EE6502 MICROPROCESSORS AND MICROCONTROLLERS L T P C 3 0 0 3

OBJECTIVES:
 To study the Architecture of uP8085 & uC 8051
 To study the addressing modes & instruction set of 8085 & 8051.
 To introduce the need & use of Interrupt structure 8085 & 8051.
 To develop skill in simple applications development with programming 8085 & 8051
 To introduce commonly used peripheral / interfacing

UNIT I 8085 PROCESSOR 9
Hardware Architecture, pinouts – Functional Building Blocks of Processor – Memory organization – I/O ports and
data transfer concepts– Timing Diagram – Interrupts.
UNIT II PROGRAMMING OF 8085 PROCESSOR 9
Instruction -format and addressing modes – Assembly language format – Data transfer, data manipulation& control
instructions – Programming: Loop structure with counting & Indexing – Look up table - Subroutine instructions -
stack.
UNIT III 8051 MICRO CONTROLLER 9
Hardware Architecture, pintouts – Functional Building Blocks of Processor – Memory organization – I/O ports and
data transfer concepts– Timing Diagram – Interrupts-Comparison to Programming concepts with 8085.
UNIT IV PERIPHERAL INTERFACING 9
Study on need, Architecture, configuration and interfacing, with ICs: 8255 , 8259 , 8254,8237,8251, 8279 ,- A/D
and D/A converters &Interfacing with 8085& 8051.
UNIT V MICRO CONTROLLER PROGRAMMING & APPLICATIONS 9
Data Transfer, Manipulation, Control Algorithms& I/O instructions – Simple programming exercises key board
and display interface – Closed loop control of servo motor- stepper motor control – Washing Machine Control.
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
 Ability to understand and analyse, linear and digital electronic circuits.
 To understand and apply computing platform and software for engineering problems.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Krishna Kant, “Microprocessor and Microcontrollers”, Eastern Company Edition, Prentice Hall of India, New
Delhi , 2007.
2. R.S. Gaonkar, „Microprocessor Architecture Programming and Application‟, with 8085, Wiley
Eastern Ltd., New Delhi, 2013.
3. Soumitra Kumar Mandal, Microprocessor & Microcontroller Architecture, Programming &
Interfacing using 8085,8086,8051,McGraw Hill Edu,2013.
REFERENCES:
1. Muhammad Ali Mazidi & Janice Gilli Mazidi, R.D.Kinely „The 8051 Micro Controller and
Embedded Systems‟, PHI Pearson Education, 5th Indian reprint, 2003.
2. N.Senthil Kumar, M.Saravanan, S.Jeevananthan, „Microprocessors and Microcontrollers‟,
Oxford,2013.
3. Valder – Perez, “Microcontroller – Fundamentals and Applications with Pic,” Yeesdee
Publishers, Tayler & Francis, 2013.
 UNIT I
8085 PROCESSOR

1) 8085 Architecture:
The architecture of 8085 consist various components like:
1. Accumulator & Register sets.
2. Program counter and stack pointer.
3. Flag Register.
4. ALU.
5. Instruction decoder and machine cycle encoder.
6. Address buffer.
7. Address/data buffer.
8. Increment/Decrement latch.
9. Interrupt control.
10. Serial I/O like SOD,SID.
11. Timing and Control circuit.

Accumulator:
• The accumulator is an 8-bit register then is part of the arithmetic/logic unit(ALU).
• This register is used to store to store 8-bit data this data is used to perform arithmetic & logical operation.
• The result of an operation is stored in the accumulator.
 • The accumulator is also identified as register A.
• The accumulator is used for data transfer between an I/O port and memory location.

Registersets:
• The 8085 simulator has six general-purpose registers to store 8-bit data; these are identified as B, C, D, E,
H and L. They can be combined as register pair likeBC, DE and HL – to perform some 16-bit operations.
• The programmer can use these registers to store or copy data into the registers by using data copy
instructions.
• Out of these six registers, four 8-bit registers are scratch pad registers which are accessible to the
programmer and hence can be used to temporarily store data during a program execution.
• And the two registers H and L are utilized in indirect addressing mode. In this mode, the memory location
i.e. the address is specified by the contents of the registers.

Program Counter (PC):

• 16 bit register which holds the memory address of the next instruction to be executed in the next step.
• This 16-bit register deals with sequencing the execution of instructions. This register is a memory pointer.
Memory locations have 16-bit addresses, and that is why this is a 16-bit register.
• The microprocessor uses this register to sequence the execution of the instructions. The function of the
program counter is to point to the memory address from which the next instruction is to be fetched. When a
byte (machine code) is being fetched, the program counter is incremented by one to point to the next
memory location.
Stack Pointer (SP):
• Stack pointer is used during subroutine calling and execution.
• The stack pointer is also a 16-bit register used as a memory pointer. It points to a memory location in R/W
memory, called the stack.

Flag or status register:

• The ALU includes five flip-flops, which are set or reset after an operation according to data conditions of
the result in the accumulator and other registers. They are called Zero(Z), Carry (CY), Sign (S), Parity (P),
and Auxiliary Carry (AC) flags.
• The most commonly used flags are Zero, Carry, and Sign. The microprocessor uses these flags to test data
conditions.
• For example, after an addition of two numbers, if the sum in the accumulator is larger than eight bits, the
flip-flop uses to indicate a carry -- called the Carry flag (CY) -- is set to one.
• When an arithmetic operation results is zero, the flip-flop called the Zero(Z) flag is set to one.
• The Figure shows an 8-bit register, called the flag register, adjacent to the accumulator..

• Flag is an 8-bit register containing 5no.s of 1-bit flags:

1. Sign - If the result of the latest arithmetic operation is having MSB (most- significant bit) „1‟
(meaning it is a negative number), then the sign flag is set. Otherwise, it is reset to „0‟ which means it is a
positive number.
2. Zero - If the result of the latest operation is zero, then zero flag will be set; otherwise it be reset.
3. Auxiliary carry - set if there was a carry out from bit 3 to bit 4 of the result.
4. Parity - set if the parity (the number of set bits in the result) is even. i.e., If the result of the latest
operation is having even number of „1‟s, then this flag will be set. Otherwise this will be reset to „0‟. This is
used for error checking.
5. Carry - set if there was a carry during addition, or borrow during subtraction/comparison. Otherwise
it will be reset.

Instruction register or Decoder:-

• Instruction register holds the instruction that is currently being processed.
• Once the instruction is fetch from the memory, it is reloaded in the instruction register for some time, after
the decoder decode the instruction performing some event or task.

Address buffer:
• The remaining higher order address lines form the address buffer ranging from[A15-A8].This is having the
unidirectional buffer
Address/data buffer:
• The address bus will be having 16 address lines[A15-A0] .In which A7-A0 are called as lower addressing
lines and these are multiplexed with data lines[D7-D0] to form multiplexed address /data buffer .The
address/data buffer is the bidirectional bus.

Increment/Decrement Address Latch:

• It increments/ decrements the address before sent to the address buffer

Interrupts:
The processor has 5 interrupts. They are presented below in the order of theirpriority (from lowest to highest):

• INTR is maskable 8080A compatible interrupt. When the interrupt occurs, the processor fetches from the
bus one instruction, usually one of these instructions: One of the 8 RST instructions (RST0 - RST7). The
processor saves current program counter into stack and branches to memory location N * 8 (where N is a 3-
bit number from 0 to 7 supplied with the RST instruction).
• CALL instruction (3 byte instruction). The processor calls the subroutine, address of which is specified in
the second and third bytes of the instruction.
• RST5.5 is a maskable interrupt. When this interrupt is received the processor saves the contents of the PC
register into stack and branches to 2CH (hexadecimal) address.
• RST6.5 is a maskable interrupt. When this interrupt is received the processor saves the contents of the PC
register into stack and branches to 34H (hexadecimal) address.
• RST7.5 is a maskable interrupt. When this interrupt is received the processor saves the contents of the PC
register into stack and branches to 3CH (hexadecimal) address.
• TRAP is a non-maskable interrupt. When this interrupt is received the processorsaves the contents of the
PC register into stack and branches to 24H (hexadecimal) address.
• All maskable interrupts can be enabled or disabled using EI and DI instructions. RST 5.5, RST6.5 and
RST7.5 interrupts can be enabled or disabled individually using SIM Instruction

Serial I/O control

• There are control signals used for controlling 8085
these are subdivided into 2 types:
1. SID(serial input data):
This is used for transferring of data into the memory serially.
2. SOD(serial output data):
This is used for transferring of data from memory to external devices
• Interrupt control is used to transfer the ISR to the CPU.

2) PIN DIAGRAM
Timing and Control Unit:
• The timing and control unit accepts information from the instruction decoder andgenerates different control
signal. This unit synchronizes all the microprocessor operation and generates control and status signal
necessary for communication between the microprocessor and peripherals.
A8 - A15 (Output 3 State):
Address Bus: The most significant 8 bits of the memory address or the 8 bits of the I/0 address,3 stated during
Hold and Halt modes.
AD0 - AD7 (Input / Output 3 state):
 Multiplexed Address/Data Bus; Lower 8 bits of the memory address (or I/0 address) appear on the bus
during the first clock cycle of a machine state.
 It then becomes the data bus during the second and third clock cycles. 3 stated during Hold and Halt modes.
ALE (Output):
 Address Latch Enable: It occurs during the first clock cycle of a machine state and enables the address
to get latched into the on chip latch of peripherals.
 The falling edge of ALE is set to guarantee setup and hold times for the address information. ALE can
also be used to strobe the status information. ALE is never 3stated.
SO, S1 (Output):
Data Bus Status. Encoded status of the bus cycle:
S1 S0
0 0 HALT
0 1 WRITE
1 0 READ
1 1 FETCH S1 can be used as an advanced R/W status.
RD (Output 3state):
READ: indicates the selected memory or I/0 device is to be read and that the Data Bus is available for the data
transfer.
WR (Output 3state):
 WRITE: indicates the data on the Data Bus is to be written into the selected memory or I/0location.
 Data is set up at the trailing edge of WR. 3stated during Hold and Halt modes.
READY (Input):
  If Ready is high during a read or write cycle, it indicates that the memory or peripheral is readyto send or
receive data.
 If Ready is low, the CPU will wait for Ready to go high before completing the read or write cycle.
HOLD (Input):
 HOLD: indicates that another Master is requesting the use of the Address and Data Buses.
 The CPU, upon receiving the Hold request will relinquish the use of buses as soon as the completion of the
current machine cycle.
 Internal processing can continue. The processor can regain the buses only after the Hold is removed. When
the Hold is acknowledged, the Address, Data, RD, WR, and IO/M lines are 3stated.
HLDA (Output):
 HOLD ACKNOWLEDGE: indicates that the CPU has received the Hold request and that it willrelinquish
the buses in the next clock cycle.
 HLDA goes low after the Hold request is removed. The CPU takes the buses one half clock cycle after
HLDA goes low.
INTR (Input):
 INTERRUPT REQUEST is used as a general purpose interrupt. It is sampled only during thenext to the last
clock cycle of the instruction. If it is active, the Program Counter (PC) will be inhibited from incrementing
and an INTA will be issued.
 During this cycle a RESTART or CALL instruction can be inserted to jump to the interrupt service routine.
The INTR is enabled and disabled by software. It is disabled by Reset and immediately after an interrupt is
accepted.
INTA (Output):
 INTERRUPT ACKNOWLEDGE: is used instead of (and has the same timing as) RD during theInstruction
cycle after an INTR is accepted.
 It can be used to activate the 8259 Interrupt chip or some other interrupt port.
RESTART INTERRUPTS:
These three inputs have the same timing as INTR except they cause an internal RESTART to be
automatically inserted.
 RST 7.5 Highest Priority
 RST 6.5
 RST 5.5 Lowest Priority
TRAP (Input):
 Trap interrupt is a non maskable restart interrupt. It is recognized at the same time as INTR. It is unaffected
by any mask or Interrupt Enable. It has the highest priority of any interrupt.
RESET IN (Input):
 Reset sets the Program Counter to zero and resets the Interrupt Enable and HLDA flipflops.
 None of the other flags or registers (except the instruction register) are affected The CPU is held in the reset
condition as long as Reset is applied.
RESET OUT (Output):
Indicates CPlJ is being reset. Can be used as a system RESET. The signal is synchronized to the processor
clock.

X1, X2 (Input):
 Crystal or R/C network connections to set the internal clock generator X1 can also be an external clock
input instead of a crystal. The input frequency is divided by 2 to give the internal operating frequency.

CLK (Output):
 Clock Output for use as a system clock when a crystal or R/ C network is used as an input to the CPU. The
period of CLK is twice the X1, X2 input period.

IO/M (Output):
 IO/M indicates whether the Read/Write is to memory or l/O Tristated during Hold and Halt modes.
SID (Input):
 Serial input data line The data on this line is loaded into accumulator bit 7 whenever a RIM instruction is
executed.

SOD (output):
 Serial output data line. The output SOD is set or reset as specified by the SIM instruction.

Vcc: +5 volt supply.

Vss: Ground Reference.

3) MEMORY ORGANIZATION

Memory Interfacing

The memory is made up of semiconductor material used to store the programs and data. Three
types of memory is,

 Process memory

 Primary or main memory

 Secondary memory

Typical EPROM and Static RAM

A typical semiconductor memory IC will have n address pins, m data pins (or output
pins).

 Having two power supply pins (one for connecting required supply voltage (V and the other
for connecting ground).

 The control signals needed for static RAM are chip select (chip enable), read control

(output enable) and write control (write enable).

 The control signals needed for read operation in EPROM are chip select (chip enable)

and read control (output enable).

Decoder

It is used to select the memory chip of processor during the execution of a program. No

of IC's used for decoder is,

 2-4 decoder (74LS139)

 3-8 decoder (74LS138)

 Block Diagram of 2-4 Decoder

Truth Table for 2-4 Decoder

Example for Memory Interfacing

Consider a system in which the full memory space 64kb is utilized for EPROM memory. Interface the
EPROM with 8085 processor.

 The memory capacity is 64 Kbytes. i.e

 2^n = 64 x 1000 bytes where n = address lines.

 So, n = 16.

 In this system the entire 16 address lines of the processor are connected to address input pins of
memory IC in order to address the internal locations of memory.
 The chip select (CS) pin of EPROM is permanently tied to logic low (i.e., tied to ground).

 Since the processor is connected to EPROM, the active low RD pin is connected to active low
output enable pin of EPROM.
 The range of address for EPROM is 0000H to FFFFH.
 Memory Interfacing

4) TIMING DIAGRAM

Timing Diagram is a graphical representation. It represents the execution time taken by each
instruction in a graphical format. The execution time is represented in T-states.
 Instruction Cycle

The time required to execute an instruction is called instruction cycle.

 Machine Cycle

The time required to access the memory or input/output devices is called machine cycle.

 T-State

 The machine cycle and instruction cycle takes multiple clock periods.

 A portion of an operation carried out in one system clock period is called as T-state.

Machine cycles of 8085

The 8085 microprocessor has 5 (seven) basic machine cycles. They are

1. Opcode fetch cycle (4T)

 2. Memory read cycle (3 T)

3. Memory write cycle (3 T)

4. I/O read cycle (3 T)

5. I/O write cycle (3 T)

Clock Signal

1.Opcode fetch machine cycle of 8085 :

 Each instruction of the processor has one byte opcode.

 The opcodes are stored in memory. So, the processor executes the opcode fetch machine cycle to
fetch the opcode from memory.
 Hence, every instruction starts with opcode fetch machine cycle.

 The time taken by the processor to execute the opcode fetch cycle is 4T.
 In this time, the first, 3 T-states are used for fetching the opcode from memory and the
remaining T-states are used for internal operations by the processor.
2.Memory Read Machine Cycle of 8085:

 The memory read machine cycle is executed by the processor to read a data byte from
memory.
 The processor takes 3T states to execute this cycle.

The instructions which have more than one byte word size will use the machine cycle after the
opcode fetch machine cycle.

Memory Read Machine Cycle

3.Memory Write Machine Cycle of 8085

 The memory write machine cycle is executed by the processor to write a data byte in a
memory location.
 The processor takes, 3T states to execute this machine cycle.

Memory Write Machine Cycle

4. I/O Read Cycle of 8085

 The I/O Read cycle is executed by the processor to read a data byte from I/O port or from
the peripheral, which is I/O, mapped in the system.
 The processor takes 3T states to execute this machine cycle.

 The IN instruction uses this machine cycle during the execution.

