Theory of Relativity 12

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter you will be able to
L01 Understand the inertial and L04 Explain length contraction, time
non-inertial frames of reference dilation
L02 Learn about Galilean transformation L05 Discuss addition of velocities
and Michelson-Morley experiment LO6 Evaluate variation of mass with velocity
L03 Know postulates of special theory of and Einstein’s mass energy relation
relativity and Lorentz transformation

Introduction
Before the beginning of the 20th century, main branches of physics, namely mechanics and electromagnetism,
had developed independently. It was a firm opinion of the physicists that these two have no strong relation
with each other. However, early in the 20th century they started facing many new and basic problems. For
example, Newton’s second law of motion did not give correct results when applied to the objects moving
with high speed comparable to the speed of light. Moreover, they noticed that for two observers, which
are in relative motion, the same set of transformation equations cannot be used to transform the laws of
mechanics and electromagnetism from the frame of reference of one observer to the frame of reference
of the other observer. However, the introduction of special theory of relativity by Einstein in 1905 led to
the solution of these and other difficulties. The special theory of relativity deals with the objects or frames
of references, which are moving with uniform velocity relative to each other. For dealing with accelerated
frames of references, Einstein developed the general theory of relativity in 1915.

12.1 Frame OF reFerence LO1

It is well known that the motion of a body is better understood if it is described with respect to some well
defined coordinate system. This coordinate system is called frame of reference. Thus, a system of coordinate
axes which defines the position of a particle in two-or three-dimensional space is called frame of reference.
396 Engineering Physics

It is divided into two categories:

(i) Inertial i.e., unaccelerated system
(ii) Non-inertial i.e., accelerated system
12.1.1 I345ti8l F58 4 of r4f4543 4
Newton’s first law of motion says that a system at rest will remain at rest or a system in uniform motion will
remain in uniform motion till an external force is applied on it. The systems in which the law of inertia holds
good are called inertial systems or inertial frames of reference. Actually the earth is not an inertial frame of
reference because of its orbital and rotational motions. However, for most of the purposes, the earth may be
regarded as an inertial frame of reference.

12.1.2 no3-i345ti8l F58 4 of r4f4543 4

A non-inertial system is the one in which Newton’s first law of motion does not hold good. A frame of reference
which is in accelerated motion with respect to an inertial frame is called non-inertial frame of reference.

12.2 GaLILean TransFOrmaTIOn LO2

There are the transformations which can transform the Y F Y¢ F¢ P(x, y, z, t)
coordinates of a particle from one inertial system to another. (x ¢, y ¢, z ¢, t ¢)
x
Consider two inertial systems F and F¢, where F¢ is moving
x¢
with uniform velocity v relative to F along the +ve direction of
x-axis (Fig. 12.1). We further consider that the origin of both v
the systems coincide at time t = t¢ = 0. Let an event happen at
O O¢ X, X ¢
point P whose coordinates are (x, y, z, t) and (x¢, y¢, z¢, t¢) with
respect to the frames of references F, and F¢ respectively. It
can easily be seen that these coordinates are related, as Z Z¢
Figure 12.1
x ¢ = x - vt ¸
y¢ = y Ô
Ô (i)
˝
z¢ = z Ô
t¢ = t Ô˛

Eq. (i) is known as Galilean transformation for position.

Now, consider that frame F¢ is moving along any direction with velocity v relative to F such that
Y Y¢ P(x, y, z, t)
v = vx iˆ + v y ˆj + vz kˆ (x ¢, y ¢, z ¢, t ¢)
v xt F¢
where vx, vy and vz are the components of v along X, Y and
O´
Z-axes, respectively, as shown in Fig. 12.2. Suppose the origins F
X´
vyt
of the two systems F and F¢ coincide at t = t¢ = 0. Let (x, y, z,
t) and (x¢, y¢, z¢, t¢) are the coordinates of the event happening O X
at point P. At the time of event the frame F¢ is separated from
vzt
frame F by a distance vxt, vyt and vzt along X, Y and Z-axes Z¢
Z
respectively. Then we have,
Figure 12.2
 Theory of Relativity 397

x ¢ = x - vx t ¸
y ¢ = y - v y t ÔÔ (ii)
˝
z ¢ = z - vz t Ô
t¢ = t Ô˛

Eq. (ii) is also known as Galilean transformation for position.

Galilean velocity transformation of the particle can be obtained by differentiating Eq. (ii), with respect to
d d
time. By using = and vx, vy and vz to be constant, we obtain
dt dt ¢

dx ¢ dx ¸
= - vx Ô
dt ¢ dt
Ô
dy ¢ dy Ô (iii)
= - vy ˝
dt ¢ dt Ô
dz ¢ dz Ô
= - vz Ô
dt ¢ dt ˛

u x¢ = u x - vx ¸
or u ¢y = u y - v y Ô˝ (iv)

u z¢ = u z - vz Ô˛

where ux, uy and uz are the velocities of the particle observed by an observer O in system F and u¢x, u¢y and
u¢z are the velocities of the particle observed by O¢ in system F¢ along X, Y and Z-axes, respectively. From
Eq. (iv), we have,

u x¢ iˆ + u y¢ ˆj + u z¢ kˆ = u x iˆ + u y ˆj + u z kˆ - vx iˆ - v y ˆj - vz kˆ
or u¢ = u - v (v)

where iˆ, ˆj , kˆ are unit vectors along X, Y and Z-axes, respectively. Eq. (v) represents the Galilean transformation
of velocity of particle.
Similarly, Galilean acceleration transformation of the particle can be represented by the following equations
by knowing the fact that the acceleration of a particle is the time derivative of its velocity.
du x du y du z
ax = , ay = and az =
dt dt dt
To find the Galilean acceleration transformations, we differentiate the velocity transformation and use the
fact that t¢ = t and vx, vy and vz are the constants. This yields

ax¢ = ax, ay¢ = ay and az¢ = az

398 Engineering Physics

12.3 Michelson-Morley experiMent LO2

In 19th century, scientists had assumed that a hypothetical medium
M1
called luminiferrous ether is required for the propagation of the
light. It was considered that the ether exists uniformly in the
space and it is at rest relative to the earth and other planets. The
basic purpose of Michelson-Morley experiment was to confirm
l Beam II
the existence of stationary ether. The existence of stationary
ether (an absolute frame of reference) can be confirmed if we P P´
can measure the absolute velocity of earth with respect to the
stationary ether. S
M2
Figure 12.3 shows an arrangement of Michelson-Morley
experiment. Its main components are mirror M1 and M2,
l
glass plates P and P¢ of the same size, a source of light S and
a telescope T. The light beam moves to the mirror M1 and the Beam I
other moves to mirror M2. These two beams are reflected back T
by these mirrors and again are recombined at plate P. Finally,
they enter the telescope and produce interference. In the context Figure 12.3
of interference, this experiment has been discussed in detail in
Chapter 1.
In this experiment, the mirrors M1 and M2 are set such that PM1 = PM2 = l. According to Galilean
transformation, the velocity of light in a frame moving with constant velocity v relative to stationary either
from P to M2 is (c – v) while from M2 to P is (c + v). If t1 be the time taken by the transmitted beam from P
to M2 and back, then
l l
t1 = + (i)
c-v c+v
2lc 2l È 1 ˘
or t1 = 2 = Í 2 2˙
c -v 2
c Î1 - v /c ˚
-1
2l È v 2 ˘
or t1 = Í1 - 2 ˙
c Î c ˚
By using Binomial expansion theorem for the case of v/c << 1, we get

2l È v 2 ˘
t1 = Í1 + ˙ [Neglecting higher order terms] (ii)
c Î c2 ˚

The distance travelled by the light beam in time t1 is given by

È v2 ˘
x1 = t1c = 2l Í1 + 2 ˙ (iii)
Î c ˚
If t2¢ be the time taken by beam-II from P to M1 and in the same time distance travelled by this beam is ct2¢.
In this time t2¢, the mirror M1 shifts to M1¢ and travels a horizontal distance vt2¢.
 Theory of Relativity 399

With the help of Fig. 12.4, we get PO = l, PO¢ = ct2¢ and OO¢ = vt2¢. M1 M´1

O O´
( PO ¢ ) 2 = ( PO ) 2 + (OO ¢ ) 2
(ct2¢ ) 2 = (l ) 2 + (vt2¢ )2
or (c 2 - v 2 )t2¢ 2 = l 2
1/2
Ê l2 ˆ
t2¢ = Á 2 ˜
Ë c - v2 ¯
P P´
A
1 1
or t2¢ = ¥ (iv)
c 1 - v2 / c2 Figure 12.4

2l 1
Total time, t2 = 2t2¢ = ¥
c 1 - v 2 /c 2
-1/2
2l Ê v2 ˆ
or t2 = Á 1 - 2 ˜
c Ë c ¯

By using Binomial expansion theorem, we obtain

2l Ê v2 ˆ
t2 = ÁË1 + 2 ˜¯ [Neglecting the higher order terms] (v)
c 2c

The distance travelled by the beam in time t2 is given by

x2 = ct2
Ê v2 ˆ
x2 = 2l Á1 + 2 ˜ (vi)
Ë 2c ¯

With the help of Eqs. (iii) and (vi), we get the path difference

Ê v2 ˆ Ê v2 ˆ
Dx = x1 - x2 = 2l Á1 + 2 ˜ - 2l Á1 + 2 ˜
Ë c ¯ Ë 2c ¯
È v2 v2 ˘
= 2l Í1 + 2 - 1 - 2 ˙
Î c 2c ˚
lv 2
\ Dx =
c2
Because of the introduction of this path difference of the two beams, the interference pattern would be shifted
as,
lv 2
n= [ path difference = nl for constructive interference]
lc2
400 Engineering Physics

where, l is the wavelength of the light used.

If the apparatus is rotated through 90°, the reflected and transmitted beams get interchanged and the path
lv 2
difference of will be produced in the opposite direction. This way the total path difference between the
c2
2lv 2
interfering beams becomes 2 and the interference pattern would be shifted as,
c
2lv 2
n= (vii)
lc2
In the above Eq. (vii) on putting l = 11 m, velocity of earth v = 3 ¥ 104 m/sec, c = 3 ¥ 108 m/sec and
l = 5.5 ¥ 10–7 m, the expected fringe shift comes out to be

2lv 2 2 ¥ 11 ¥ (3 ¥ 104 ) 2
n= =
lc 2
5.5 ¥ 10 -7 ¥ (3 ¥ 108 ) 2
or n = 0.4

This displacement of fringe width could have been observed easily since the apparatus used in this experiment
was capable of observing a fringe shift as small as 0.01. However, experimentally no significant fringe shift
could be observed. This experiment was repeated at different places on the earth, at different times of the
day and different seasons of the year. However, no fringe shift was observed in any case. This negative result
observed by the experiments suggests that the medium or space in which light propagates is not moving
relative to earth.

12.3.1 e 67a a f n ga v r u7 fM 7 M 7 e 6 m
Three explanations were given in order to explain the negative results of Michelson-Morley experiment.

12.3.1.1 Constancy of Speed of Light

If we accept that the measured speed of light is the same for all directions in every inertial frame, then this
could be one of the basis to explain the negative results of Michelson-Morley experiment. If it is so, then
the speeds c + v and c – v will simply be equal to c. Hence, the times t1 and t2 will be equal to 2l/c. Thus
Dx = x2 – x1 will be zero. So according to the principle of constancy of speed of light, there should not be any
shift of fringes. Thus, the principle of constancy of speed of light successfully explains the negative result
of Michelson-Morley experiment. However, under this situation, there would be no experimental evidence
to indicate the existence of absolute ether. This is because all the inertial frames would be equivalent for the
propagation of light as it does not depend on the motion of the observer.

12.3.1.2 Ether Drag Hypothesis

In order to explain the negative results of Michelson-Morley experiment, we consider that the ether is
carried by the bodies moving through it or in simple words ether is dragged by the bodies moving through
it. As per this hypothesis, ether is also carried by the earth with its own velocity. Hence, there would be no
relative motion between the ether and the earth. Therefore, no shift of fringes is obtained. However, this
is contrary to stellar aberrations and Fizeau convection coefficient, which are the experimentally observed
phenomena.
 Theory of Relativity 401

12.3.1.3 Lorentz FitzGerald Contraction Hypothesis

As per this hypothesis, all bodies moving with velocity v are contracted in the direction of motion
by a factor 1 - v 2 /c 2 . So if L0 be the length of a body at rest with respect to ether and L be its length
when the body is in motion with velocity v with respect to ether, then L = L0 1 - v 2 /c 2 . With this
2L 2 L (1 - v 2 /c 2 ) 2 L (1 - v 2 /2c 2 )
t1 = (1 + v 2 /c 2 ) = 0 (1 + v 2 /c 2 ) = 0 (1 + v 2 /c 2 ) . If we neglect the higher
c c c
2L
powers of v/c in view of v < c, then the time t1 = 0 (1 + v 2 /2c 2 ) = t2 . It means the time taken or path
c
traversed by the reflected and transmitted beams is the same. So no shift of fringes is observed. However, this
concept could not be applied for explaining the negative results of Michelson-Morley experiment when the
two arms of the interferometer are not equal.
In view of the above explanations, it is clear that there is no acceptable experimental basis for the idea of ether
or absolute frame of reference. However, Einstein in 1905 gave a revolutionary idea that the motion through
ether is not a meaningful concept rather the motion relative to a frame of reference has physical significance.
Here the frame of reference could be the earth’s surface, the sun, the centre of galaxy, etc; though in every
case we must specify it. This idea finally developed the theory of relativity.

12.4 post l tes o speci l theory o rel ti ity LO3

We simply list the two postulates of the special theory of relativity, as
(1) All the fundamental laws of physics retain the same form in all the inertial frames of reference.
(2) The velocity of light in free space is constant and is independent of the relative motion of the source
and the observer.

12.5 LOrenTz TransFOrmaTIOn LO3

The invariance of speed of light in all inertial frames implies that Galilean transformation equations are not
suitable. Therefore, we have to introduce new transformation equations which are consistent with the new
concept of the invariance of speed of light in free space. These transformation equations were derived by
Lorentz and are known as Lorentz transformation equations.
Let us consider two inertial frames F and F¢, as shown in Y F Y¢ F¢ P(x, y, z, t)
Fig. 12.5. Again consider two observers O and O¢ situated at (x ¢, y ¢, z ¢, t ¢)
the origin in the frame F and F¢, respectively. Two coordinate
systems coincide initially at t = t¢ = 0. Let a pulse of light be
v
generated at time t = 0 from the origin which spreads out in
the space and at the same time the frame F¢ starts moving
with constant velocity v along +ve direction of x-axis
O O¢ X, X ¢
relative to the frame F. This pulse reaches at point P, whose
coordinates of position and time are (x, y, z, t) and (x¢, y¢, z¢, t¢)
measured by the observer O and O¢, respectively. Z Z¢
Figure 12.5
402 Engineering Physics

Therefore, the transformation equations of x and x¢ can be written as,`

x¢ = k (x – vt) (i)
where, k is a constant of proportionality and is independent of x and t.
The inverse relation can be written as,

x = k (x¢ + vt¢) (ii)

Keeping in mind that the time t and t¢ are not equal, we put the value of x¢ from Eq. (i) in Eq. (ii) in order to get

x = k[k ( x - vt ) + vt ¢ ]
x
or = kx - kvt + vt ¢
k
x kx
or t¢ = - + kt
kv v
kx Ê 1ˆ
\ t ¢ = kt - Á 1 - 2 ˜
v Ë k ¯

kx Ê 1ˆ
\ t ¢ = kt - Á 1 - 2 ˜¯ (iii)
v Ë k

Now according to second postulate of special theory of relativity speed of light c remains constant. So the
velocity of pulse of light which spreads out from the common origin observed by observers O and O¢ should
be the same. Therefore,

x = ct ¸
˝ (iv)
x ¢ = ct ¢ ˛

By putting the values of x and x¢ from Eq. (iv) in Eqs. (i) and (ii), we have,

ct ¢ = k ( x - vt ) = k (ct - vt )
or ct ¢ = kt (c - v) (v)
and ct = k (ct ¢ + vt ¢ )
or ct = kt ¢ (c + v) (vi)
By multiplying Eqs. (v) and (vi), we get

c 2 tt ¢ = k 2 tt ¢ (c 2 - v 2 )
c2
k2 =
(c 2 - v 2 )

1
or k=± (vii)
1 - v 2 /c 2
 Theory of Relativity 403

1 v2
or =1-
k2 c2
1 v2
or 1- = (viii)
k2 c2
Using Eqs. (i), (iii), (vii) and (viii), we have

x - vt
x¢ = (ix)
1 - v 2 /c 2
kx Ê v 2 ˆ
t ¢ = kt - Á ˜
v Ë c2 ¯
kxv Ê xv ˆ
= kt - = k Át - 2 ˜
c 2 Ë c ¯

Ê xv ˆ
ÁË t - 2 ˜¯
c
or t¢ = (x)
1 - v2 / c2

y¢ = y and z¢ = z (xi)
Hence, the transformation equations become

Ê xv ˆ
x - vt ÁË t - 2 ˜¯
c
x¢ = , y ¢ = y, z ¢ = z and t ¢ =
1 - v 2 /c 2 1 - v 2 /c 2

Imagine if the frame F is moving with velocity v along the –ve direction of x-axis relative to frame F¢, then
we get transformation equations of the form

Ê vx ¢ ˆ
x ¢ + vt ¢ ÁË t ¢ + 2 ˜¯
c
x= , y = y ¢, z = z ¢ and t =
1 - v 2 /c 2 1 - v 2 /c 2

These equations are known as inverse Lorentz transformation equations.

If the speed of moving frame is much smaller than the velocity of light c, (i.e., v << c) then the Lorentz
transformation equations reduce to Galilean transformation equations.

