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Nutritional and medicinal benefits of Oyster (Pleurotus) mushrooms: a review

Article · November 2021

DOI: 10.5943/FunBiotec/1/2/5

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 Fungal Biotec 1(2): 65–87 (2021) ISSN 2774-0323

www.fungalbiotec.org Article – special issue

Doi 10.5943/FunBiotec/1/2/5

Nutritional and medicinal benefits of Oyster (Pleurotus) mushrooms:

a review
Galappaththi MCA1, Dauner L2, Madawala S3, Karunarathna SC2*
1
Postgraduate Institute of Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
2
Centre for Mountain Futures, Kunming Institute of Botany, Kunming, P. R. China
3
Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

Galappaththi MCA, Dauner L, Madawala S, Karunarathna SC. 2021 – Nutritional and medicinal
benefits of Oyster (Pleurotus) mushrooms: a review. Fungal Biotec 1(2), 65–87,
Doi 10.5943/FunBiotec/1/2/5

Abstract
Pleurotus mushrooms are the third largest commercially produced and the second most
important cultivated mushroom in the world, consisting of about 539 species. This comprises 25%
of total world production of cultivated mushrooms. Pleurotus mushrooms possess various
nutritional and medicinal values. The fruitbodies of Pleurotus are rich in unique flavor and
nutrients such as carbohydrates, protein, vitamins, minerals and dietary fibers. Bioactive
compounds such as lectin, proteoglycans, laccase, lovastatin, phenols and uridine present in
Pleurotus have shown some anti-tumor, anti-cancer, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-viral, anti-
inflammatory, genoprotective, anti-oxidant, immuno-modulatory, anti-diabetic, anti-allergic, anti-
mitogenic, anti-hypertensive and anti-hypercholesterolemic properties. The major nutritional and
medicinal benefits of important Pleurotus species are discussed in the present review.

Keywords – Amino acids – bioactive compounds – health benefits – medicinal properties –

minerals.

Introduction
The genus Pleurotus (Oyster mushroom) belongs to order Agaricales and family Pleurotaceae
(Boa et al. 2004). About 539 Pleurotus species are present in the world (Index Fungorum 2021). It
is the third largest commercially produced edible mushroom genus in the world (Singer 1986,
Obodai et al. 2003). China has the highest share of Pleurotus mushroom production in the world
accounting for more than 46% of the global production (Jongman et al. 2018). In last few years,
Pleurotus mushroom production has increased at a rapid rate. Production of Pleurotus has
increased from 876 tons to 6,288 tons (618%) during 1997 to 2010 (Royse 2014). Pleurotus
mushrooms are more popular among cultivators because of their higher biological efficiency, low-
cost production methods (Mane et al. 2007), and the ability to cultivate them on a wide range of
substrates (Rosado et al. 2002). Pleurotus is one of the most important commercially cultivated
mushrooms in the world because of its nutritional properties, but they also possess medicinal
properties and other beneficial effects that are used for various health applications (Rosado et al.
2002). Traditional medicinal properties of mushrooms in general have been well documented
particularly in East Asian countries (Deepalakshmi & Mirunalini 2014).
The genus Pleurotus has a unique flavor and aromatic properties that are rich in
carbohydrates, protein, vitamins, minerals and fiber (Naraian et al. 2016). According to several

Submitted 2 August 2021, Accepted 3 November 2021, Published 30 November 2021

Corresponding Author: Samantha C. Karunarathna – e-mail – [email protected] 65
studies, substances such as lectins, glucan, glycopeptides, β-D-Glucan (pleuran), polysaccharides
and lovastatin have been identified from Pleurotus species (Cohen et al. 2002). These compounds
generally act as antioxidants, immunomodulating, antitumor, antibiotic, antiviral, anti-
inflammatory and anticholesterolic agents (Cohen et al. 2002).

Cultivation of Pleurotus mushroom

According to Boa (2004), nearly hundred species of fungi are cultivated worldwide.
Pleurotus is one of the most cultivated (Table 1) and highly popular form in commercial markets.
Pleurotus is ranked as the second most cultivated mushroom in the world accounting 25% of the
total world production of cultivated mushrooms (OECD, 2006). Several Pleurotus species are seen
as cultivated forms in markets such as P. citrinopileatus, P. cornucopiae, P. cystidiosus, P.
djamour, P. eryngii, P. euosmus, P. ostreatus, P. pulmonarius and P. rhodophyllus (Boa 2004).
China is the major producer of P. ostreatus and it was first cultivated in the USA in 1900.
Other species such as P. sajor-caju was initially cultivated in India after the late 1940s. Pleurotus is
considered as one of the most profitable cash crops in Korea (OECD, 2006).

Table 1 Commercial cultivation of Pleurotus in some countries.