 I/O Read Cycle

Timing diagram for STA 526AH

 STA means Store Accumulator -The contents of the accumulator is stored in the specified
address(526A).
 The opcode of the STA instruction is said to be 32H. It is fetched from the memory

41FFH(see fig). - OF machine cycle

 Then the lower order memory address is read(6A). - Memory Read Machine Cycle

 Read the higher order memory address (52).- Memory Read Machine Cycle

 The combination of both the addresses are considered and the content from accumulator
is written in 526A. - Memory Write Machine Cycle
 Assume the memory address for the instruction and let the content of accumulator is

C7H. So, C7H from accumulator is now stored in 526A.

 Timing Diagram for STA 526A H

Timing diagram for INR M

 Fetching the Opcode 34H from the memory 4105H. (OF cycle)

 Let the memory address (M) be 4250H. (MR cycle -To read Memory address and data)

 Let the content of that memory is 12H.

 Increment the memory content from 12H to 13H. (MW machine cycle)
5) INTERRUPTS:

 Interrupt is signals send by an external device to the processor, to request the

processor to perform a particular task or work.

 Mainly in the microprocessor based system the interrupts are used for
data transfer between the peripheral and the microprocessor.

 The processor will check the interrupts always at the 2nd T-state of last machine
cycle.

 If there is any interrupt it accept the interrupt and send the INTA (active low)
signal to the peripheral.

 The vectored address of particular interrupt is stored in program counter.

 The processor executes an interrupt service routine (ISR) addressed in program

counter.

 It returned to main program by RET instruction.

Types of Interrupts:

It supports two types of interrupts.

 Hardware

 Software

Software interrupts:

 The software interrupts are program instructions. These instructions are

inserted at desired locations in a program.

 The 8085 has eight software interrupts from RST 0 to RST 7. The vector
address for these interrupts can be calculated as follows.

 Interrupt number * 8 = vector address

  For RST 5,5 * 8 = 40 = 28H

Vector addresses of all interrupts.

Hardware interrupts:

 An external device initiates the hardware interrupts and placing an appropriate

signal at the interrupt pin of the processor.

 If the interrupt is accepted then the processor executes an interrupt service

routine.

The 8085 has five hardware interrupts

(1) TRAP (2) RST 7.5 (3) RST 6.5 (4) RST 5.5 (5) INTR

(1)TRAP:

 This interrupt is a non-maskable interrupt. It is unaffected by any mask or

interrupt enable.

 TRAP bas the highest priority and vectored interrupt.

 TRAP interrupt is edge and level triggered. This means hat the TRAP must go
high and remain high until it is acknowledged.
  In sudden power failure, it executes a ISR and send the data from main
memory to backup memory.

 The signal, which overrides the TRAP, is HOLD signal. (i.e., If the processor
receives HOLD and TRAP at the same time then HOLD is recognized first and
then TRAP is recognized).

 There are two ways to clear TRAP interrupt.

1.By resetting microprocessor (External signal)

2.By giving a high TRAP ACKNOWLEDGE (Internal signal)

(2)RST 7.5:

 The RST 7.5 interrupt is a maskable interrupt.

 It has the second highest priority.

 It is edge sensitive. ie. Input goes to high and no need to maintain high state
until it recognized.

 Maskable interrupt. It is disabled by,

1.DI instruction
2.System or processor reset.
3.After reorganization of interrupt.

 Enabled by EI instruction.

(3)RST 6.5 and 5.5:

 The RST 6.5 and RST 5.5 both are level triggered. . ie. Input goes to high and
stay high until it recognized.

 Maskable interrupt. It is disabled by,

1.DI, SIM instruction

2.System or processor reset.

 3.After reorganization of interrupt.

 Enabled by EI instruction.

 The RST 6.5 has the third priority whereas RST 5.5 has the fourth priority.

 INTR is a maskable interrupt. It is disabled by,

1.DI, SIM instruction

2.System or processor reset.
3.After reorganization of interrupt

 Enabled by EI instruction.

 Non- vectored interrupt. After receiving INTA (active low) signal, it has to
supply the address of ISR.

 It has lowest priority.

 It is a level sensitive interrupts. ie. Input goes to high and it is necessary to

maintain high state until it recognized.

The following sequence of events occurs when INTR signal

goes high.

1. The 8085 checks the status of INTR signal during execution of each
instruction.

2. If INTR signal is high, then 8085 complete its current instruction and sends
active low interrupt acknowledge signal, if the interrupt is enabled.

3. In response to the acknowledge signal, external logic places an instruction

OPCODE on the data bus. In the case of multibyte instruction, additional interrupt
acknowledge machine cycles are generated by the 8085 to transfer the additional
bytes into the microprocessor.

4. On receiving the instruction, the 8085 save the address of next instruction on
stack and execute received instruction.

SIM and RIM for interrupts:

 The 8085 provide additional masking facility for RST 7.5, RST 6.5 and RST 5.5
using

SIM instruction.

 The status of these interrupts can be read by executing RIM instruction.

 The masking or unmasking of RST 7.5, RST 6.5 and RST 5.5 interrupts can be
performed by moving an 8-bit data to accumulator and then executing SIM
instruction.

8 bit data to be loaded into the Accumulator

 The status of pending interrupts can be read from accumulator after executing
RIM instruction.
 When RIM instruction is executed an 8-bit data is loaded in accumulator,
which can be interpreted as shown in fig.
 Format of 8 bit data in Accumulator after executing RIM Instruction
8085 Bus Structure
• Address Bus :
• Consists of 16 address lines: A0 – A15
• Address locations: 0000 (hex) – FFFF (hex)
• Can access 64K ( = 216 ) bytes of memory, each byte has 8 bits
• Can access 64K × 8 bits of memory
• Use memory to map I/O, Same instructions to use for
• accessing I/O devices and memory

• Data Bus :
• Consists of 8 data lines: D0 – D7
• Operates in bidirectional mode
• The data bits are sent from the MPU to I/O & vice versa
• Data range: 00 (hex) – FF (hex)

• Control Bus:
• – Consists of various lines carrying the control signals such as read / write enable, flag
bits.
 UNIT II
PROGRAMMING OF 8085 MICROPROCESSOR

1)INSTRUCTION FORMAT
An instruction is a command to the microprocessor to perform a given task on a
specified data. Each instruction has two parts: one is task to be performed, called the
operation code (opcode), and the second is the data to be operated on, called the
operand. The operand (or data) can be specified in various ways. It may include 8-bit
(or 16-bit ) data, an internal register, a memory location, or 8-bit (or 16-bit) address.
In some instructions, the operand is implicit.
Instruction word size
The 8085 instruction set is classified into the following three groups according to
word size:
1. One-word or 1-byte instructions
2. Two-word or 2-byte instructions
3. Three-word or 3-byte instructions
In the 8085, "byte" and "word" are synonymous because it is an 8-bit microprocessor.
However, instructions are commonly referred to in terms of bytes rather than words.
2.1.1 One-Byte Instructions
A 1-byte instruction includes the opcode and operand in the same byte. Operand(s)
are internal register and are coded into the instruction

These instructions are 1-byte instructions performing three different tasks. In the first
instruction, both operand registers are specified. In the second instruction, the operand
B is specified and the accumulator is assumed. Similarly, in the third instruction, the
accumulator is assumed to be the implicit operand. These instructions are stored in 8-
bit binary format in memory; each requires one memory location.

MOV rd, rs
rd <-- rs copies contents of rs into rd.
Coded as 01 ddd sss where ddd is a code for one of the 7 general registers which is
the destination of the data, sss is the code of the source register.
Example: MOV A,B
Coded as 01111000 = 78H = 170 octal (octal was used extensively in instruction
design of such processors).

ADD r
A <-- A + r

Two-Byte Instructions
In a two-byte instruction, the first byte specifies the operation code and the second
byte specifies the operand. Source operand is a data byte immediately following the
opcode. For example

The instruction would require two memory locations to store in memory.

MVI r,data
r <-- data
Example: MVI A,30H coded as 3EH 30H as two contiguous bytes. This is an
example of immediate addressing.
ADI data
A <-- A + data
OUT port
0011 1110
DATA
where port is an 8-bit device address. (Port) <-- A. Since the byte is not the data but
points directly to where it is located this is called direct addressing.

Three-Byte Instructions
In a three-byte instruction, the first byte specifies the opcode, and the following two
bytes specify the 16-bit address. Note that the second byte is the low-order address
and the third byte is the high-order address.
opcode + data byte + data byte
This instruction would require three memory locations to store in memory.
Three byte instructions - opcode + data byte + data byte

LXI rp, data16

rp is one of the pairs of registers BC, DE, HL used as 16-bit registers. The two data
bytes are 16-bit data in L H order of significance.
rp <-- data16
LXI H,0520H coded as 21H 20H 50H in three bytes. This is also immediate
addressing.

LDA addr
A <-- (addr) Addr is a 16-bit address in L H order.
Example: LDA 2134H coded as
3AH 34H 21H. This is also an example of direct addressing.

2) THE 8085 ADDRESSING MODES

The instructions MOV B, A or MVI A, 82H are to copy data from a source into a
destination. In these instructions the source can be a register, an input port, or an 8-bit
number (00H to FFH). Similarly, a destination can be a register or an output port. The
sources and destination are operands. The various formats for specifying operands are
called the ADDRESSING MODES. For 8085, they are:
1. Immediate addressing.
2. Register addressing.
3. Direct addressing.
4. Indirect addressing.
(1)Immediate addressing
Data is present in the instruction. Load the immediate data to the destination provided.
Example: MVI R,data

(2)Register addressing
Data is provided through the registers.
Example: MOV Rd, Rs

(3)Direct addressing
Used to accept data from outside devices to store in the accumulator or send the data
stored in the accumulator to the outside device. Accept the data from the port 00H and
store them into the accumulator or Send the data from the accumulator to the port
01H.
Example: IN 00H or OUT 01H

(4)Indirect Addressing
This means that the Effective Address is calculated by the processor. And the contents of
the address (and the one following) is used to form a second address. The second address
is where the data is stored. Note that this requires several memory accesses; two accesses
to retrieve the 16-bit address and a further access (or accesses) to retrieve the data which
is to be loaded into the register.

3) INSTRUCTION SET CLASSIFICATION

An instruction is a binary pattern designed inside a microprocessor to perform a specific
function. The entire group of instructions, called the instruction set, determines what
functions the microprocessor can perform. These instructions can be classified into the
following five functional categories: data transfer (copy) operations, arithmetic
operations, logical operations, branching operations, and machine-control operations.

Data Transfer Croup

The data transfer instructions move data between registers or between memory and
registers.
MOV Move
MVI Move Immediate
LDA Load Accumulator Directly from Memory
STA Store Accumulator Directly in Memory
LHLD Load H & L Registers Directly from Memory
SHLD Store H & L Registers Directly in Memory
An 'X' in the name of a data transfer instruction implies that it deals with a register pair
(16-bits);
LXI Load Register Pair with Immediate data
LDAX Load Accumulator from Address in Register Pair
STAX Store Accumulator in Address in Register Pair
XCHG Exchange H & L with D & E
XTHL Exchange Top of Stack with H & L

Arithmetic Group
The arithmetic instructions add, subtract, increment, or decrement data in registers or
memory.
ADD Add to Accumulator
ADI Add Immediate Data to Accumulator
ADC Add to Accumulator Using Carry Flag
ACI Add Immediate data to Accumulator Using Carry
SUB Subtract from Accumulator
SUI Subtract Immediate Data from Accumulator
SBB Subtract from Accumulator Using Borrow (Carry) Flag
SBI Subtract Immediate from Accumulator Using Borrow (Carry) Flag
INR Increment Specified Byte by One
DCR Decrement Specified Byte by One
INX Increment Register Pair by One
DCX Decrement Register Pair by One
DAD Double Register Add; Add Content of Register
Pair to H & L Register Pair

Logical Group
This group performs logical (Boolean) operations on data in registers and memory and on
condition flags.
The logical AND, OR, and Exclusive OR instructions enable you to set specific bits in
the
accumulator ON or OFF.
ANA Logical AND with Accumulator
ANI Logical AND with Accumulator Using Immediate Data
ORA Logical OR with Accumulator
OR Logical OR with Accumulator Using Immediate Data
XRA Exclusive Logical OR with Accumulator
XRI Exclusive OR Using Immediate Data
The Compare instructions compare the content of an 8-bit value with the contents of the
accumulator;
CMP Compare
CPI Compare Using Immediate Data
The rotate instructions shift the contents of the accumulator one bit position to the left or
right:
RLC Rotate Accumulator Left
RRC Rotate Accumulator Right
RAL Rotate Left Through Carry
RAR Rotate Right Through Carry
Complement and carry flag instructions:
CMA Complement Accumulator
CMC Complement Carry Flag
STC Set Carry Flag

Branch Group
The branching instructions alter normal sequential program flow, either unconditionally
or
conditionally. The unconditional branching instructions are as follows:
JMP Jump
CALL Call
RET Return
Conditional branching instructions examine the status of one of four condition flags to
determine
whether the specified branch is to be executed. The conditions that may be specified are
as
follows:
NZ Not Zero (Z = 0)
Z Zero (Z = 1)
NC No Carry (C = 0)
C Carry (C = 1)
PO Parity Odd (P = 0)
PE Parity Even (P = 1)
P Plus (S = 0)
M Minus (S = 1)
Thus, the conditional branching instructions are specified as follows:
Jumps Calls Returns
C CC RC (Carry)
INC CNC RNC (No Carry)
JZ CZ RZ (Zero)
JNZ CNZ RNZ (Not Zero)
JP CP RP (Plus)
JM CM RM (Minus)
JPE CPE RPE (Parity Even)
JP0 CPO RPO (Parity Odd)
Two other instructions can affect a branch by replacing the contents or the program
counter:
 PCHL Move H & L to Program Counter
RST Special Restart Instruction Used
with Interrupts
POP Pop Two Bytes of Data off the Stack
XTHL Exchange Top of Stack with H & L
SPHL Move content of H & L to Stack Pointer
I/0 instructions
IN Initiate Input Operation
OUT Initiate Output Operation
Machine Control instructions
EI Enable Interrupt System
DI Disable Interrupt System
HLT Halt
NOP No Operation

SAMPLE PROGRAM
(1)Write an assembly program to add two numbers Program
MVI D, 8BH
MVI C, 6FH
MOV A, C
1100 0011
1000 0101
0010 0000
ADD D
OUT PORT1
HLT
(2)Write an assembly program to multiply a number by 8 Program
MVI A, 30H
RRC
RRC
RRC
OUT PORT1
HLT
(3)Write an assembly program to find greatest between two numbers Program
MVI B, 30H
MVI C, 40H
MOV A, B
CMP C
JZ EQU
JC GRT
OUT PORT1
HLT
EQU: MVI A, 01H
OUT PORT1
HLT
GRT: MOV A, C
OUT PORT1
HLT
2.5 Programming using Loop structure with Counting and Indexing
(i) 16 bit Multiplication
ADDRESS
LABEL
MNEMONICS
OPCODE
START
L1
L2
LHLD 4200
SPHL
LHLD 4202
XCHG
LXI H,0000
LXI B,0000
DAD SP
JNC L2
INX B
DCX D
MOV A,E
ORA D
JNZ L1
SHLD 4204
MOV L,C
MOV H,B
SHLD 4206
HLT
(ii)Finding the maximum number in the given array
ADDRESS
LABEL
MNEMONICS
OPCODE
START
L2
L3
L1
LDA 4500
MOV C, A
LXI H, 4501
MOV A, M
DCR C
INX H
JZ L1
CMP M
JC L2
JMP L3
STA 4520
HLT
(iii) To sort the array of data in ascending order
ADDRESS
LABEL
MNEMONICS
START
L3
L2
L1
MVI B, 00
LXI H, 4200
MOV C, M
DCR C
INX H
MOV A, M
INX H
CMP M
JC L1
MOV D, M
MOV M, A
DCX H
MOV M, D
INX H
MVI B, 01
DCR C
JNZ L2
DCR B
JZ L3
HLT
2.6 Programming using subroutine Instructions
Generation of Square waveform using DAC
ADDRESS
LABEL
MNEMONICS
START
DELAY
L2
L1
MVI A,00H
OUT C8
CALL DELAY
MVI A,FF
OUT C8
CALL DELAY
JMP START
MVI B,05H
MVI C,FF
DCR C
JNZ L1
DCR B
JNL L2
RET
2.7 Programming using Look up table
ADDRESS
LABEL
MNEMONICS
OPCODE
START
L2
MVI B,08
MVI A,00(DISPLAY MODE
SETUP)
OUT C2
MVI A,CC(CLEAR DISPLAY)
OUT C2
MVI A,90(WRITE DISPLAY
RAM)
OUT C2
MVI A, FF(CLEAR DISPLAY
RAM)
OUT C0
DCR B
JNZ L1
IN C2
ANI 07
JZ L2
MVI A, 40(SET TO READ FIFO
RAM)
OUT C2
IN C0
ANI 0F
MOV L, A
MVI H, 42
MOV A, M
OUT C0
JMP L2
LOOKUP TABLE
4200 0C 9F 4A 0B
4204 99 29 28 8F
4208 08 09 88 38
420C 6C 1A 68 E8
 UNIT III
8051 MICROCONTROLLER
1)ARCHITECTURE OF 8051:

Memory Organization
- Logical separation of program and data memory
-Separate address spaces for Program (ROM) and Data (RAM) Memory
Allow Data Memory to be accessed by 8-bit addresses quickly and manipulated by
8-bit CPU
 Program Memory
-Only be read, not written to
-The address space is 16-bit, so maximum of 64K bytes
-Up to 4K bytes can be on-chip (internal) of 8051 core
-PSEN (Program Store Enable) is used for access to external Program Memory
 Data Memory
-Includes 128 bytes of on-chip Data Memory which are more easily accessible
directly by its instructions
-There is also a number of Special Function Registers (SFRs)
 -Internal Data Memory contains four banks of eight registers and a special 32-
byte long segment which is bit addressable by 8051 bit-instructions
-External memory of maximum 64K bytes is accessible by “movx”

Interrupt Structure
The 8051 provides 4 interrupt sources
Two external interrupts
Two timer interrupts

Port Structure
The 8051 contains four I/O ports
All four ports are bidirectional
Each port has SFR (Special Function Registers P0 through P3) which works like a latch,
an output driver and an input buffer
Both output driver and input buffer of Port 0 and output driver of Port 2 are used for
accessing external memory
Accessing external memory works like this
Port 0 outputs the low byte of external memory address (which is timemultiplexed
with the byte being written or read)
Port 2 outputs the high byte (only needed when the address is 16 bits wide)
Port 3 pins are multifunctional
The alternate functions are activated with the 1 written in the corresponding bit in the
port SFR
Timer/Counter
The 8051 has two 16-bit Timer/Counter registers
Timer 0
Timer 1
Both can work either as timers or event counters
Both have four different operating modes

2) INSTRUCTION FORMAT
An instruction is a command to the microprocessor to perform a given task on a
specified data. Each instruction has two parts: one is task to be performed, called the
operation code (opcode), and the second is the data to be operated on, called the
operand. The operand (or data) can be specified in various ways. It may include 8-bit
(or 16-bit ) data, an internal register, a memory location, or 8-bit (or 16-bit) address.
In some instructions, the operand is implicit.
Instruction word size
The 8051 instruction set is classified into the following three groups according to
word size:
1. One-word or 1-byte instructions
2. Two-word or 2-byte instructions
3. Three-word or 3-byte instructions
One-Byte Instructions
A 1-byte instruction includes the opcode and operand in the same byte. Operand(s)
are internal register and are coded into the instruction.
These instructions are 1-byte instructions performing three different tasks. In the first
instruction, both operand registers are specified. In the second instruction, the operand
B is specified and the accumulator is assumed. Similarly, in the third instruction, the
accumulator is assumed to be the implicit operand. These instructions are stored in 8-
bit binary format in memory; each requires one memory location.
Two-Byte Instructions
In a two-byte instruction, the first byte specifies the operation code and the second
byte specifies the operand. Source operand is a data byte immediately following the
opcode.
Three-Byte Instructions
In a three-byte instruction, the first byte specifies the opcode, and the following two
bytes specify the 16-bit address. Note that the second byte is the low-order address
and the third byte is the high-order address.

3) Addressing Modes of 8051

The 8051 provides a total of five distinct addressing modes.
(1) immediate
(2) register
(3) direct
(4) register indirect
(5) indexed
(1) Immediate Addressing Mode
The operand comes immediately after the op-code.
The immediate data must be preceded by the pound sign, "#".

(2) Register Addressing Mode

Register addressing mode involves the use of registers to hold the data to be
manipulated

(3)Direct Addressing Mode

- It is most often used to access RAM locations 30 - 7FH.
-This is due to the fact that register bank locations are accessed by the register names of R0 -
R7.
-There is no such name for other RAM locations so must use direct addressing
-In the direct addressing mode, the data is in a RAM memory location whose address is known,
and this address is given as a part of the instruction
(4)Register Indirect Addressing Mode
A register is used as a pointer to the data.
If the data is inside the CPU, only registers R0 and R 1 are used for this purpose.
R2 - R7 cannot be used to hold the address of an operand located in RAM when using
indirect addressing mode.
When RO and R 1 are used as pointers they must be preceded by the @ sign.
(5) Indexed Addressing Mode
Indexed addressing mode is widely used in accessing data elements of look-up table
entries located in the program ROM space of the 8051.
The instruction used for this purpose is :
MOVC A, @ A+DPTR
The 16-bit register DPTR and register A are used to form the address of the data element
stored in on-chip ROM.
Because the data elements are stored in the program (code) space ROM of the 8051, the
instruction MOVC is used instead of MOV. The "C" means code.
In this instruction the contents of A are added to the 16-bit register DPTR to form the 16-
bit address of the needed data
4) Interrupt Structure
8051 provides 4 interrupt sources
2 external interrupts
2 timer interrupts
They are controlled via two SFRs, IE and IP
Each interrupt source can be individually enabled or disabled by setting or clearing a bit
in IE (Interrupt Enable). IE also exists a global disable bit, which can be cleared to
disable all interrupts at once
Each interrupt source can also be individually set to one of two priority levels by setting
or clearing a bit in IP (Interrupt Priority)
A low-priority interrupt can be interrupted by high-priority interrupt, but not by another
low-priority one
A high-priority interrupt can‟t be interrupted by any other interrupt source
If interrupt requests of the same priority level are received simultaneously, an internal
polling sequence determines which request is serviced, so within each priority lever there
is a second priority structure
This internal priority structure is determined by the polling sequence, shown in the
following table
 External Interrupt
External interrupts ~INT0 and ~INT1 have two ways of activation
Level-activated
Transition-activated
This depends on bits IT0 and IT1 in TCON
The flags that actually generate these interrupts are bits IE0 and IE1 in TCON
On-chip hardware clears that flag that generated an external interrupt when the service
routine is vectored to, but only if the interrupt was transition-activated
When the interrupt is level-activated, then the external requesting source is controlling
the request flag, not the on-chip hardware

Handling Interrupt

When interrupt occurs (or correctly, when the flag for an enabled interrupt is found to be
set (1)), the interrupt system generates an LCALL to the appropriate location in Program
Memory, unless some other conditions block the interrupt
Several conditions can block an interrupt
An interrupt of equal or higher priority level is already in progress
The current (polling) cycle is not the final cycle in the execution of the instruction in
progress
The instruction in progress is RETI or any write to IE or IP registers
If an interrupt flag is active but not being responded to for one of the above conditions, must
be still active when the blocking condition is removed, or the
denied interrupt will not be serviced
Next step is saving the registers on stack. The hardware-generated LCALL causes only the
contents of the Program Counter to be pushed onto the stack, and reloads the PC with the
beginning address of the service routine
In some cases it also clears the flag that generated the interrupt, and in other cases it doesn‟t.
It clears an external interrupt flag (IE0 or IE1) only if it was transitionavtivated.
Having only PC be automatically saved gives programmer more freedom to decide how
much time to spend saving other registers. Programmer must also be more careful with proper
selection, which register to save.
The service routine for each interrupt begins at a fixed location. The interrupt locations are
spaced at 8-byte interval, beginning at 0003H for External Interrupt 0, 000BH for Timer 0,
0013H for External Interrupt 1 and 001BH for Timer 1.
 I/O Ports
The 8051 contains four I/O ports
All four ports are bidirectional
Each port has SFR (Special Function Registers P0 through P3) which works like a latch,
an output driver and an input buffer
Both output driver and input buffer of Port 0 and output driver of Port 2 are used for
accessing external memory
Accessing external memory works like this
Port 0 outputs the low byte of external memory address (which is timemultiplexed
with the byte being written or read)
Port 2 outputs the high byte (only needed when the address is 16 bits wide)
Port 3 pins are multifunctional
The alternate functions are activated with the 1 written in the corresponding bit in the
port SFR

Timers
The 8051 comes equipped with two timers, both of which may be controlled, set, read, and
configured individually. The 8051 timers have three general functions: 1) Keeping time and/or
calculating the amount of time between events, 2) Counting the events themselves, or 3)
Generating baud rates for the serial port.
one of the primary uses of timers is to measure time. We will discuss this use of timers first and
will subsequently discuss the use of timers to count events. When a timer is used to measure time
it is also called an "interval timer" since it is measuring the time of the interval between two
events.

Timer SFR
8051 has two timers which each function essentially the same way. One timer is TIMER0 and
the other is TIMER1. The two timers share two SFRs (TMOD and TCON) which control the
timers, and each timer also has two SFRs dedicated solely to itself (TH0/TL0 and TH1/TL1).
Table 4.4 SFR

13-bit Time Mode (mode 0)

Timer mode "0" is a 13-bit timer. This is a relic that was kept around in the 8051 to maintain
compatability with its predecesor, the 8048. Generally the 13-bit timer mode is not used in new
development.
When the timer is in 13-bit mode, TLx will count from 0 to 31. When TLx is incremented from
31, it will "reset" to 0 and increment THx. Thus, effectively, only 13 bits of the two timer bytes
are being used: bits 0-4 of TLx and bits 0-7 of THx. This also means, in essence, the timer can
only contain 8192 values. If you set a 13-bit timer to 0, it will overflow back to zero 8192
Machine cycles later.
Again, there is very little reason to use this mode and it is only mentioned so you wont be
surprised if you ever end up analyzing archaeic code which has been passed down through the
generations (a generation in a programming shop is often on the order of about 3 or 4 months).
SFR Name Description SFR Address
TH0 Timer 0 High Byte 8Ch
TL0 Timer 0 Low Byte 8Ah
TH1 Timer 1 High Byte 8Dh
TL1 Timer 1 Low Byte 8Bh
TCON Timer Control 88h
TMOD Timer Mode 89h

16-bit Time Mode (mode 1)

Timer mode "1" is a 16-bit timer. This is a very commonly used mode. It functions just
like 13-bit mode except that all 16 bits are used.
TLx is incremented from 0 to 255. When TLx is incremented from 255, it resets to 0 and causes
THx to be incremented by 1. Since this is a full 16-bit timer, the timer may contain up to 65536
distinct values. If you set a 16-bit timer to 0, it will overflow back to 0 after 65,536 machine
cycles.

8-bit Time Mode (mode 2)

Timer mode "2" is an 8-bit auto-reload mode. What is that, you may ask? Simple. When a timer
is in mode 2, THx holds the "reload value" and TLx is the timer itself. Thus, TLx starts counting
up. When TLx reaches 255 and is subsequently incremented, instead of resetting to 0 (as in the
case of modes 0 and 1), it will be reset to the value stored in THx.

Split Timer Mode (mode 3)

Timer mode "3" is a split-timer mode. When Timer 0 is placed in mode 3, it essentially becomes
two separate 8-bit timers. That is to say, Timer 0 is TL0 and Timer 1 is TH0. Both timers count
from 0 to 255 and overflow back to 0. All the bits that are related to Timer 1 will now be tied to
TH0.
While Timer 0 is in split mode, the real Timer 1 (i.e. TH1 and TL1) can be put into modes 0, 1 or
2 normally--however, you may not start or stop the real timer 1 since the bits that do that are now
linked to TH0. The real timer 1, in this case, will be incremented every machine cycle no matter
what.

USING TIMERS AS EVENT COUNTERS

We've discussed how a timer can be used for the obvious purpose of keeping track of
time. However, the 8051 also allows us to use the timers to count events. How can this be
useful? Let's say you had a sensor placed across a road that would send a pulse every time a car
passed over it. This could be used to determine the volume of traffic on the road. We could
attach this sensor to one of the 8051's I/O lines and constantly monitor it, detecting when it
pulsed high and then incrementing our counter when it went back to a low state. This is not
terribly difficult, but requires some code. Let's say we hooked the sensor to P1.0; the code to
count cars passing would look something like this: JNB P1.0,$ ;If a car hasn't raised the signal,
keep waiting JB P1.0,$ ;The line is high which means the car is on the sensor right now INC
COUNTER ;The car has passed completely, so we count it

Serial Communication
Some of the external I/0 devices receive only the serial data.Normally serial
communication is used in the Multi Processor environment.8051 has two pins for serial
communication.
(1)SID- Serial Input data.
(2)SOD-Serial Output data.
 UNIT IV
PERIPHERAL INTERFACING

1)Architecture of 8255
The parallel input-output port chip 8255 is also called as programmable peripheral input output
port. The Intel‟s 8255 is designed for use with Intel‟s 8-bit, 16-bit and higher capability
microprocessors. It has 24 input/output lines which may be individually programmed in two
groups of twelve lines each, or three groups of eight lines. The two groups of I/O pins are named
as Group A and Group B. Each of these two groups contains a subgroup of eight I/O lines called
as 8-bit port and another subgroup of four lines or a 4-bit port. Thus Group A contains an 8-bit
port A along with a 4-bit port. C upper.The port A lines are identified by symbols PA0-PA7
while the port C lines are identified as PC4-PC7. Similarly, Group B contains an 8-bit port B,
containing lines PB0-PB7 and a 4-bit port C with lower bits PC0- PC3. The port C upper and
port C lower can be used in combination as an 8-bit port C. Both the port C are assigned the
same address. Thus one may have either three 8-bit I/O ports or two 8-bit and two 4-bit ports
from 8255. All of these ports can function independently either as input or as output ports. This
can be achieved by programming the bits of an internal register of 8255 called as control word
register ( CWR ). This buffer receives or transmits data upon the execution of input or output
instructions by the microprocessor. The control words or status information is also transferred
through the buffer.

2) PIN DIAGRAM OF 8255

The signal description of 8255 are briefly presented as follows :
• PA7-PA0: These are eight port A lines that acts as either latched output or buffered input lines
depending upon the control word loaded into the control word register.
• PC7-PC4 : Upper nibble of port C lines. They may act as either output latches or input buffers
lines.This port also can be used for generation of handshake lines in mode 1 or mode 2.
• PC3-PC0 : These are the lower port C lines, other details are the same as PC7-PC4 lines.
• PB0-PB7 : These are the eight port B lines which are used as latched output lines or buffered
input lines in the same way as port A.
• RD : This is the input line driven by the microprocessor and should be low to indicate read
operation to 8255.
• WR : This is an input line driven by the microprocessor. A low on this line indicates write
operation.
CS : This is a chip select line. If this line goes low, it enables the 8255 to respond to RD and WR
signals, otherwise RD and WR signal are neglected

A1-A0 : These are the address input lines and are driven by the microprocessor. These lines
A1-A0 with RD, WR and CS from the following operations for 8255. These address lines are
used for addressing any one of the four registers,i.e. three ports and a control word register as
given in table below
• In case of 8086 systems, if the 8255 is to be interfaced with lower order data bus, the A0 and
A1 pins of 8255 are connected with A1 and A2 respectively.

D0-D7 :
These are the data bus lines those carry data or control word to/from the Microprocessor.

RESET :
A logic high on this line clears the control word register of 8255. All ports are set as
input ports by default after reset.

Operational Modes of 8255

There are two main operational modes of 8255:
1. Input/output mode 2. Bit set/reset mode

Input/Output Mode
There are three types of the input/output mode. They are as follows:

Mode 0
In this mode, the ports can be used for simple input/output operations without handshaking. If
both port A and B are initialized in mode 0, the two halves of port C can be either used together
as an additional 8-bit port, or they can be used as individual 4-bit ports. Since the two halves of
port C are independent, they may be used such that one-half is initialized as an input port while
the other half is initialized as an output port. The input output features in mode 0 are as follows:
1. O/p are latched. 2. I/p are buffered not latched. 3. Port do not have handshake or interrupt
capability.

Mode 1
When we wish to use port A or port B for handshake (strobed) input or output operation, we
initialise that port in mode 1 (port A and port B can be initilalised to operate in different
modes,ie, for eg, port A can operate in mode 0 and port B in mode 1). Some of the pins of port C
function as handshake lines.
For port B in this mode (irrespective of whether is acting as an input port or output port), PC0,
PC1 and PC2 pins function as handshake lines.
If port A is initialised as mode 1 input port, then, PC3, PC4 and PC5 function as handshake
signals. Pins PC6 and PC7 are available for use as input/output lines.
The mode 1 which supports handshaking has following features: 1. Two ports i.e. port A and B
can be use as 8-bit i/o port. 2. Each port uses three lines of port c as handshake signal and
remaining two signals can be function as i/o port. 3. interrupt logic is supported. 4. Input and
Output data are latched.
Mode 2
Only group A can be initialised in this mode. Port A can be used for bidirectional handshake data
transfer. This means that data can be input or output on the same eight lines (PA0 - PA7). Pins
PC3 - PC7 are used as handshake lines for port A. The remaining pins of port C (PC0 - PC2) can
be used as input/output lines if group B is initialised in mode 0. In this mode, the 8255 may be
used to extend the system bus to a slave microprocessor or to transfer data bytes to and from a
floppy disk controller.