12.6 LenGTh cOnTracTIOn LO4

In classical mechanics, the length of an object is independent of the velocity of the moving observer relative
to the object. However, on the basis of the theory of relativity, the length of an object depends upon the
velocity of the observer with respect to the object.
404 Engineering Physics

Let us consider two inertial systems F and F¢. The Y F Y¢ F¢

system F¢ is moving with velocity v relative to the v
x ¢2
system F along x-axis, as shown in Fig. 12.6. Let a rod
x ¢1
AB be at rest in moving system F¢ relative to the observer
O¢ and L0 be the length of the rod in this frame measured O¢
A B
O
by observer O¢ at any instant. This length L0 measured X, X ¢
from the system in which the rod is at rest is called x1
x2
proper length. So L0 will be given by
Z Z¢
L0 = x2¢ − x1¢ (i) Figure 12.6

where x1¢ and x2¢ are the coordinates of two ends of the rod at any instant. At the same time, the length of this
rod (say L) measured by an observer O in the stationary frame F is given by

L = x2 − x1 (ii)
where, x1 and x2 are the abscissae of the ends of the rod in the frame F.
Since it would be appropriate (accurate in crude manner) to measure the length by the observer O¢ in the
frame F¢, we use Lorentz transformation equations for getting the length L0. For this, we have
x1 - vt
x1¢ = (iii)
1 - v 2 /c 2
x2 - vt
x2¢ = (iv)
1 - v 2 /c 2
Substracting Eq. (iii) from Eq. (iv) we have,

x2 - x1
x2¢ - x1¢ =
1 - v 2 /c 2

L
or L0 = (v)
1 - v 2 /c 2

v2
L = L0 1 - (vi)
c2

From Eq. (vi), we see that L < L0. Thus, the length of the rod is reduced in the ratio 1 - v 2 /c 2 : 1 as measured
by the observer moving with velocity v with respect to the rod.

12.6.1 p a7 i g
Length contraction is also called Lorentz contraction or Lorentz-FitzGerald contraction. The contraction
takes place only in the direction parallel to the direction in which the observed body travels. For example, in
the present case the length contraction takes place in the x-direction only. This effect is negligible at everyday
speeds for standard objects and can be ignored for all regular purposes. However, the effect becomes dominant
as the magnitude of the velocity approaches the speed of light. So the length contraction is the phenomenon
which is usually noticeable at a substantial fraction of the speed of light.
 Theory of Relativity 405

12.7 TIme DILaTIOn LO4

The word dilation means to lengthen. Consider two coordinate systems F and F¢ such that F¢ is moving with
velocity v along the x-axis relative to F. Imagine a gun placed at the fixed position (x¢, y¢, z¢) in the frame F¢.
Suppose it fires two shots at time intervals t1¢ and t2¢ measured by observer O¢ in the frame F¢.
The time interval (t2¢ − t1¢) of two shots measured by the clock at rest in moving frame F¢ is called proper
time interval and is given by

t2¢ − t1¢ = t0 (i)

As the motion is relative, we may assume that F is moving with velocity –v along the +x-axis relative to F¢.
In the frame F, the observer O, which is at rest, observes these two shots at different times t1 and t2. The time
interval appears to him is given by
t2 − t1 = t (ii)
Since it would be appropriate (accurate in crude manner) to measure the time by the observer O in the frame
F, we use inverse Lorentz transformation equations for getting the time difference t. For this, we have
t1¢ + vx ¢ / c 2
t1 = (iii)
1 - v 2 /c 2

t2¢ + vx ¢ / c 2
t2 = (iv)
1 - v 2 /c 2
By using Eqs. (iii) and (iv), we get,

t = t2 − t1

t2¢ - t1¢
or t=
1 - v 2 /c 2

t0
t= (v)
1 - v 2 /c 2
1
Eq. (v) shows that t > t0, i.e., the time interval appears to be lengthened by a factor which is
1 - v 2 /c 2
observed by the observer O in frame F. This is known as time dilation.

12.7.1 p a7 i g
The time dilation is actually a difference of elapsed time between two events, when measured by the observers
that are moving relative to each other, i.e., they have relative motion; the same effect is observed when the
observers are definitely situated from a gravitational mass (or masses). The two clocks with the two observers
may be measured to tick at different rates, which arises neither from technical aspects of the clocks nor from
the propagation time of signals. This takes place due to the nature of space-time, which is such that the time
measured along different trajectories is affected by differences in either velocity or gravity, as each of these
affects the time in different ways.
406 Engineering Physics

12.8 ddition o elocities LO5

The classical laws of addition of velocities need to be modified at very high velocities. Consider two frames
of references F and F¢ such that the frame F¢ is moving with a velocity v relative to F along x-axis. Suppose a
particle is moving relative to both the systems F and F¢. Let u and u¢ be the velocities of the particle measured
in frames F and F¢, respectively. Then the velocity components are given as

dx dy dz ¸
ux = , uy = and u z = , Ô
dt dt dt Ô (i)
˝
dx ¢ dy ¢ dz ¢ Ô
u x¢ = , u y¢ = and u z¢ = ,
dt ¢ dt ¢ dt ¢ ˛Ô

From inverse Lorentz transformations, we have

x ¢ + vt ¢ t ¢ + vx ¢/c 2
x= , y = y ¢, z = z ¢ and t = (ii)
1 - v 2 /c 2 1 - v 2 /c 2

By differentiating these equations, we get

vdx ¢
dt ¢ +
dx ¢ + vdt ¢ c2
dx = , dy = dy ¢, dz = dz ¢ and dt = (iii)
1 - v 2 /c 2 1 - v 2 /c 2

From Eqs. (i) and (iii), we have

dx ¢
+v u¢ + v
dx dx ¢ + vdt ¢
ux = = = dt ¢ = x
dt vdx ¢ v dx ¢ v
dt ¢ + 2 1+ 2 1 + 2 u x¢
c c dt ¢ c
u¢ + v
ux = x (iv)
vu ¢
1 + 2x
c
Similarly,
dy ¢
1 - v 2 /c 2
dy dy ¢ 1 - v /c
2 2
uy = = = dt ¢ [ dy = dy ¢ ]
dt vdx ¢ v dx ¢
dt ¢ + 2 1+ 2
c c dt ¢
u y¢ 1 - v 2 /c 2
uy = (v)
vu ¢
1 + 2x
c
 Theory of Relativity 407

Similarly,

u z¢ 1 - v 2 /c 2
uz = (vi)
vu ¢
1 + 2x
c
Eqs. (iv), (v) and (vi) represent the relativistic laws of addition of velocities whereas in classical mechanics
ux is simply represented by

ux = ux¢ + v
If ux¢ = c, i.e., if the light is emitted in the moving frame F¢ along its direction of motion relative to F, then

u x¢ + v c + v c (c + v )
ux = = = =c
vu ¢ vc (c + v )
1 + 2x 1 + 2
c c
Thus, from the above expression it is clear that the speed of light is the same in all inertial frames.
vu x¢
If ux¢ and v are smaller as compared to c, then can be neglected as compared to unity and ux becomes
c2
ux = ux¢ + v, the law of addition of velocity which is similar to the one in classical mechanics.

12.9 ri tion o M ss with elocity LO6

In classical mechanics, mass of a particle is considered to be a Y F Y´ F´ v
constant quantity and independent of its velocity. However, in
relativistic mechanics, like length and time, the mass also depends B1 B2
on its velocity. Consider two frames of references F and F¢ such
that F¢ is moving with a constant velocity v relative to F in the u –u
positive direction of X, as shown in Fig. 12.7. Suppose, two similar O O´ X, X´
elastic balls B1 and B2 each having the same mass m approach
each other in the frame F¢ with equal speeds (u and –u) and collide
Z Z´
with each other in such a way that they coalesce into one body. By
applying the law of conservation of linear momentum, we have Figure 12.7

Momentum of ball B1 + momentum of ball B2 = momentum of coalesced body

(mu) + (–mu) = 0
Thus, the coalesced body must be at rest in frame F¢. Now, let us consider the collision with regard to the
frame of reference F, where u1 and u2 are the velocities of the balls. Then, according to Lorentz velocity
transformations
u+v
u1 = (i)
1 + uv /c 2
-u + v
u2 = (ii)
1 - uv /c 2
408 Engineering Physics

After an inelastic collision, the coalesced body moves with the velocity of frame F¢, (as it remains at rest
in F¢). Thus, v is the observed velocity in frame F. Let mass of the ball B1 moving with velocity u1 is m1 and
that of ball B2 moving with velocity u2 is m2 in the frame of reference F. By applying conservation of linear
momentum, we have

m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2)v (iii)

On substituting u1 and u2 from Eqs. (i) and (ii) into Eq. (iii), we have

È u+v ˘ È -u + v ˘
m1 Í 2˙
+ m2 Í 2˙
= (m1 + m2 )v
Î1 + uv / c ˚ Î1 - uv / c ˚
È u+v ˘ È -u + v ˘
m1 Í 2˙
- m1v = m2 v - m2 Í 2˙
Î1 + uv / c ˚ Î1 - uv / c ˚
È u+v ˘ È -u + v ˘
m1 Í - v ˙ = m2 Ív -
Î1 + uv / c
2
˚ Î 1 - uv / c 2 ˙˚
È u (1 - v 2 /c 2 ) ˘ È u (1 - v 2 /c 2 ) ˘
m1 Í ˙ = m2Í 2 ˙
Î 1 + uv / c ˚
2
Î 1 - uv / c ˚

m1 1 + uv / c 2
or = (iv)
m2 1 - uv / c 2

Now from Eq. (i),

2
Ê u + vˆ
ÁË ˜
u12 c ¯ (1 - u 2 /c 2 )(1 - v 2 /c 2 )
1- =1- = (v)
c 2
Ê uv ˆ (1 + uv / c 2 ) 2
ÁË1 + 2 ˜¯
c
Similarly, we can write

u22 (1 - u 2 /c 2 )(1 - v 2 /c 2 )
1- = (vi)
c2 (1 - uv/c 2 ) 2

On dividing Eq. (vi) by Eq. (v) we have

1 - u22 /c 2 (1 + uv / c 2 ) 2
=
1 - u12 /c 2 (1 - uv / c 2 ) 2
1 - u22 /c 2 1 + uv / c 2 (vii)
=
1 - u12 /c 2 1 - uv / c 2
 Theory of Relativity 409

Thus, from Eqs.(iv) and (vii), we have,

m1 1 - u22 /c 2
=
m2 1 - u12 /c 2

m1È 1 - u12 /c 2 ˘ = m2 È 1 - u22 /c 2 ˘ (viii)

ÎÍ ˚˙ ÎÍ ˚˙
From Eq. (viii), it is clear that the left hand side and right hand side are independent of one another. This
result may be correct only if each is a constant. Therefore,

m1 È 1 - u12 /c 2 ˘ = m2 È 1 - u22 /c 2 ˘ = m0
ÎÍ ˚˙ ÎÍ ˚˙
where, m0 is the rest mass of the body.

m0
Thus, m1 = (ix)
1 - u12 /c 2

m0
and m2 = (x)
1 - u22 /c 2
In view of Eqs. (ix) and (x), we conclude that if m0 be the rest mass of the body then its mass m when it moves
at speed v will appear as

m0
m= (xi)
∞
1 - v /c
2 2

This is the relativistic formula for the variation of mass with velocity. m
If we substitute v = c in Eq. (xi), then m becomes •, which means an object travelling
with the velocity of light would acquire infinite mass. Thus, no material particle can have v/c 1
a velocity equal to or greater than the velocity of light. The variation of mass m with the
velocity v/c is graphically shown in Fig. 12.8. Figure 12.8

12.10 eInsTeIn’s M ss enerQy rel tion LO6

In classical mechanics, the mass of a moving particle is independent of its velocity. Contrary to this aspect,
by Einstein’s special theory of relativity, the mass of a moving body depends upon its velocity and is given by
m0
m= (i)
1 - v 2 /c 2

where v is the velocity of the body, m0 is its rest mass and c is the velocity of light. The increase in energy
of the particle by the applications of force may be defined in terms of work done which is the product of the
force and the displacement. According to Newton’s second law of motion, the rate of change of momentum
of the particle is equal to the force applied on it. Thus
410 Engineering Physics

d (mv)
F= (ii)
dt
If the particle is displaced a distance dx by the application of force F, the work done Fdx is stored as kinetic
energy (EK) in the body. Then

dW = dEK = Fdx (iii)

By using Eqs. (ii) and (iii), we get

d (mv)
dEK = dx
dt

dx
or dEK = d (mv) (iv)
dt

or dEK = v[vdm + mdv] (as dx/dt=v)

= v 2 dm + mvdv (v)

m0
But m=
1 - v 2 /c 2
m02 c 2
or m2 =
c2 - v2
or m 2 c 2 - m 2 v 2 = m02 c 2 (vi)

By differentiating Eq. (vi), we have,

2mdmc 2 - 2mdmv 2 - 2vdvm 2 = 0 (as m0 and c are constants)

or dmc 2 = v 2 dm + mvdv (vii)

By using Eqs. (v) and (vii), we get

dEK = dmc 2 (viii)

Thus, from Eq. (viii) it is clear that the change in kinetic energy is directly proportional to the change in
mass. If the body is at rest, its velocity will be zero and hence the change in kinetic energy will be zero.
Therefore, its mass will be m0. If the body moves with velocity v, then its mass becomes m and its kinetic
energy becomes EK. Therefore, by integrating equation (viii), we get

EK m

Ú dEK = c 2 Ú dm
0 m0
 Theory of Relativity 411

or EK = c 2 [m - m0 ] = mc 2 - m0 c 2
or E = mc 2 = EK + m0 c 2 (ix)

From Eq. (ix), it is clear that E = mc2 is the total energy. It is the sum of kinetic and rest mass energy.
That is,
E = mc2 (x)
This relation is called Einstein’s mass energy relation.

s UmmarY

The topics covered in this chapter are summarized below.

✦ Newton’s second law of motion did not give correct results when applied to the objects moving with
high speed comparable to the speed of light. Moreover, for two observers, which are in relative motion,
the same set of transformation equations cannot be used to transform the laws of mechanics and
electromagnetism from the frame of reference of one observer to the frame of reference of the other
observer. The efforts of finding solutions to such problems finally led to the development of special
theory of relativity by Einstein in 1905.
✦ The systems in which the law of inertia holds good are called inertial systems or inertial frames of
reference. However, a non-inertial system is the one in which Newton’s first law of motion does not
hold good. A frame of reference which is in accelerated motion with respect to an inertial frame is
called non-inertial frame of reference.
✦ If the coordinates of a point P are (x, y, z, t) in a frame of reference F and (x¢, y¢, z¢, t¢) in another frame
of reference F¢ which is moving with uniform velocity v relative to F, then x¢ = x – vxt, y¢= y – vyt, z¢=
z – vzt and t¢= t are known as Galilean transformation of position. If ux, uy, uz be the velocity components
of the particle in the frame of reference F and u¢x, u¢y, u¢z be the velocity components in the frame of
reference F¢, then u¢x= ux – vx, u¢y= uy – vy, uz = uz – vz represent Galilean transformation of velocity of
particle. Galilean transformation of acceleration of particle is a¢x = ax, a¢y = ay, a¢z = az.
✦ The existence of stationary ether (absolute frame of reference) can be confirmed if we can measure
the absolute velocity of earth with respect to this ether. For this, Michelson-Morley experiment was
conducted at different places on the earth, at different times of the day and in different seasons of the
year. However, no shift of fringes was obtained. Thus the motion of the earth through ether could not
be experimentally detected.
✦ Three separate explanations were given for the negative results of Michelson-Morley experiment.
These explanations were based on ether drag hypothesis, Lorentz Fitzgerald contraction hypothesis
and the constancy of speed of light hypothesis.
✦ Invariance of speed of light in all inertial frames implies that Galilean transformation equations are
not suitable. Therefore, another transformation, named Lorentz transformation was introduced. The
Lorentz transformation equations are consistent with the new concept of the invariance of speed of
412 Engineering Physics

x - vt t - vx / c 2
light in free space. The transformation equations x ¢ = , y ¢ = y, z ¢ = z , t ¢ =
are
1 - v 2 /c 2 1 - v2 / c2
called Lorentz transformation equations, where (x, y, z, t) are the coordinates in a frame of reference F

and (x¢, y¢, z¢, t¢) in another frame of reference F¢, which is moving with uniform velocity v relative to F.
✦ In classical mechanics, length of an object is independent of velocity of the moving observer relative to
the object. However, as per theory of relativity the lengths measured in a frame F, which is at rest, and in

frame F¢, which is moving with velocity v relative to F, are not the same. However, L = L0 1 - v 2 /c 2
, where L0 is the length when measured in the system F¢ in which the object is kept and L is the length
when measured in the frame F which is at rest.
✦ As per theory of relativity the time intervals measured in a frame F, which is at rest, and in frame
F¢, which is moving with velocity v relative to F, are not the same. However, t = t0 / 1 - v 2 /c 2 ,
where t0 is the time interval when measured in the system F¢ in which the clock is kept and t is the time
interval when measured in the frame F which is at rest.
✦ Classical laws of addition of velocities are modified at very high velocities. The addition of velocities

u x¢ + v u y¢ 1 - v 2 / c 2 u z¢ 1 - v 2 /c 2
in relativistic mechanics reads u x = 2
, uy = , uz =
1 + vu x¢ /c 1 + vu x¢ /c 2 1 + vu x¢ /c 2
✦ In relativistic mechanics, like length and time, the mass also depends on its velocity. If the mass of the
body is m0 when it is at rest, then its mass m when it moves with velocity v becomes m = m0 / 1 - v 2 /c 2 .
✦ In classical physics, the force F acting on a body is defined as the time rate of change of momentum.
However, in relativistic mechanics, it is the time rate of change of relativistic momentum. In view of
this, the kinetic energy of a particle of mass m0 which acquires velocity v when a force F acts on it
through a distance x in time t, is given by EK = (g – 1)m0c2, where g = 1/ 1 - v 2 /c 2 . This equation
states that the increase in kinetic energy of a particle is due to an increase in its mass. The total energy
of a particle E = mc2 is equal to the sum of rest mass energy (m0c2) and the kinetic energy of the particle.
E = mc2 is called the Einstein mass energy relation. This relation simply represents the total energy of
the particle in relativistic mechanics.
✦ The separate laws for the conservation of mass and the conservation of energy are replaced in the
theory of relativity by a single law called the conservation of mass energy or the law of conservation
of total relativistic energy. According to this law, the total relativistic energy is invariant under Lorentz
transformation. It means for an isolated system the total relativistic energy is the same as the energy
observed from any inertial system.
✦ A simple and very useful relation between relativistic momentum p, rest mass energy m0c2 and the total
energy E is given as E2 = p2 c2 + m02 c4.
 Theory of Relativity 413

s olved e XamPles

E xamplE 1 Show that if the variation of mass with velocity is taken into account, the kinetic energy of a
particle of rest mass m0 and moving with velocity v is given by
ÈÊ -1/ 2 ˘
v2 ˆ
K = m0 c 2 ÍÁ1 - 2 ˜ - 1˙
ÍÎË c ¯ ˙˚
Solution We know,
m0
K = (m - m0 )c 2 and m =
1 - v2/ c2
Ê m0 ˆ
\ K= - m0 c 2
Á ˜
Ë 1 - v /c
2 2
¯
Ê 1 ˆ
= m0 - 1 c2
Á ˜
Ë 1 - v /c
2 2
¯
= m0c 2 [(1 - v 2 /c 2 ) 1/ 2
- 1]