Countries Pleurotus mushroom production (Metric tons)

1991 1994 1998
China 800,000 654,000 –
Japan 33,475 20,441 –
USA 695 900 –
Indonesia 15,000 1,000 –
Thailand 7,000 15,000 –
Spain – 100 –
Netherland – 150 –
Italy – 1,500 –
United Kingdom – 150 –
Germany – 1,000 –
France – 2,000 –
South Korea 51,782 72,810 75,684
Taiwan 3,500 – –
India 600 – –
Hungary 2,500 – –
“–” Result(s) not found; Referred to OECD (2006)

Nutritional value of Pleurotus species

The nutrient contents of mushrooms vary according to the composition of the substrate
(Patrabansh & Madan 1997). Pleurotus are rich in protein, lipid, ash, carbohydrate, fiber (Table 2),
minerals and vitamins (Table 4 and 5).

Table 2 Proximate composition of some Pleurotus species according to their dry weight.

Species Composition % (Dry basis) Reference

Protein Fat or Ash Carbohydrates Fiber
Lipid
P. ostreatus 20.33– 2.58–2.8 6.15–6.7 50.50–56.20 7.15– Patil et al. (2010)
24.66 7.7
17–42 0.5–5 – 37–48 24–31 Khan & Tania (2012)
28.40 4.68 8.60 35.40 21.80 Ahmed et al. (2016)
25.91 2.18 10.91 42.14 10.41 Tolera & Abera (2017)
32 3.1 6.1 50.9 6.2 Raman et al. (2020)
P. eryngii 11.95 7.50 4.89 39.85 28.29 Mehmet & Sevda (2010)
11–12 7–8 – 39–40 28–29 Khan & Tania (2012)

66
Table 2 Continued.

Species Composition % (Dry basis) Reference

Protein Fat or Ash Carbohydrates Fiber
Lipid
P. sajor-caju 24.63 4.41 8.28 39.82 22.87 Alam et al. (2008)
25.50 4 7.23 38 25.20 Ahmed et al. (2016)
P. giganteus 17.7 4.3 – 78.0 – Phan et al. (2012)
P. florida 20.56 4.30 9.02 42.83 23.29 Alam et al. (2007)
20. 25– 2.30–2.60 6.35– 53.87–57.80 7.40– Ahmed et al. (2009)
23.20 8.00 8.10
15–21 1–5 – 40–43 23–27 Khan & Tania (2012)
22.70 4.10 8.33 39.07 25.77 Ahmed et al. (2016)
P. flabellatus 21–22 1–2 – 59–60 10–12 Khan & Tania (2012)
27.57 3.70 7.20 – 24.37 Ahmed et al. (2016)
21.6 1.8 10.7 57.4 11.9 Raman et al. (2020)
P. citrinopileatus 22.10 1.32 7.65 ND 20.78 Musieba et al. (2013)
20–22 3.9 7.65 42.5 20.78 Khatun et al. (2015)
30 3.9 7.65 42.5 20.78 Raman et al. (2020)
P. pulmonarius 16.90– 1.05–2.62 5.86– – 4–9 Silva et al. (2002)
26.82 7.33
15–18 – – – – Khatun et al. (2015)
20.3 2.62 7.33 34 9 Raman et al. (2020)
P. eous 24.10 4.73 9.84 45.59 15.91 Kortei et al. (2015)
P. tuber regium 22.10 – 2.97 63.03 10.86 Ijeh et al. (2009)
13–17 0.2–2 – 53–54 15 –16 Khan & Tania (2012)
P. cystidiosus 15.4 3.10 9.62 63.1 8.74 Yang et al. (2001)
17–18 5–6 – 43–45 25–26 Khan & Tania (2012)
P. sapidus 2.362 0.72 1.28 86.73 2.97 Atri et al. (2016)
P. geestaranus 19.0 3.0 26.3 45.9 5.7 Khan et al. (2008)
19–20 3–4 – 45–46 26–27 Khan & Tania (2012)
31.80 3.64 12.80 33.40 22.60 Ahmed et al. (2016)
28.80 3.54 11.20 31.60 23.00
“–” Result(s) not found

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are one of the most important components of mushrooms (Vaz et al. 2011)
constituting between 50% and 60% of the dry matter (Kalac 2012). These mushrooms contain both
high and low molecular weight carbohydrates. The high molecular weight carbohydrates are
polysaccharides such as chitin and glucan. The low molecular weight carbohydrates are
monosaccharides, disaccharides, and sugar alcohols (polyols), such as arabitol, glucose, mannitol,
and trehalose (Zhou et al. 2016). Moreover, the carbohydrate contents of P. ostreatus are
significantly affected by the method used to dry them: oven-dried P. ostreatus recorded a higher
carbohydrate value (43.64%) than open sun-dried mushrooms (39.99%) (Tolera & Abera 2017).