Bit Set/Reset (BSR) mode

In this mode only port b can be used (as an output port). Each line of port C (PC0 - PC7) can be
set/reset by suitably loading the command word register.no effect occurs in input-output mode.
The individual bits of port c can be set or reset by sending the signal OUT instruction to the
control register.

3)PROGRAMMABLE INTERRUPT CONTROLLER(8259)

8 levels of interrupts.
Can be cascaded in master-slave configuration to handle 64 levels of interrupts.
Internal priority resolver.
Fixed priority mode and rotating priority mode.
Individually maskable interrupts.
Modes and masks can be changed dynamically.
Accepts IRQ, determines priority, checks whether incoming priority > current level being
serviced, issues interrupt signal.
In 8085 mode, provides 3 byte CALL instruction. In 8086 mode, provides 8 bit vector number.
Polled and vectored mode.
Starting address of ISR or vector number is programmable.
No clock required
Pin diagram
4) 8251 UNIVERSAL SYNCHRONOUS ASYNCHRONOUS RECEIVER
TRANSMITTER (USART)
The 8251 is a USART (Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter) for serial
data communication. As a peripheral device of a microcomputer system, the 8251receives
parallel data from the CPU and transmits serial data after conversion. This device also receives
serial data from the outside and transmits parallel data to the CPU after conversion

Control Words
There are two types of control word.
1. Mode instruction (setting of function)
2. Command (setting of operation)
1) Mode Instruction
Mode instruction is used for setting the function of the 8251. Mode instruction will be in "wait
for write" at either internal reset or external reset. That is, the writing of a control word after
resetting will be recognized as a "mode instruction."
Items set by mode instruction are as follows:
• Synchronous/asynchronous mode
• Stop bit length (asynchronous mode)
• Character length
• Parity bit
• Baud rate factor (asynchronous mode)
• Internal/external synchronization (synchronous mode)
• Number of synchronous characters (Synchronous mode)
The bit configuration of mode instruction is shown in Figure. In the case of synchronous mode, it
is necessary to write one-or two byte sync characters. If sync characters were written, a function
will be set because the writing of sync characters constitutes part of mode instruction.

Command
Command is used for setting the operation of the 8251. It is possible to write a command
whenever necessary after writing a mode instruction and sync characters.Items to be set by
command are as follows:
• Transmit Enable/Disable
• Receive Enable/Disable
5)Programmable Keyboard/Display Interface - 8279
A programmable keyboard and display interfacing chip.Scans and encodes up to a 64-key
keyboard.Controls up to a 16-digit numerical display.Keyboard section has a built-in FIFO 8
character buffer.The display is controlled from an internal 16x8 RAM tha stores the coded
display information.
A0: Selects data (0) or control/status (1) for reads and writes between micro and 8279.
BD: Output that blanks the displays.
CLK: Used internally for timing. Max is 3 MHz.
CN/ST: Control/strobe, connected to the control key on the keyboard
CS: Chip select that enables programming, reading the keyboard, etc.
DB7-DB0: Consists of bidirectional pins that connect to data bus on micro.
IRQ: Interrupt request, becomes 1 when a key is pressed, data is available.
OUT A3-A0/B3-B0: Outputs that sends data to the most significant/least significant nibble of
display.
RD(WR): Connects to micro's IORC or RD signal, reads data/status registers.
RESET: Connects to system RESET.
RL7-RL0: Return lines are inputs used to sense key depression in the keyboard matrix.
Shift: Shift connects to Shift key on keyboard
The display section has eight output lines divided into two groups A0-A3 and B0-B3.
The output lines can be used either as a single group of eight lines or as two groups of four
lines, in conjunction with the scan lines for a multiplexed display.
The output lines are connected to the anodes through driver transistor in case of common
cathode 7-segment LEDs.
The cathodes are connected to scan lines through driver transistors.
The display can be blanked by BD (low) line.
The display section consists of 16 x 8 display RAM. The CPU can read from or write into any
location of the display RAM.
Scan section:
The scan section has a scan counter and four scan lines, SL0 to SL3.
In decoded scan mode, the output of scan lines will be similar to a 2-to-4 decoder.
In encoded scan mode, the output of scan lines will be binary count, and so an external decoder
should be used to convert the binary count to decoded output.
The scan lines are common for keyboard and display.
The scan lines are used to form the rows of a matrix keyboard and also connected to digit
drivers of a multiplexed display, to turn ON/OFF.
CPU interface section:
The CPU interface section takes care of data transfer between 8279 and the processor.
This section has eight bidirectional data lines DB0 to DB7 for data transfer between 8279 and
CPU.
It requires two internal address A =0 for selecting data buffer and A = 1 for selecting control
register of8279.
The control signals WR (low), RD (low), CS (low) and A0 are used for read/write to 8279.
It has an interrupt request line IRQ, for interrupt driven data transfer with processor.
The 8279 require an internal clock frequency of 100 kHz. This can be obtained by dividing the
input clock by an internal prescaler.
The RESET signal sets the 8279 in 16-character display with two -key lockout keyboard
modes.

6)Keyboard Interface of 8279

The keyboard matrix can be any size from 2x2 to 8x8.Pins SL2-SL0 sequentially scan each
column through a counting operation.The 74LS138 drives 0's on one line at a time.The 8279
scans RL pins synchronously with the scan.RL pins incorporate internal pull-ups, no need for
external resistor pull-ups.The 8279 must be programmed first. First three bits given below select
one of 8 control registers (opcode).
000DDMMM
Mode set: Opcode 000.
DD sets displays mode.
MMM sets keyboard mode.
DD field selects either:
8- or 16-digit display
Whether new data are entered to the rightmost or leftmost display position.

Encoded: SL outputs are active-high, follow binary bit pattern 0-7 or 0-15.
Decoded: SL outputs are active-low (only one low at any time). Pattern output: 1110, 1101,
1011, 0111.
Strobed: An active high pulse on the CN/ST input pin strobes data from the RL pins into an
internal FIFO for reading by micro later.
2-key lockout/N-key rollover: Prevents 2 keys from being recognized if pressed
simultaneously/Accepts all keys pressed from 1st to last.
7)ADC Interfacing with 8085 Microprocessor

Features
The ADC0809 is an 8-bit successive approximation type ADC with inbuilt 8-channel
multiplexer.
The ADC0809 is suitable for interface with 8086 microprocessor.
The ADC0809 is available as a 28 pin IC in DIP (Dual Inline Package).
The ADC0809 has a total unadjusted error of ±1 LSD (Least Significant Digit).
The ADC0808 is also same as ADC0809 except the error. The total unadjusted error in
ADC0808 is ± 1/2 LSD.

The successive approximation register (SAR) performs eight iterations to determine the digital
code for input value. The SAR is reset on the positive edge of START pulse and start the
conversion process on the falling edge of START pulse. A conversion process will be interrupted
on receipt of new START pulse. The End-Of-Conversion (EOC) will go low between 0 and 8
clock pulses after the positive edge of START pulse. The ADC can be used in continuous
conversion mode by tying the EOC output to START input. In this mode an external START
pulse should be applied whenever power is switched ON. The 256R ladder network has been
provided instead of conventional R/2R ladder because of its inherent monotonic, which
guarantees no missing digital codes. Also the 256R resistor network does not cause load
variations on the reference voltage. The comparator in ADC0809/ADC0808 is a chopper-
stabilized comparator. It converts the DC input signal into an AC signal, and amplifies the AC
sign using high gain AC amplifier Then it converts AC signal to DC signal. This technique limits
the drift component of the amplifier, because the drift is a DC component and it is not
amplified/passed by the AC amp1ifier. This makes the ADC extremely insensitive to
temperature, long term drift and input offset errors. In ADC conversion process the input analog
value is quantized and each quantized analog value will have a unique binary equivalent. The
quantization step in ADC0809/ADC0808 is given by,

8) DAC Interfacing with 8085 Microprocessor

To convert the digital signal to analog signal a Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) has to
be employed.
The DAC will accept a digital (binary) input and convert to analog voltage or current.
Every DAC will have "n" input lines and an analog output.
The DAC require a reference analog voltage (Vref) or current (Iref) source.
The smallest possible analog value that can be represented by the n-bit binary code is called
resolution.
The resolution of DAC with n-bit binary input is 1/2nof reference analog value.

The DAC0800 is an 8-bit, high speed, current output DAC with a typical settling time
(conversion time) of 100 ns.
It produces complementary current output, which can be converted to voltage by using simple
resistor load.
The DAC0800 require a positive and a negative supply voltage in the range of ± 5V to ±18V.
It can be directly interfaced with TTL, CMOS, PMOS and other logic families.
For TTL input, the threshold pin should be tied to ground (VLC = 0V).
The reference voltage and the digital input will decide the analog output current, which can be
converted to a voltage by simply connecting a resistor to output terminal or by using an op-amp I
to V converter.
The DAC0800 is available as a 16-pin IC in DIP.
 UNIT V
MICRO CONTROLLER PROGRAMMING & APPLICATIONS

1)ARITHMETIC INSTRUCTIONS
2)LOGICAL INSTRCUTIONS

3)DATA TRANSFER INSTRUCTION THAT ACCESS THE INTERNAL

MEMORY
4) )DATA TRANSFER INSTRUCTION THAT ACCESS THE EXTERNAL
MEMORY

5)LOOK UP TABLES

6)BOOLEAN INSTRUCTION
7)JUMP INSTRUCTIONS

8)Interfacing Keyboard to 8051 Microcontroller

The key board here we are interfacing is a matrix keyboard. This key board is designed with a
particular rows and columns. These rows and columns are connected to the microcontroller
through its ports of the micro controller 8051. We normally use 8*8 matrix key board. So only
two ports of 8051 can be easily connected to the rows and columns of the key board. When ever
a key is pressed, a row and a column gets shorted through that pressed key and all the other keys
are left open. When a key is pressed only a bit in the port goes high. Which indicates
microcontroller that the key is pressed. By this high on the bit key in the corresponding column
is identified. Once we are sure that one of key in the key board is pressed next our aim is to
identify that key. To do this we firstly check for particular row and then we check the
corresponding column the key board.
To check the row of the pressed key in the keyboard, one of the row is made high by making one
of bit in the output port of 8051 high . This is done until the row is found out. Once we get the
row next out job is to find out the column of the pressed key. The column is detected by contents
in the input ports with the help of a counter. The content of the input port is rotated with carry
until the carry bit is set.
The contents of the counter is then compared and displayed in the display. This display is
designed using a seven segment display and a BCD to seven segment decoder IC 7447.
The BCD equivalent number of counter is sent through output part of 8051 displays the number
of pressed key.
 SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY

9)Interfacing Stepper Motor with 8051Microcontroller

Step motor is the easiest to control. It's handling simplicity is really hard to deny – all there is to
do is to bring the sequence of rectangle impulses to one input of step controller and direction
information to another input. Direction information is very simple and comes down to "left" for
logical one on that pin and "right" for logical zero. Motor control is also very simple every
impulse makes the motor operating for one step and if there is no impulse the motor won't start.
Pause between impulses can be shorter or longer and it defines revolution rate. This rate cannot
be infinite because the motor won't be able to "catch up" with all the impulses (documentation on
specific motor should contain such information). The picture below represents the scheme for
connecting the step motor to microcontroller and appropriate program code follows.
The key to driving a stepper is realizing how the motor is constructed. A diagram shows the
representation of a 4 coil motor, so named because 4 coils are used to cause the revolution of the
drive shaft. Each coil must be energized in the correct order for the motor to spin.
Step angle
It is angle through which motor shaft rotates in one step. step angle is different for different
motor . selection of motor according to step angle depends on the application , simply if you
require small increments in rottion choose motor having smaller step angle. No of steps require
to rotate one complete rotation = 360 deg. / step angle in deg.

INTERFACING TO 8051.
To cause the stepper to rotate, we have to send a pulse to each coil in turn. The 8051 does
not have sufficient drive capability on its output to drive each coil, so there are a number of ways
to drive a stepper, Stepper motors are usually controlled by transistor or driver IC like ULN2003.
Driving current for each coil is then needed about 60mA at +5V supply.
Servo Motor
Servos are DC motors with built in gearing and feedback control loop circuitry. And no motor
drivers required. They are extremely popular with robot, RC plane, and RC boat builders. Most
servo motors can rotate about 90 to 180 degrees. Some rotate through a full 360degreesormore.
However, servos are unable to continually rotate, meaning they can't be used for driving wheels,
unless they are modified (how to modify), but their precision positioning makes them ideal for
robot legs and arms, rack and pinion steering, and sensor scanners to name a few. Since servos
are fully self contained, the velocity and angle control loops are very easy to impliment, while
prices remain very affordable. To use a servo, simply connect the black wire to ground, the red to
a 4.8-6V source, and the yellow/white wire to a signal generator (such as from your
microcontroller). Vary the square wave pulse width from 1-2 ms and your servo is now
position/velocity controlled.
Pulse width modulation (PWM) is a powerful technique for controlling analog circuits with a
processor's digital outputs. PWM is employed in a wide variety of applications, ranging from
measurement and communications to power control and conversion. The general concept is to
simply send an ordinary logic square wave to your servo at a specific wave length, and your
servo goes to a particular angle (or velocity if your servo is modified).The wavelength directly
maps to servo angle.

Controlling the Servo Motor

PWM
Pulse width modulation (PWM) is a powerful technique for controlling analog circuits with a
processor's digital outputs. PWM is employed in a wide variety of applications, ranging from
measurement and communications to power control and conversion. The general concept is to
simply send an ordinary logic square wave to your servo at a specific wave length, and your
servo goes to a particular angle (or velocity if your servo is modified). The wavelength directly
maps to servo angle.

Programmable Counter Array (PCA)

The PCA is a special modules in Philips P89V51RD2 which includes a special 16-bit Timer that
has five 16-bit capture/compare modules associated with it. Each of the modules can be
programmed to operate in one of four modes: rising and/or falling edge capture, software timer,
high-speed output, or pulse width modulator. Each module has a pin associated with it in port 1.
Module 0 is connected to P1.3 (CEX0), module 1 to P1.4 (CEX1), etc. Registers CH and CL
contain current value of the free running up counting 16-bit PCA timer. The PCA timer is a
common time base for all five modules and can be programmed to run at: 1/6 the oscillator
frequency, 1/2 the oscillator frequency, the Timer 0 overflow, or the input on the ECI pin (P1.2).
The timer count source is determined from the CPS1 and CPS0 bits in the CMOD SFR. In the
CMOD SFR there are three additional bits associated with the PCA. They are CIDL which
allows the PCA to stop during idle mode, WDTE which enables or disables the Watchdog
function on module 4, and ECF which when set causes an interrupt and the PCA overflow flag
CF (in the CCON SFR) to be set when the PCA timer overflows. The Watchdog timer function is
implemented in module 4 of PCA. Here, we are interested only PWM mode.

