions, some of which correspond roughly to
the historic regions whose names they share. In the southern part of the country, following the
general contours of the former principality of the same name, Walachia (Wallachia) stretches
south from the Southern Carpathians (Transylvanian Alps) to the Bulgarian border and is
divided by the Olt River. In the southeast, situated between the lower Danube and the Black
Sea, is the historic and geographic region of Dobroja, which also encompasses part of
Bulgaria. The geographic region of Moldavia, comprising only part of the former principality
of Moldavia (the remainder of which constitutes the country of Moldova), stretches from
the Eastern Carpathian Mountains to the Prut River on the Ukrainian border. In western
Romania, the historic Banat region is bounded on the north by the Mureș River and reaches
west and south into Hungary and Serbia. Finally, bounded on the north and east by the
Eastern Carpathians, on the south by the Southern Carpathians, and on the west by the Bihor
Mountains is the geographic region of Transylvania, which is roughly contiguous with the
borders of the former principality of Transylvania and in most schemes includes the Banat.
Relief
The relief of Romania is dominated by the Carpathian Mountains, which can be divided into
the Eastern Carpathians, the Southern Carpathians, and the Western Carpathians.
The Eastern Carpathians extend from the Ukrainian frontier to the Prahova River valley and
reach their maximum elevation in the Rodnia Mountains, with Pietrosu rising to 7,556 feet
(2,303 metres). They are made up of a series of parallel crests that are oriented in a more or
less north-south direction. Within these mountains is a central core that is made up of hard,
crystalline rocks and has a bold and rugged relief. Rivers have cut narrow gorges here (known
as cheile)—including the Bistriței and Bicazului gorges—which offer some magnificent
scenery. This portion of the Carpathians is bounded on the eastern side by a zone of softer
flysch. For some 250 miles (400 km) on the western fringe, the volcanic ranges Oaș
and Harghita, with a concentration of volcanic necks and cones, some with craters still
preserved, lend character to the landscape. St. Ana Lake—the only crater lake in Romania—is
also found there. The volcanic crescent provides rich mineral resources (notably copper, lead,
and zinc) as well as the mineral-water springs on which are founded several health resorts.
The Carpathian range proper is made up in large part of easily weathered limestones and
conglomerates, which again provide some striking scenery. The Maramureș, Giurgiu, Ciuc,
and Bârsei depressions further break up the mountainous relief.
The Southern Carpathians, or Transylvanian Alps, lie between the Prahova River valley
on the east and the Timiș and Cerna river valleys to the west. They are composed mainly of
hard crystalline and volcanic rocks, which give the region the massive character
that differentiates it from the other divisions of the Carpathians. The highest points in
Romania are reached in the peaks of Mounts Moldoveanu (8,346 feet [2,544 metres])
and Negoiu (8,317 feet [2,535 metres]), both in the Făgăraș Mountains, which, together with
the Bucegi, Parâng, and Retezat-Godeanu massifs, form the major subdivision of the region.
The latter contains Retezat National Park, Romania’s first established (1935) national park,
which covers about 94,000 ( ninety-four thousand) acres (38,000 hectares), offers spectacular
mountain scenery, and provides an important refuge for the chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra)
and other animals. Ancient erosion platforms, another distinguishing feature of the area, have
been utilized as pastures since the dawn of European history. Communication is possible
through the high passes of Bran, Novaci-Șugag, and Vâlcan, at elevations up to 7,400 feet
(2,260 metres), but the scenic Olt, Jiu, and Danube river valleys carry the main roads and
railways through the mountains. At the Iron Gate gorge, on the Danube, a joint navigation and
power project by Romania and the former federation of Yugoslavia harnessed the fast-flowing
waters of the gorge. In addition to greatly improving navigation facilities, the project created
two power stations, which are jointly administered by Romania and Serbia. Finally, as in the
Eastern Carpathians, there are important lowland depressions within the mountains (notably
Brezoi, Hațeg, and Petroșani), and agriculture and industry are concentrated in them.
The Western Carpathians extend for about 220 miles (350 km) between the Danube
and Someș rivers. Unlike the other divisions of the Carpathians, they do not form a
continuous range but rather a cluster of massifs around a north-south axis. Separating the
massifs is a series of deeply penetrating structural depressions. Historically, these depressions
have functioned as easily defended “gates,” as is reflected in their names: the Iron Gate of
Transylvania (at Bistra); the Eastern Gate, or Poarta Orientală (at Timiș-Cerna); and, most
famous, the Iron Gate on the Danube.
Among the massifs themselves, the Banat and Poiana Ruscăi mountains contain a rich variety
of mineral resources and are the site of two of the country’s three largest metallurgical
complexes, at Reșița and Hunedoara. The marble of Ruschița is well known. To the north lie
the Apuseni Mountains, centred on the Bihor Massif, from which emerge fingerlike
protrusions of lower relief. On the east the Bihor Mountains merge into the limestone
tableland of Cetățile Ponorului, where the erosive action of water along joints in the rocks has
created a fine example of the rugged karst type of scenery. To the west lie the parallel
mountain ranges of Zărand, Codru-Moma, and Pădurea Craiului; to the south, along
the Mureș River, the Metaliferi and Trascău mountains contain a great variety of metallic and
other ores, with traces of ancient Roman mine workings still visible. The Western Carpathians
generally are less forested than other parts of the range, and human settlement reaches to the
highest elevations.