Proteins
There is higher protein content in mushrooms than in many vegetables (Wani et al. 2010).
Also, mushrooms contain some of the essential amino acids that are often present in animal
proteins. Because of these reasons, mushrooms can be consumed as an alternative to animal meat
(Gonzalez et al. 2020).
Protein is a significant component of mushroom’s dry weight (Table 2). The protein content
of mushrooms depends on the species of the mushroom, the composition of the substrate, the

67
harvesting time, and the size of pileus (Wani et al. 2010). The protein content of P. ostreatus is also
significantly affected by the method of drying, as oven-dried P. ostreatus recorded a less protein
content (24.99%) than open sun-dried mushrooms (27.14%) (Tolera & Abera 2017). The protein
content of mushrooms is also better than many common legumes such as peanuts, soybeans, and
protein-yielding vegetables (Chang & Buswell 1996, Chang & Mshigeni 2001). Pleurotus
mushrooms consist of essential and non-essential amino acids. Mushrooms are especially rich in
essential amino acids (Table 3) such as lysine and leucine which are lacking in most cereal foods
(Chang & Buswell 1996).

Table 3 Amino acid composition of different mushrooms.

Amino acid mg/g dry weight

P. sajor P. P. P. P. P. florida P.
caju ostreatus citrinopieatus eryngii cystidiosus tuber-
regium
Alanine 11.24 28.6 – 8.92 3.94 4.5 –5.4 –
Arginine – 27.6 – – ND 0.1–1.0 –
Aspartic acid 20.12 31.4 – 19.55 0.05 0.3 –
Cystine – 3.8 – – – 11.6–23.8 –
Glutamic acid 15.56 53.3 – 18.48 1.16 – –
Glycine 9.37 17.1 – 7.48 0.14 2.6 –2.9 –
Histidine – 12.4 – 2.50 ND 0.2 –21.7 –
Isoleucine 11.20 16.2 0.580–0.722 7.27 0.23 2.8–27.9 21.1
Leucine 14.61 25.7 0.535–0.625 10.77 ND 4.3 –13.7 28.4
Lysine 5.75 22.9 – 7.31 0.32 – 27.4
Methionine 2.72 3.8 0.321–0.500 – ND 7.6 4.8
Phenylalanine 9.24 15.2 0.598–0.695 7.16 0.28 3.6–28.9 21.9
Proline 7.91 15.2 – 5.86 – 6.0 –
Serine 7.65 18.1 – 5.96 0.51 – –
Threonine 8.95 17.1 0.800–0.875 6.78 0.42 – 31.4
Tyrosine 5.96 13.3 – 4.88 0.05 2.2–22.5 4.2
Valine 10.04 21.0 0.930–1.035 7.40 0.09 13.0–47.3 33.4
Reference Dundar Wang et Singh &Singh Dundar Yang et al. Shashirekha Ahmed
et al. al. (2001) (2011) et al. (2001) et al. (2005) et al.
(2008) (2008) (2016)
“–” Result(s) not found

Lipids
Generally, Pleurotus have lower fat concentrations compared to their carbohydrate and
protein contents (Deepalakshmi & Mirunalini 2014). The main fatty acid present in Pleurotus is
linoleic acid (Naraian & Bharti 2017). The relatively high concentration of linoleic acid is one of
the reasons that mushrooms are considered as a nutritionally healthy food (Chang & Mshigeni
2001, Sadler 2003). In addition to linoleic acid, there is another fatty acid common in mushrooms
known as oleic acid. The variation of fat content in cultivated mushrooms depends on the type and
quantity of agro-waste used for cultivation process (Ijeh et al. 2009, Raman et al. 2014, Ganesan &
Xu 2018). The lipid content of mushrooms also makes them a highly suitable food for humans
because it has the least risk of plaque formation in blood vessels (Raman et al. 2014).

Dietary fibers
Mushrooms are a good source of dietary fibers due to the presence of polysaccharides ((1→
3)-ꞵ-D-glucans and mannans) and chitin (a straight chain (1→ 4) - ꞵ-linked polymer of N-acetyl-
glucosamine) in their cell walls (Deepalakshmi & Mirunalini 2014, Raman et al. 2020). Dietary
fibers are indigestible food components which exhibit different nutritional and physiological
benefits (Guillon & Champ 2000).

68
Minerals
Mineral levels (Table 4) of wild edible mushrooms are affected by the interval between the
fructification and the age of mycelium. Also mineral elements are unevenly distributed within a
fruitbody. Some of these elements are toxic and normally mushrooms absorb heavy metals from
soil. (Kalac & Svoboda 2000). Trace elements such as arsenic (As), barium (Ba), cobalt (Co),
copper (Cu), rubidium (Rb), silver (Ag), thallium (Tl) and vanadium (V) were observed in edible
mushrooms by a study conducted in Czech Republic, South-Western Moravia, Moravský Krumlov
(Svoboda & Chrastny 2007).

Table 4 Mineral contents of dried Pleurotus mushrooms (mg / 100g).