8051 Pulse width modulator mode

All of the PCA modules can be used as PWM outputs. Output frequency depends on the source
for the PCA timer. All of the modules will have the same frequency of output because they all
share one and only PCA timer. The duty cycle of each module is independently variable using
the module's capture register CCAPnL.When the value of the PCA CL SFR is less than the value
in the module's CCAPnL SFR the output will be low, when it is equal to or greater than the
output will be high. When CL overflows from FF to 00, CCAPnL is reloaded with the value in
CCAPnH. this allows updating the PWM without glitches. The PWM and ECOM bits in the
module's CCAPMn register must be set to enable the PWM mode. For more details see
P89V51RD2 datasheet. This is an example how to control servos with 8051 by using PWM. The
schematic is shown below. I use P1.4 (CEX1) to control the left servo and P1.2 (CEX2) to
control the right servo. Here, I use GWS servo motor model S03T STD. I need three states of
duty cycle:
20 ms to Stop the servo
1 ms to Rotate Clockwise

Calculation for duty cycle (for XTAL 18.432 MHz with 6 Clock/Machine cycle)
Initial PWM Period = 20mS (18.432MHz /6-Cycle Mode)
Initial PCA Count From Timer0 Overflow
1 Cycle of Timer0 = (1/18.432MHz)x6 = 0.326 uS
Timer0 AutoReload = 240 Cycle = 78.125 uS
1 Cycle PCA = [(1/18.432MHz)x6]x240 = 78.125 uS
Period 20mS of PCA = 20ms/78.125us = 256 (CL Reload)
CL (20mS) = 256 Cycle Auto Reload
Load CCAPxH (1.0mS) = 256-13 = 243 (243,244,...,255 = 13 Cycle)
Load CCAPxH (2.0mS) = 255-26 = 230 (230,231,...,255 = 26 Cycle)
2 ms to Rotate Counter-clockwise

Washing Machine Control

Many washing m/c shell in the market has mechanical controlled sequence for activated the
timer and the sequence back and forth for their motor; washing motor or spinning motor.
Spinning motor control only has one direction only, and its simple could be changed to the
discrete mechanical timer which sell on the market. But washing motor control has 2 direction
for this purpose, it means to squeeze the clothes, it must go to forward and then reversed. The
sequence is like this :
First, go to forward direction for about a few seconds
Than stop, while the chamber is still rotate
Second, go back to reverse direction for about a few seconds
Than stop, while the chamber is still rotate
And so on, back and forth, until the the timer elapsed

SCHEMATIC

Timing sequence like the above description, can be implemented with many way, by using
discrete electronic components, timer, using a program or a microcontroller or microprocessor,
etc. Because I am learning the PIC microcontroller for right now, I will implement this function
using this microcontroller, but for you who familiar with another kind of microcontroller my
adapted it to your purpose. By using PIC micro, it can be made more compact. First I plan to
make 2 buttons, 1 for set the timer and another for reset the timer or for the emergency stop push
button. Then to know the timer works or not, I need a visual display. For this purpose I will use
7-segmen display showing the rest of the timer. To run the motor sequence of course I need a
pair of relays (power relays, about 3 Amperes output), one for forward and another for reverse
option. I will use the very common family of PIC micro, ie : 16F84A, because this is the most
popular type and very simples used and very much used. Also can be obtained easily in the
market. But this is the medium type of PIC micro family. It has 1kByte of memory (EEPROM
type) and 13 I/O pins. It can be reprogrammable thousands times. Because the I/O just only 13
pins, I used a BCD to 7-segmen chip. So it will left a few I/O pins for expanded in the future.
You can omitted this chip for timing sequence purpose and save one IC price, because the I/O
just exactly enough.

I/O port A-0 = SET push button

I/O port A-1 = RST push button
I/O port A-2 = Reserved
I/O port A-3 = Reserved
I/O port A-4 = Reserved
I/O port B-0 = Forward Relay (Run motor forward)
I/O port B-1 = Reverse Relay (Run motor reverse)
I/O port B-2 = Activated unit 7-segmen (multiplexed)
I/O port B-3 = Activated ten 7-segmen (multiplexed)
I/O port B-4 = BCD data A (for 7-segmen)
I/O port B-5 = BCD data B (for 7-segmen)
I/O port B-6 = BCD data C (for 7-segmen)
I/O port B-7 = BCD data D (for 7-segmen)
Also integrated power supply to run it modularly

The I/O can be configured as input pin or output pin bit-ly. It is up to you to choose the I/O pin
number goes to what function, but it infect the program firmware of course. Once you choose,
then it is just like that, except you also change both, the program and the hardware.

Working of Washing Machine

The direction of rotation can be controlled When switchS1 is in position A, coil L1 of the motor
receives the current directly, whereas coil L2 receives the current with a phase shiftdue to
capacitor C. So the rotor rotates in clockwise direction (see Fig. 2(a)). Whenswitch S1 is in
position B, the reverse happens and the rotor rotates in anti-clockwisedirection Thus switch S1
can change the rotation direction.The motor cannot be reversed instantly. It needs abrief pause
between switching directions, or else it mayget damaged. For this purpose, another spin direction
control timer (IC2) is employed. It is realised with an IC 555. This timer gives an alternate „on‟
and „off‟ time duration of 10 seconds and 3 seconds, respectively.So after every l0 seconds of
running (either in clockwise or anticlockwisedirection), the motor stops for a brief duration of 3
seconds. The values of R3 and R4 are calculated accordingly.The master timer is realised with
monostable IC555 (IC1) and its „on‟ time is decided by the resistance of 1-megaohm
potmeterVR. A 47-kilo-ohm resistor is added in series so thateven when the VR knob in zero
resistance position ,the net series resistanceis not zero.
 UNIT 1
TWO MARKS
1. What is the function of program counter in 8085 microprocessor? [may 2013]
Program counter stores the address of next instruction to be fetched. Thus it is used as
pointer to the instruction.

2. List the control and status signal of 8085 microprocessor and mention its need?[dec 12,08,06]
ALE (Output):
 Address Latch Enable: It occurs during the first clock cycle of a machine state and
enables the address to get latched into the on chip latch of peripherals.
 The falling edge of ALE is set to guarantee set up and hold times for the address
information.ALE can also be used to store the status information.
RD(Output3state):
READ: indicates the selected memory or I/0 device is to be read and that the Data Bus is
available for the data transfer.
WR (Output3state):
WRITE: indicates the data on the Data Bus is to be written into the selected memory or I/0
location. Data is set up at the trailing edge of WR. 3stated during Hold and Halt modes.
IO/M,S0,S1:
 IO/M indicates whether input output operation or memory operation is being
carried out.
 S0 and S1 indicated the type os machine cycle in progress.
READY(Input):
If Ready is high during a read or write cycle, it indicates that the memory or peripheral is ready
to send or receive data .
If Ready is low, the CPU will wait for Ready to go high before completing the read or write
cycle.

3. Specify the size of data, address, memory word and capacity of 8085 microprocessor[may
2011]
 Size of data bus =8 bits
 Size of address bus=16bit
 Size of memory word=8 bit
 Memory capacity=64kb

4. What is the need of ALE signal in 8085 microprocessor?[may 2010]

 This is used to demultiplex AD0 to AD7 lines to A0-A7 and D0-D7.
 The separation of address line and data line is achieved by connecting a external latch to
AD0-AD7 lines and enabling the latch when ALE signal is active.

5. What is tristate logic?[june 2009]

 Logic output has two states LOW and HIGH corresponding to the logic value 0 and 1.
 However some output have a third electrical state that is not logical called high impedance
or floating state.
 In this state the output behaves as if it is not even connected to circuit except small
leakage current that may flow into or out of the output pin. This state is tristate logic.
6. List the five interrupt pins available in 8085[may 2010]
The five interrupt pins available in 8085 are
 TRAP
 RST 7.5
 RST 6.5
 RST 5.5
 INTR

7. What is stack and what is the function of stack pointer[Dec 07]

 The stack is a reserved area of memory in the RAM where temporary information may be
stored.
 A 16 bit stack pointer is used to hold the address of most recent stack entry.

8.Define the function of parity flag and zero flag n 8085[may 12]
 Parity Flag (PF): This flag is used to indicate the parity of result. If lower order 8-bits of
the result contains even number of 1‟s, the Parity Flag is set and for odd number
of1‟s,the Parity Flag is reset.
 Zero Flag(ZF) :It is set; if the result of arithmetic or logical operation is zero else it is
reset.

9. What is the important control signal in 8085 microprocessor[Dec08]

The important signal in 8085 microprocessor are: ALE,IO/M,RD/WR.

10. Why interfacing is needed for 1/0 devices?

Generally I/O devices are slow devices. Therefore the speed of I/O devices does not
match with the speed of microprocessor. And so an interface is provided between system bus and
I/O devices.

11. Why address bus is unidirectional?

The address is an identification number used by the microprocessor to identify or access a
memory location or I / O device. It is an output signal from the processor. Hence the address bus
is unidirectional.

12. What are machine language and assembly language programs?

The software developed using 1's and 0's are called machine language, programs. The
software developed using mnemonics are called assembly language programs.

13. What are the basic units of a microprocessor ?

The basic units or blocks of a microprocessor are ALU, an array of registers and control
unit

14. Steps involved to fetch a byte in 8085?

 The pc places the 16-bit memory address on the address bus
 The control unit sends the control signal RD to enable the memory chip
 The byte from the memory location is placed on the data bus
  The byte is placed in the instruction decoder of the microprocessor and the task is carried
out according to the instruction.

15. Define instruction cycle, machine cycle and T-state?

 Instruction cycle is defined as the time required completing the execution of an
instruction.
 Machine cycle is defined as the time required completing one operation of accessing
memory, I/O or acknowledging an external request.
 T –cycle is defined as one subdivision of the operation performed in one clock period.

16. How many machine cycles does 8085 have, mention them?
The 8085 have seven machine cycles they are
 Opcode fetch
 Memory read
 Memory write
 I/O read
 I/O write
 Interrupt acknowledge

UNIT 2

1.What is an instruction?
An instruction is a binary pattern entered through an input device to command the icroprocessor
to perform that specific function.

2.How many operations are there in the instruction set of 8085 microprocessor?
There are 74 operations in the 8085 microprocessor

3.List out the five categories of the 8085 instructions.Give e.g. of the instructions for each
group?[December 2011]
 Data transfer group–MOV,MVI,LXI
 Arithmetic group–ADD,SUB,INR.
 Logical group-ANA,XRA,CMP.
 Branch group–JMP,JNZ,CALL.
 StackI/O and machine control group–PUSH,POP,IN,HLT.

4.Explain the use of branch instruction and give example.[may 2012]

JMP instruction permanently changes the program counter. A CALL instruction leaves
Information on the stacks that the original program execution sequence can be resumed.

5.Explain the purpose of the I/O instructions IN and OUT[may 10]

 The IN instruction is used to move data from an I/O port into the accumulator.
 The OUT instruction is used to move data from the accumulator to an I/Oport.
 The IN and OUT instructions are used only on microprocessor, which usea separate
address space for interfacing.
6.What is the difference between the shift and rotate instructions?
A rotate instruction is a closed loop instruction.that is the data moved out at one end is put back
in at the other end.The shift instruction loses the data that is moved out of the last bit locations.

7. List the four instructions which control the interrupt structure of the 8085
microprocessor?[may 2013]
 DI(disable interrupts)
 EI(enable interrupts)
 RIM(read interrupt masks)
 SIM(set interrupt masks)

8.Mention the categories of machine control group of instruction [may 2013]

The instructions of 8085 can be categorized into the following five
1. EI
2. DI
3. NOP
4. HLT
5. SIM
6. RIM

9.Explain LDA, STAANDDAA instructions

LDA copies the data byte into the accumulator from the memory location specified by the
16-bit address.STA copies the data byte from the accumulator in the memory location specified
by 16-bitaddress. DAA changes the content of the accumulator from binary to 4-bit BCD digits

10.Explain the different instruction format set [june 09]

The instruction set is grouped into the following formats One by the instruction MOV
C,A Two byte instruction MVI A,39H Three byte instruction JMP2345H

11.What is the use of addressing modes, mention the different types?[may 2012]
The various formats of specifying the operands are called as addressing modes, it is used
to access the operands or data. The different types are as follows
1. Immediate addressing
2. Register addressing
3. Direct addressing
4. Indirect addressing
5. Implicit addressing

12.Define stack and stack related instructions?[may 2013 and December 2012]
The stack is a group of memory locations in the R/W memory that is used for the temporary
storage of binary information during the execution of the program. The stack related instructions
are PUSH and POP

13.Why do we use XRAA instruction?

The XRAA instruction is used to clear the contents of the accumulator and store the value 00H
14.Compare CALL and PUSH instructions
CALL PUSH
When CALL is executed the microprocessor
The program uses the instruction PUSH to save
automatically stores the16-bit address of the
the contents of the register pair on the stack
instruction next to CALL on the stack
When CALL is executed the stack pointer is When PUSH is executed the stack pointer
decremented by two register is decremented by two

15.What are subroutine?

 Procedures are group of instructions stored as a separate program in memory and it is
called from the main program in memory and it is called from the main program when
ever required.
 The type of procedure depends on where the procedures are stored in memory. If it is in
the same code segment as that of the main program then it is an ear procedure other wise
it is a far procedure.
UNIT 3
1.What is mean by microcontroller
A device which contains the microprocessor with integrated peripherals like memory
,serial ports, parallel ports, timer/counter, interrupt controller, data acquisition interfaces like
ADC, DAC is called microcontroller.

2.Explain DJNZ instruction of Intel8051 microcontroller ?[June 2013]

DJNZ Rn lDecrement the content of the register Rn and jump if not zero.
DJNZ direct, rel Decrement the content of direct8 –bit address and jump if not zero

3.State the function of RS1 and RS0 bits in the flag register of Intel8051microcontroller?
 RS1,RS0-Register bank select bits
 RS1,RS0-Bank
 Bank0
 Bank1
 Bank2
 Bank3

4.Give the alternate functions for the port pins of port3?[Dec 11 May 11]
 RDWRT1T0
 INT1INT0TXDRXD
 RD–Readdatacontroloutput
 WR–Writedatacontroloutput
 T1– Timer/counter1 external input or test pin T0– Timer/counter0 external input or test
pin INT1–Interrupt1 input pin
 INT0– interrupt0 input pin
 TXD–Transmit data pin for serial port in UART mode
 RXD–Receive data pin for serial port in UART mode
5.Specify the single instruction, which clears the most significant bit of Bregister of
8051,without affecting the remaining bits.
Single instruction, which clears the most significant bit of Bregister of 8051,without
affecting the remaining bits, is CLRB.7.

6.What are the applications of microcontroller[may 2012]

 Calculators
 Traffic light control system
 Game machine
 Military applications.

7.Give the memory size of 8051 microcontroller[may 2010]

The 8051 can access upto 64 kilobyte of program memory and 64 kilo byte of data
memory.

8.Name the special functions registers available in 8051[Dec10]

 Accumulator
 BRegister
 ProgramstatusWord.
 Stackpointer.
 Datapointer
 Port0
 Port1
 Port2
 Port3
 Interrupt priority control register. Interrupt enable control register.

9.Explain the register IE format of 8051.[dec 2011]

 EAET2ES
 ET1EX1ET0EX0
 EA-Enableallcontrolbit.
 ET2-Timer2 interruptenablebit.
 ES- Enableserialport controlbit.
 ET1-EnableTimer1controlbit.
 EX1-Enableexternalinterrupt1controlbit.
 ET0-EnableTimer0controlbit.
 EX0-Enableexternalinterrupt0controlbit.

10.CompareMicroprocessorandMicrocontroller.
Microprocessor Microcontroller
1.Microprocessor contains ALU, general Microcontroller contains the circuitry of Purpose
register counter,clock timing microprocessor and in addition it has Circuit and interrupt circuit.
Built-in ROM,RAM,I/O devices and counter
2.It has many instructions to move data It has many instructions to move between memory
and CPU. Data between memory and CPU.
11.Name the five interrupt sources of 8051?[may 08 dec08]
 The interrupt are: Vector address
 External interrupt0:IE0:0003H
 Timers interrupt0: TF0:000BH
 External interrupt1:IE1:0013
 T imersinterrupt1:TF1:001BH
 Serial interrupt
 Receiveinterrupt:RI:0023H Transmitinterrupt:TI:0023H

12.Write a program to subtract the contents of RI of Bank0 from the contents of R00f
Bank2.
MOVPSW,#10
MOVA,R0
MOVPSW,#00
SUBBA,R1

13.List the features of 8051 microcontroller?[may 04]

The features are
 Single supply +5 volt operation using HMOS technology.
 4096 bytes program memory on chip (not on 8031)
 128 data register banks
 Four register mode,16-bit timer/counter.
 Extensive Boolean processing capabilities.
 64 KB external RAM size
 32 bi-directional individually addressable I/O lines.
 8 bit CPU optimized for control applications.

14.List the addressing modes of 8051?[dec09 may 13]

 Direct addressing
 Register addressing
 Register in direct addressing Implicit addressing Immediate addressing
 Index addressing
 Bit addressing

15. What are the modes of operation used in 8253?

Each of the three counters of 8253 can be operated in one of the following six modes of
operation.
1. Mode 0 (Interrupt on terminal count) 2. Mode 1 (Programmable monoshot)
3. Mode 2 (Rate generator) 4. Mode 3 (Square wave generator)

UNIT 4
1.What is the use of 8051 chip?
 Intel‟s 8251A is a universal synchronous asynchronous receiver and transmitter
compatible with Intel‟s Processors. This may be programmed to operate in any of the
serial communication modes built into it.
  This chip converts the parallel data in to a serial stream of bits suitable for serial
transmission. It is also able to receive a serial stream of bits and converts it in to parallel
data bytes to be read by a microprocessor.

2.What is the various programmed data transfer method?

 Synchronous data transfer
 Asynchronous data transfer
 Interrupt driven data transfer

3.What is synchronous data transfer?

It is a data method which is used when the I/O device and the microprocessor match in speed.
The transfer a data to or from the device ,the user program issues a suitable instruction
addressing the device. The data transfer is completed at the end of the execution of this
instruction.