The great arc of the Carpathians is accompanied by an outer fringe of rolling terrain known as
the Subcarpathians and extending from the Moldova River in the north to the Motru River in
the southwest. It is from 2 to 19 miles (3 to 31 km) wide and reaches elevations ranging
between 1,300 and 3,300 feet (400 and 1,000 metres). The topography and the milder climate
of this region favour vegetation (including such Mediterranean elements as the edible
chestnut) and aid agriculture; the region specializes in cereals and fruits, and its wines—
notably those of Odobești and the Călugărească Valley—are known throughout Europe. The
area is densely populated, and there are serious problems of economic development in
remoter areas where there is little scope for further agricultural expansion.
Tablelands are another important element in the physical geography of Romania. The
tableland of the Transylvanian Basin is the largest in the country and has an average elevation
of 1,150 feet (350 metres). In the east, between the outer fringe of the Subcarpathians and
the Prut River, lies the Moldavian Plateau, with an average elevation of 1,600 to 2,000 feet
(500 to 600 metres). The Dobruja (Dobrodgea) tableland, an ancient, eroded rock mass in the
southeast, has an average elevation of 820 feet (250 metres) and reaches a maximum elevation
of 1,532 feet (467 metres) in the Pricopan Hills.
Plains cover about one-third of Romania, reaching their fullest development in the south and
west. Their economic importance has increased greatly since the early 19th century. In the
southern part of Romania is the Walachian Plain, which can be divided into the Romanian
Plain to the east of the Olt River and the Oltenian Plateau to the west. The whole region is
covered by deposits of loess, on which rich black chernozem soils have developed, providing
a strong base for agriculture. The Danube floodplain is important economically, and along the
entire stretch of the river, from Calafat in the west to Galați in the east, former marshlands
have been diked and drained to increase food production. Willow and poplar woods border
the river, which is important for fishing but much more so for commerce. River port towns—
including Drobeta–Turnu Severin, Turnu Măgurele, Giurgiu, Brăila, Galați, and Tulcea—
complement the rural settlements.
On the northern edge of the Dobruja region, adjoining the Moldavian Plateau, the great
swampy triangle of the Danube delta is a unique physiographic region covering some 2,000
square miles (5,180 square km), of which the majority is in Romania. The delta occupies the
site of an ancient bay, which in prehistoric times became wholly or partially isolated from the
sea by the Letea sandbanks. The delta, which was designated a UNESCO World Heritage
site in 1991, contributes about half of Romania’s fish production from home waters, with
fishing off the Danube mouth contributing to the majority of the catch of sturgeon (banned
since 2006) and Danube herring. It also is home to hundreds of species of birds, some of
which are rare. For this reason the delta region is of great interest not only to a growing
number of tourists but also to scientists and conservationists. Two dozen or more settlements
are scattered over the region, but many are exposed to serious flood risks. Sulina and Tulcea
are the major ports.
Romania lies in an active earthquake zone at the junction of three tectonic plates. Devastating
earthquakes in both 1940 and 1977 caused considerable damage and loss of life in Romania.
Drainage of Romania
The rivers of Romania are virtually all tributary to the Danube, which forms the southern
frontier from Moldova Nouă to Călărași. Nearly two-fifths of the total Danubian discharge
into the Black Sea is in fact provided by Romanian rivers. The final discharge takes place
through three arms—the Chilia (two-thirds of the flow), Sfântu Gheorghe (one-fourth),
and Sulina (the remainder)—that add to the scenic attraction of the delta region. The most
significant of the Romanian tributary rivers are the Prut, Mureș, Olt, Siret, Ialomiƫa, and
Someș. The rivers have considerable hydroelectric potential, although there are great seasonal
fluctuations in the discharge and few natural lakes to regulate the flow. The total surface-
water potential of the tributary rivers is dwarfed by the volume discharged at the Danube
mouth, which is more than five times as large. Subsoil waters have been estimated at an
annual volume of some 250 billion cubic feet (700 million cubic metres).

The total theoretical hydroelectric potential of Romania—given optimum technological

conditions—is tremendous, but for technical and economic reasons only a fraction of this
potential can be developed. Geographically, the hydroelectric reserves of Romania are
concentrated along the Danube and in the valleys of rivers emerging from the mountain core
of the country. Other hydrographic resources include more than 2,500 lakes, ranging from the
glacial lakes of the mountains to those of the plains and the marshes of the Danube delta
region. The main effort since the 1940s, however, has been on the Argeș, Bistrița, Lotru, Olt,
Mare, Sebeș, and Someș rivers, as well as on the Danube at the Iron Gate.
Soils
Romania has generally fertile soils. About one-fifth of the country is covered with chernozem
—humus-rich black soils. These and reddish brown forest soils are found on the plains to the
south and east of the Carpathians, as well as in the Banat. Gray-brown podzolic (leached)
soils are found at higher elevations. A broad expanse of alluvial soils covers the Danube
floodplain. Ill-advised cultivation methods during the communist period and profligate use of
pesticides and industrial pollution after 1990 resulted in a legacy of significant soil erosion.