Species Mineral Composition (mg/ 100g) Reference

Ca Fe Zn Mg Mn Se As P Na K
P. – 7.1 13.7 181.9 1.6 – – 1647 21. 9 2171. Wang et al.
ostereatus 4 (2001)
35.9 55.45 26.56 16.39 2.85 0.011 0.1 – – – Alam et al.
5 5 (2008)
2–36 55– 3–27 9–17 0.5–3 0.011 – ND 3 1400 Khan &
65 Tania
(2012)
P. sajor-caju 18.9– 5.0– – 136– – – – 587– 158– 2130 Bano &
36.2 11.5 188 840 256 – Rajarathna
2400 m (1988)
22.15 33.45 20.9 20.22 2.87 0.025 0.095 760 – 3260 Alam et al.
(2007
3–23 33– 3–21 5–21 0.5–3 0.025 – ND 2 1600 Khan &
54 Tania,
(2012)
P. florida 24 – – – – – – 1850 – 4660 (Bano &
Rajarathna
m (1988)
33.7 43.2 16 13.4 2.7 0.013 0.083 – – – Alam et al.
2 (2007)
P. flabellatus 24 – – – – – – 1550 – 3760 Bano &
Rajarathna
m (1988)
120 209 145 40 10 ND – 1616 686 1537 Khan &
Tania
(2012)
P. tuber 800 5.02 1.35 360 0.06 0.002 – – 200 830 Ijeh et al.
regium 5 (2009)
3– 30 2–2.5 0.7–2 2 ND – 5–10 2–8 300 Khan &
200 Tania
(2012)
P. sapidus 2.3 21.33 4.33 1.24 – – – – 0.94 0.09 Atri et al.
(2016)
P. 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.07 – – – – 0.33 2.28 Musieba et
citrinopieatus al. (2013)
P. eryngii 57 114.2 4.35 – 4.99 – – – 16.85 2260 Mehmet &
Sevda
(2010)
P. 0.265 – – 0.034 – – – – 0.010 0.352 Adewoyin
pulmonarius – – – – & Ayandele
0.406 0.041 0.014 0.709 (2018)
“–” Result not found

69
Vitamins
Pleurotus contain several vitamins (Table 5) such as Thiamine (B1), Riboflavin (B2), Niacin
(B3), Folic acid (B9) and Ascorbic acid (Table 5). The folic acid present in Pleurotus helps to
protect the body against anemia, high blood pressure and diabetes (Bobek et al. 1991).

Table 5 Vitamin content in some Pleurotus species (mg/100g).

Species Vitamin (mg/100g) Reference

Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Folic acid Ascorbic
(B1) (B2) (B3) (B9) acid
P. ostreatus 4.8 4.7 108.7 – – Chandra & Samsher
(2006)
1.91 3.62 90 – – Wang et al. (2001)
0.29–0.35 0.54–0.68 6.80– 0.033– 12.52– Patil et al. (2010)
9.13 0.048 15.80
P. sajor caju 1.75 6.66 60.0 1.278 111 Bano &
Rajarathnam (1988)
P. flabellatus 1.46 7.10 73.3 1.222 144 Bano &
Rajarathnam (1988)
P. eous 2.23 8.97 66.6 1.346 92 Bano &
Rajarathnam (1988)
P. florida 1.36 7.88 72.9 1.412 113 Bano &
Rajarathnam (1988)
P. 0.16 0.94 – 0.097 <1.00 Musieba et al.
citrinopieatus (2013)
P. 0.35–0.68 0.26–0.37 0.48– – 6.17–7.53 Okwulehie &
pulmonarius 0.95 Nosike (2015)
“–” Result(s) not found

Medicinal values
Humans have used mushrooms for medical purposes since the Neolithic and Paleolithic eras
(Samorini 2001). The medicinal properties of mushrooms have valuable healthcare applications,
from being used for simple conditions like skin diseases, to complex diseases like AIDS.
Mushrooms also have anti-tumor, anti-cancer, anti-bacterial, anti-fungus, anti-viral, anti-
inflammatory, genoprotective, anti-oxidant, immuno-modulatory, anti-diabetic, anti-allergic, anti-
mitogenic, anti-hypertensive and anti-hypercholesterolemic properties that make them valuable for
treating a wide range of conditions (Table 6).

Table 6 Bioactive compounds present in some major Pleurotus species and their therapeutic
properties.

Species Bioactive Therapeutic properties Reference

compound or
Extract
P. pulmonarius Water-soluble Effect on the viability of colon cancer cells Lavi et al. (2010)
glucans
β-Glucans Inhibited colitis-associated colon carcinogenesis Lavi et al. (2012)
induced in mice
Methanolic extract Significant hydroxyl radical-scavenging and lipid Jose et al. (2002)
peroxidation-inhibiting activities
P. ostreatus Methanolic extract Restored depleted antioxidant defense due to the Lakshmi et al.
carcinogen (2004)
Methanolic extract Restored depleted antioxidant defense due to the Lakshmi et al.
carcinogen (2004)