E xamplE 2 Show that the relativistic form of Newton’s second law, when F is parallel to
2 ˆ -3/ 2
dv Ê v
v , is F = m0 ÁË1 - 2 ˜¯ .
dt c

Solution We know that

m0 dp d
m= , p = mv and F = = (mv)
1 - v /c 2 2 dt dt
d È m0 ˘ d È v ˘
F= Í v ˙ = m0 Í 2 2 1/ 2 ˙
dt Í 1 - v / c ˙
2 2 dt Î (1 - v /c ) ˚
Î ˚
È 1 dv ( -1/ 2)( -2v / c 2 ) dv ˘
= m0 Í +v ˙
Î (1 - v /c ) dt
2 2 1/ 2
(1 - v 2 /c 2 )3/ 2 dt ˚
dv È (1 - v 2 /c 2 ) (v 2 /c 2 ) ˘
= m0 Í + ˙
dt Î (1 - v 2 /c 2 )3/ 2 (1 - v 2 /c 2 )3/ 2 ˚

dv 1 ÈÊ v2 ˆ v2 ˘
= m0 2 2 3/ 2 Í Á
1- 2˜ + 2˙
dt (1 - v / c ) ÎË c ¯ c ˚
-3/ 2
dv Ê v2 ˆ
= m0 ÁË1 - 2 ˜¯
dt c
-3/ 2
dv Ê v2 ˆ
\ F = m0 ÁË 1 - 2 ˜¯
dt c
414 Engineering Physics

E xamplE 3 Derive energy-momentum relation or prove the relation

E 2 – c 2p 2 = m 02c 4.
Solution Momentum-energy relation: According to mass-energy relation, we have, energy E = mc2 and momentum p
= mv
E2 – c2p2 = (mc 2)2 – c2(mv)2
E2 – c2p2 = m2c4 – c 2 m2v2
But according to mass-velocity relation,

m0
m=
1 - v 2 /c 2
2 2
È m0 ˘ 4 È m0 ˘ 2 2
\ E 2 - c2 p2 = Í c -Í c v
2 2 ˙ 2 2˙
ÎÍ 1 - v /c ) ˚˙ ÎÍ 1 - v /c ˚˙
m02c 4 m02c 2v 2
= -
(1 - v /c ) (1 - v 2 /c 2 )
2 2

È c2 - v2 ˘
= m02c 2 Í 2 2˙
Î1 - v /c ˚
È 1 - v 2 /c 2 ˘
= m02c 4 Í 2 2˙
Î1 - v / c ˚
E 2 - c 2 p 2 = m02c 4
E = c 2 p 2 + m02c 4

which is the required relation for energy and momentum.

E xamplE 4 Show that x2 + y2 + z2 – c2t2 = x¢2 + y¢2 + z¢2 – c2t¢2 or x2 + y2 + z2 – c2t2 is invariant under Lorentz
transformation.

Solution According to Lorentz transformation, we have

x - vt
x¢ =
1 - v 2 /c 2
y¢ = y
z¢ = z
t - vx / c 2
and t¢ =
1 - v 2 /c 2
2
È x - vt ˘
2
Ê t - vx/c 2 ˆ
\ x¢ + y ¢ + z ¢ - c t ¢ = Í
2 2 2 2 2
+ y 2 + z 2 - c2 Á
˙ 2 2˜
ÍÎ 1 - v /c ˙˚ Ë 1 - v /c ¯
2 2

( x - vt ) 2 - c 2 (t - vx / c 2 ) 2
= + y2 + z2
1 - v 2 /c 2
 Theory of Relativity 415

x 2 + v 2t 2 - 2 xvt - c 2t 2 - v 2 x 2 /c 2 + 2 xvt
= + y2 + z2
1 - v 2 /c 2
x 2 (1 - v 2 /c 2 ) - c 2t 2 (1 - v 2 /c 2 )
= + y2 + z2
1 - v 2 /c 2

( x 2 - c 2t 2 )(1 - v 2 /c 2 )
= + y2 + z2
1 - v 2 /c 2
= x 2 - c 2t 2 + y 2 + z 2
= x 2 + y 2 + z 2 - c 2t 2

This shows that the quantity x2 + y2 + z2 – c2t2 is same in both frames of references. So, this is invariant under Lorentz
transformation.
E xamplE 5 An event occurs at x = 100 m, y = 10 m, z = 5 m and t = 1¥10–4 second in a reference frame F.
Calculate the coordinates of the event in a reference frame F¢ which is moving with velocity 2.7¥108 m/sec
with respect to the frame F along the common XX¢ axis using (a) Galilean transformation and (b) Lorentz
transformation.
Solution (a) According to Galilean transformation, we have
x¢ = x−vt, y¢= y, z¢= z and t¢= t
Substituting the given values, we get

x¢ = 100 - 2.7 ¥ 108 ¥ 1 ¥ 10 -4 = - 26900 m

y ¢ = y = 10 m
z¢ = z = 5 m
and t ¢ = t = 1 ¥ 10 -4 sec

Thus, the coordinates in frame F¢ are

x¢ = 26900 m, y¢ = 10 m, z¢ = 5 m and t = 10–4 sec.

(b) According to Lorentz transformation, we have

x - vt t - vx/c 2
x¢ = , t¢ =
1 - v 2 /c 2 1 - v 2 /c 2

Substituting the given values, we get

100 - 2.7 ¥ 108 ¥ 1 ¥ 10-4

x¢ = = - 61720 m
1 - {(2.7 ¥ 108 )/(3 ¥ 108 )}2
y ¢ = y = 10 m,
z¢ = z = 5 m
1 ¥ 10-4 - {(2.7 ¥ 108 ¥ 100)/(3 ¥ 108 )2 }
t¢ =
1 - {(2.7 ¥ 108 )/(3 ¥ 108 )}
t ¢ = 2.288 ¥ 10-4 sec
416 Engineering Physics

Thus, the coordinates in F¢ are

x¢ = –61720 m, y¢ = 10 m, z¢ = 5 m and t = 2.288 ¥ 10–4 sec

E xamplE 6 At what speed must a particle move for its mass to be four times its rest mass?
Solution Given m = 4mo. v = ?
Formula used is
m0 m0
m= or 4m0 =
1 - v /c
2 2
1 - v 2 /c 2
v2 1 v2 1 15
1- 2
= or =1- =
c 16 c2 16 16
or v 2.9 108 m/sec

E xamplE 7 With what velocity a particle should move so that its mass appears to increase by 20% of its rest
mass?
20
Solution Given m = m0 + m = 1.2 m0
100
Formula used is
m0 m0
m= or 1.2m0 =
1 - v /c 2 2
1 - v 2 /c 2
v2 1 v2 1
1- 2
= or 2
=1- = 0.3055
c 1.44 c 1.44
v = 0.553 c

E xamplE 8 Show that the momentum of a particle of rest mass m0 and kinetic energy KE is given by the
expression.
K E2
p= + 2m0 K E
c2

Solution We know that

m0
m=
1 - v 2 /c 2
\ m 2 (1 - v 2 /c 2 ) = m02
v 2 m 2 - m02
or =
c2 m2
or m 2v 2c 2 = [(m - m0 )c 2 ][(m + m0 )c 2 ]
= [(m - m0 )c 2 ][(m - m0 )c 2 + 2m0c 2 ]
= K E [ K E + 2m0c 2 ]
= K E2 + 2m0c 2 K E
 Theory of Relativity 417

K E2
or m 2v 2 = + 2m0 K E
c2
K E2
\ p = mv = + 2 m0 K E
c2

E xamplE 9 Calculate the mass and speed of 2 MeV electron.

Solution The relativistic kinetic energy of the electron is
KE = mc 2 - m0c 2
m0c 2
= - m0c 2
1 - v 2 /c 2
È 1 ˘
= m0c 2 Í - 1˙
ÍÎ 1 - (v /c )
2 2
˙˚

If an electron acquires this energy by a potential V volts, then

È 1 ˘
m0c 2 Í - 1˙ = eV
ÎÍ 1 - (v /c )
2 2
˙˚
1 eV
=1+
1 - (v /c )
2 2 m0c 2

1.6 ¥ 10 -19 ¥ 2 ¥ 106

=1+
9.1 ¥ 10 -31 ¥ (3 ¥ 108 ) 2
3.2 ¥ 10 -13
=1+
8.19 ¥ 10 -14
= 1 + 3.90 = 4.90
v2 1
1- 2
= = 0.204
c 4.90
v2
1- = 0.0416
c2
This gives
v = 0.98 c

m0
Mass, m =
1 - v 2 /c 2
m0 m0
m= =
Ê 0.98 c ˆ
2 1 - 0.96
1- Á
Ë c ˜¯
m0
m= = 5m0 = 5 ¥ 9.1 ¥ 10 -31 kg
0.2
m = 45.5 ¥ 10 -31 kg
418 Engineering Physics

E xamplE 10 Depict that no signal can travel faster than the velocity of light.
Solution
u x¢ + v
ux =
vu ¢
1 + 2x
c
If u¢x = c and v = c, where c = speed of light
c+c 2c
\ ux = = =c
c◊ c 2
1+ 2
c
Thus, addition of any velocity to the velocity of light simply reproduces the velocity of light. Hence, it can be concluded
that no signal can travel faster than the velocity of light.
E xamplE 11 At what velocity will the mass of a body is 2.25 times its rest mass?
Solution The mass of a body moving with velocity v is given by

m0
m=
1 - v 2 /c 2

Given m = 2.25 m0

m0
2.25m0 =
1 - v 2 /c 2
v2 1 1
1- = =
c 2 (2.25) 2 5.0625
1 v2
1- = 2
5.0625 c
v2
= 0.8024
c2
or v = 2.68 ¥ 108 m/sec

E xamplE 12 If the kinetic energy of a body is double of its rest mass energy, calculate its velocity.
Solution KE = (m – m0) c2
Given that

KE = 2m0c 2
2m0c 2 = mc 2 - m0c 2
3m0c 2 = mc 2
m0
3m0 =
1 - v 2 /c 2
 Theory of Relativity 419

1 - v 2 /c 2 = 1/3
or 1 - v 2 /c 2 = 1/9 or 1 - (1/9) = v 2 /c 2
8
8/9 = v 2 /c 2 or v = c
9
2 2
\ v= c = 0.94 c
3

E xamplE 13 The mass of a moving electron is 11 times its rest mass. Calculate its kinetic energy and
momentum.
Solution m = 11m0

KE = E - E0 = mc 2 - m0c 2
= 11 m0c 2 - m0c 2

= 10 m0c 2
= 10 ¥ 9.1 ¥ 10-31 ¥ (3 ¥ 108 ) 2 J
= 9.1 ¥ 9 ¥ 10-14 J
= 8.2 ¥ 10-13 J
8.2 ¥ 10-13
= eV
1.6 ¥ 10-19
= 5.1 MeV
Also,
m0
m=
1 - v 2 /c 2
m0
11 m0 =
1 - v 2 /c 2
1 1
1 - v 2 /c 2 = or v 2 /c 2 = 1 -
121 121
v = 2.98 ¥ 108 m/sec.
\ p = mv
= 11 ¥ 9.1 ¥ 10-31 ¥ 2.98 ¥ 108
= 298.298 ¥ 10-23
= 2.98 ¥ 10 -21 N-sec

E xamplE 14 How fast must an electron move in order to have its mass equal the rest mass of the proton?
m0
Solution m=
1 - v 2 /c 2

Given: m = 1.67 ¥ 10–27 kg (rest mass of proton)

420 Engineering Physics

m0 = 9.1 ¥ 10–31 kg (rest mass of electron)

9.1 ¥ 10 -31 kg
1.67 ¥ 10 -27 kg =
1 - v 2 /c 2

1 - v 2 /c 2 = 5.45 ¥ 10 -4
v = 2.999 ¥ 108 m/s

E xamplE 15 Find the velocity of a 0.1 MeV electron according to classical and relativistic mechanics.
Solution Classical mechanics gives
KE = (1/ 2)mv 2
0.1 ¥ 106 ¥ 1.6 ¥ 10-19 = (1/ 2) ¥ 9.1 ¥ 10-31 v 2
0.0351 ¥ 1018 = v 2
v = 1.87 ¥ 108 m/sec

Relativistic mechanics gives

KE = (m - m0 )c 2
Ê m0 ˆ
KE = - m0 c 2
Á ˜
Ë 1 - v /c
2 2
¯

KE 1
= -1
m0c 2 1 - v 2 /c 2
KE 1
1+ 2
=
m0c 1 - v 2 /c 2
0.1 ¥ 106 ¥ 1.6 ¥ 10-19 1
1+ -31
=
9.1 ¥ 10 ¥ (3 ¥ 10 )8 2
1 - v2/ c2
1
1 + 0.195 =
1 - v 2 /c 2
1
1.195 =
1 - v 2 /c 2
1 - (v 2 /c 2 ) = 0.7

This gives v = 0.54c = 0.54 ¥ 3 ¥ 108 = 1.64 ¥ 108 m/sec

m0
E xamplE 16 Prove that (1/2) mv2, where m = does not equal to the kinetic energy of a particle
1 - v 2 /c 2
moving at relativistic velocity.
Solution Relativistic kinetic energy is given by
 Theory of Relativity 421

ÔÏ m0 ¸
- m0 ˝Ô c 2
KE = (m - m0 )c 2 = Ì
ÓÔ 1 - v /c
2 2
˛Ô
ÔÏ 1 ¸
- 1Ô˝ m0c 2
=Ì
ÓÔ 1 - v 2 2
c Ô˛
-1/ 2
If v << c, then Ê1 - v ˆ
2
v2 3 v4 v2
ÁË ˜ =1+ + + =1+
c2 ¯ 2c 2
8 c4 2c 2
v2 v4
Since is very small, the term and higher order terms are neglected.
c2 c4
Ï v2 ¸
\ KE = Ì1 + - 1˝ m0c
2
2
Ó 2c ˛
KE = (1/ 2) m0v 2
As m π m0

Hence, (1/2) mv2 does not equal to the KE of a particle moving at relativistic velocity.

E xamplE 17 Kinetic energy of a particle is (i) 3 times (ii) equal to its rest mass energy. What is its velocity?
Solution Formula used is EK = (m – m0)c2
m0c2 = rest mass energy
(i) Given, Kinetic energy = 3 ¥ Rest mass energy
(m – m0)c2 = 3 ¥ m0c2
or m = 4m0

m0 m0
and m= or 4m0 =
1 - v /c
2 2
1 - v 2 /c 2
2
v2 Ê 1 ˆ v2 1 15
1- =Á ˜ or =1- =
c Ë 4¯ c2 16 16
15
or v= c
16
or v = 0.968c = 2.9 ¥ 108 m/sec
(ii) Kinetic energy = Rest mass energy

(m - m0 )c 2 = m0c 2
m = 2m0
m0 m0
and m= or 2m0 =
1 - v /c 2 2
1 - v 2 /c 2
v2 1 3 3
=1- = or v = c = 0.866c
c2 4 4 2
= 2.6 ¥ 108 m/sec
422 Engineering Physics

E xamplE 18 Show that the circle x2 + y2 = a2 in frame F appears to be an ellipse in frame F¢ which is moving
with velocity v relative to F.
Solution The equation of circle in a stationary frame is x2 + y2 = a2
x = x¢ 1 - v 2 /c 2 and y = y¢
Substituting these values in the equation of the circle,
Ê v2 ˆ
x¢ 2 Á1 - 2 ˜ + y ¢ 2 = a 2
Ë c ¯
x¢ 2 Ê v2 ˆ y¢2
2 Á
1 - 2 ˜ + 2 = 1.
a Ë c ¯ a
a2
Suppose b 2 =
1 - (v 2 /c 2 )
x¢2 y¢2
\ 1 (This is the equation of an ellipse)
b2 a2
E xamplE 19 Calculate the mass m and speed v of an electron having kinetic energy 1.5 MeV. [Take rest mass
of electron m0 = 9.11 ¥ 10–31 kg and velocity of light c = 3 ¥ 108 m/sec].
Solution The relativistic kinetic energy K = (m – m0)c2
K = 1.5 MeV = 1.5 ¥ 106 ¥ 1.6 ¥ 10–19 J
1.5 ¥ 106 ¥ 1.6 ¥ 10–19 = (m – 9.11 ¥ 10–31) (3 ¥ 108)2
1.5 ¥ 106 ¥ 1.6 ¥ 10 -19
m - 9.11 ¥ 10 -31 =
(3 ¥ 108 )2
m = 3.58 ¥ 10 -30 kg
m0
m=
1 - v 2 /c 2

or 1 - (v 2 /c 2 ) = (m0 /m) 2
2
Ê 9.11 ¥ 10 -31 ˆ
v = c 1 - (m0 /m) 2 = 3 ¥ 108 ¥ 1 - Á ˜
Ë 3.58 ¥ 10 -30 ¯
v = 2.9 ¥ 108 m/sec

E xamplE 20 What is the length of a metre stick moving parallel to its length when its mass is (3/2) times of
its rest mass?
Solution We know that
m0
L = L0 1 - (v 2 /c 2 ) and m =
1 - (v 2 /c 2 )
\ L = L0 (m0 /m)
= L0 [1/ m /m0 ] = L0 [1/(3/ 2)] [ m / m0 = 3/ 2]
or L = (2/3) L0 = 0.67 L0
For L0 = 1 m, L = 0.67 ¥ 1 = 0.67 m
 Theory of Relativity 423

E xamplE 21 A circular lamina moves with its plane parallel to the x-y plane of a reference frame S at rest.
Assuming its motion to be along the axis of x (or y), calculate the velocity at which surface area would appear
to be reduced to half to an observer in frame S.
Solution For an observer in frame S at rest, circular lamina, when in motion along the axis of x (or y), will appear to be
an ellipse. If diameter of the circle is D0, its value (say Dx) during motion will be

or Dx = D0 1 - v 2 /c 2
Area of elliptical lamina
ÊD ˆÊD ˆ
( Ae ) = p (a )(b) = p Á 0 ˜ Á 0 1 - v 2 /c 2 ˜
Ë 2 ¯Ë 2 ¯
2
ÊD ˆ v2
= pÁ 0˜ 1-
Ë 2¯ c2
Area of circular lamina
2
ÊD ˆ p D02
( Ac ) = p Á 0 ˜ =
Ë 2¯ 4