4.What are the features used mode1 in 8255?[MAY 09]

 Two groups A and group B are available for stored Data transfer.
 Each group contains one 8-bit data I/O port an done4-bit control/data port.
 The8-bit data port can be either used as input or output port. The inputs and outputs both
are latched.

5.What are the modes of operation used in 8253?[MAY 08 MAY 09]

Each of the three counters of 8253 can be operated in one of the following six modes of
operation.
 Mode0 (Interrupt on terminal count)
 Mode1 (Programmable mono shot)
 Mode2 (Rate generator)
 Mode3 (Square wave generator)
 Mode4 (Software triggered strobe)
 Mode5 (Hardware triggered strobe)

6.Give the different types of command words used in 8259A

The command words of 8259A are classified in two groups
 Initialization command words(ICWs)
 Operation command words(OCWs)

7.Define scan counter?

 The scan counter has two modes to scan the key matrix and refresh the display. In the
encoded mode ,the counter provides binary count that is to be externally decoded to
provide the scan lines for keyboard and display
 .In the decoded scan mode, the counter internally decodes the least significant 2bit and
provides a decoded1 out of 4scan on SL3-SL3.The keyboard and display both are in the
same mode at a time.

8.What are the modes used in keyboard modes?

 Scanned Keyboard mode with 2Key Lockout
  Scanned keyboard with N-Key Rollover.
 Scanned Keyboard Special Error Mode.
 Scanned Matrix Mode.

9.What are the modes used in display modes?

1.Left Entry Mode
In the left entry mode,the data is entered from the left side of the display unit.
2.Right Entry Mode
In the right entry mode,the first entry to be displayed is entered on the right most display.

10.What is the use of modem control unit in 8251?

The modem control unit handles the modem handshake signals to coordinate the
communication between them on demand the USART.

11.List the operation modes of 8255?

 Mode0-Simple Input/Output.
 Mode1-Strobe Input/Output (handshakemode)
 Mode2-Strobe bi-directional mode.

12.What is a control word?

It is a word stored in a register (control register) used to control the operation of a program
digital device.

13.What is the purpose of control word written to control register in 8255?

The control words written to control register specify an I/O function for each I/O port. The bit
D7of the control word determines either the I/O functions of the BSR function.

14.What is the size of ports in 8255?

 Port-A:8-bits
 Port-B:8-bits
 Port-CU :4-bits
 Port-CL:4-bits

15.What is an USART?
USART stands for universal Synchronous/Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter.It is a
programmable communication interface that can communicate by using either synchronous or
asynchronous serial data.
UNIT 5

1.Write a program using 8051 assembly language to change the data 55h stored in the
lower byte of the data pointer register to AAH using rotate instruction?
MOV DPL,#55H
MOV A,DPLRL A
LABEL :SJMP Label
2.Explain the content of the accumulator after the execution of the following program
segments?
MOV A,#3CH
MOVR4,#66H ANLA,R4
A3C R466
A24

3.Write a program to load accumulator a, DPH and DPL with 30H?

MOVA,#30
MOVDPH
AMOVDPL,A

4.Write a program to perform multiplication of 2 Nos using 8051?

MOVA,#data1
MOVB,#data2
MULAB
MOVDPTR,#5000
MOV@DPTR,A(lower value)
INCDPTR
MOVA,B
MOVX@DPTR,A

5.Write a program to mask the 0th&7th bit using 8051?

MOVA,#data
ANLA,#81
MOVDPTR,#4500
MOVX@DPTR
,A LOOPS JMP LOOP

6.Write about CALL statement in 8051?

 There are two subroutine CALL instructions. they are
*LCALL(Long CALL)
*ACALL(Absolute CALL)
 Each increments the pc to the 1stbyte of the instruction & pushes them into this tack.

7. Write about the jump statement?

There are three forms of jump.they are
LJMP(Long-jump)-address16
AJMP(Absolute jump)-address11
Sjmp(shortjump)-relative address

8.Write a program to load accumulator DPH&DPL using 8051?

MOVA,#30
MOVDPH,
AMOVDPL,A
9.Write a program to find 2’s complement using 8051?
MOVA,R0
CPLA INCA

10.Write a program to add two8-bit numbers using8051?

MOVA,#30H
ADDA,#50H

11.Write a program to swap two numbers using8051?

MOVA,#data
SWAPA

12.Write a program to subtract two8-bit numbers & exchange the digits using 8051?
MOVA,#9F
MOVR0,#40
SUBBA,R0
SWAPA

13.Write a program to subtract the contents of R1 of bank0 from the contents of R0 of

bank2 using 8051?
MOVPSW,#10
MOVA,R0
MOVPSW,#00
SUBBA,R1

14.Explain the operating mode0 of 8051 serial ports?

In this mode serial enters & exits through RXD ,TXD output the shift clock8 bits are
transmitted or received 8 data bits(LSB first).the baud rate is fixed at 1/12 the oscillator
frequency.

15.Explain the operating mode 2 of 8051 serial ports?

In this mode 11bits are transmitted (through TXD)or received(through RXD)A start
bit(0), 8 data bits(LSB first),a programmable 9thdata bit & a stop bit(1) ON transmit the 9thdata
bit (TB*in SCON) can be assigned the value of 0or1.or fo reg :the parity bit (p,in the
PSW)could be movedintoTB8.
 LECTURE NOTES MICROPROCESSORS AND MICROCONTROLLERS -R15

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ANANTAPUR

III B.Tech II Sem (ECE)
15A04601 MICROPROCESSORS AND MICROCONTROLLERS

Course Outcomes:
After completion of this subject the students will be able to :
1. Do programming with 8086 microprocessors
2. Understand concepts of Intel x86 series of processors
3. Program MSP 430 for designing any basic Embedded System
4. Design and implement some specific real time applications
Using MSP 430 low power microcontroller.

UNIT I
Introduction-8086 Architecture-Block Diagram, Register Organization, Flag Register, Pin Diagram, Timing
and Control Signals, System Timing Diagrams, Memory Segmentation, Interrupt structure of 8086 and
Interrupt Vector Table. Memory organization and memory banks accessing.
UNIT II
Instruction Formats -Addressing Modes-Instruction Set of 8086, Assembler Directives-Macros and
Procedures.- Sorting, Multiplication, Division and multi byte arithmetic code conversion. String
Manipulation instructions-Simple ALPs.
UNIT III
Low power RISC MSP430 – block diagram, features and architecture,Variants of the MSP430 family viz.
MSP430x2x, MSP430x4x, MSP430x5x and their targeted applications, MSP430x5x series block diagram,
Addressing modes, Instruction set Memory address space, on-chip peripherals (analog and digital), and
Register sets.Sample embedded system on MSP430 microcontroller.
UNIT-IV
I/O ports pull up/down resistors concepts, Interrupts and interrupt programming. Watchdog timer. System
clocks. Low Power aspects of MSP430: low power modes, Active vs Standby current consumption, FRAM vs
Flash for low power & reliability.
Timer & Real Time Clock (RTC), PWM control, timing generation and measurements. Analog interfacing and
data acquisition: ADC and Comparator in MSP430, data transfer using DMA.
UNIT-V
Serial communication basics, Synchronous/Asynchronous interfaces (like UART, USB, SPI, and I2C). UART
protocol, I2C protocol, SPI protocol. Implementing and programming UART, I2C, SPI interface using
MSP430, Interfacing external devices. Implementing Embedded Wi-Fi using CC3100

Text Books:

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 LECTURE NOTES MICROPROCESSORS AND MICROCONTROLLERS -R15

1. “Microprocessor and Microcontrollers”, N. Senthil Kumar, M. Saravanan, S. Jeevanathan,

Oxford Publishers. 1 st Edition, 2010
2. “The X86 Microprocessors , Architecture, Programming and Inerfacing” , Lyla B. Das, Pearson
Publications, 2010
3. MSP430 microcontroller basics. John H. Davies, Newnes Publication, I st Edition, 2008

References:
http://processors.wiki.ti.com/index.php/MSP430_LaunchPad_Low_Power_Mode
http://processors.wiki.ti.com/index.php/MSP430_16-Bit_Ultra-Low_Power_MCU_Training

UNIT-I

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 LECTURE NOTES MICROPROCESSORS AND MICROCONTROLLERS -R15

UNIT-1
INTRODUCTION:
Microprocessor acts as a CPU in a microcomputer. It is present as a single ICchip in a

microcomputer.
Microprocessor is the heart of the machine.
A Microprocessor is a device, which is capable of
1. Receiving Input 2 Performing Computations 3. Storing data and instructions
4. Display the results 5. Controlling all the devices that perform the above 4 functions.
The device that performs tasks is called Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). A single chip called Microprocessor
performs these tasks together with other tasks.
“A MICROPROCESSOR is a multipurpose programmable logic device that reads binary instructions
from a storage device called memory accepts binary data as input and processes data according to those
instructions and provides results as output.”

EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSORS:
The microprocessor age began with the advancement in the IC technology to put all necessary
functions of a CPU into a single chip.
Intel started marketing its first microprocessor in the name of Intel 4004 in 1971. This was a4-bit
microprocessor having 16-pins in a single chip of PMOS technology. This was called the first generation
microprocessor. The Intel 4004 along with few other devices was used for making calculators. The 4004
instruction set contained only 45 instructions. Later in 1971, INTEL Corporation released the 8008 – an
extended 8-bit version of the 4004 microprocessor. The 8008 addressed an expanded memory size (16KB) and
48 instructions.
Limitations of first generation microprocessors is small memory size, slow speed and instruction set limited its
usefulness.
Second generation microprocessors:
The second generation microprocessor using NMOS technology appeared in the market in the year 1973. The
Intel 8080, an 8-bit microprocessor, of NMOS technology was developed in the year 1974 which required only
two additional devices to design a functional CPU. The advantages of second generation microprocessors were

Large chip size (170x200 mil) with 40-pins. More chips on decoding circuits.

Ability to address large memory space (64-K Byte) and I/O ports(256).

More powerful instruction sets. Dissipate less power.

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Better interrupt handling facilities. Cycle time reduced to half (1.3 to 9 m

sec.)
Sized 70x200 mil) with 40-pins. Less Support Chips Required
Used Single Power Supply Faster Operation

The 8080 microprocessor addresses more memory and execute additional instructions, but executes
them 10 times faster than 8008.The 8080 has memory of 64 KB whereas for 8008 16 KB only. In 1977,
INTEL, introduced 8085 which was an updated version of 8080 last 8-bit processor.
The main advantages of 8085 were its internal clock generator, internal system controller and higher
clock frequency.
Third Generation Microprocessor:
In 1978, INTEL released the 8086 microprocessor, a year later it released 8088. Both devices were 16 bit
microprocessors, which executed instructions in less than 400ns.The 8086 and 8088 addresses 1MB of
memory and rich instruction set to 246.16-bit processors were designed using HMOS technology. The Intel
80186 and 80188 were the improved versions of Intel 8086 and8088, respectively. In addition to 16-bit CPU,
the 80186 and 80188 had programmable peripheral devices integrated on the same package.
Fourth Generation Microprocessor:
The single chip 32-bit microprocessor was introduced in the year 1981 by Intel as iAPX 432. The other
4thgeneration microprocessors were; Bell Single Chip Bellmac-32, Hewlett-Packard, National NSl 6032,Texas
Instrument99000. Motorola 68020 and 68030. The Intel in the year 1985 announced the 32-bit
microprocessor(80386). The 80486 has already been announced and is also a 32-bit microprocessor.
The 80486 is a combination 386 processor a math coprocessor, and a cache memory controller on a single
chip.
The Pentium is a 64-bit superscalar processor. It can execute more than one instruction at a time and
has a full 64-bit data bus and 32-bit address bus. Its performance is double than 80486.
Features of 8086:
•It is a 16-bit μp.
•8086 has a 20 bit address bus can access up to 2^20 memory locations (1 MB).
•It can support up to 64K I/O ports. •It
provides 14, 16 -bit registers.
•It has multiplexed address and data bus AD0- AD15 and A16 – A19.
•It requires single phase clock with 33% duty cycle to provide internal timing
•8086 is designed to operate in two modes, Minimum anMaximum.
•It can pre-fetches up to 6 instruction bytes from memory and queues them in order to speed up
instruction execution.
•It requires +5V power supply. •A 40
pin dual in line package.

Architecture of 8086:

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8086 has two blocks BIU and EU.

The BIU performs all bus operations such as instruction fetching, reading and writing operands for
memory and calculating the addresses of the memory operands. The instruction bytes are transferred to the
instruction queue.
EU executes instructions from the instruction byte queue.
Both units operate asynchronously to give the 8086 an overlapping instruction fetch and execution
mechanism which is called as Pipelining. This results in efficient use of the system bus and system
performance.
BIU contains Instruction queue, Segment registers, IP, address adder.
EU contains control circuitry, Instruction decoder, ALU, Flag register.






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Bus Interface Unit:

 It provides full 16 bit bidirectional data bus and 20 bit address bus. 

 The BIU is responsible for performing all external bus operations.
Specifically it has the following functions: 
 Instructions fetch Instruction queuing, Operand fetch and storage, Address relocation and Bus control. 
 The BIU uses a mechanism known as an instruction stream queue to implement pipeline architecture. 
 This queue permits pre-fetch of up to six bytes of instruction code. Whenever the queue of the BIU is not
full, it has room for at least two more bytes and at the same time the EU is not requesting it to read or write
operands from memory, the BIU is free to look ahead in the program by pre-fetching the next sequential
instruction. 

 These pre-fetching instructions are held in its FIFO queue. With its 16 bit data bus, the BIU fetches two
instruction bytes in a single memory cycle. 

 After a byte is loaded at the input end of the queue, it automatically shifts up through the FIFO to the empty
location nearest the output. 

 The EU accesses the queue from the output end. It reads one instruction byte after the other from the output
of the queue. If the queue is full and the EU is not requesting access to operand in memory. 
 These intervals of no bus activity, which may occur between bus cycles, are known as idle state. 

 If the bus is already in the process of fetching an instruction when the EU request it to read or write operands
from memory or I/O, the BIU first completes the instruction fetch bus cycle before initiating the operand read /
write cycle. 

 The BIU also contains a dedicated adder which is used to generate the 20 bit physical address that is output
on the address bus. This address is formed by adding an appended 16 bit segment address and a 16 bit offset
address. 

 For example: The physical address of the next instruction to be fetched is formed by combining the current
contents of the code segment CS register and the current contents of the instruction pointer IP register. 

 The BIU is also responsible for generating bus control signals such as those for memory read or write and
I/O read or write. 
Execution Unit:
 The EU extracts instructions from top of the queue in the BIU, decodes them, generates operands if
necessary, passes them to the BIU and requests it to perform the read or write bus cycles to memory or I/O and
perform the operation specified by the instruction on the operands. 

 During the execution of the instruction, the EU tests the status and control flags and updates them based on
the results of executing the instruction. 

 If the queue is empty, the EU waits for the next instruction byte to be fetched and shifted to top of the queue. 

 When the EU executes a branch or jump instruction, it transfers control to a location corresponding to
another set of sequential instructions. 

 When ever this happens, the BIU automatically resets the queue and then begins to fetch instructions from

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this new location to refill the queue.

Register organization of 8086:
The 8086 has four groups of the user accessible internal registers. They are the instruction pointer, four data
registers, four pointer and index register, four segment registers. The 8086 has a total of fourteen 16-bit
registers including a 16 bit register called the status register, with 9 of bits implemented for status and
control flags.
There are four different 64 KB segments for instructions, stack, data and extra data. To Specify
where in 1 MB of processor memory these 4 segments are located the processor uses four segment registers:
•Code segment (CS) is a 16-bit register containing address of 64 KB segment with processor instructions.
The processor uses CS segment for all accesses to instructions referenced by instruction pointer (IP) register.
CS register cannot be changed directly. The CS register is automatically updated during far jump, far call
and far return instructions.
•Stack segment (SS) is a 16-bit register containing address of 64KB segment with program stack. By
default, the processor assumes that all data referenced by the stack pointer (SP) and base pointer (BP)
registers is located in the stack segment. SS register can be changed directly using POP instruction.
•Data segment (DS) is a 16-bit register containing address of 64KB segment with program data. By default,
the processor assumes that all data referenced by general registers (AX, BX, CX, DX) and index register (SI,
DI) is located in the data segment.DS register can be changed directly using POP and LDS instructions.
•Accumulator register consists of two 8-bit registers AL and AH, which can be combined together and used
as a 16-bit register AX. AL in this case contains the low order byte of the word, and AH contains the high-
order byte. Accumulator can be used for I/O operations and string manipulation.
•Base register consists of two 8-bit registers BL and BH, which can be combined together and used as a 16-
bit register BX. BL in this case contains the low-order byte of the word, and BH contains the high-order
byte. BX register usually contains a data pointer used for based, based indexed or register indirect
addressing.
•Count register consists of two 8-bit registers CL and CH, which can be combined together and used as a
16-bit register CX. When combined, CL register contains the low order byte of the word, and CH contains
the high-order byte. Count register can be used in Loop, shift/rotate instructions and as a counter in string
manipulation,.
•Data register consists of two 8-bit registers DL and DH, which can be combined together and used as a 16-
bit register DX. When combined, DL register contains the low order byte of the word, and DH contains the
high-order byte. Data register can be used as a port number in I/O operations. In integer 32-bit multiply and
divide instruction the DX register contains high-order word of the initial or resulting number.
•The following registers are both general and index registers:
•Stack Pointer (SP) is a 16-bit register pointing to program stack.
•Base Pointer (BP) is a 16-bit register pointing to data in stack segment. BP register is usually used for
based, based indexed or register indirect addressing.
•Source Index (SI) is a 16-bit register. SI is used for indexed, based indexed and register indirect
addressing, as well as a source data address in string manipulation instructions.
•Destination Index (DI) is a 16-bit register. DI is used for indexed, based indexed and register indirect
addressing, as well as a destination data address in string manipulation instructions.
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Instruction Pointer (IP) register acts as a program counter for 8086. It points to the address of the next
instruction to be executed Its content is automatically incremented when the program execution of a program
proceeds further. The contents of IP and CS register are used to compute the memory address of the
instruction code to be fetched.