70
Table 6 Continued.

Species Bioactive Therapeutic properties Reference

compound or
Extract
P. ostreatus Polysaccharide Antioxident activity , Inhibited the development of Mitra et al. (2013),
(β-glucans) a solid sarcoma 180 tumor implanted in mice, Facchini et al.
Treatment of acute HSV-1 with beneficial effect (2014),
on the respiratory tract symptoms and infections Urbancikova et al.
(2020)
Lectin Antitumor activity in mice bearing sarcoma S-180 Wang et al. (2000)
and hepatoma H-22
Proteoglycans Immunomodulators and anti-cancer agents Sarangi et al.
(2006)
Total Phenolic Antioxidant activity Yang et al. (2002)
Methanolic extract Antioxidant activity, iron chelating, reducing and Yang et al. (2002)
scavenging abilities
Protein extract A source of potential cancer therapeutic agents Wu et al. (2011)
Mevinolin Antihypercholesterolemic activity in rats Hossain et al.
(2003)
Ergothioneine, Anti-atherosclerotic agents Abidin et al.
lovastatin, and (2016)
chrysin
Ubiquitin (Protein) Anti-viral activities Wang & Ng
(2000)
Laccase Inhibited hepatitis C virus entry into peripheral El-Fakharany et
blood cells and hepatoma cells al. (2010)
Lovastatin Antihypercholesterolic Weng et al. (2010)
Water soluble Anticancer agent, Antioxident activity Wu et al. (2011),
protein Mitra et al. (2013)
/polysaccharides
P. eryngii Polysaccharides Enhance the antitumor activity in human hepatoma Kim et al. (2008),
cells, Antioxidant/ Immuno-Modulating effects/ Kalyoncu et al.
Hypolipidemic/Antimicrobial (2010),
activity Reis et al. (2012),
Jing et al. (2013),
Yang et al. (2013)
Phenolic Antioxidant activity Alam et al. (2011),
Choi et al. (2013)
Polysaccharide Anticancer potential Cui et al. (2014)
protein
Methanolic extract Antioxidant property Mori et al. (2008),
Mizutani et al.
(2010),
Li & Shah (2013).
Ethanolic extract Antimicrobial activity/Anti- Allergic Property Han et al. (2011)
Water extracts Antiviral Activity Nozaki et al.
(2010),
Ike et al. (2012)
Acidic Immunomodulating effect Liu et al. (2010)
glycosphingolipids
P. citrinopileatus Lectin Inhibited HIV-1 reverse transcriptase and (Li et al. 2008)
exhibited antitumor activity in mice bearing
sarcoma 180
Water soluble Antitumor and immuno-enhancing properties Wang et al. (2005)
polysaccharide
Glycoprotein(PCP Growth inhibitory effect against U937 leukemia Chen et al. (2009)
-3A) cells

71
Table 6 Continued.

Species Bioactive Therapeutic properties Reference

compound or
Extract
P. tuber-regium Crude Extracts Antifungal and antibacterial activities Metsebing et al.
(2020)
Extracellular Preserving hepatic cells against paracetamol- Bamigboye et al.
polysaccharide induced damage in mice (2019)
Nonstarch Potential antitumor agent Zhang et al.
Polysaccharide (2001)
Hydroalcoholic Antioxidant and antibacterial properties Adebayo et al.
extracts (2018)
Sulfated β- Exhibited antiviral activities against HSV-1 and Zhang et al.
Glucans HSV-2 (2003), Zhang et
al. (2004)
P. florida Ethanolic extract Natural antioxidant and antimicrobial agents Thillaimaharani et
al. (2013)
Myochemicals Analgesic and anti- inflammatory potential Ganeshpurkar &
(flavonoids, Rai (2013).
phenolic and
polysaccharides)
Protein fraction Antiproliferative and immunomodulatory Maiti et al. (2008)
properties
Lectin Capability of modulating arsenic mediated toxic Rana et al. (2012)
effects
Glucan Stimulates the phagocytic activity of macrophages Rout et al. (2005)

P. cornucopiae Laccase Inhibited proliferation of murine leukemia cell line Wong et al. (2010)
(M.W. 66 kDa) L1210 and human hepatoma cell line HepG2, and
reduced the activity of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase
P. nebrodensis A novel hemolysin Anti-HIV-1 activity cytotoxicity against various Lv et al. (2009)
(M.W. ≈27 kDa) types of cancer cells
Methnolic and Antioxidant and tyrosinase inhibitory activities Nuhu et al. (2011)
acetone extracts
Crude Anticancer effect Cha et al. (2012)
Polysaccharides
P. abalonus Polysaccharides A potential for human colon cancer Ren et al. (2015)
(PAP) chemoprevention
Polysaccharide- The lifespan of the mice was increased Li et al. (2007)
peptide complex
(F22)
P. giganteus Aqueous and Neurite stimulation in rat pheochromocytoma cells Phan et al. (2012)
ethanolic extracts
Uridine Responsible for neurite outgrowth Phan et al. (2015)