Given, Ae = Ac/2

p D02 v 2 Ê p D02 ˆ Ê 1 ˆ
\ 1- 2 = Á
4 c Ë 4 ˜¯ ÁË 2 ˜¯
Ê v2 ˆ 1 v2 1 3
ÁË1 - 2 ˜¯ = or =1- =
c 4 c2 4 4
3
v= c = 2.6 ¥ 108 m/sec
2

E xamplE 22 At what speed should a clock be moved so that it may appear to lose 1 minute in each hour?
Solution The clock loses 1 minute in 1 hour, means clock must record 59 minutes for each 1 hour. So that,
Proper time t0 = 59 min, apparent time t = 60 min.
According to Lorentz transformation, time dilation is given by
t0
t= (i)
1 - v 2 /c 2

Substituting the values in Eq. (i), we have

59
60 =
1 - v 2 /c 2

(1 - v 2 /c 2 ) = (59/60) 2
v 2 / c 2 = 1 - (59/60) 2
v 2 = [1 - (59/60) 2 ](3 ¥ 108 ) 2
v = 5.45 ¥ 107 m/sec
424 Engineering Physics

E xamplE 23 The proper life of p+-mesons is 2.5 ¥ 10–8 s. If a beam of these mesons of velocity 0.8 c is
produced, compute the distance the beam can travel before the flux of the meson beam is reduced to 1/e2
times the initial flux.
Solution
t0 2.5 ¥ 10 -8 2.5 ¥ 10 -8
t= = =
1 - v 2 /c 2 1 - (0.8c / c) 2 0.6

= 4.16 ¥ 10 -8 s.
If N0 is the initial flux and N is the flux after time t¢, we have
N = N 0e - t ¢ / t , where t is mean life time

\ N = (1/ e 2 ) N 0
\ N 0 / e 2 = N 0e - t ¢ / t
et ¢/ t = e 2
t ¢ /t = 2
t ¢ = 2t = 2t

The distance travelled by the beam before the flux is reduced to 1/e2 times the initial flux = 2t ¥ 0.8c = 2 ¥4.16 ¥10–8
¥0.8 ¥3 ¥108 = 19.96 m

E xamplE 24 A space ship moving away from the earth with velocity 0.6 c fires a rocket whose velocity
relative to the spaceship is 0.7c (i) away from the earth (ii) towards the earth. What will be the velocity of the
rocket, as observed from the earth in two cases?
Solution Formula used for relativistic velocity
u¢ + v
u=
vu ¢
1+ 2
c
where, u¢ is the velocity of rocket relative to space ship and v is the velocity of space ship relative to the earth.
The velocity away from the earth is taken as +ve and towards the earth as –ve.
Given u¢ = 0.7c and v = 0.6c.
(i) Rocket fired away from the earth, then
0.7c + 0.6c 1.3c
u= = = 0.915c
1 + 0.7 ¥ 0.6 1.42
= 0.92c
(ii) Rocket fired towards the earth, then
-u + v ( -0.7 + 0.6)c
u= = = - 0.17c
uv (1 - 0.7 ¥ 0.6)
= 0.17c

E xamplE 25 A 1.0 m long rod is moving along its length with a velocity 0.6c. Calculate its length as it
appears to an observer on the earth.
Solution Given L0 = 1.0 m and v = 0.6c.
 Theory of Relativity 425

Formula used is,

v2
L = L0 1 -
c2
2
Ê 0.6c ˆ
L =1 1- Á = 1 - (0.6)2
Ë c ˜¯
or

= 0.64 = 0.8 m

ExamplE 26 A rod has a length of 2.0 m. Find its length when it is carried in a rocket with a speed of 2.7 ¥ 108 m/sec.
Solution Given v = 2.7 ¥ 108 m/sec and L0 = 2.0 m.
Formula used is

v2
L = L0 1 -
c2
2
Ê 2.7 ¥ 108 ˆ
= 2.0 1 - Á ˜
Ë 3 ¥ 108 ¯
2
Ê 2.7 ˆ
= 2.0 1 - Á
Ë 3 ˜¯
= 2.0 1 - 0.81
= 2.0 0.19
= 0.872 m

E xamplE 27 Calculate the percentage contraction of a rod moving with a velocity Y

0.8 times the velocity of light in a direction at 60° to its own length.
Solution Given v = 0.8c.
L0 Sin 60°

L0
L0
In Fig. 12.9, component of length along the direction of motion Lx = L0 cos 60° =
2
3
and perpendicular to the direction of motion Ly = L0 sin 60° = L0 . 60°
2 X
The relativistic contraction occurs only along the direction of motion i.e., L0 Cos 60°

Figure 12.9
v 2 L0
Lx¢ = Lx 1 - = 1 - (0.8) 2 = 0.3L0
c2 2

and the component Ly along y-direction remains unchanged.

3
Ly¢ = Ly = L0 = 0.87 L0
2
The length of the rod in moving frame, i.e.,

L¢ = Lx¢ 2 + Ly¢ 2 = (0.3 L0 ) 2 + (0.87 L0 )2

= 0.196 L0
426 Engineering Physics

Percentage Length contraction

L0 - 0.916 L0
= ¥ 100
L0
= 8.4%

E xamplE 28 The length of a rod is found to be half of its length when at rest. What is the speed of rod
relative to the observer?
Solution Given L = L0 / 2, v =?
Formula used is

v2
L = L0 1 -
c2
L0 v2
or = L0 1 - 2
2 c
v2 1 v2 1 3
or 1- 2
= or 2
=1- =
c 4 c 4 4
v 3 3
or = or v = c
c 2 2
or v = 0.866 c

E xamplE 29 Calculate the length and orientation of rod of length 5m in a frame of reference which is
moving with a velocity 0.6c in a direction making an angle of 30° with the rod.
Solution Given v = 0.6c and L0 = 5m.
Refer to Fig. 12.9. The component of the length of the rod along x-direction will be
3
Lx¢ = L0 cos 30∞= 5
2
= 4.33
The component Ly remains unchanged, i.e.,
L0
Ly¢ = Ly = L0 sin 30∞ = = 2.5
2
The length of the rod in a moving frame (L¢), i.e.,

L¢ = Lx¢ 2 + Ly¢ 2 = (4.33) 2 + (2.5) 2 = 4.99 m

The orientation of the rod is given by angle q

Ly¢ 2.5
tan q = = = 0.57
Lx¢ 3.464
= 30.00°

E xamplE 30 Half-life of a particle at rest is 17.8 nanosecond. What will be the half-life when its speed is
0.8c?
 Theory of Relativity 427

Solution Given T0 = 17.8 ¥ 10–9 second and v = 0.8c

T0 17.8 ¥ 10-9 17.8 ¥ 10-9
T= = =
v 2
Ê 0.8c ˆ
2 1 - 0.64
1- 1- Á
c2 Ë c ¯˜
17.8 ¥ 10-9
= = 29.67 n sec
0.6

E xamplE 31 A clock keeps correct time on earth. It is put on the space ship moving uniformly with a speed
8
of 1¥10 m/sec. How many hours does it appear to lose per day?
Solution Given the time observed by the observer moving with the clock as 24 hrs, i.e., T = 24 hrs and the time observed
by the observer on the earth = T0
Formula used is

T0 T0 T0 2 2
T= = = fi T0 = 24 ¥
1 - v /c 2 2
Ê 1 ¥ 10 ˆ 8 2 8 3
1- Á ˜ 9
Ë 3 ¥ 108 ¯
or T0 = 8 ¥ 2 2 = 16 2
= 22.63 sec

Time lost per day = 24 – 22.63 = 1 hr 22 min 12 sec

E xamplE 32 With what velocity should a rocket move so that every year spent on it corresponds to 4 years
on earth?
Solution Given T0 = 1 year (proper time on the rocket) and
T = 4 year (relativistic time, corresponding time on the earth)
Formula used is
T0 1
T= or v =
1 - v 2 /c 2 1 - v 2 /c 2
v2 1 v2 1 15
or 1- = or =1- =
c 2 16 c2 16 16
15
or v= ¥ c = 0.968c
16
v = 0.97c

E xamplE 33 Determine the time (as measured by a clock at rest on the rocket) taken by a rocket to reach
a distant star and return to earth with a constant velocity v equal to 0.9999 c , if the distance to the star is 4
light years.
Solution Given distance of the star from the earth = 4 light year, T0 = time observed by observer in the rocket.
The time taken by the rocket to go to star from the earth and back with speed 0.9999 c is
428 Engineering Physics

2 ¥ 4c 8
T= year = = 8.0004 years
0.9999c 0.9999
T0
Now T= or T0 = T 1 - v 2 /c 2
1 - v /c
2 2

= 8.0004 1 - 0.9999 year

\ T0 = 0.08 year

E xamplE 34 In the laboratory, the life-time of particle moving with speed 2.8 ¥ 108m/sec is found to be
–7
2 ¥10 sec. Calculate the proper life-time of the particle.
Solution Given T = 2 ¥ 10–7 sec and v = 2.8 ¥ 108 m/sec.
Formula used is
2
T0 Ê 2.8 ˆ
T= or T0 = T 1 - v 2 /c 2 = 2 ¥ 10 -7 1 - Á
1 - v 2 /c 2 Ë 3 ˜¯

= 7.18 ¥ 10 -8 sec

E xamplE 35 Two electron beams travel along the same straight line but in opposite directions with velocities
v = 0.9c relative to the laboratory frame. Find the relative velocity of electrons according to Newtonian
mechanics. What will be the velocity measured by an observer moving with one of the electron beams?
Solution According to Newtonian mechanics, the relative velocity between electron beams will be
u¢ = u – v = 0.9c – (–0.9c) = 1.8c
The velocity measured by an observer moving with one of the electron beam
u - v 0.9c - ( -0.9c) 1.8c
u¢ = = =
uv
1- 2 1 + 0.9 ¥ 0.9 1.81
c
= 0.994 c
From the above, it is clear that the relative velocity according to Newtonian mechanics is found to be greater than the
velocity of light that is not possible.

E xamplE 36 Two photons approach each other, what is their relative velocity?
Solution Let velocity of each photon be c.
Formula used is
u¢ + v c+c
u= = =c
u ¢v 2
1+ 2 1+ c
c c2
i.e., the relative velocity of photons approaching each other is equal to the velocity of light.

E xamplE 37 A proton has a total relativistic energy as 900 MeV. If the rest mass of the proton is 1.6 ¥
10–27 kg, find its speed and kinetic energy.
Solution Given
E = 900 MeV = 900 ¥ 106 ¥ 1.6 ¥ 10 -19 J
= 1.44 ¥ 10 -10 J
 Theory of Relativity 429

Formula used is, E = mc2

E 1.44 ¥ 10 -10
\ Relativistic mass = m = = = 1.6 ¥ 10 -27 kg
c2 (3 ¥ 108 ) 2
From the above it is clear that
Rest mass of proton = Relativistic mass of proton.
So that proton is at rest and hence its speed and kinetic energy will be zero.
E xamplE 38 Dynamite liberates 5.4 ¥ 106 J/kg when it explodes. What fraction of total energy content is this?
Solution Total energy in one kg content = m0 c2
= 1 ¥ (3 ¥ 108)2 = 9 ¥ 1016 J
Dynamite liberates energy (per kg) = 5.4 ¥ 106 J
5.4 ¥ 106
Fraction of total energy = = 0.6 ¥ 10 -10
9 ¥ 1016

E xamplE 39 Calculate the speed of the electron which has kinetic energy as 1.02 MeV. Given rest mass
energy of the electron = 0.51 MeV.
Solution E = Kinetic energy + rest mass energy
= EK + m0c2
Given,
EK = 1.02 MeV = 2 ¥ 0.51 = 2m0c 2
= 2 ¥ rest mass energy
m0c 2
E = mc 2 =
1 - v 2 /c 2
m0c 2
\ EK + m0c 2 =
1 - v 2 /c 2
m0c 2
2m0c 2 + m0c 2 =
1 - v 2 /c 2
v2 1 v2 8
1- 2
= or =
c 9 c2 9
2 2
or v= c = 0.943c
3
= 2.83 ¥ 108 m/sec

E xamplE 40 The earth receives 1400 W/m2 of solar energy. The distance between the earth and the sun is
11
1.5 ¥ 10 m. Estimate the rate of decrease of the mass of the sun.
Solution Solar energy received by the earth = 1400 W/m2
= 1400 J/m2 sec
Distance of the earth from the sun R = 1.5 ¥ 1011 m
Total energy liberated by the sun per second
= 4p R 2 ¥ 1400 = 4 ¥ 3.14 ¥ (1.5 ¥ 1011 ) 2 ¥ 1400
= 3.96 ¥ 1026 J/sec
430 Engineering Physics

Energy at the sun is generated as per Einstein mass-energy relation, i.e.,

E = mc2 = 3.96 ¥ 1026 or m = 4.4 ¥ 109 kg/sec

E xamplE 41 Calculate the expected fringe-shift in a Michelson-Morley experiment if the distance from each
path is 2 meters and light has wavelength 6000 Å. Given, v = 3 ¥ 104 m/sec and c = 3 ¥ 108 m/sec.
Solution Given, l = 2 m, l = 6.0 ¥10–7 m, v = 3 ¥ 104 m/sec and c = 3 ¥ 108 m/sec.
The relation for fringe shift in Michelson-Morley Experiment is given by
2lv 2 2 ¥ 2 ¥ (3 ¥ 104 )2 4 ¥ 108
n= = -7
=
lc 2
6 ¥ 10 ¥ (3 ¥ 10 )8 2
6 ¥ 1016 ¥ 10
0.067

E xamplE 42 A clock is moving with a speed of 0.95c relative to an observer stationed on the earth. If the
speed is increased by 5% by what % does time dilation increases?

Solution Given, v = 0.95c and v ¢ = ÊÁ v +

5 ˆ
v˜ = 1.05 V
Ë 100 ¯
= 1.05 ¥ 0.95c
The relation of time dilation is given by
Dt Dt ¢ 1
Dt ¢ = or =
v2 Dt v2
1- 1-
c2 c2
Dt ¢ 1 1
= = = 3.2
Dt Ê 0.95c ˆ
2
1 - (0.95) 2
1- Á
Ë c ˜¯

Now v ¢ = 1.05 v = 1.05 = 0.95 c = 0.9975 c

1
Ê Dt ¢ ˆ 1
Then ÁË ˜ = = 14.14
Dt ¯ 1 - (0.9975)2
14.14 - 3.2
% time dilation increases = ¥ 100 = 77.3%
14.14

E xamplE 43 A beam of particle of half-life 2 ¥ 10–8 sec travels in the laboratory with speed 0.96 c. How
much distance does the beam travel before the number of particle is reduced to half-times of the initial value.
Solution The time interval in the particles own frame of reference in which the flux reduces to half of its initial flux is
the proper half-time (Dt ¢), given by formula

Dt 2 ¥ 10-8
Dt ¢ = = = 7.1 ¥ 10-8 sec
v2
1 - (0.96) 2
1-
c2

The distance travelled by the beam in this time in the laboratory frame
= 0.96c ¥ 7.1 ¥ 10–8 = 0.96 ¥ 3 ¥ 108 ¥ 7.1 ¥ 10–8
= 20.45 m
 Theory of Relativity 431

E xamplE 44 At what sped a body must move so as to have its mass double.
Solution Given, m = 2m0
Formula used is
m0
m=
v2
1- 2
c
m0
2m0 =
v2
1-
c2
v2 1 3
or =1- =
c2 4 4
3 3
v= c= ¥ 3 ¥ 108 m/ sec
2 2
= 2.6 108 m/sec

E xamplE 45 A muon decays with a mean life time of 22 ¥ 10–6 seconds measured in a frame of reference in
which it is at rest. If the muon velocity is 0.99c with respect to the laboratory, what is its mean life as observed
from laboratory frame?
Solution Given, Dt ¢ = 22 ¥ 10–6, v = 0.99c
Formula used is
Dt ¢ 22 ¥ 10-6
Dt = =
v2 1 - (0.99) 2
1-
c2
= 1.57 10 4
sec

E xamplE 46 A stationary body explodes into two fragments of rest mass 1 kg that move apart at speed of
0.6c relative to original body. Find the mass of original body.
Solution Given rest mass of two fragments (m0) = 1 kg and velocity of each fragment i.e., v1 = 0.6c and v2 = –0.6c
m0
Using the relation, m =
v2
1-
c2
m0 1 1
For fragment first, m1 = = =
v12 0.36c 2 0.64
1- 2
1-
c c2
= 1.25 kg
m0 1 1
For fragment second, m2 = = =
v22 0.36c 2 0.64
1- 1-
2
c c2
= 1.25 kg
By the law of conservation of mass, the mass of original body will be
M = m1 + m2 = (1.25 + 1.25) kg = 2.5 kg
432 Engineering Physics

E xamplE 47 What is the speed of particle whose KE is equal to its rest mass energy?
Solution Given, Rest mass energy = m0c2 and
Relavistic KE = (m – m0)c2
According to the problem, (m – m0)c2 = m0c2
mc2 = 2m0c2
m = 2m0
m0 v2 1
= 2m0 or 1- =
v2 c2 2
1-
c2
3
v= c or v = 2.6 ¥ 108 m/sec.
2
E xamplE 48 Find the energy equivalent to a mass of 5.0 mg.
Solution Given, Rest mass m0 = 5.0 mg = 5.0 ¥ 10–6 kg
As rest mass energy E = m0c2
E = m0c2 = 5 ¥ 10–6 ¥ (3 ¥ 108)2
= 45 ¥ 1010 Joules.
E xamplE 49 Show that E2/c2 – p2 is invariant.
Solution Consider two frames of reference F and F ¢. The frame F ¢ is moving with velocity v along x-axis with respect to F.
Let p be the momentum and E be the energy of a particle in reference frame F and p¢ and E ¢ in reference frame F ¢
\ p 2 = px2 + p 2y + pz2 (i)

p¢ =
2
px¢ 2 + p ¢y2 + pz¢ 2

1
and k= (ii)
Ê v2 ˆ
ÁË1 - 2 ˜¯
c
È V ˘
px¢ = k Í px - E2 ˙
Î c ˚
\ p ¢y = p y and pz¢ = pz
and E ¢ = k[E – vpx]
E¢2 2 k
2
- p ¢ = ( E - v px ) 2 - ( px¢ 2 + p ¢y2 + pz¢ 2 )
c2 c2
2
k2 È vE ˘
= 2
[ E - vpx ]2 - k 2 Í px - 2 ˙ - p 2y - pz2
c Î c ˚
k2 2 2 2 v2 E 2
= 2
[ E + v px¢ - 2vEpx - px2c 2 - 2 + 2vEpx ] - p 2y - pz2
c c
Èk Ï2
v E ¸
2 2 ˘
= Í ÌE 2 -
Î Ó
c 2
c 2 ˝
˛
{ }
+ - px2c 2 + v 2 px2 - p 2y - pz2 ˙
˚
Èk2 Ï Ê v2 ˆ Ê v2 ˆ ¸˘
= Í 2 Ì E 2 Á 1 - ˜ - px2c 2 Á1 - ˜ - p 2y - pz2 ˝˙
ÍÎ c ÔÓ Ë c ¯
2 Ë c ¯
2
Ô˛˙˚
 Theory of Relativity 433

v2 1
Put 1- =
c2 k 2
E¢2 k 2 È E 2 px 2c 2 ˘
2
- p¢ 2 = 2 Í - ˙ - p y - pz
2 2
c c Î k2 k2 ˚
E2
=
- ( px2 + p 2y + pz2 )
c2
E¢2 E2
2
- p¢ 2 = 2 - p 2
c c