General data registers:

AX AH AL SP
CS
BP
BX BH BL
SS FLAGS/PSW SI
CX CH CL DS DI
DX DH DL
ES IP

General purpose register Segment register Pointer and Index

Flag register of 8086: It is a 16-bit register, also called flag register or Program Status Word (PSW). Seven
bits remain unused while the rest nine are used to indicate the conditions of flags. The status flags of the
register are shown below in Fig.

15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1
X X X X OF DF IF TF SF ZF X AC X PF X CY

X=Defined
  Out of nine flags, six are condition flags and three are control flags. The control flags 
  are TF (Trap), IF (Interrupt) and DF (Direction) flags, which can be set/reset by the 
 programmer, while the condition flags [OF (Overflow), SF (Sign), ZF (Zero), AF (Auxiliary 

 Carry), PF (Parity) and CF (Carry)] are set/reset depending on the results of some arithmetic or
logical operations during program execution. 

 CF is set if there is a carry out of the MSB position resulting from an addition operation or if a borrow is
needed out of the MSB position during subtraction. 

 PF is set if the lower 8-bits of the result of an operation contains an even number of 1’s. AF is set if
there is a carry out of bit 3 resulting from an addition operation or borrow required from bit 4 into bit 3
 during subtraction operation. 
  ZF is set if the result of an arithmetic or logical operation is zero. 
 SF is set if the MSB of the result of an operation is 1. SF is used with unsigned numbers. 

 OF is used only for signed arithmetic operation and is set if the result is too large to be fitted in the
 number of bits available to accommodate it. 
The three control flags of 8086 are TF, IF and DF. These three flags are programmable, 
i.e., can be set/reset by the programmer so as to control the operation of the processor.

 When TF (trap flag) is set (=1), the processor operates in single stepping mode—i.e., pausing after each

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instruction is executed. This mode is very useful during program development or program debugging. 

 When an interrupt is recognized, TF flag is cleared. When the CPU returns to the main program from ISS
(interrupt service subroutine), by execution of IRET in the last line of ISS, TF flag is restored to its value
that it had before interruption. 

 TF cannot be directly set or reset. So indirectly it is done by pushing the flag register on the stack,
changing TF as desired and then popping the flag register from the stack. 

 When IF (interrupt flag) is set, the maskable interrupt INTR is enabled otherwise disabled (i.e., when IF
= 0). 

 IF can be set by executing STI instruction and cleared by CLI instruction. Like TF flag, when an
interrupt is recognized, IF flag is cleared, so that INTR is disabled. In the last line of ISS when IRET is
encountered, IF is restored to its original value. When 8086 is reset, IF is cleared, i.e., resetted. 

DF (direction flag) is used in string (also known as block move) operations. It can be set by STD
instruction and cleared by CLD. If DF is set to 1 and MOVS instruction is executed, the contents of the
index registers DI and SI are automatically decremented to access the string from the highest memory
location down to the lowest memory location. 
ADDRESSING MODES OF 8086:
Addressing modes indicates way of locating data or operands. Depending upon the data types used in the
instruction and the memory addressing modes, any instruction may belong to one or more addressing
modes. Thus the addressing modes describe the types of operands and the way they are accessed for
executing an instruction.
According to the flow of instruction execution, the instruction may be categorized as:
Sequential Control flow instructions Control Transfer instructions
 Sequential Control flow instructions: In this type of instruction after execution control can be
 transferred to the next immediately appearing instruction in the program. 
The addressing modes for sequential control transfer instructions are as follows: 

 Immediate addressing mode: In this mode, immediate is a part of instruction and appears in the form of
 successive byte or bytes. 
Example: MOV CX, 0007H; Here 0007 is the immediate data 



 Direct Addressing mode: In this mode, the instruction operand specifies the memory address where data
 is located. 
Example: MOV AX, [5000H]; Data is available in 5000H memory location
Effective Address (EA) is computed using 5000H as offset address and content of DS as segment address.
EA=10H*DS+5000H

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 Register Addressing mode: In this mode, the data is stored in a register and it is referred using particular
 register. All the registers except IP may be used in this mode. 
Example: MOV AX, BX; 
 Register Indirect addressing mode: In this mode, instruction specifies a register containing an address,
where data is located. This addressing mode works with SI, DI, BX and BP registers. 
Example: MOV AX, [BX];
EA=10H * DS +[BX]
 Indexed Addressing mode: 8-bit or 16-bit instruction operand is added to the contents of an index
register (SI or DI), the resulting value is a pointer to location where data resides. DS and ES are default
segments for index registers SI and DI. 
DS=0800H, SI=2000H, 
MOV DL, [SI] 
Example: MOV AX, [SI];
EA=10H * DS + [SI]

 Register Relative Addressing mode: In this mode, the data is available at an effective address formed by
adding an 8-bit or 16-bit displacement with the content of any one of the registers BX, BP, SI, DI in the
default segments. 

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Example: MOV AX, 50H [BX];

EA=10H * DS + 50H +[BX]

 Based Indexed Addressing mode: In this mode, the contents of a base register (BX or BP) is added to the
contents of an index register (SI or DI), the resulting value is a pointer to location where data resides. 
Example: MOV AX, [BX] [SI];
EA=10H * DS + [BX] + [SI]

 Relative Based Indexed Addressing mode: In this mode, 8-bit or 16-bit instruction operand is added to
the contents of a base register (BX or BP) and index register (SI or DI), the resulting value is a pointer to
location where data resides. 
Example: MOV AX, 50H [BX] [SI];
 Control Transfer Instructions: In control transfer instruction, the control can be transferred to some
predefined address or the address somehow specified in the instruction after their execution. 

For the control transfer instructions, the addressing modes depend upon whether the destination
location is within the segment or different segments. It also depends upon the method of passing the
destination address to the processor. Depending on this control transfer instructions are categorized as
follows: 

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EA=10H * DS + 50H + [BX] +[SI]


 Intra

segment Direct mode: In this mode, the address to which control is to be transferred lies in the same
segment in which control transfer instruction lies and appears directly in the instruction as an immediate
displacement value. 

 Intra segment Indirect mode: In this mode, the address to which control is to be transferred lies in the
same segment in which control transfer instruction lies but it is passed to the instruction indirectly. 

 Inter segment Direct mode: In this mode, the address to which control is to be transferred lies in a
different segment in which control transfer instruction lies and appears directly in the instruction as an
immediate displacement value. 

 Inter segment Indirect mode: In this mode, the address to which control is to be transferred lies in a
different segment in which control transfer instruction lies but it is passed to the instruction indirectly. 

Memory Segmentation for 8086:

8086, via its 20-bit address bus, can address 220 = 1,048,576 or 1 MB of different memory locations. Thus the
memory space of 8086 can be thought of as consisting of 1,048,576 bytes or 524,288 words. The memory map
of 8086 is shown in Figure where the whole memory space starting from 00000 H to FFFFF H is divided into
16 blocks—each one consisting of 64KB.
1 MB memory of 8086 is partitioned into 16 segments—each segment is of 64 KB length. Out of these
16 segments, only 4 segments can be active at any given instant of time— these are code segment, stack

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segment, data segment and extra segment. The four memory segments that the CPU works with at any time are
called currently active segments. Corresponding to these four segments, the registers used are Code Segment
Register (CS), Data Segment Register (DS), Stack Segment Register (SS) and Extra Segment Register (ES)
respectively. Each of these four registers is 16-bits wide and user accessible—i.e., their content scan be
changed by software.
The code segment contains the instruction codes of a program, while data, variables and constants are
held in data segment. The stack segment is used to store interrupt and subroutine return addresses. The extra
segment contains the destination of data for certain string instructions. Thus 64 KB are available for program
storage (in CS) as well as for stack (in SS) while128 KB of space can be utilized for data storage (in DS and
ES).One restriction on the base address (starting address) of a segment is that it must reside on a 16-byte
address memory—examples being 00000 H, 00010 H or 00020 H, etc.

Memory segmentation, as implemented for 8086, gives rise to the following advantages:
 Although the address bus is 20-bits in width, memory segmentation allows one towork with registers
having width 16-bits only. 

 It allows instruction code, data, stack and portion of program to be more than 64 KBlong by using
more than one code, data, extra segment and stack segment. 

 In a time-shared multitasking environment when the program moves over from oneuser’s program to
another, the CPU will simply have to reload the four segmentregisters with the segment starting
 addresses assigned to the current user’s program. 
 User’s program (code) and data can be stored separately. 

 Because the logical address range is from 0000 H to FFFF H, the same can be loadedat any place in
the memory. 
Instruction Set of 8086:
There are 117 basic instructions in the instruction set of 8086.The instruction set of 8086 can be
divided into the following number of groups, namely:
1. Data copy / Transfer instructions 2. Arithmetic and Logical instructions
3. Branch instructions 4. Loop instructions
5. Machine control instructions 6. Flag Manipulation instructions
7. Shift and Rotate instructions 8. String instructions
Data copy / Transfer instructions: The data movement instructions copy values from one location to another.
These instructions include MOV, XCHG, LDS, LEA, LES, PUSH, PUSHF, PUSHFD,
POP,POPF, LAHF, AND SAHF.
MOV The MOV instruction copies a word or a byte of data from source to a destination. The destination can
be a register or a memory location. The source can be a register, or memory location or
immediate data. MOV instruction does not affect any flags. The mov instruction takes several different forms:
The MOV instruction cannot:
1. Set the value of the CS and IP registers.
2. Copy value of one segment register toa nother segment register (should copy to general register first).
MOV CS, DS (Invalid)

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3. Copy immediate value to segment register (should copy to general register first). MOV CS, 2000H
(Invalid)
Example:
ORG 100h
MOV AX, 0B800h ; set AX = B800h
MOV DS, AX ; copy value of AX to DS.
MOV CL, 'A' ; CL = 41h (ASCII code).

The XCHG Instruction: Exchange This instruction exchanges the contents of the specified source and
destination operands, which may be registers or one of them, may be a memory location. However, exchange
of data contents of two memory locations is not permitted.
Example: MOV AL, 5 ; AL = 5 MOV
BL, 2 ; BL = 2
XCHG AL,BL ; AL = 2, BL = 5
PUSH: Push to stack; this instruction pushes the contents of the specified register/memory location on to the
stack. The stack pointer is decremented by 2, after each execution of the instruction. The actual current stack-
top is always occupied by the previously pushed data. Hence, the push operation decrements SP by two and
then stores the two byte contents of the operand onto the stack. The higher byte is pushed first and then the
lower byte. Thus out of the two decremented stack addresses the higher byte occupies the higher address and
the lower byte occupies the lower address.
1. PUSH AX
2. PUSH DS
3. PUSH [500OH] ; Content of location 5000H and 5001 H in DS are pushed onto the stack.

POP: Pop from Stack this instruction when executed loads the specified register/memory location with the
contents of the memory location of which the address is formed using the current stack
segment and stack pointer as usual. The stack pointer is incremented by 2. The POP instruction serves exactly
opposite to the PUSH instruction.
1. POP BX
2. POP DS
3. POP [5000H]

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PUSHF: Push Flags to Stack The push flag instruction pushes the flag register on to the stack; first the upper
byte and then the lower byte will be pushed on to the stack. The SP is decremented by 2, for each push
operation. The general operation of this instruction is similar to the PUSH operation.
POPF: Pop Flags from Stack The pop flags instruction loads the flag register completely (both bytes) from the
word contents of the memory location currently addressed by SP and SS. The SP is incremented by 2for each
pop operation.
LAHF: Load AH from Lower Byte of Flag This instruction loads the AH register with the lower byte of the
flag register. This instruction may be used to observe the status of all the condition code flags (except
overflow) at a time.
SAHF: Store AH to Lower Byte of Flag Register This instruction sets or resets the condition code flags
(except overflow) in the lower byte of the flag register depending upon the corresponding bit positions in
AH. If a bit in AH is 1, the flag corresponding to the bit position is set, else it is reset.
LEA: Load Effective Address The load effective address instruction loads the offset of an operand in the
specified register. This instruction is similar to MOV, MOV is faster than LEA.
LEA cx, [bx+si] ; CX (BX+SI) mod 64K If bx=2f00 H; si=10d0H cx 3fd0H
The LDS AND LES instructions:
• LDS and LES load a 16-bit register with offset address retrieved from a memory location then load either DS
or ES with a segment address retrieved from memory.
This instruction transfers the 32-bit number, addressed by DI in the data segment, into the BX and DS
registers.
• LDS and LES instructions obtain a new far address from memory.
– offset address appears first, followed by the segment address
• This format is used for storing all 32-bit memory addresses.
• A far address can be stored in memory by the assembler.
LDS BX,DWORD PTR[SI] BL
[SI];
BH [SI+1]
DS [SI+3:SI+2]; in the data segment
LES BX,DWORD PTR[SI]
BL [SI];
BH [SI+1]
ES [SI+3:SI+2]; in the extra segment
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I/O Instructions: The 80x86 supports two I/O instructions: in and out15. They take the forms: In ax,
port
in ax, dx out port,
ax out dx, ax
port is a value between 0 and 255.
The in instruction reads the data at the specified I/O port and copies it into the accumulator. The out
instruction writes the value in the accumulator to the specified I/O port.
Arithmetic instructions: These instructions usually perform the arithmetic operations, like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division along with the respective ASCII and decimal adjust instructions. The increment and decrement
operations also belong to this type of instructions.
The ADD and ADC instructions: The add instruction adds the contents of the source operand to the
destination operand. For example, add ax, bx adds bx to ax leaving the sum in the ax register. Add computes
dest :=dest+source while adc computes dest :=dest+source+C where C represents the value in the carry
flag. Therefore, if the carry flag is clear before execution, adc behaves exactly like the add instruction.