Anti-tumor and Anti-cancer activities

Hot water extracts from the fruiting bodies of family polyporaceae exhibit host-mediated
antitumor activity against Sarcoma (S-180) (Ikekawa et al. 1968), and ethanol extracts from
Pleurotus also show antitumor activity towards lung cancer cells (A549) (Choi et al. 2004). The
bioactive compounds such as ergosterol, glucans, aminoacids (arginine and glutamine), and
proteoglucans present in Pleurotus have been correlated with antitumor activities. A possible
mechanism of action of these substances is through the inhibition of neovascularization induced by
the tumor growth in Sarcoma 180 cells in vitro, the activation and clonal expansion of T cells,
increase in NK and T Helper cells and stimulation of the synthesis of interleukins, stimulation of
immune function, prolonging cell survival, and promoting greater tolerance to chemotherapy

72
(Fortes et al. 2006). Other examples include lactin isolated from P. citrinopileatus that exhibits
antitumor activity in mice Sarcoma (S-180) (Li et al. 2008), and protein fractions extracted from P.
ostreatus that show antitumor activity against different tumors of mice (Maiti et al. 2011). Different
types of extracts from Pleurotus mushrooms have demonstrated anticancer abilities in different
cancer cell lines and experimental animals through a number of different mechanisms of action.
Water-soluble extracts of P. ostreatus showed the most significant cytotoxicity and induced
apoptosis in human androgen-independent prostate cancer PC-3 cells (Gu & Sivam 2006). Hot
water extracts of P. ostreatus show inhibition in proliferation of MCF-7 human breast cancer cells
(Martin & Brophy 2010). Aqueous polysaccharide extracts of P. ostreatus induce pro-apoptotic and
anti-proliferative effects on HT-29 colon cancer cells (Lavi et al. 2006). The methanol extracts of
P. ostreatus show suppression of the proliferation of breast cancer (MCF-7, MDA-MB-231) and
colon cancer (HT-29, HCT-116) cells (Jedinak & Silva 2008). Protein extracts of P. ostreatus
exhibited therapeutic efficacy against human colorectal leukemia cell lines (THP-1 cells) by
inducing apoptosis in SW 450 cells (Wu et al. 2011). Lastly, water-soluble polysaccharides
extracted from P. tuberregium also exhibit effective anti-proliferative activity against human
leukemia cells by inducing apoptosis in HL-60 cells (Wong et al. 2007, Patel & Goyal 2012).

Anti-bacterial activity
The effectiveness of mushroom antibacterial activity varies according to the solvent used to
extract the compounds of mushrooms. Ethanol extracts of P. florida is a more effective
antibacterial agent against Streptococcus sp., Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Salmonella
typhi, Klebsiella pneumonia, Vibriocholera sp., Klebsiella oxytoca and Proteus murabilus.
Petroleum ether extracts (PE) and acetone extracts of P. ostreatus are effective antimicrobial agents
for Bacillus subtillis and Escherichia coli (Iwalokun et al. 2007).

Anti-fungal activity
Ethanol extracts of P. eryngii exhibit the highest antifungal activity against Candida
glabrata, Candida albicans, Trichophyton spp. and Epidermophyton spp. (Akyuz & Kirbag 2009).
Thillaimaharani et al. (2013) reported that ethanol extracts of P. florida show high antifungal
activity against Epidermophyton floccosum, Microsporum gypseum and Trichophyton rubrum.
Petroleum ether extracts (PE) and acetone extracts of P. ostreatus are also effective antimicrobial
agents for Saccharomyces cerevisae (Iwalokun et al. 2007). Additionally, peptides isolated from P.
eryngii inhibit mycelial growth of Mycosphaerella arachidicola and Fusarium oxysporum (Wang
& Ng 2004).

Antiviral activity
Several compounds of Pleurotus show antiviral activities towards human immuno-deficiency
virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) (Kidukuli et al. 2010), hepatitis C virus
(El-Fakharany et al. 2010), Pox virus, infectious bursa disease virus, HSV-1 (herpes simplex virus
1) and HSV-2 (Zhang et al. 2004). Methanol extracts of the P. sajor-caju, P. citrinopileatus and P.
djamour show strong antiviral activity against HIV/AIDS (Kidukuli et al. 2010). A lactin purified
from fresh fruit bodies of P. citrinopileatus inhibited HIV-1 reverse transcriptase with an IC50 of 22
µM (Li et al. 2008). Laccase purified from P. cornucopiae reduced the activity of HIV-1 reverse
transcriptase with an IC50 of 22 µM. (Wong et al. 2010). Laccase present in P. eryngii inhibited the
reproductive activity of influenza virus type A (serotype H1N1), and HIV-1 reverse transcriptase
with an IC50 of 2.2 μM (Wang & Ng 2001). Extracts from P. eryngii mycelia inhibited the
reproduction of influenza virus type A (serotype H1N1) (Krupodorova et al. 2014). Laccase
purified from P. ostreatus inhibited the replication of hepatitis C virus and entry into peripheral
blood cells and hepatoma HepG2 cells (El-Fakharany et al. 2010). Pleurotus djamour extracts show
strong antiviral activity against Poxvirus and against the Infectious bursa disease virus (Zhang et al.
2004). Lastly, antiviral activity against HSV-1 and HSV-2 was found in hot alkali-treated sclerotia
of P. tuber-regium (Zhang et al. 2004).