E2
Hence, p 2 is invariant.
c2

E xamplE 50 A relativistic electron (m0 = 0.511 MeV/c2 and a photon (m0 = 0) both have momenta of 2.0
MeV/c. Find the total energy of each.
Solution Rest mass of electron m0 = 0.511 MeV/c2 and p(m0)photon = 0, pelectron = pphoton = 2.0 MeV/c
The momentum and energy relation for electron
E2 = e2p2 + m02c 4

(2.0) 2 (0.511)2 4
= c2 ◊ + ◊c
c2 c4
= (2.0)2 + (0.511)2 = 4.2611
E = 2.0642 MeV
The total energy for photon
MeV
E = cp = c ◊ 2.0 = 2.0 MeV
c
E xamplE 51 Show from Lorentz transformation that two events simultaneous (t1 = t2) at different positions
(x1 π x2) is a reference frame S are not, in general simultaneous in another reference.
Solution Consider a frame F ¢ moving relative to a frame F with a velocity v along x-axis. Let two event occur
simultaneously (t1 = t2) at different positions x1 and x2 (x1 π x2) in frame F and the corresponding times of occurrence in
frame F ¢ and t1¢ and t2¢ . According to Lorentz transformations,
x1 - vt1 x2 - vt2
x1¢ = and x2¢ =
Êv 2ˆ Ê v2 ˆ
1- Á 2˜ 1- Á 2˜
Ëc ¯ Ëc ¯
x1v x2v
t1 - t2 -
c2 c2
t1¢ = and t2¢ =
Ê v2 ˆ Ê v2 ˆ
1- Á 2˜ 1- Á 2˜
Ëc ¯ Ëc ¯
( x2 - x1 ) - v(t2 - t1 )
\ x2¢ - x1¢ =
Ê v2 ˆ
1- Á 2˜
Ëc ¯
434 Engineering Physics

For t1 = t2
x2 - x1
x2¢ - x1¢ =
Ê v2 ˆ
1- Á 2˜
Ëc ¯
v
(t2 - t1 ) - ( x2 - x1 )
Also t2¢ - t1¢ = c2
Ê v2 ˆ
1- Á 2˜
Ëc ¯
v ( x2¢ - x1¢ )
For t1 = t2, t2¢ - t ¢ = -
c2 Ê v2 ˆ
1- Á 2˜
Ëc ¯
v
or t2¢ - t1¢ = - 2 ( x2¢ - x1¢ )
c
Since x1¢ π x2¢ hence t1¢ π t2¢ . This shows that the two events which are simultaneous (t1 = t2) at positions (x1 π x2) in frame
F are not simultaneous in reference frame F ¢. The negative sign in above relations shows that the events occur at x2¢ .
First and then at x1¢ in frame F ¢.
E xamplE 52 A rod 1.0 m long is moving along its length with velocity 0.6c. Calculate the length as it
appears to an observer on the surface of earth.
Solution Let a rod be at rest in moving frame F ¢ relative to observer o ¢ and L0 be the lengths of the rod in this frame
i.e., L0 = 1.0 m.

L Ê v2 ˆ
Lo = or L = Lo Á1 - ˜
Ê v2 ˆ Ë c2 ¯
1- Á 2˜
Ëc ¯
2
Ê 0.6c ˆ
L = 100 cm ¥ 1 - Á = 100 1 - 0.36
Ë c ˜¯
= 100 0.64 = 80 cm

E xamplE 53 In an inertial F1 a red light and a blue light are separated by a distance Dx = 2.45 km, with the
red light at the longer value of x. The blue light flashes and 5.36 ms later the red light flashes. Frame F ¢ is
moving in the direction of increasing x with speed of v = 0.855c. What is the distance between the two flashes
and the time between them as measured in F ¢?
Solution Given: Dx = x2 – x1 = 2.45 km, Dt = t2 – t1 = 5.33 ms, v = 0.855c
Let (x1, t1) and (x2, t2) represent the position and time of blue and red light in frame F and ( x1¢, t1¢) and ( x2¢ , t2¢ ) are the
corresponding values in frame F¢
x - vt1 x - vt2
\ x1¢ = 1 , x2¢ = 2
2
v v2
1- 2 1- 2
c c
t1 - vx1 / c 2 t2 - vx2 / c 2
t1¢ = , t2¢ =
2
v v2
1- 1-
c2 c2
 Theory of Relativity 435

Let x ¢ and t ¢ represent the distance between the two flashes and the time between them, respectively, as measured in F ¢.
( x2 - x1 ) - v(t2 - t1 ) 2.54 ¥ 103 - 0.855 ¥ 3 ¥ 108 ¥ 5.35 ¥ 10-6
\ x¢ = x2¢ - x1¢ = = = 2.08 km
Ê v2 ˆ 1 - (0.855) 2
ÁË1 - 2 ˜¯
c

(t2 - t1 ) - v / c 2 ( x2 - x1 )
and t ¢ = t2¢ - t1¢ =
Ê v2 ˆ
ÁË1 - 2 ˜¯
c
-6 0.855
5.35 ¥ 10 - ¥ 2.45 ¥ 103
(3 ¥ 108 )2
= = 3.15 s
1 - (0.855)2

This result shows that when measurements are made from F ¢, the red flash comes before the blue flash in F ¢.

c
E xamplE 54 A particle of rest mass m0 moves with speed . What are mass, momentum, total energy and
2
kinetic energy.
c
Solution Given: m0 = rest mass, v =
2
m0 m0
By the relation m = =
Ê v2 ˆ Ê c ˆ
2
ÁË1 - 2 ˜¯ ÁË ˜
c 2¯
1- 2
c
m0
or m= = 2 m0
Ê 1ˆ
ÁË1 - ˜¯
2

m = 2 m0
c
Momentum p = mv = 2 m0 ¥ = m0c
2
or p = m0c

Total energy E = mc2 = 2 m0c 2

E = 2 m0c 2
and kinetic energy (KE) = (m – m0)c2 = ( 2 – 1)m0c2
or KE = (1.414 – 1)m0c2 = 0.414 m0c2
KE = 0.414 m0c 2

E xamplE 55 How fast must have an electron move in order to have its mass equal the rest mass of the proton?
Solution Given rest mass of proton (m) = 1.67 ¥ 10–27 kg
m0 = 9.1 ¥ 10–31 kg.
436 Engineering Physics

By using the relation

m0
m=
Ê v2 ˆ
1- Á 2˜
Ëc ¯
9.1 ¥ 10-31
1.67 ¥ 10-27 =
Ê v2 ˆ
Á1 - (3 ¥ 108 ) ˜
Ë ¯
v2
1- = 5.45 ¥ 10-4
(3 ¥ 108 ) 2
v2
= 29.69 ¥ 10-8
(3 ¥ 108 ) 2
v 2.999 108 m/sec.
E xamplE 56 Calculate the velocity that one atomic mass unit will have if its kinetic energy is equal to twice
the rest mass energy.
Solution Given kinetic energy = 2m0c2
As E = kinetic energy + rest mass energy
mc2 = KE + m0c2 [ E = mc2]
mc2 = 2m0c2 + m0c2 = 3m0c2
m
or = 3 or m = 3m0
m0
As m0 m0
m= or 3m0 =
È Ê v2 ˆ ˘ Ê v2 ˆ
Í1 - Á 2 ˜ ˙ Á
Ë
1- 2˜
Î Ë c ¯˚ c ¯
Ê v2 ˆ 1
ÁË1 - 2 ˜¯ = 9
c
v2 1 8
=1- =
c2 9 9
Ê 8ˆ
v = Á ˜ ◊c
Ë 9¯
v = 0.94 ¥ 3 ¥ 108
v 2.82 108 m/sec

E xamplE 57 A nucleus of mass m emits a gamma ray photon of frequency v. Show that the decrease in
È Ê hv ˆ ˘
internal energy of nucleus is not hv, but hv Í1 + Á 2˜˙
.
Î Ë 2mc ¯ ˚
Solution Given; frequency of gamma rays photon = v
The momentum of photon of frequency v is
hv
p=
c
hv
The nucleus of mass m recoils back with a momentum after emitting out a g-ray photon. The energy used in recoil is
c
 Theory of Relativity 437

2
Ê hv ˆ
1 2 p ÁË ˜¯ 2
(hv) 2
E = mv = = c =
2 2m 2m 2mc
Hence, the total decrease in internal energy of nucleus is given by
( hv )2 hv
hv hv 1
2mc 2 2mc 2
Hence proved.
E xamplE 58 What is the total energy of a 2.5 MeV electron?
Solution KE = 2.5 MeV
The total energy of a electron = KE + rest mass energy
m0c 2 9.1 ¥ 10-31 ¥ (3 ¥ 108 ) 2
E = 2.5 MeV + -19
= 2.5 MeV + eV
1.6 ¥ 10 1.6 ¥ 10-19
= 2.5 MeV + 0.512 ¥ 106 eV = 2.5 MeV + 0.512 MeV
= 3.012 MeV

E xamplE 59 Having the same momentum, which will move faster an electron or a photon?
Solution Given: pe = pp
or meve = mpvp
me >> mp, then
m
v p = e ve
mp
m
As me >> mp, then e >> 1, so
mp
vp >> ve
Photon will travel faster than electron.
E xamplE 60 Find the amount of work to be done to increase the speed of an electron from 0.6c to 0.8c. Take
rest energy of electron = 0.5 MeV.
Solution Given, m0c2 = 0.5 ¥ 106 eV
K = kinetic energy, E = K + m0c2
È m0 ˘
2Í
- m0 ˙
2 c 2 2
K = mc – m0c = Í v ˙
1- 2
ÍÎ c ˙˚
È 1 ˘
- 1˙
K = m0c 2 ÍÍ v 2
˙
1- 2
ÎÍ c ˚˙
È 1 ˘
Í - 1˙ 2È 1 ˘
K1 = m0c 2 Í Ê 0.6c ˆ
2
˙ = m0c ÍÎ 0.8 - 1˙˚
ÍÎ 1 - Á ˜ ˙˚
Ë c ¯
= 0.25 ¥ m0c2 = 0.25 ¥ 0.5 ¥ 106 eV
= 1.25 ¥ 105 eV
438 Engineering Physics

Similarly
2È 1 ˘
K2 = m0c Í - 1˙ = 0.67 ¥ 0.5 ¥ 106
Î 0.6 ˚
= 3.35 ¥ 105 eV
The amount of work done to be done = K2 – K1
= 2.1 ¥ 105 eV
= 2.1 ¥ 105 ¥ 1.6 ¥ 10–19 J
= 3.36 ¥ 10–14 Joule
3
E xamplE 61 What is the length of a meter stick moving parallel to its length when its mass is times of
2
its rest mass?
3
Solution Given: m = m0 , L0 = 1.0 meter
2
We know that
Ê v2 ˆ
L = L0 Á1 - ˜
Ë c2 ¯
m0
and m=
Ê v2 ˆ
ÁË1 - c ˜¯
2

m0 Ê v2 ˆ
fi = Á1 - ˜
m Ë c2 ¯
Ê m ˆ Ê 2ˆ È m 3˘
Or L = Lo Á 0 ˜ = Á ˜ Lo Í m = 2˙
Ë m ¯ Ë 3¯ Î 0 ˚
L = 0.67 ¥ 1.0 = 0.67 meter
L = 0.67 meter

E xamplE 62 How fast would a rocket ship have to go relative to an observer for its length to be contracted
to 99 per cent of its length at rest?
99
Solution Given l = lo
100

Ê v2 ˆ
Formula used l = lo Á1 - ˜
Ë c2 ¯
2
99 Ê v2 ˆ v 2 Ê 99 ˆ
lo = lo Á1 - ˜ or 1 – =Á ˜
100 Ë c2 ¯ c 2 Ë 100 ¯

v2 = 0.0199c = 0.0199 ¥ (3 ¥ 108)2

v= (0.0199) 3 ¥ 108
v 42.3 106 m/sec
 Theory of Relativity 439

E xamplE 63 A muon decays with a mean life time of 22 ¥ 10–6 seconds measured in a frame of reference in
which it is at rest. If the muon velocity is 0.99c with respect to the laboratory, what is its mean life as observed
from laboratory frame?
Solution Given: Proper mean life-time t0 = 22 ¥ 10–6 sec, v = 0.99c
\ Apparent mean life-time
t0 22 ¥ 10-6
t= =
v2
È (0.99c)2 ˘
1- Í1 - ˙
c2 Î c2 ˚
22 ¥ 10-6
= = 1.57 ¥ 10-5 sec
[1 - (0.99)2 ]

t 1.57 10 5 sec

E xamplE 64 At what speed should a rocket be move so that it may appear to lose 1 minute in each hour.
Solution Let the clock loses 1 minute in 1 hour, means clock must record 59 min for each 1 hour. So that
Proper time t0 = 59 min., Apparent time t = 60 min. According to Lorentz transformation,
t0
t=
Ê v2 ˆ
ÁË1 - 2 ˜¯
c
Substituting the values in above equation, we have
2
59 Ê 59 ˆ Ê v2 ˆ
60 = or Á ˜ = Á1 - ˜
v2 Ë 60 ¯ Ë c2 ¯
1-
c2

v2 Ê 59 ˆ
2
È 2˘
or =1- Á ˜ or v 2 = Í1 - ÁÊ 59 ˜ˆ ˙ ¥ 3 ¥ 108
c 2 Ë 60 ¯ Î Ë 60 ¯ ˚

v 5.45 107 m/sec

E xamplE 65 An electron has an initial speed of 1.4 ¥ 108 m/sec. How much additional energy must be
imported to it for its speed to double?
Solution Given: v = 1.4 ¥ 108 m/sec
Let rest mass of electron m0 = 9.1 ¥ 10–31 kg
The mass of electron at speed 1.4 ¥ 108 m/sec
m0
m=
v2
1- 2
c
9.1 ¥ 10-31
or m=
2
Ê 1.4 ¥ 108 ˆ
1- Á ˜
Ë 3 ¥ 108 ¯
= 1.029 ¥ 10-30 kg
440 Engineering Physics

Then corresponding energy

E1 = mc2 = 1.029 ¥ 10–30 ¥ (3 ¥ 108)2
= 9.261 ¥ 10–14 Joules
If v1 = 2v = 2 ¥ 1.4 ¥ 108 = 2.8 ¥ 108 m/sec
9.1 ¥ 10-31 9.1 ¥ 10-31
m¢ = =
Ê 2.8 ¥ 108 ˆ
2 0.359
1- Á ˜
Ë 3.0 ¥ 108 ¯
= 2.5348 ¥ 10-30 kg
E2 = mc2 = 2.5348 ¥ 10–30 ¥ (3 ¥ 108)2
= 22.813 ¥ 10–14 Joules
Hence, additional energy DE = E2 – E1
DE = 22.813 ¥ 10–14 – 9.26 ¥ 10–14
= 12.542 ¥ 10–14 Joules
DE = 1.254 ¥ 10–13 Joules

E xamplE 66 At what speed does a clock move if it runs at a rate which is one-third the rate of a clock at rest?
Solution Let a clock moves with velocity v w.r.t. another similar clock which is at rest. Let the time interval observed by
the clock at rest is t and the time interval observed by the clock moving with velocity v is t0.
The time interval measured by an observer that is stationary w.r.t. to the moving clock is proper time. From concept of
time interval
1
t = g t0 where g =
v2
1- 2
c
Given that t = 3 t0,
3t0 = g t0
g =3
Velocity of the moving clock is
1
=3
v2
1- 2
c
v = 0.9428c

E xamplE 67 At what speed does a meter stick move if its length is observed to shrink to 0.6 m?
Solution From the length contraction, when the observer and the object have relative motion, length appears to be
shortened as per the following relation
L0 1
L= where v =
g 1 - v 2 /c 2

Given that
L = 0.6 m; L0 = 1.0 m
 Theory of Relativity 441

This implies
g = 1.666
1
or = 1.666
v2
1- 2
c
v = 0.7998c
The speed of a meter stick is 0.7998c.

