Solar Battery Charging And Single Phase Supply System

1) What is a Solar Cell?

A solar cell is a photovoltaic device made of semiconducting material forming a junction
like in a diode across which a voltage develops when light is incident on it. Hence we
gain electric power from it.

1.1 Basic Construction And Working

Fig 1.1: Solar cell basic

There are mainly two layers in the solar cell - an n-type and a p-type. The upper thin
layer is the n-type and the lower thicker one is the p-type. The negative layer is the
negative contact of the circuit whereas the positive layer is the positive one. As photons
hit the electron hole pairs near the junction, electrons are freed and they travel into the n
type region owing to the junction potential field and form a negative end. Similarly holes
travel downwards into the p type region and form a positive end. On making available an
external flow path for the electrons, it forms a full circuit where electrons flow from
negative to positive end or current flows from positive to negative end.

They are mainly used in areas where no power supply from the grid is available and also
in space applications. As understood, the solar cell has great potential but the only and
largest hindrance to it is its cost. Its efficiency however stands at only 15% i.e. of the total
solar energy received and captured by the panel, only a mere 15% is converted to useful
power. Hence it is low on output power. It is formed on a Silicon substrate by doping and
in some cases, Gallium Arsenide is also used. A solar cell does not stand to recover the
money invested in it by means of free electricity. The material (Si) processing cost
involved in it is the main reason for the cost of the cell. The DC setup or DC to AC
conversion following the output of the cell is easy, cheap, and done through known
systems.

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1.2 Equivalent Circuit of a Solar Cell

Fig 1.2: Equivalent circuit of a solar cell

An ideal solar cell may be modeled by a voltage source in parallel with a diode. This is
because the actual solar cell is formed as such by a diode like arrangement. Here the
output voltage is obtained by the reverse bias of the junction diode.
A shunt resistance is connected to represent the leakage current that flows through the
reverse bias of any diode. Similarly a series resistance is connected to accommodate for
the losses arising out of the contact resistance and wire resistance of the connections. The
resulting equivalent circuit of a solar cell is shown.

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2) Our Proposed Idea

We planned to make a solar cell based system giving about 30 Watt output. To include a
DC charging system at the output of the cell and then to convert it to a Single Phase AC
Supply. This as we proceeded further would include as shown in the figure, a solar cell,
then a DC-DC boost chopper system. This would charge a battery. After that, we also
planned to make and connect a DC-AC inverter to convert it into a single phase AC
supply. The figure shown gives a basic Idea.

The circuits for DC-DC boost chopper and DC-AC inverter follow.

The circuit for the DC-DC booster shows a solar cell equivalent circuit connected
in series to a boost chopper.

The circuit for the DC-AC inverter shows a solar cell equivalent circuit connected
in series to an inverter.

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2.1 Basic convertor circuits and parameters

Fig 2.1: DC-DC Boost Chopper Circuit

Output

Fig 2.2: Output Waveform For above circuit

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Fig 2.3: DC-AC Converter

Fig 2.4: Waveform for above circuit

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2.2 Calculated values of R L and C Parameters

Fig 2.5: Circuit with parameters

We checked various values of RLC and set those giving us best output waveforms.

Fig 2.6: Output Waveforms for circuit with calculated parameters

Ideally we would want that the current and voltage both shift to negative from positive
and vice versa immediately as they reach zero. But here in this case we have to take care
that both switches should not conduct together. In such a case, the source would get short
circuited burning the circuit. Hence a small period of non conduction is included.

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3) Triggering Circuit for the switches(MOSFETs)

3.1 Initially proposed triggering Circuit

Fig 3.1: Initially proposed triggering circuit

MOSFET 1 (0-120)

MOSFET 2 (180-300)

Fig 3.2: Output for above circuit

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3.2 Calculations for triggering circuits and Delay (R & C)

Frequency required = 50Hz

T1=0.693(R1 + R2) C1 ..(i)

T2=0.693 R2 C1 ..(ii)

f=1.44/(R1 + 2R2) C1 ..(iii)

Choosing a standard value of

C1= 0.1uF,

By the conduction cycle,

For 0-120 degree cycle
T2 = 120 * 20/360
= 6.7ms

From (ii),
So R2 = 95.630k

As for 50Hz frequency, R1 = 96.245k.

If we put this value in formula (i)

T1 = 13.33ms which is equal to (20-6.7).
Hence calculation is verified.

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3.3 Pin description of IC 555 Timer

Fig 3.3: Pin Diagram of 555 Timer

Pin 1 (Ground):
The ground (or common) pin is the most-negative supply potential of the device, which is
normally connected to circuit common when operated from positive supply voltages.

Pin 2 (Trigger):
This pin is the input which causes the output to go high and begin the timing cycle.
Triggering occurs when the trigger input moves from a voltage above 2/3 of the supply
voltage to a voltage below 1/3 of the supply. For example using a 12 volt supply, the
trigger input voltage must start from above 8 volts and move down to a voltage below 4
volts to begin the timing cycle. The action is level sensitive and the trigger voltage may
move very slowly. To avoid retriggering, the trigger voltage must return to a voltage
above 1/3 of the supply before the end of the timing cycle in the monostable mode.
Trigger input current is about 0.5 microamps.