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Anti-inflammatory activity
Inflammation is a protective response to tissue injury and is usually abates after healing
(Mycek 2001). As a result of these kinds of defensive reactions, other tissue injuries may occur. In
such cases, people use anti-inflammatory drugs (Mattison et al. 1988), however many currently
available anti-inflammatory drugs cause side effects. Because of this, scientists are investigating the
anti-inflammatory activity of mushrooms. A polysaccharide known as pleuron isolated from the
fruitbodies of Pleurotus has demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity (Bobek & Galbavy 2001,
Nosál’ová et al. 2001), Lovastatin contained in Pleurotus species has exhibited anti-inflammatory
activity (Alarcón et al. 2003), and Pleurotus ostreatus demonstrated protective effects on
inflammatory pathologies in diabetic rats (Jayasuriya et al. 2020).

Genoprotective activity and Nephroprotective activity

Extracts of Pleurotus mushrooms exhibit DNA-protecting activities (Kim & Kim 1999). For
example, Pleurotus cornucopiae extracts significantly reduce H2O2-induced DNA damage in lung
cells of the Chinese hamster (El-Bohi et al. 2005), and Pleurotus ostreatus suppresses DNA
damage in artificially mutated Drosophila (Taira et al. 2005). Cadmium (Cd) is a highly toxic
heavy metal (Yang & Shu 2015) that is harmful to both human and animal health (Katole et al.
2013). Cadmium that is bound to proteins in kidneys causes nephropathy (Morales et al. 2006) and
renal proximal tubular dysfunction due to heavy metal accumulation (Koçak & Akçil 2006).
However, Pleurotus ostreatus extract reduces the cadmium level in renal tissues and restores DNA
fragmentation in rats (Dkhil 2020).

Anti-oxidant activity
Antioxidants are chemical compounds that protect the cell from damage by powerful oxidants
known as free radicals. Free radicals have an ability to cause damage to compounds such as
proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and DNA, and are also involved in cancers and mutations
(Przybytniak et al. 1999). According to Dubost et al. (2007), antioxidant activities of compounds
are positively correlated with their total polyphenol content. Ethanol extracts of P. florida (230 µg
equivalent of BHT/g) showed high antioxidant activity (Thillaimaharani et al. 2013). Methanol
extracts of P. cystidiosus and P. ostreatus showed antioxidant activities that were higher than other
commercially cultivated mushroom species (Yang et al. 2002). Internal polysaccharides and
exopolysaccharides isolated from P. ostreatus also showed high antioxidant properties (Vamanu
2012, Elkhateeb & Daba 2021).

Immuno-modulatory activities
Immuno-modulatory activities are modulated by cytotoxic T cells, activated macrophages,
natural killer (NK) cells, oxygen intermediates, reactive nitrogen, tumor necrosis factors, and
interleukins (Yang et al. 1992). Endo-biopolymers extracted from submerged mycelial cultures of
P. eryngii increase the NK cell activity of splenocytes (Jeong et al. 2008). Moreover, purified
acidic glycosphingolipids (AGLs) from P. eryngii also induce interleukin-2 (IL-2) release from
invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells (Nozaki 2010). Nurul et al. (2014) suggested that
consumption of Pleurotus sajor-caju consistently as a daily food option may improve general
immune system.

Anti-diabetic activities
Extracts of P. ostreatus have the ability to reduce high blood-glucose levels in hyperglycemic
rats, even more so than the normal amaryl treatments (Fig. 1). Moreover, genetic alterations and
sperm abnormalities were lower in P. ostreatus treatment groups than in the amaryl treatment
groups (Ghaly et al. 2011). Pleurotus ostreatus also produces a hypoglycemic effect in alloxan-
induced mice, and it has the ability to improve hyperlipidemia and impaired kidney functions (Ravi
et al. 2013).

74
Fig. 1 – Pleurotus species: A Pleurotus purpurea-olivaceus. photo credit: Stephen Axford.
B Pleurotus djamor: photo credit: Thatsanee Luangharn. C Pleurotus ostreatus: photo credit:
Thatsanee Luangharn. D Pleurotus citrinopileatus: photo credit: Thatsanee Luangharn: E Pleurotus
giganteus: photo credit: Samantha C. Karunarathna.

Anti-allergic activities
Extracts of P. eryngii inhibited atopic dermatitis (AD) skin lesions in NC/Nga mice by
reducing the thickness of the dermis, and reducing dermal infiltration of inflammatory cells and
mast cells (Choi et al. 2013). These extractsalso inhibited allergic contact dermatitis through the
modulation of T-helper, Th1 and Th2 responses (Zhiming et al. 2016).