E xamplE 68 The average lifetime of a p meson in its own frame of reference is 26.0 ns. If the p meson
moves with speed 0.9c with respect to the Earth,
(a) What is its lifetime as measured by an observer at rest on Earth?
(b) What is the average distance it travels before decaying as measured by an observer at rest on Earth?
Solution
(a) The life time of p meson in its frame is 26.0 ns. This is the proper time observation as there is no relative motion
between observer and the object (say t0). The velocity of the p meson w.r.t. Earth is 0.9c.
Let the observed life time of p meson by an observer at rest on Earth be t. Then
1
t = g t0 where g =
v2
1- 2
c
26.0
t=
(0.9c) 2
1-
c2
26.0
t= ns
1 - 0.81
26.0
t= ns
0.19
t = 2.294 ¥ 26.0 ns
t = 59.64 ns
(b) Average distance it travels before decaying as measured by an observer at rest on Earth is given as L = lifetime
¥ velocity
L = 59.64 ¥ 10–9 ¥ 0.9 ¥ 3 ¥ 108
L = 16.10 m
E xamplE 69 Electrons in projection television sets are accelerated through a potential difference of 60 kV.
(a) Calculate the speed of the electrons using the relativistic form of kinetic energy assuming the
electrons start from rest.
(b) Calculate the speed of the electrons using the classical form of kinetic energy.
(c) Is the difference in speed significant in the design of this set?
Solution
(a) Total energy of a relativistic particles is given as E = KE + rest mass energy
KE = E – m0c2
KE = g m0c2 – m0c2 = (g – 1)m0c2
442 Engineering Physics

Rest mass energy of electron is m0c2

= 9.1 ¥ 10–31 ¥ 3 ¥ 108 ¥ 3 ¥ 108 = 81.9 ¥ 10–15 J
= 0.511 MeV = 511 keV
Kinetic energy, KE = (g – 1)m0c2
60 = (g – 1) ¥ 511 [Potential difference of 60 kV fi kinetic energy = 60 keV]
60 571
or g =1+ = = 1.1174
511 511
1
g = = 1.1174
v2
1- 2
c
or vrel = 1.3376 ¥ 108 = 0.446c
1 2
(b) From classical point of view kinetic energy = mv
2
1
60 ¥ 1000 ¥ 1.6 ¥ 10–19 = ¥ 9.1 ¥ 10–31 ¥ v2
2
60 ¥ 1000 ¥ 1.6 ¥ 10-19 ¥ 2
2
vclassical = = 21098.90 ¥ 1012 = 2.1098 ¥ 1016
9.1 ¥ 10-31
m
vclassical = 2.1098 ¥ 1016 = 1.4525 ¥ 108 = 0.484c
s
(c) The difference between the speeds of electrons accelerated through the potential of 60 kV is not significant in
case of TV as the distance travelled is of the order of 50 cm and the time lag thus produced is in of the order of
few nano-second. This can be neglected in present case.

E xamplE 70 Two powerless rockets are heading towards each other on a collision course. As measured by a
stationary observer at Earth, rocket A has speed 0.800c, rocket B has speed 0.600c, both rockets are 50.0 m
in length, and they are initially 2.52 Tm apart.
(a) What are their respective proper lengths?
(b) What is the length of each rocket as observed by a stationary observer in the other rocket?
(c) According to observer at earth, how long before the rockets collide?
(d) According to Rocket A, how long before they collide?
(e) According to Rocket B, how long before they collide?
(f) If the crew are able to evacuate their rockets safety within 50 min (their own time), will they be able
to do so before the collision?
Solution
(a) Given velocity of rocket A w.r.t. Earth = 0.8c
Length of rocket A w.r.t. Earth = 50 m
Velocity of rocket B w.r.t. Earth = 0.6 c
Length of rocket B w.r.t. Earth = 50 m
The distance between two rockets w.r.t. Earth = 2.52 Tm = 2.52 ¥ 1012 m.
The proper length of rocket A
 Theory of Relativity 443

L0
L=
g
1 1
L0 = g L = ¥L= ¥ 50 m
2
v (.8c) 2
1- 1-
c2 c2
1
L0 = ¥ 50 m = 83.33 m
0.6
Similarly, the proper length of rocket B
1 1
L0 = g L = ¥L= ¥ 50 m
2
v (.6c) 2
1- 1-
c2 c2

1
L0 = ¥ 50 m = 62.50 m
0.8

(b) To find the length of each rocket w.r.t. other rocket, we need to know the relative speed of each rocket w.r.t. each
other.
Thus, from relative speed formula, the speed of rocket A w.r.t. rocket B is
ux - v
u x¢ =
uv
1 - x2
c
0.8c - (-.6c)
or u x¢ =
.8c(-.6c)
1-
c2
1.4c
or u x¢ = ª 0.946c
1.48
Similarly the velocity of Rocket B as measured by a stationary observer in Rocket A is 0:946 c.
Then
L0
The length of rocket A w.r.t. rocket B is L =
g
83.33
or L= = 27.02 m
3.083
The length of rocket B w.r.t. rocket A is
62.5
L= = 20.27 m
3.083

(c) From Earth, the time taken in collision of two rockets is

0.8c ¥ Dt + 0.6c ¥ Dt = 2.52 ¥ 1012
2.52 ¥ 1012
Dt = = 6000 s = 100 min.
1.4 ¥ 3 ¥ 108
444 Engineering Physics

(d) The time taken before collision, according to rocket A

1
t= t0
v2
1- 2
c
1
100 = t0
(.8c) 2
1-
c2
(.8c) 2
t0 = 100 ¥ 1 - = 100 ¥ 0.6 = 60 min.
c2
(e) The time taken before collision, according to rocket B
1
t= t0
v2
1- 2
c
1
100 = t0
(.6c) 2
1-
c2
(.6c) 2
t0 = 100 ¥ 1 - = 100 ¥ 0.8 = 80 min.
c2
(f) All the crew members can evacuate their rockets before the collision as they get sufficient time for the same.

E xamplE 71 Superfast muons (v = .998c) can be produced by the collision of cosmic radiation with atoms
high in the atomosphere. Slow-moving muons in the laboratory fame have a lifetime as 2.2 ms. Experiments
show that a large number of muons do reach the sea surface. Explain this phenomenon with time dilation.
Solution The life time of muons is 2.2 ms in the laboratory frame i.e., this is the observation with no relative motion
between muons and observer. From time dilations, the life time of muons is different and increased from an observer
(Earth) with respect to which muons are moving.
Thus
1
t = g t0 where g =
v2
1-
c2

Putting t0 = 2.2 ms and v = 0.998c

1 1
t= t = 2.2 ms ({ d = ct)
2 0
v (.998c) 2
1- 2 1-
c c2
t = 15.81 ¥ 2.2 ms = 34.78 s

The distance covered by high speed muons during this life time calculated in Earth frame of reference is 10.41 km. This
results that a muon which is produced at height 10 km from sea level can travel the distance to reach at sea level with
speed .998c and life time 34.78 ms.
 Theory of Relativity 445

E xamplE 72 The period of a pendulum is measured to be 5 s in the reference frame of the pendulum. What
is the period when measured by an observer moving at a speed of 0.90c relative to the pendulum? What if we
increase the speed of the observer by 10%? Does the dilated time interval increase by 10% or more?
Solution The time period of the pendulum gets changed when the reference frame is changed from stationary frame to
moving frame. Thus
1
t = g t0 where g =
v2
1-
c2
Here t0 = 3s and v = 0.95c then
1
t= 3 = 2.294 ¥ 5s = 11.47 s
(.9c) 2
1-
c2
If the speed of observer is increased by 10%, then speed becomes
v = .9c ¥ 1.10 = 0.99c
With 10% increased velocity, the value of gamma factor is modified from 2.294 to 7.0888 which in turn, increases the
dilated time period of pendulum by over 200%.

E xamplE 73 A spacecraft is measured to be 150.0 m long and 30.0 m in diameter while at rest relative to an
observer. If this spacecraft now flies by the observer with a speed of 0.95c, what length and diameter does
the observer measure?
Solution From length contraction, the length observations made from moving frame are shortened by factor g . Here,
Actual length L0 = 150.0 m
Actual diameter d0 = 30.0 m
Let observations made by observer while spacecraft is moving with velocity 0.95c be L and d.
Then
L0 v2 (.95c) 2
L= = L0 1 - 2 = 120 1 - = 120 1 - .9025 = 120 0.0975
g c c2
L = 150 ¥ .3122 m
L = 46.84 m
The length of the space craft will appear to be 46.84 m if space
craft is moving with velocity 0.95c relative to observer.
However, diameter will be appear to be of 30 m as there is no
motion of spacecraft in the axis of diameter.

E xamplE 74 Imagine a motorcycle moving with a speed

0.70c past a stationary observer, as shown in adjoining
figure. If the rider tosses a ball in the forward direction with
a speed of 0.60c relative to himself, what is the speed of the
ball relative to the stationary observer?
Solution The speed of the motorcycle relative to the stationary
observer is v = 0.7c. The speed of the ball in the frame of reference
of the motorcyclist is u¢x = 0.6c. Therefore, the speed ux of the ball
relative to the stationary observer is
446 Engineering Physics

u x¢ + v
ux =
u¢ v
1 + x2
c
.6c + .7c 1.3c
ux = = = .9154c
.6c + .7c 1.42
1+
c2
The speed of the ball relative to the stationary observer is 0.9154c.

E xamplE 75 An electron, which has a mass of 9.11 ¥ 10–31 kg, moves with a speed of 0.850c. Find its
relativistic momentum and compare this value with the momentum calculated from the classical expression.
Solution Relativistic momentum of the electron is given as prel = mv = g m0v
Classical momentum of the electron is given as pclassical = m0v
1
prel = g m0v = m0v
v2
1- 2
c
1
prel = 9.11 ¥ 10-31 ¥ .85 ¥ 3 ¥ 108
(.85c) 2
1-
c2
prel = 44.0988 ¥ 10-23 = 4.049 10 22
kg.m/s
pclassical = 9.11 ¥ 10 ¥ .85 ¥ 3 ¥ 10 = 23.23 ¥ 10-23 = 2.323 10
-31 8 22
kg.m/s
Relativistic momentum is approximately 89% greater than the classical momentum.

E xamplE 76 An electron in a television picture tube typically moves with a speed u = 0.450c. Find its total
energy and kinetic energy in electron volts.
1
Solution Total energy of a relativistic particle E = g m0c 2 = m0c 2
v2
1- 2
c
1
E= ¥ 9.11 ¥ 10-31 ¥ 3 ¥ 3 ¥ 108 ¥ 108 J
(.45c) 2
1-
c2
E = 1.1197 ¥ 9.11 ¥ 10-31 ¥ 3 ¥ 3 ¥ 108 ¥ 108 J
1.1197 ¥ 9.11 ¥ 10-31 ¥ 3 ¥ 3 ¥ 108 ¥ 108
E= eV
1.6 ¥ 10-19
E ª 0.574 MeV
Kinetic energy of relativistic particle = total energy – rest mass energy
= (.574 – .511) MeV ({ rest mass energy = m0c2)
= 0.063 MeV

E xamplE 77 If the total energy of a proton is 2.5 times its rest energy, what is the speed of the proton?
Determine the kinetic energy of the proton in electron volts. What is the proton’s momentum?
Solution Total energy = 2.5 times rest mass energy
E = 2.5 m0c2;
E = g m 0c2;
 Theory of Relativity 447

1
From above relations, g = 2.5 =
v2
1-
c2
v = .9165c = .9165 ¥ 3 ¥ 108 = 2.747 ¥ 108 m/s
Kinetic energy of proton = (g – 1) ¥ rest mass energy = (g – 1) m0c2
KE = (2.5 – 1) ¥ 1.67 ¥ 10–27 ¥ 3 ¥ 3 ¥ 108 ¥ 108 = 22.54 ¥ 10–11
= 2.254 ¥ 10–10 J
2.254 ¥ 10-10
KE = eV = 1.40875 ¥ 109 eV = 1408.75 MeV
1.6 ¥ 10-19
For relativistic momentum,
Using expression for total energy E2 = p2c2 + m02c4; E = 2.5m0c2
p2c2 = E2 – m02c4
p2c2 = 6.25m02c4 – m02c4 = 5.25m02c4
pc = 5.25 m0c 2 ; m0c 2 = 938 MeV
938
p = 5.25 MeV
c
MeV
p = 2149.2
c
E xamplE 78 A crew watches a movie that is 2 hours long in a spacecraft that is moving at high speed through
space. Will an Earthbound observer, who is watching the movie through a powerful telescope, measure the
duration of the movie to be (a) longer than, (b) shorter than, or (c) equal to 2 hours?
Solution The two events are the beginning and the end of the movie, both of which take place at rest with respect to
the space craft crew. Thus, the crew measures the proper time interval of 2 h. Any observer in motion with respect to the
spacecraft, which includes the observer on Earth, will measure a longer time interval due to time dilation.

E xamplE 79 Suppose astronauts are paid according to the amount of time they spend travelling in space.
After a long voyage travelling at a speed approaching c, would a crew rather be paid according to (a) an Earth-
based clock, (b) their spacecraft’s clock, or (c) either clock?
Solution (a) If their on-duty time is based on clocks that remain on the Earth, they will have larger paycheques. A shorter
time interval will have passed for the astronauts in their frame of reference than for their employer back on the Earth.

o bJective t YPe Q Uestions

Q.1 The aim of Michelson-Morley experiment was to

(a) prove existence of ether (b) measure speed of light
(c) measure speed of earth relative to ether (d) test the isotropy of space
Q.2 The postulates of special theory of relativity are applicable to
(a) accelerated frames (b) inertial frames
(c) stationary frames (d) none of these
Q.3 Frame F is stationary and the frame F¢ is moving along the positive x-direction. A rod placed along
y-axis if observed from F frame appears
(a) contracted (b) elongated
(c) unchanged (d) nothing can be said
448 Engineering Physics

Q.4 A rocket is moving with a velocity 0.70 c. Velocity of the light with respect to the rocket is
(a) 0.7 c (b) c (c) 1.4 c (d) 0.35 c
Q.5 The relative velocity of two photons when they approach each other will be
(a) less than c (b) 0 (c) more than c (d) c
Q.6 The energy produced by one kg of mass, which is fully converted into energy, will be equal to
(a) 3 ¥ 1010 J (b) 9 ¥ 1016 J (c) 1018 J (d) 1 J
Q.7 A body of mass m falls through h meters. The decrease in its mass is equivalent to
(a) mgh/c2 (b) mgh (c) mghc2 (d) mgh/c
Q.8 At what velocity the kinetic energy of a body is equal to its rest mass energy
(a) 3c / 2 (b) c/2 (c) c/3 (d) 2c
Q.9 Relativistic transformations were suggested by
(a) Newton (b) Einstein (c) Huygens (d) Lorentz
Q.10 The apparent length of a meter rod moving parallel to its length with velocity 0.6c will be
(a) 0.8 m (b) 0.6 m (c) 1 m (d) 1.2 m
Q.11 When a body of rest mass 1 kg moves with velocity of light, its mass becomes
(a) 0 (b) • (c) 2 kg (d) 100 kg
Q.12 Einsten’s famous mass energy relation is
1
(a) E = m0c2 (b) E = mc2 (c) E = m c2 (d) none of these
2 0
Q.13 A rod of length L0 is kept in a frame F¢ which is moving with velocity of light in the direction of length.
The observed length of rod from a stationary frame of reference (earth) would be
(a) • (b) 0 (c) 10 L0 (d) 3 ¥ 108 L0
Q.14 The negative result of Michelson-Morley experiment was that
(a) it could not measure speed of light (b) it could not prove the existence of ether
(c) it could not show the shifting of fringes (d) it could not prove the electromagnetic nature of light
waves

s Hort -a nsWer Q Uestions

Q.1 What do you understand by frame of reference?
Q.2 What are inertial frames of reference?
Q.3 Is Earth an inertial frame? If not why?
Q.4 What are Galilean transformations?
Q.5 Write Lorentz transformation equation.
Q.6 Write inverse Lorentz transformation equations.
Q.7 What are time dilation and length contraction?
Q.8 What are postulates of special theory of relativity?
Q.9 Explain the variation of mass with velocity?
Q.10 What do you understand by mass-energy equivalence relation?
Q.11 What is the rest mass of photon?
 Theory of Relativity 449

P ractice P roblems

Q a7 Qu
Q.1 Distinguish between inertial and non-inertial frames of references. Give one example of each. Is earth
an inertial frame? Give reasons.
Q.2 What is Newtonian principle of relativity? Discuss with examples. Why should laws of nature be the
same in all inertial frames of reference?
Q.3 What are Galilean transformations? Derive Galilean transformation equations for two inertial frames.
State and prove Galilean invariance.
Q.4 Prove that Newton’s law of motion are invariant under Galilean transformations?
Q.5 What are the quantities which are invariant under Galilean transformations?
Q.6 Show that a frame of reference having a uniform translatory motion (or moving with constant velocity)
relative to an inertial frame is also inertial.
Q.7 Show that the laws of conservation of momentum and energy are invariant to Galilean transformations.
Q.8 What was the objective of conducting the Michelson-Morley experiment? Describe the experiment.
How is the negative result of the experiment interpreted?
Q.9 What do you conclude from Michelson-Morley experiment? If ether does not exist in what medium
does light travel? What vibrates in light waves?
Q.10 (a) What efforts were made to explain the null results of Michelson-Morley experiment on the basis
of ether hypothesis?
(b) Draw the ray diagram in ether frame after 90° rotation of the apparatus.
Q.11 (a) Why the apparatus of Michelson-Morley experiment was rotated through 90°?
(b) Why did Michelson and Morley repeat the experiment during day and night and during all seasons
of the year?
Q.12 State and explain the fundamental (basic) postulates of special theory of relativity and derive Lorentz
space time trasformation equations on their basis.
Q.13 Derive Lorentz transformation equations for space and time coordinates and show that these equations
become the Galilean equations at very low speeds.
Q.14 Show by means of Lorentz transformation equations that
x¢2 – c2t¢2 = x2 – c2t2
Q.15 Derive Lorentz transformation equations and using them prove that moving clock appears to go slow.
Q.16 (a) On the basis of Lorentz transformations derive an expression for length contraction.
(b) Define proper length.
(c) A circle and a square are moving along x-axis. How will they appear to stationary observer?
Q.17 Apply Lorentz transformation to derive expression for length contraction and time dilation.
Q.18 What do you mean by length contraction at relativistic speed? Deduce the necessary expression for it?
Q.19 (a) What do you understand by time dilation? Establish a relation between proper and improper
interval of time.
(b) Give an example to show that time dilation is a real effect.
Q.20 What do you understand by time dilation? On the basis of Lorentz transformations discuss the variation
of time with velocity according to the special theory of relativity. Explain why does a moving clock
appear to run slow. Explain the terms, ‘proper time’ and ‘improper time’. Show that when v << c
Lorentz transformations for time reduce to Galilean transformations.
450 Engineering Physics

Q.21 Deduce an expression for variation of mass with velocity and depict it graphically. Also prove that no
material particle can have a velocity equal or greater than the velocity of light (c).
Q.22 Obtain the relativistic formula for the addition of velocities and also show that the velocity of light is
an absolute constant independent of the frame of reference.
Q.23 (a) Starting from Lorentz transformation equations for space and time co-ordinates derive equations
for relativistic addition of velocities. Hence, prove that no material particle can move with a
velocity greater than that of light.
(b) Show that the law agrees with velocity addition formula for non-relativistic velocities.
Q.24 Starting with Einstein’s velocity addition formula show that it is in conformity with principle of
constancy of speed of light.
m0
Q.25 (a) Derive the formula for relativistic variation of mass with velocity, i.e., m =
1 - v 2 /c 2
(b) Hence prove that it is not possible for a material particle to have a velocity equal to or greater than
the velocity of light.
Q.26 Obtain Einstein’s mass energy relation and discuss it. Give some evidence showing its validity.
Q.27 Establish mathematically Einstein’s mass energy relationship. Explain physical significance of this
relation. Mention nuclear phenomena supporting this relation.
Q.28 Write notes on the following
(i) Michelson-Morely experiment and its results (ii) Variation of mass with velocity
(iii) Lorentz-FitzGerald contraction (iv) Time dilation
(v) Mass-energy equivalence