Pin 3 (Output):
The output pin of the 555 moves to a high level of 1.7 volts less than the supply voltage
when the timing cycle begins. The output returns to a low level near 0 at the end of the
cycle. Maximum current from the output at either low or high levels is approximately 200
mA.

Pin 4 (Reset):
A low logic level on this pin resets the timer and returns the ouput to a low state. It is
normally connected to the + supply line if not used.

Pin 5 (Control):
This pin allows changing the triggering and threshold voltages by applying an external
voltage. When the timer is operating in the astable or oscillating mode, this input could
be used to alter or frequency modulate the output. If not in use, it is recommended
installing a small capacitor from pin 5 to ground to avoid possible false or erratic
triggering from noise effects.

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Pin 6 (Threshold):
Pin 6 is used to reset the latch and cause the output to go low. Reset occurs when the
voltage on this pin moves from a voltage below 1/3 of the supply to a voltage above 2/3
of the supply. The action is level sensitive and can move slowly similar to the trigger
voltage.

Pin 7 (Discharge):
This pin is an open collector output which is in phase with the main output on pin 3 and
has similar current sinking capability.

Pin 8 (Vcc ):
This is the positive supply voltage terminal of the 555 timer IC. Supply-voltage operating
range is +5 volts (minimum) to +15 volts (maximum).

3.4 Final Triggering Circuit

On further research we found that instead of making a complex circuit full of RC
elements and two timers, which was a bit of a hassle, we found that it is easier and
simpler to use a programmable micro controller namely the Atmel AtMega8. Easy to
program and change the programming as required.

The pin diagram of the Atmega8 is shown below.

Fig 3.4: Pin Diagram of IC Atmel Atmega8

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3.5 Program for the controller
$regfile "m8def.dat" 'header file for mega8 controller
$crystal = 8000000

Config Portd = Output

Config Portb = Output
' portb.1 is for 1st mosfet
' portb.2 is for seond mosfet
' crystal used in internal one. u may set it to 1, 2 , 4 or 8 MHz.

Do

Set Portb.1
Waitms 8
Reset Portb.1
Waitms 2

Set Portb.2
Waitms 8
Reset Portb.2
Waitms 2

Loop.

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4) Final Circuit
Components of this circuit.

Power supply:
12 V DC from solar cell. It varies from 10-16 V depending upon day light conditions.

IC 7805:
It is used to bring down supply from 12V to 5V DC required for the controller.

Atmel Atmega8 Controller:

This controller is used to supply pulses required by the MOSFETS used in the
commutation circuit. It runs on a supply of 5V DC available to it from the IC 7805 which
is used.

MOSFET:
Mosfets of type IRFZ44N are used. These N channel enhancement type MOSFETS are
used and activated by pulses from the controller.

R,L,C:
Resistances of 3 x 10 ohm of power capacity more than 1W are used as load.
Inductance of value 0.1 H is used.
Charging Capacitor of value 100uF is used.
The capacitive and inductive circuit together form a commutation process which inverts
the supply to the load.

Red LED:
Displays whether an output of 5 V is available from the IC 7805 or not. When it is
glowing, it indicates that the IC is working properly.

The only real challenge we faced now was to arrange for an inductor of appropriate value
as required by the circuit.

How we plan to design an Inductor:

It is very difficult to find an inductor of desired value in the market. Hence we intend to
design it on our own.
The value of inductance for an air core inductor is given by the formula for an air core
inductor.

L(uH) = d2 n2
18d + 40 l
Where d is the diameter of the coil.
n is the number of turns
l is the axial length
All these values are in inch.

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5) Calculations from a household utilizing solar cell on a daily basis

Why is the solar cell so costly?

Total system capacity: 600 W

Average Daily time for sunlight: 10 Hours
Hence total energy available in a year:
600*10*365 = 2190 KWH/yr
Money Saved = 2190 * 7 Rs/Unit = 15,330.00 Rs/Yr
Total Money Invested = Rs 1,50,000 +
Considering 10% interest(very cheap), total sum after 5 years
= 1,50,000 + 75,000 = 2,25,000
Money saved in 5 years = 15330 * 5= 76,650 Rs.
Hence money lost = 225000 – 76650 = 148350 Rs.
But the only reason to invest is the Carbon Saved which can be traded in for Carbon
Credits = 2190 * .650 kg = 1420Kg
Each tone carbon saved = 1 carbon credit = 22$

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6) References:

1) http://www.hbci.com/~wenonah/new/nsolcel.htm

2) http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1200/is_4_167/ai_n 11830024

3) http://www.i-sis.org.uk/OSP.php

4)http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V51-4P2JCYM-
2&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_
version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=7e802b51d92cef18188c6f3ee10223a1

5) http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V50-4926VD3-
1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_
version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=b442b4bf1f98b9efb9a659777eec4478

6) http://www.uoguelph.ca/~antoon/gadgets/555/555.html
(555 timer tutorial)

7) http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/555timer.htm
(555 and 556 circuits to refer from)

8) http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/Bill_Bowden/page9.htm
(various RC circuits)

Book:
Power Electronics by M. D. Singh and K. B. Khanchandani
Power Electronics Circuits, Devices and Applications by M. H. Rashid

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