Anti-mitogenic activities
A ribonuclease from P. sajor-caju had an anti-proliferative effect on murine spleenocytes due
to its terpenoids, fatty acids, steroids and phenolic compounds (Ngai & Ng 2004). Additionally,
eryngeolysin derived from P. eryngii inhibited the accelerated mitogenic response of murine
spleenocytes (Ngai & Ng 2006).

Anti-hypertensive activities
Protein extract from P. cystidiosus and P. cornucoplae inhibited the activity of the
angiotensin-1 converting enzyme (ACE), which lowers the blood pleasure, exhibiting anti-

75
hypertension (Hagiwara 2005, Ching et al. 2011). Hot aqueous extracts from dried powder of P.
nebrodensis also showed anti-hypertension activity (Miyazawa et al. 2003).

Anti-hypercholesterolemic activities
A high level of cholesterol in the blood is associated with cardiovascular disease. People with
cardiovascular disease are more susceptible to heart attacks and/or strokes (Fombang et al. 2016).
The ethanolic extracts of P. ostreatus show anti-hyperlipidamic activity in male wister rats (Opletal
et al. 1997). The active substance Lovastatin present in P. ostreatus and P. sajor-caju reduces the
level of triglycerides (TG) by 45% and 24% respectively, and reduced the total cholesterol (TC)
level by 37% and 21% respectively (Alam et al. 2009). Moreover, polysaccharides purified from P.
eryngii inhibit lipid accumulation in foam cells (Chen et al. 2013), and a polysaccharide known as
Mevinolin present in P. citrinopileatus exhibits anti-hypercholesterolemic activity (Gunde-
Cimerman & Plemenitas 2001).

Applications
In addition to medicinal and therapeutic properties, Pleurotus is an important contributor of
sustainable production of functional food as Pleurotus possess an elevated protein content, essential
amino acids, dietary fibres, high levels of some vitamins such as B group, vitamin D, Fe, Zn, Cu,
Se and also some bioactive mycochemicals (Lavelli et al. 2018). Several studies have been carried
out to check nutritional benefits of the use of dried Pleurotus species or β-glucan-rich fractions
obtained from Pleurotus species as ingredients in model foods by adding Pleurotus powder into
biscuits, pasta, bread, and chicken (Okafor et al. 2012, Ndung'u et al. 2015, Prodhan et al. 2015). In
addition, several studies have also been carried out to replace high-cost proteins in processed meat
and poultry products by using Pleurotus species (Wan-Rosli et al. 2011, Wan-Rosli & Solihah
2012, Saiful-Bahri & Wan-Rosli, 2016). Pleurotus species have been studied for their potential in
upgrading lignocellulosic agricultural wastes for animal feed and also they are good candidates for
bioremediation applications, such as soil decontamination, degradation of industrial dyes, phenols
and PAHs and wastewater treatment (Cohen et al. 2002). Table 7 summarizes the applications of
Pleurotus species.

Table 7 Industrial applications of Pleurotus species

Species Application Reference

P. dryinus Production of lignocellulolytic Elisashvili et al. (2008)
enzymes
P. Decolourization of industrial Eichlerova et al. (2006)
calyptratus dyes and enzymes production
P. Spent Mushroom Substrate used in treatment of Córdova-Juárez et al. (2011)
pulmonarius chlorothalonil containing wastewater.
P. ostreatus Biotransformation of synthetic Purnomo et al. (2013), El-Batal et
insecticide, Enzyme production and synthesis of gold al. (2015), Vital et al. (2015)
nanoparticles, Improvement of antioxidant
ability and rheological
properties in yogurts.
P. djamor Mycosynthesis and Raman et al. (2015)
var. characterization of silver nanoparticle
roseus
P. djamor Optimization of cultural Velioglu & Urek (2015)
conditions for biosurfactant production

Conclusion
This review shows that Pleurotus are rich in nutrients and they possess many promising
therapeutic properties. Mushroom fruitbodies, mycelium, and their extracts are considered potential

76
sources of food and have the capability to supply nutrients that are important for human health.
Generally, Pleurotus are rich in protein, dietary fibers, B vitamins and are low in fat. In addition,
potassium and phosphorous contents of Pleurotus are high while, Pleurotus are considered as a
good source of amino acids. Pleurotus extracts have a number of bioactive compounds that can
improve medicinal value and ability to synthesize drugs. In most cases, it is very important to
identify the active components of Pleurotus using the best methods of extracting novel
components. Once these steps have been taken, these components can finally be used for effective
pharmacological and clinical treatments. Hence, Pleurotus mushrooms are a valuable asset for the
welfare of humans.

Conflict of interest
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Acknowledgments
S.C. Karunarathna thanks CAS President’s International Fellowship Initiative (PIFI) young
staff under the grant number: 2020FYC0002 and the National Science Foundation of China (NSFC,
project code 31851110759).

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