U nsolved Q Uestions
Q.1 A space ship is 50 metre long on the ground, when it is in flight its length appears to be 49 metres to
an observer on the ground. Find the speed of the space ship. [Ans: 0.6 c]
Q.2 Calculate the percentage contraction of a rod moving with a velocity 0.8 times the velocity of light in
a direction inclined at 45° to its own length. [Ans: 17.5 %]
Q.3 The length of a rod is 100 m. If the length of this rod is measured by the observer moving parallel to
its length is 51 m, find the speed of the observer. [Ans: 0.86 c]
4 +
Q.4 A burst of 10 p mesons travels in a circular path of radius 20 m at a speed v = 0.99c. The proper mean
life of p+ meason is 2.5 ¥ 10–8 s.
(i) How many mesons would be left in a burst that had remained at rest at the origin for the same
period of time?
(ii) How many mesons survive when the burst returns to the point of origin?
[Ans: (i) N0p+ meson would survive, (ii) 920]
Q.5 Calculate the velocity at which electron mass is 3 times the rest mass. [Ans: 2.45 ◊ 108 m/sec]
Q.6 What should be the speed of electron so that its relativistic mass is twice its rest mass? [Ans: 0.87 c]
Q.7 Kinetic energy of a particle is twice its rest mass energy. What is its velocity? [Ans: 0.943 c]
Q.8 Calculate the velocity of 1.0 MeV electron. [Ans: 2.82 ◊ 108 m/sec]
Q.9 If one gram of a substance is fully converted into energy in one second, how many calories of heat will
be produced and how much power will be generated? [Ans: 9 ◊ 1013 J, 9 ◊ 107 MW]
Lasers and Holography 4
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter you will be able to
LO1 Learn about absorption of radiation LO4 Discuss the application of laser and
and different types of emissions laser cooling
LO2 Understand the phenomenon LO5 Explain holography versus conventional
of population inversion and photography, recording and
characteristics of laser light reconstruction of image on a holograph
LO3 Know about the components and types LO6 Illustrate types of holograms
of lasers. LO7 Evaluate the applications of holography

Introduction
In the previous chapters, interesting phenomena of interference and diffraction of light including its
polarisation have been investigated in detail. It was discussed that the interference has scientific as well
as engineering applications. The concept of interference is applied to testing the surface quality of optical
components and this led to the development of flatness interferometers. An exciting use of the concept
of interference is made in the preparation of nonreflecting or antireflecting coatings that are applied to
surfaces of lenses (for example, eye glass lenses) and other optical devices for reducing the reflections and
hence in improving the efficiency of the system like telescope. However, you would have learnt that in
order to realise the above mentioned phenomena in an efficient way there is a need of using the coherent
and monochromatic sources as the phase of incoherent source (light) varies randomly with time and
position. This need of monochromatic and coherent sources contributed to the birth of a special type of
device that amplifies light and produces a highly intense and highly directional beam which mostly has a
very pure wavelength. This device is called LASER. Lasers are available with power ranging roughly from
1 nW (= 10–9 W) to 105 PW (1 PW = 10–15 W) and with frequency ranging from 100 GHz (1 GHz =
109 Hz) to 100 PHz. Nowadays the lasers with pulse duration as short as ~ 1 fs (= 10–15 s) are available
with their pulse energies as high as 10 kJ.
156 Engineering Physics

The name LASER is an acronym of Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The immediate
originator to the LASER is the MASER, formerly acronym of Microwave Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation. Since the techniques have been extended to the infrared and optical regions, it has
now come to stand for Molecular rather than Microwave amplification. A laser uses some processes that
amplify light signals. These processes mainly include stimulated emission and optical feedback provided by
mirrors. The stimulated emission takes place in amplifying medium contained by the laser. The application
of set of mirrors is to feed the light back to the amplifying medium so that the developed beam is
grown continuously. The key concept for realisation of the laser operation is the principle of coherence
accompanying stimulated emission.

4.1 AbsOrptiOn And EmissiOn Of rAdiAtiOn LO1

It is well known that an atom can be excited by supplying energy with an amount equal to the difference of its
any two energy levels. Then after a very short duration of time the atom shall radiate energy when it comes
down to its lower energy state. An electron undergoes a transition between two energy states E1 and E2 if
the atom emits or absorbs a photon of appropriate energy as per the relation E2 – E1 = hn, where h is Planck
constant and n is the frequency of radiation.

4.1.1 A78o o o raA a o
At low temperatures, most of the atoms stay in lower energy states. 2 E2 2 E2
If an atom is initially in the lower energy state E1, it can be raised to hv

the higher energy state E2 by the absorption of a photon of energy hn, 1 E1 1 E1

Before After
as shown in Fig. 4.1. This is know as absorption of radiation and is
Figure 4.1
represented by
E2 = E1 + hn
fi E2 – E1 = DE = hn (i)
The probability of occurrence of this absorption from state 1 to state 2 is proportional to the energy density
u(n) of the radiation
P12 = B12 u(n) (ii)
Where the proportionality constant B12 is known as the Einstein’s coefficient of absorption of radiation.
Take an example of electron transition associated with visible and ultraviolet radiation interactions with
matter. Here the absorption of a photon occurs only when the quantum energy of the photon precisely matches
the energy gap between the initial and final states. In such interaction of radiation with matter, if there is no
pair of energy state such that the photon energy can elevate the system from the lower to upper state, then the
matter will be transparent to that radiation.

4.1.2 s o a eou8 E 88 o 2 E2 2 E2
hv

If an atom is initially in the upper state E2, it can come down to lower 1 E1 1 E1
state E1 by emitting a photon of energy hn as shown in Fig. 4.2. Before After
This is known as spontaneous emission. This is the natural radiation Figure 4.2
 Lasers and Holography 157

decay process that is inherent in all excited states of all materials. However, such emission is not always the
dominant decay process.
The probability of occurrence of this spontaneous emission transition from state 2 to state 1 depends only on
the properties of states 2 and 1 and is given by
P12¢ = A21
(iii)
Where A21 is known as the Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission of radiation.

4.1.3 Stimulated (Induced) Emission

Einstein was the first to point out a third possibility of induced 2 E2 2 E2
hv
emission, in which an incident photon of energy hn causes a hv
hv

transition from upper state E2 to the lower state E1, as shown in 1 E1 1 E1

Before After
Fig. 4.3. This occurs when
Figure 4.3
hn = DE = E2 – E1
In a system of atoms in thermal equilibrium, the number of atoms in the ground state is generally much
greater than in a higher energy state. This is known as normal population of atoms among the available
energy states. A state in which the number of atoms in higher energy state is greater than that of lower energy
state is known population inversion.
Therefore, the incoming photon stimulates the transition to the lower state and produces a second photon of
the same energy, when a sizable population of electrons resides in upper level (Fig. 4.4). In this condition it
is called a population inversion. This population inversion sets the stage for stimulated emission of multiple
photons. This is the precondition for the light amplification in a laser. Since the emitted photons have a
definite time and phase relation to each other, the light has a high degree of coherence. If these emitted
photons are passed through an assembly of atoms, which fulfil the condition of population inversion, these
are amplified. This amplification is very much clear from Fig. 4.4, which shows multiplication of photons
emitted during the process of stimulated emission.
(energy of each photon is hv)

E2 E2
hv
hv
hv hv hv
hv
hv
hv
(energy of each
hv hv
hv
hv hv photon is hv)
hv
E1 E1 hv

Figure 4.4

The probability of occurrence of stimulated emission transition from the upper level 2 to the lower level 1 is
proportional to the energy density u(n) of the radiation and is expressed as
P21¢¢ = B21 u (v) (iv)
Where B21 is the Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission of radiation.
Thus, the total probability of emission transition from the upper level 2 to the lower level 1 is given by
P21 = P21¢ + P21¢¢

or P21 = A21 + B21 u(n) (v)

158 Engineering Physics

4.1.4 Relation between Einstein’s Coefficients

Let N1 and N2 be the number of atoms at any instant in the state 1 and 2, respectively. The probability of
absorption transition for number of atoms from state 1 to 2 per unit time is given by
N1P12 = N1B12 u (n) (vi)
The total probability of transition for number of atoms from state 2 to 1, either by spontaneously or by
stimulated emission per unit time is given by
N2P21 = N2[A21 + B21 u(n)] (vii)

In thermal equilibrium at temperature T, the absorption and emission probabilities are equal and thus, we can
write
N1P12 = N2P21
or N1B12 u(n) = N2[A21 + B21 u(n)]
N 2 A21
or u (v ) =
N1B12 - N 2 B21
A21 1
or u (v ) = (viii)
B21 ( N1 / N 2 ) ( B12 / B21 ) - 1

But according to Einstein

B12 = B21 (ix)
Then from Eq. (viii) and (ix), we get
A21 1
u (v ) = (x)
B21 ( N1 / N 2 ) - 1

According to Boltzmann’s law, the distribution of atoms among the energy states E1 and E2 at the thermal
equilibrium at temperature T is given by

N1 e - E1 / kT
= = e( E2 - E1 )/ kT (xi)
N 2 e - E2 / kT
N1
or = e hv / kT (xii)
N2
Here k is the Boltzmann constant.
From Eq. (x), we can write
A21 1
u (v ) = hv / kT
(xiii)
B21 e -1
Planck’s radiation formula yields the energy density of radiation u(v) as
8p hv3 1
u (v ) = 3 hv / kT
(xiv)
c e -1
 Lasers and Holography 159

Comparing Eq. (xiii) and (xiv), we get

A21 8p hv3
= (xv)
B21 c3
Equation (xv) gives the relation between the probabilities of spontaneous and stimulated emissions. This is
also known as the relation between the Einstein’s coefficients A and B.

4.2 pOpELAtiOn invErsiOn LO2

For a system with three energy states viz. E1 (population N1), E2 (population N2) and E3 (population N3)
in equilibrium such that E1 < E2 < E3, the uppermost level E3 is populated least whereas the lowest level
E1 is populated most. Since the population in these states follow the trend N1 > N2 > N3, the system shall
absorb photons rather than emitting them. However, when a sizable population of electrons is achieved in
the upper levels, the condition is known as population inversion (a non-equilibrium state). This condition
sets the stage for stimulated emission of radiation, i.e., multiple photons, as the first few randomly emitted
spontaneous photons trigger stimulated emission of more photons and those stimulated photons induce still
more stimulated emissions, and so on.
The population inversion is the precondition for the light amplification occurring in LASER. In order to
achieve this condition, a multilevel scheme is used. For example, the atoms are pumped into the highest level
of the three levels. Then spontaneous de-excitation from this pumped level to the metastable level takes place
and the laser emission occurs between the metastable level and the ground state. It is clear that energy has
to be supplied to the laser medium in order to raise atoms from the lower level to the excited level and for
maintaining population at the excited level at a value greater than that of the lower energy. One can think that
heating the material can solve this purpose but this only increases the average energy of the atoms and does
not enhance the population in the higher level. However, following schemes may be adopted to achieve the
population inversion.

4.2.1 Schemes for Population Inversion

To discuss schemes for the population inversion in various energy level systems, we will first prove that the
two-level system is not appropriate to achieve this condition of population inversion.
4.2.1.1 Two-level System
Consider the case of two-level system having energies E1 and E2 such that E2 > E1. We can easily find that
the Einstein coefficients (or constants) for the upward (B12) and downward (B21) transitions are equal, i.e.,
B12 = B21. It means, even with strong pumping, the population distribution in upper and lower levels can only
be made equal, i.e., the optical pumping will at most only achieve equal population of a two-level system.
This is due to the fact that the probabilities for raising an electron to the upper level and inducing the decay of
an electron to the lower level (stimulated emission) are exactly the same. In other words, we can say that the
numbers of electrons going up and coming down will be the same when both the levels are equally populated.
So, we cannot achieve population inversion in the case of two energy levels system. Therefore, optical as
well as any other pumping method needs either three or four level systems to attain population inversion.
The solution is to use a third metastable level, where the electrons can stay for longer duration. Under this
situation, the pumping will be between the other two levels and the electrons in the upper energy level will
quickly decay into the metastable level, leaving the upper level practically unpopulated at all times. The
transition from the metastable level to the ground level has a different frequency, which is the laser frequency.
160 Engineering Physics

The pumping frequency is between the upper level and the ground level. Thus the pumping is off-resonant to
the laser transition and it will not trigger the stimulated emission.
4.2.1.2 Three-Level System
Bloembergen proposed a mechanism where atoms are
pumped into an excited state by an external source of
energy, for example by an electric pulse or an optical
illumination. In addition to this excited state (say E3), the
system has a metastable state (say E2) and the atoms from
the upper level E3 decays spontaneously to this metastable
state and this transition is generally radiation less or non-
radiative (the energy being given away to the lattice). The
lifetime of the electrons in the metastable state E2 is such
that the rate of spontaneous decay from the upper level E3
to the ground level (say E1) is slower than the rate at which
the atoms decay from the upper level to the metastable
state, resulting in a population inversion between the
metastable level and the ground state (Fig. 4.5). The
population inversion can be achieved only by pumping into Fig. 4.5
a higher lying level, followed by a rapid radiative or non-radiative transfer into the upper laser level. This is
because in this way we can avoid the stimulated emission caused by the pump wave. The emitted photons
here are confined to a laser cavity to stimulate further the emission from the excited atoms. Larger width of
the excited level can make possible the absorption of a wider range of wavelengths to make pumping more
effective. Ruby laser works on the principle of a three-level system.
Since the lower level involved in the lasing (population
inversion) is the ground state of the atom, the three level
E4
system needs very high pumping power and yields low Fast decay
efficiency. Here more than half of the total number of the E3 Metastable state
Pumping

atoms have to be pumped to the excited state E3 before

achieving population inversion. The energy used to do this E Photon emission
in each of the cycle is wasted. However, the pumping power
Energy

E2
can be reduced significantly if the lower level involved
in the lasing is not the ground state. This will require at
Fa

least a four-level system (Fig. 4.6). Here, the pumping

s
td
ec

will transfer atoms from the ground state E1 to an excited

ay

state E4, from where they decay rapidly into the metastable
state E3 to make population N3 larger than population N2 to E1
achieve the condition of population inversion between E3
and E2 at moderate pumping. Population N
4.2.1.3 Four-Level System Fig. 4.6
The schematic of four-level system is depicted in Fig. 4.6 where four energy levels having energies E1,
E2, E3 and E4 with respective populations of N1, N2, N3 and N4 are shown. These energies follow the trend
E4 > E3 > E2 > E1. Here an optical pumping excites the atoms from the ground state E1 to the pump band
E4. The atoms from this level make a fast decay (radiationless transition) to the metastable energy level E3.
The population inversion of level E3 with the level E2 takes place when the lifetime of the transition from E3
 Lasers and Holography 161

to E2 is long compared to that of E4 to E3 (lasing level). The atoms in the metastable state E3 relax and start
to create laser transitions through spontaneous and stimulated emissions into energy level E2. The transition
from energy level E2 to the ground state (level E1) is fast just like level E4. This quickly de-excited atom leads
to a negligible population in the state E2 and maintains the population inversion. Since only a small number
of atoms need to be excited in the upper lasing level E3 to form the population inversion, a four-level laser
system is much more efficient and practical than the three-level laser system. The most popular four-level
solid state gain medium is Nd:YAG. All lasers based on neodymium-doped gain media are four-level lasers
except those operated on the ground state transition around 0.9–0.95 mm.

4.3 CCDRDCEERISEIC LDSER LIgCE LO2

As discussed, laser radiation is achieved by the process of stimulated emission and the laser beam is highly
intense and directional. This radiation of a very pure frequency has the following main characteristics.
(i) Coherent: In simple words, the meaning of coherent is highly ordered. The word coherent comes
from another word “Cohero” which has the meaning “to stick together”. In fact, different parts
of the laser beam have a definite relationship to each other. This coherence is described in terms
of temporal coherence (coherence in time)
and spatial coherence (coherence in space)
(Fig. 4.7) which are required to produce high
quality interference.

Coherence in space
Ordinary light is not coherent because it comes
from independent atoms which emit on the time
scale of 10–8 seconds. A train of incoherent pho-
tons is shown in (Fig. 4.8) from which it is clear
that these photons are not in order, i.e., they do
not have a definite relationship with each other.
However, a degree of coherence can be found
in sources like the mercury green line, but their
coherence does not approach that of a laser.
Coherence in time
(ii) Monochromatic: The simple meaning of this Figure 4.7
word is that it is pure in colour or wavelength.
The light from a laser typically comes from one
atomic transition with a single precise wave-
length. So the laser light has a single spectral
colour and is almost the purest monochromatic
light available. It means the laser light is not
exactly monochromatic, but it has high de-
gree of monochromaticity. The deviation from
monochromaticity is due to the Doppler effect
of the moving atoms or molecules from which
the radiation originate.
(iii) Collimated: Collimated means it does not
spread out much. The light from a typical laser
emerges in an extremely thin beam with very Figure 4.8
162 Engineering Physics

little divergence, i.e, the beam is highly collimated. The high degree of collimation arises from the
fact that the cavity of the laser has very nearly parallel front and back mirrors as shown in (Fig. 4.9).
Because of this the light attains a parallel path after reflections from these mirrors. As it is clear from
the figure, the back mirror is made almost perfectly reflecting while the front mirror is about 99%
reflecting. Thus about 1% beam comes out from it, which we see as the output beam. Under this
process, however, the light passes back and forth between the mirrors many times in order to gain
intensity by the stimulated emission of more photons at the same wavelength. If the light is a bit off
axis, it will be lost from the beam.

Back Mirror Last Photon Front Mirror

Laser Light

Last Photon
100% Reflective 99% Reflective

Figure 4.9

The high degree of collimation or the directionality of a laser beam (single mode) is due to the
geometrical design of the laser cavity and to the fact that stimulated emission process produces
twin photons. A specific cavity design is shown in Fig. 4.10, where the angular spread of a beam
is signified by the angle q. In fact the cavity mirrors are shaped with concave surfaces towards the
cavity. This way the reflecting light is focused back into the cavity, which finally forms a beam waist
of radius r0 at one position in the cavity.

Wavefront Laser cavity

q
2q

Laser Beam
Fully Silvered Semi Silvered
Beam Waist Mirror
Mirror (radius r0) (Output
Mirror)
Figure 4.10

Considering the laser beam as the fundamental TEM00 mode (modes will be discussed in the chapter
on Electromagnetic Wave Propagation), the half angle beam spread can be, written as
l
q=
p r0

From this we obtain the angular spread as

0.637 l
2q =
r0
 Lasers and Holography 163

In addition to this, we can calculate the intensity, i.e., the power per unit area of a typical laser which is much
greater than other sources of electromagnetic radiation. This is due to the directionality and compactness of
the laser beam. In view of this, the intensity or irradiance of a laser beam in terms of its waist radius is given
by the following relation
P P
I= = 2 , where P is the power.
A p r0

4.4 MDI C MP E ES LDSER LO3

In order to understand the working principle of a laser, we should first know about the essential components
of the laser. These are given below
(i) Pumping: The method of raising the molecules or atoms from their lower energy state to higher
energy state is known as optical pumping. The optical pumping is needed for achieving population
inversion which is precondition for stimulated emission. In this case, the rate of stimulated emission
will exceed the rate of stimulated absorption. Hence, the intensity of light will increase during each
pass through the medium.
(ii) Active System: A system in which the population inversion is to be achieved is called as active
system or the gain medium for a laser. Laser systems are named based on the makeup of the gain
medium, which may be a gas, liquid or solid. The energy levels in the gain medium, those participate
in the radiation, determine the wavelength of laser radiation. Laser action has been observed in
over half of the known elements. Two of the most popular transitions in gases are 632.8 nm visible
radiation from neon and the 10.6 mm infrared radiation from the CO2 molecule.
(iii) Resonant Cavity: In a laser, the active system or the gain medium is enclosed in an optical cavity
(or resonant cavity) usually made up of two parallel surfaces, one of which is perfectly reflecting
reflector and the other surface is partially reflecting reflector. In this resonant cavity, the intensity of
photons is raised tremendously through stimulated emission process.

4.5 typEs Of LAsEr LO3

Nowadays different kinds of lasers are available, the most common being in a digital communications.
Virtually every house now has at least one – in their CD/DVD players and recorders. Some lasers can change
colour – they are called tunable lasers. The lasers now operate from the infrared to the ultraviolet regions.
Moreover, X-ray lasers are being developed using electron accelerators. The lasers now are available in the
wide range viz, solid lasers, liquid lasers, gas lasers, semiconductor lasers, etc.

4.5.1 Ruby Laser: Solid State Laser

Ruby laser is a solid state laser, which consists of three main parts (i) working material (ii) optical resonant
cavity and (iii) excitation source.
Working Material Ruby laser is made up of a crystal of ruby in the form of cylindrical rod having size 2
to 30 cm in length and 0.5 to 2 cm in diameter whose both ends are optically flat. One of the end is fully
silvered and other is partially silvered, so that they can act as fully and partially reflecting surfaces, respectively,
164 Engineering Physics

as shown in Fig. 4.11. Ruby rod is a crystal of Al2O3 Partially

in which chromium oxide is mixed as impurity so Xenon Flash Light Tube Silvered
Face (B)
that some of the Al3+ ions are replaced by Cr3+ ions. Fully
Silvered
These ‘impurity’ chromium ions give rise to the laser Face
action. Laser
(A)
Beam
The space between the two faces A and B is known
as the resonant cavity, in which the light (photon)
intensity can be built up by multiple reflections and
through stimulated emission. The ruby rod is wound Power Supply
by a helical xenon flash light tube with an excitation
source in the form of a power supply.
Inlet Outlet
Working Principle of Ruby Laser In this
laser, chromium ions are active centres which are Cooling Fluid (Liquid Nitrogen)
responsible for the laser transition. A simplified Figure 4.11
energy level diagram of chromium ions in ruby
crystal is shown in Fig. 4.12. In the normal state, most of the chromium ions are in the ground state E1. When
light from the flash tube of wavelength 5500 Å is made to fall upon the ruby rod, these incident photons are
absorbed by the chromium ions that rise to the excited state E3. Then they give a part of their energy to the
crystal structure and reach the metastable state, i.e., the E2 state. These ions in metastable state can remain for
a longer duration 10–3 sec. Therefore, the number of ions in this state goes on increasing while at the same
time number of ions in ground state goes on decreasing due to the optical pumping. Thus, the population
inversion is established between the metastable state and the ground state.
Short-live state
E3 10–8

Radiation-less Transition
Optical
Pumping
Metastable state
E2 10-3
6943 Å
5500 Å 6943 Å
Spontaneous
Emission 6943 Å

E1
Ground state
Figure 4.12

When an excited ion passes spontaneously from the metastable state to the ground state, it emits a photon of
wavelength 6943 Å. This photon travels parallel to the axis of ruby rod and stimulates the surrounding ions
present in the metastable state then by stimulated emission other photons are emitted, which are in the phase
with the stimulating photons. By successive reflections of these photons at the ends of the rod, every time
the stimulated emission is achieved, we obtain an intense, coherent and unidirectional laser beam from the
partially silvered face B.
The ruby laser operates at about 1% efficiency. It may produces a laser beam of 1 mm to 25 mm in diameter.
The beam obtained is in the form of pulses. However, on the advantage side, very strong beam as strong as
 Lasers and Holography 165

10,000 Watt in power is produced. Furthermore, the construction of this laser is simple and the operation is
very easy. For this reason, this laser is also known as practical laser. Other examples of solid state lasers are
Neodynium-YAG (Nd-YAG), Neodynium-Glass (Nd-Glass) and semiconductor lasers.

4.5.2  d-YDg Laser: Solid State Laser

This laser is capable of producing very high power emissions, as a result of its lasing medium operates as four
level systems. The schematic of Nd-YAG laser is shown in Fig. 4.13. The lasing medium in the Nd-YAG laser
is colourless, isotropic crystal called Yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG-Y2Al5O12). The main dopant in the
lasing medium is Neodymium (Nd3+). When it is used in laser, Neodymium replaces 1% of Yttrium and the
crystal takes a light blue colour. The YAG has a relatively high thermal conductivity, which improves thermal
dissipation in thermal cavity. So continuous wave operation up to a few hundred watts is possible. Average
power of up to 1 kW is available when it is operated in pulse mode.

Fully Semi
Reflector Flash Lamp Reflector

Nd-YAG Crystal
Laser
Output

Flash Lamp

Power
Supply

Figure 4.13

The energy level diagram for Nd-YAG is shown in Fig. 4.14. These levels arise from three inner shell 4f
electrons of the Nd3+ ion, which are effectively screened by eight outer electrons (5S2 and 5P6). For the
operation of Nd-YAG lasers a cooling system is required. A Nd-YAG laser produces 30 times as much waste
heat as laser output with an efficiency of about 3%. The waste heat must be removed in order to ensure
proper laser operation by flooding the optical compartment with water. However optical distortion and image

[4S ,4F ]

[4F ,2H ]

11,502 cm–1 R2
4
F
0.73 µm

R1
0.8 µm

11,414 cm–1
1.06 µm

2,526 cm–1

4
I
n = 2×103 cm–1
4
I 2,001 cm–1
Figure 4.14
166 Engineering Physics

problem is created due to absorption of significant amount of flash lamp energy by water. This problem can
be overcome by flowing water over the outside of the optical cavity and by encasing the lasing rod and flash
lamp with transparent cooling jacket.
An advantage of Nd-YAG laser is that by using Q-switching, laser beam pulse frequency and shape can
be tailored where a shutter moves rapidly in and out of the path of the beam. In this manner beam output
is interrupted until a high level of population inversion and energy storage is achieved in the resonator.
If the optical cavity is switched from no reflection (low Q) to near total reflection (high Q), the cycle
can be optimised to build up the maximum population inversion before the pulse is generated. This
way, we get a beam pulse with high energy up to 1 J and a short pulse period down to 10 ns is obtained.
Applications
(i) Nd-YAG is used in material processing such as welding and drilling.
(ii) It is also used in photo disruption of transparent membrane of pathological origin, which can appear
in the interior chamber of eye or for iridectomy and in endoscopic applications.
(iii) It is used in range finders and target designators used in military context, which use Q-switched
lasers.
(iv) In scientific applications the Q-switched lasers with their second harmonic (l = 532 nm), third
harmonic (l = 355 nm) and fourth harmonic (l = 266 nm) are used.

4.5.3 Celium- eon Laser: gas Laser

As we know that the output beam of the Quartz Tube Partially Silvered Mirror
ruby laser is not continuous. To overcome
this drawback, the gas filled laser was made
by A. Javan, W. Bennett and D. Herriott in Mixture of Laser
He & Ne Gases Beam
1961. It consists of a quartz tube having the
size about 1.5 cm in diameter and about 1
meter in length. The both ends of the tube Fully Silvered Mirror
R.F. Generator
are sealed by optically plane and parallel
mirrors, one of them being partially Figure 4.15
silvered (90% reflective) and the other one
is fully silvered (100% reflective).
In this laser system, a quartz tube is filled with a mixture of helium and neon gases in the ratio 10:1
respectively, at a pressure of about 0.1 mm of mercury (Fig. 4.15). This mixture acts as the active medium.
Helium is pumped upto the excited state of 20.61 eV by the electric discharge. The energy level diagram of
He-Ne laser is shown in Fig. 4.16.
Here, it can be seen that the excited level of He at 20.61 eV is very close to a level in Ne at 20.66 eV. It is so close
that upon collision of a He and a Ne atom, the energy can be transferred from the He to the Ne atoms. Thus, the
excited He atoms do not return to their ground state by spontaneously emitting photons rather they transfer their
energy to the Ne atoms through collisions. As mentioned, such an energy transfer can take place when the two
colliding atoms have identical states. Thus, the He atoms help achieving a population inversion in the Ne atoms.
An excited Ne atom passes spontaneously from the metastable state at 20.66 eV to the excited state at 18.70 eV by
 Lasers and Holography 167

Metastable State
20.66 eV
20.61 eV 6328 Å
6328 Å
6328 Å
18.70 eV
Spontaneous
Emission

Radiation-less
Transition
Ground state
He Ne

Figure 4.16

emitting a photon of wavelength 6328 Å. This photon travels through the gas mixture parallel to the axis
of the tube and stimulates the surrounding Ne atoms present in the metastable state. This way we get other
photons that are in the phase with the stimulating photons. These photons are reflected forth and back by the
silvered ends and the number of photons gets amplified through stimulated emission every time. Finally, a
portion of these intensified photons passes through the partially silvered end.
The He-Ne laser is the most common and inexpensive gas laser. Usually it is constructed to operate in the
red light at 6328 Å and in the infrared at 15,230 Å. According to Garmire, an unfocused 1 mW – He Ne laser
has a brightness equal to sunshine on a clear day (~ 0.1 W/cm2) and is just as dangerous to stare at directly.

4.5.4 Carbon Dioxide gas Laser

It is one of the earliest high power molecular gas laser that uses carbon dioxide gas molecule. This optical
device is capable of continuous output powers above 10 kW. It is also capable of extremely high power pulse
operation. It consists of discharge tube of size of about 2.5 cm in diameter and 5.0 cm in length. The both
ends of the tube are sealed by optically plane and parallel mirrors, one of them being semi-silvered and other
one is fully silvered. (Fig. 4.17).

Exhaust

Mixture of CO2, N2, He

CO2 N2 He
Power Supply
Fully Silvered Semi-Silvered
Mirror Mirror

Figure 4.17
 Lasers and Holography 183

E xamplE 9 For an ordinary source, the coherence time tc = 10–10 sec. Obtain the degree of non-monochro-
maticity for lo = 5400 Å.
Solution Given tc = 10–10 sec
1 1
Dv = = = 1010 Hz
t c 10-10
c 3.0 ¥ 108 1
For l0 = 5400 Å, n 0 = = = ¥ 1016
l0 5400 ¥ 10-19 18
degree of non-monochromaticity
Dn 18 ¥ 1010
= = 18 ¥ 10-6 = 0.000018
n0 1016

o bJectiVe t YPe Q UestioNs

Q.1 LASER is a short form of

(a) Light Amplification Stimulated Emission Radiation
(b) Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
(c) Light Absorption by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
(d) Light Absorption by Spontaneous Emission of Radiation
Q.2 Mention the process under which an electron jumps from higher energy state to lower energy state by
the influence of incident photon
(a) induced emission (b) spontaneous emission
(c) simple emission (d) none of these.
Q.3 Laser beam is
(a) highly monochromatic (b) highly coherent
(c) highly collimated (d) all of these.
Q.4 What is the life-time of electron in metastable state?
(a) 10–3 sec (b) 10–5 sec (c) 10–8 sec (d) 10–7 sec
Q.5 The number of atoms in the higher energy state is larger than lower energy state. This state is known as
(a) metastable state (b) ordinary state (c) excited state (c) none of these.
Q.6 In the population inversion
(a) the number of electrons in higher energy state is more than the ground state
(b) the number of electrons in lower energy state is more than higher energy state
(c) the number of electrons in higher and lower energy state are same
(d) none of them.
Q.7 The relations between Einstein’s coefficient A and B is
3
8p hn 3 8p 2 h 2n 3 Ê 2p hn ˆ 8p hc
(a) (b) (c) Á (d)
c 3
c3 Ë c ˜¯ l
Q.8 Laser beam is made of
(a) electrons (b) highly coherent photons
(c) very light and elastic particles (d) none of them
184 Engineering Physics

Q.9 In ruby laser which ions give rise to the laser action?
(a) Al2O3 (b) Al3+ (c) Cr3+ (d) none of them
Q.10 The output beam in ruby laser is
(a) continuous (b) discontinuous (c) both (a) & (b) (d) none of these
Q.11 Which one of the following laser have highest efficiency, ruby, He-Ne and semiconductor and carbon
dioxide?
(a) ruby (b) semiconductor (c) He–Ne (d) carbon-dioxide
Q.12 The He–Ne laser produces the laser beam of wavelengths
(a) 6943Å (b) 6328Å (c) 6320Å (d) 6940Å.
Q.13 In He–Ne laser the ratio of the He to Ne is
(a) 10:1 (b) 1:10 (c) 100:1 (d) none of these.
Q.14 The method of population inversion to the laser action in He–Ne laser is:
(a) molecular collision (b) direction conversion
(c) electric discharge (d) electron impact.
Q.15 Ruby laser produces the laser beam of wavelength
(a) 6943 Å (b) 6328 Å (c) 6320 Å (d) 6940 Å.
Q.16 Characteristics of laser beam are
(a) highly directional (b) highly intense
(c) highly monochromatic (d) all of them.
Q.17 Holography was discovered by Dennis Gabor in
(a) 1948 (b) 1847 (c) 1748 (d) none of these.
Q.18 Holography records intensities and phases of light coming from an object on holographic plate has
(a) complete information of object (b) incomplete information of object
(c) no information of object (d) none of these.
Q.19 Holography produces the image
(a) real (b) virtual (c) both (a) & (b) (d) none of these.
Q.20 Which of the following statement is correct?
(a) Holography has been used to see the working condition of inner organs of the body in three
dimension
(b) data storage
(c) in non-destructives testing of materials
(d) all of these.
Q.21 Information carrying capacity of hologram is
(a) large (b) small (c) zero (d) none of these.

P ractice P roblems

Q.1 What do you mean by laser and its working principle, important requirements and applications?
Q.2 (a) Explain the term ‘absorption’, ‘spontaneous’ and ‘stimulated’ emission of radiation. Obtain a
relation between transition probabilities of spontaneous and stimulated emission.
(b) What are Einstein’s coefficient? Derive Einstein relation.
Q.3 Explain the construction and working principle of Ruby laser.
 Lasers and Holography 185

Q.4 What is the principle of laser?

Q.5 Discuss salient characteristics of laser beam.
Q.6 Describe various applications of laser?
Q.7 Explain the characteristics of laser beam. What are the necessary conditions for Lasing action?
Q.8 Explain the concept of directionality and monochromaticity as applied to lasers.
Q.9 Discuss Einstein’s coefficients. Derive relation between them.
Q.10 Explain the terms: spontaneous and stimulated emission, population inversion, optical pumping.
Q.11 What is meant by population inversion and how is it achieved in practice.
Q.12 (i) What do you mean by spontaneous emission? Explain in detail various properties of Laser which
makes it a superior source to study the phenomenon of interference.
(ii) Explain the working of Carbon-dioxide laser.
(iii) What is Nd YAG laser and explain its working principle?
Q.13 Define the following terms.
(a) Population inversion (b) Pumping (c) Active system
Q.14 What do you understand by solid state laser? Describe the principle, construction and working of Ruby
Laser.
Q.15 Explain with the help of a neat diagram the working of Ruby laser.
Q.16 Explain the concept of coherence in lasers. What are necessary conditions for Lasing action? Give
main components of a Ruby or He-Ne laser and principle of laser action.
Q.17 Explain the terms stimulated emission of radiation and optical pumping. Explain how lasers can be
produced by He–Ne gas. How is it superior to a Ruby laser?
Q.18 Explain with the help of a neat diagram the principle and working of a He-Ne laser.
Q.19 What are the specialties of laser light? Give the description of He–Ne laser.
Q.20 Write a note on He–Ne laser.
Q.21 (a) Discuss with suitable diagrams the principle, construction and working of Helium–Neon laser.
(b) Describe the various applications of lasers.
Q.22 Discuss the essential requirements for producing laser action. Describe a He–Ne laser.
Q.23 What conditions must be fulfilled for a semiconductor laser? Explain.
Q.24 Give description of semiconductor laser and discuss the characteristics of laser beam.
Q.25 Describe the construction and working of a semiconductor laser with necessary diagrams.
Q.26 How does a semiconductor laser differ from other lasers? Explain main features of the semiconductor
laser.
Q.27 Mention how does a semiconductor laser differ from Ruby laser.
Q.28 Write a note on the following.
(a) Laser (b) Solid state lasers (c) Semiconductor laser
Q.29 What is holography? What is the difference between holography and photography?
Q.30 What is the fundamental principle of a hologram? How is it produced and how is the image constructed
from it?
Q.31 Give briefly the requirements for holography and mention the various properties of a hologram.