Example: CF=1

AX=98

DX=78 CX=94

BX=9E AX=2C
Both instructions affect the flags identically. They set the flags as follows:
• The overflow flag denotes a signed arithmetic overflow.
• The carry flag denotes an unsigned arithmetic overflow.
• The sign flag denotes a negative result (i.e., the H.O. bit of the result is one).
• The zero flag is set if the result of the addition is zero.
• The auxiliary carry flag contains one if a BCD overflow out of the L.O. nibble occurs.
• The parity flag is set or cleared depending on the parity of the L.O. eight bits of the result. If there is even
number of one bits in the result, the ADD instructions will set the parity flag to one (to denote even parity). If
there is an odd number of one bits in the result, the ADD instructions clear the parity flag (to denote odd
parity).
The INC instruction: The increment instruction adds one to its operand. Except for carry flag, inc sets the
flags the same way as Add ax, 1 same as inc ax. The inc operand may be an eight bit, sixteen bit. The inc
instruction is more compact and often faster than the comparable add reg, 1 or add mem, 1 instruction.
The AAA and DAA Instructions
The aaa (ASCII adjust after addition) and daa (decimal adjust for addition) instructions support BCD
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arithmetic. BCD values are decimal integer coded in binary form with one decimal digit(0..9) per nibble.
ASCII (numeric) values contain a single decimal digit per byte, the H.O. nibble of the byte should contain zero
(30 ….39).
The aaa and daa instructions modify the result of a binary addition to correct it for ASCII or
decimal arithmetic. For example, to add two BCD values, you would add them as though they were binary
numbers and then execute the daa instruction afterwards to correct the results.
Note: These two instructions assume that the add operands were proper decimal or ASCII values. If you add
binary(non-decimal or non-ASCII) values together and try to adjust them with these instructions, you will not
produce correct results.
Aaa (which you generally execute after an add, adc, or xadd instruction) checks the value
in al for BCD overflow. It works according to the following basic algorithm:
if ( (al and 0Fh) > 9 or (AuxC =1) ) then al := al + 6
else
ax := ax +6 endif
ah := ah + 1
AuxC := 1 ;Set auxilliary carry Carry := 1 ; and carry flags. Else
AuxC := 0 ;Clear auxilliary carry Carry := 0 ; and carry flags.
add al=08 +06; al=0E >9 al=0E+06=04
ah=00+01=01
al=04+03=08, now al<9,
so only clear ah=0
endif
al := al and 0Fh
The aaa instruction is mainly useful for adding strings of digits where there is exactly one decimal digit per
byte in a string of numbers.
The daa instruction functions like aaa except it handles packed BCD values rather than the one digit
per byte unpacked values aaa handles. As for aaa, daa’s main purpose is to add strings of BCD digits
(with two digits per byte). The algorithm for daa is
if ( (AL and 0Fh) > 9 or (AuxC = 1)) then al=24+77=9B, as B>9 add 6 to al
al := al + 6 al=9B+06=A1, as higher nibble A>9, add 60
AuxC := 1 ;Set Auxilliary carry. to al, al=A1+60=101
Endif Note: if higher or lower nibble of AL <9 then
if ( (al > 9Fh) or (Carry = 1)) then no need to add 6 to AL
al := al + 60h
Carry := 1; ;Set carry flag.
Endif
EXAMPLE:
Assume AL = 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1, ASCII 5 BL
= 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1, ASCII 9
ADDAL,BL Result: AL= 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 = 6EH,which is incorrect BCD
AAA Now AL = 00000100, unpacked BCD 4.

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CF = 1 indicates answer is 14 decimal

NOTE: OR AL with 30H to get 34H, the ASCII code for 4. The AAA instruction works only on the AL
register. The AAA instruction updates AF and CF, but OF, PF, SF, and ZF are left undefined.
EXAMPLES:
AL = 0101 1001 = 59 BCD ; BL = 0011 0101 = 35 BCD
ADD AL, BL AL = 1000 1110 = 8EH
DAA Add 01 10 because 1110 > 9 AL = 1001 0100 = 94 BCD AL
= 1000 1000 = 88 BCD BL = 0100 1001 = 49 BCD
ADD AL, BL AL = 1101 0001, AF=1
DAA Add 0110 because AF =1, AL = 11101 0111 = D7H
1101 > 9 so add 0110 0000
AL = 0011 0111= 37 BCD, CF =1
The DAA instruction updates AF, CF, PF, and ZF. OF is undefined after a DAA instruction.

The SUBTRACTION instructions: SUB, SBB, DEC, AAS, and DAS

The sub instruction computes the value dest :=dest - src. The sbb instruction computes dest :=dest
src - C.
The sub, sbb, and dec instructions affect the flags as follows:
• They set the zero flag if the result is zero. This occurs only if the operands are equal for sub and sbb. The dec
instruction sets the zero flag only when it decrements the value one.
• These instructions set the sign flag if the result is negative.
• These instructions set the overflow flag if signed overflow/underflow occurs.
• They set the auxiliary carry flag as necessary for BCD/ASCII arithmetic.
• They set the parity flag according to the number of one bits appearing in the result value.
• The sub and sbb instructions set the carry flag if an unsigned overflow occurs. Note that the dec instruction
does not affect the carry flag.
The aas instruction, like its aaa counterpart, lets you operate on strings of ASCII numbers with one
decimal digit (in the range 0..9) per byte. This instruction uses the following algorithm:
if ( (al and 0Fh) > 9 or AuxC = 1) then al
:= al - 6
ah := ah - 1
AuxC := 1 ;Set auxilliary carry
Carry := 1 ; and carry flags. else
AuxC := 0 ;Clear Auxilliary carry
Carry := 0 ; and carry flags.
endif
al := al and 0Fh
The das instruction handles the same operation for BCD values, it uses the following
algorithm:
if ( (al and 0Fh) > 9 or (AuxC = 1)) then al

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:= al -6
AuxC = 1
endif
if (al > 9Fh or Carry = 1) then al
:= al - 60h
Carry := 1 ;Set the Carry flag.
Endif
EXAMPLE:
ASCII 9-ASCII 5 (9-5)
AL = 00111001 = 39H = ASCII 9 BL =
001 10101 = 35H = ASCII 5
SUB AL, BL Result: AL = 00000100 = BCD 04 and CF = 0
AAS Result: AL = 00000100 = BCD 04 and CF = 0
no borrow required ASCII
5-ASCII 9 (5-9)
Assume AL = 00110101 = 35H ASCII 5 and
BL = 0011 1001 = 39H = ASCII 9
SUB AL, BL Result: AL = 11111100 = - 4 in 2s complement and CF =1
AAS Result: AL = 00000100 = BCD 04 and CF = 1, borrow needed
EXAMPLES:
AL 1000 0110 86 BCD ; BH 0101 0111 57 BCD

SUB AL,BH AL 0010 1111 2FH, CF = 0

DAS Lower nibble of result is 1111, so DAS automatically
subtracts 0000 0110 to give AL = 00101001 29 BCD AL
0100 1001 49 BCD BH 0111 0010 72 BCD SUB AL,BH
AL 1101 0111 D7H, CF = 1
DAS Subtracts 0110 0000 (- 60H) because 1101 in upper nibble > 9 AL =
01110111= 77 BCD, CF=1 CF=1 means borrow was needed
The CMP Instruction: The cmp (compare) instruction is identical to the sub instruction with one crucial
difference– it does not store the difference back into the destination operand. The syntax for the cmp
instruction is very similar to sub, the generic form is cmpdest, src
Consider the following cmp instruction: cmp ax, bx
This instruction performs the computation ax-bx and sets the flags depending upon the result of the
computation. The flags are set as follows:
Z: The zero flag is set if and only if ax = bx. This is the only time ax-bx produces a zero result. Hence, you
can use the zero flag to test for equality or inequality.
S: The sign flag is set to one if the result is negative.
O: The overflow flag is set after a cmp operation if the difference of ax and bx produced an overflow or
underflow.
C: The carry flag is set after a cmp operation if subtracting bx from ax requires a borrow. This occurs only
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when ax is less than bx where ax and bx are both unsigned values.

The Multiplication Instructions: MUL, IMUL, and AAM: This instruction multiplies an unsigned byte or
word by the contents of AL. The unsigned byte or word may be in any one of the general-purpose registers or
memory locations. The most significant word of the result is stored in DX, while the least significant word of
the result is stored in AX.
The mul instruction, with an eight bit operand, multiplies the al register by the operand and stores the 16 bit
result in ax. So
mul operand (Unsigned) MUL BL i.e. AL * BL; Al=25 * BL=04; AX=00 (AH) 64 (AL)
imul operand (Signed) IMUL BL i.e. AL * BL; AL=09 * BL=-2; AL * 2’s comp(BL)
AL=09 * BL (0EH)=7E; 2’s comp (7e)=-82
The aam (ASCII Adjust after Multiplication) instruction, adjust an unpacked decimal value after
multiplication. This instruction operates directly on the ax register. It assumes that you’ve multiplied two eight
bit values in the range 0..9 together and the result is sitting in ax (actually, the result will be sitting in al since
9*9 is 81,the largest possible value; ah must contain zero). This instruction divides ax by 10 and leaves the
quotient in ah and the remainder in al: mul bl; al=9, bl=9 al*bl=9*9=51H; AX=00(AH) 51(AL); AAM ; first
hexadecimal value is converted to decimal value i.e. 51 to 81; al=81D; second convert packed BCD to
unpacked BCD, divide AL content by 10 i.e. 81/10 then AL=01, AH =08; AX = 0801
EXAMPLE:
AL 00000101 unpacked BCD 5 BH
00001001 unpacked BCD 9 MUL BH
AL x BH; result in AX
AX = 00000000 00101101 = 002DH
AAM AX = 00000100 00000101 = 0405H, which is unpacked BCD for 45.
If ASCII codes for the result are desired, use next instruction OR AX, 3030H Put 3 in upper nibble of each
byte.
AX = 0011 0100 0011 0101 = 3435H, which is ASCII code for 45
The Division Instructions: DIV, IDIV, and AAD
The 80x86 divide instructions perform a 64/32 division (80386 and later only), a 32/16division or a 16/8
division. These instructions take the form:
Div reg For unsigned division
Div mem
Idiv reg For signed division
Idiv mem
The div instruction computes an unsigned division. If the operand is an eight bit operand ,div divides the ax
register by the operand leaving the quotient in al and the remainder(modulo) in ah. If the operand is a 16 bit
quantity, then the div instruction divides the 32 bit quantity in dx ax by the operand leaving the quotient in ax
and the remainder in .
Note: If an overflow occurs (or you attempt a division by zero) then the80x86 executes an INT 0 (interrupt
zero).
The aad (ASCII Adjust before Division) instruction is another unpacked decimal operation. It splits apart
unpacked binary coded decimal values before an ASCII division operation. The aad instruction is useful for
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other operations. The algorithm that describes this instruction is

al := ah*10 + al AX=0905H; BL=06; AAD; AX=AH*10+AL=09*10+05=95D;
convert decimal to hexadecimal; 95D=5FH; al=5f;
DIV BL; AL/BL=5F/06; AX=05(AH)0F(AL) ah := 0
EXAMPLE:
AX = 0607H unpacked BCD for 67 decimal CH = 09H, now
adjust to binary
AAD Result: AX = 0043 = 43H = 67 decimal DIV
CH Divide AX by unpacked BCD in CH Quotient:
AL = 07 unpacked BCD Remainder:
AH = 04 unpacked BCD Flags undefined after DIV
NOTE: If an attempt is made to divide by 0, the 8086 will do a type 0 interrupt.
CBW-Convert Signed Byte to Signed Word: This instruction copies the sign of a byte in AL to all the bits in
AH. AH is then said to be the sign extension of AL. The CBW operation must be done before a signed byte in
AL can be divided by another signed byte with the IDIV instruction. CBW affects no flags.
EXAMPLE:
AX = 00000000 10011011 155 decimal
CBW Convert signed byte in AL to signed word in AX
Result: AX = 11111111 10011011 155 decimal
CWD-Convert Signed Word to Signed Double word: CWD copies the sign bit of a word in AX to all the
bits of the DX register. In other words it extends the sign of AX into all of DX. The CWD operation must be
done before a signed word in AX can be divided by another signed word with the IDIV instruction. CWD
affects no flags.
EXAMPLE:
DX = 00000000 00000000
AX = 11110000 11000111 3897 decimal
CWD Convert signed word in AX to signed double word in DX:AX
Result DX = 11111111 11111111
AX = 11110000 11000111 3897 decimal

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Logical, Shift, Rotate and Bit Instructions: The 80x86 family provides five logical instructions, four rotate
instructions, and three shift instructions. The logical instructions are and, or, xor, test, and not; the rotates are
ror, rol, rcr, and rcl; the shift instructions are shl/sal, shr, and sar.
The Logical Instructions: AND, OR, XOR, and NOT: The 80x86 logical instructions operate on a bit-by-
bit basis. Except not, these instructions affect the flags as follows:
• They clear the carry flag.
• They clear the overflow flag.
• They set the zero flag if the result is zero, they clear it otherwise.
• They copy the H.O. bit of the result into the sign flag.
• They set the parity flag according to the parity (number of one bits) in the result.
• They scramble the auxiliary carry flag.
The not instruction does not affect any flags.
The AND instruction sets the zero flag if the two operands do not have any ones in corresponding bit
positions. AND AX, BX
The OR instruction will only set the zero flag if both operands contain zero. OR AX, BX
The XOR instruction will set the zero flag only if both operands are equal. Notice that the xor
operation will produce a zero result if and only if the two operands are equal. Many programmers commonly
use this fact to clear a sixteen bit register to zero since an instruction of the form
xor reg16, reg16; XOR AX, AX is shorter than the comparable mov reg,0 instruction.
You can use the and instruction to set selected bits to zero in the destination operand. This is known as
masking out data; Likewise, you can use the or instruction to force certain bits to one in the destination
operand;
The Shift Instructions: SHL/SAL, SHR, SAR: The 80x86 supports three different shift instructions (shl and
sal are the same instruction):shl (shift left), sal (shift arithmetic left), shr (shift right), and sar (shift arithmetic
right).

SHL/SAL: These instructions move each bit in the destination operand one bit position to the left the
number of times specified by the count operand. Zeros fill vacated positions at the L.O. bit; the H.O. bit
shifts into the carry flag.
The shl/sal instruction sets the condition code bits as follows:
• If the shift count is zero, the shl instruction doesn’t affect any flags.
• The carry flag contains the last bit shifted out of the H.O. bit of the operand.
• The overflow flag will contain one if the two H.O. bits were differen tprior to a single bit shift. The overflow
flag is undefined if the shift count is not one.
• The zero flag will be one if the shift produces a zero result.
• The sign flag will contain the H.O. bit of the result.
• The parity flag will contain one if there are an even number of one bits inthe L.O. byte of the result.
• The A flag is always undefined after the shl/sal instruction.
The shift left instruction is especially useful for packing data. For example, suppose you
have two nibbles in al and ah that you want to combine. You could use the following code to
do this:
shl ah, 4 ;

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or al, ah ;Merge in H.O. four bits.

Of course, al must contain a value in the range 0..F for this code to work properly (the shift left
operation automatically clears the L.O. four bits of ah before the or instruction).

SHL OPERATION
H.O. four bits of al are not zero before this operation, you can easily clear them with an and
instruction:
shl ah, 4 ;Move L.O. bits to H.O. position. and
al, 0Fh ;Clear H.O. four bits.
or al, ah ;Merge the bits.
Since shifting an integer value to the left one position is equivalent to multiplying that value
by two, you can also use the shift left instruction for multiplication by powers of two:
shl ax, 1 ;Equivalent to AX*2 shl
ax, 2 ;Equivalent to AX*4 shl ax, 3
;Equivalent to AX*8
SAR:Thesar instruction shifts all the bits in the destination operand to the right one bit,
replicating the H.O. bit.
The sar instruction’s main purpose is to perform a signed division by some power of two. Each shift to the
right divides the value by two. Multiple right shifts divide the previous shifted result by two, so multiple shifts
produce the following results:

SAR OPERATION
sar ax, 1 ;Signed division by 2 sar ax,
2 ;Signed division by 4 sar ax, 3
;Signed division by 8 sar ax, 4 ;Signed
division by 16 sar ax, 5 ;Signed
division by 32 sar ax, 6 ;Signed
division by 64 sar ax, 7 ;Signed
division by 128 sar ax, 8 ;Signed
division by 256
There is a very important difference between the sar and idiv instructions. The idiv instruction always
truncates towards zero while sar truncates results toward the smaller result. For positive results, an arithmetic
shift right by one position produces the same result as an integer division by two. However, if the quotient is

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negative, idiv truncates towards zero while sar truncates towards negative infinity.
SHR: The shr instruction shifts all the bits in the destination operand to the right one bit shifting a zero into
the H.O. bit

SHR

OPERATION
The shift right instruction is especially useful for unpacking data. shifting an unsigned integer value to the
right one position is equivalent to dividing that value by two, you can also use the shift right instruction for
division by powers of two:
shr ax, 1 ;Equivalent to AX/2 shr ax,
2 ;Equivalent to AX/4 shr ax, 3
;Equivalent to AX/8 shr ax, 4
;Equivalent to AX/16
The Rotate Instructions: RCL, RCR, ROL, and ROR
The rotate instructions shift the bits around, just like the shift instructions, except the bits shifted out of the
operand by the rotate instructions re-circulate through the operand. They include rcl(rotate through carry left),
rcr(rotate through carry right), rol(rotate left), and ror(rotate right). These instructions all take the forms :rcldest,
count roldest, count rcr dest, count ror dest, count

RCL: The rcl(rotate through carry left), as its name implies, rotates bits to the left, through the carry flag,
and back into bit zero on the right. The rcl instruction sets the flag bits as follows:
• The carry flag contains the last bit shifted out of the H.O. bit of the operand.
• If the shift count is one, rcl sets the overflow flag if the sign changes as a result of the rotate. If the count is
not one, the overflow flag is undefined.
• The rcl instruction does not modify the zero, sign, parity, or auxiliary carry flags.

RCL OPERATION
RCR: The rcr (rotate through carry right) instruction is the complement to the rcl instruction. It shifts its bits
right through the carry flag and back into the H.O. bit. This instruction sets the flags in a manner analogous to
rcl:
• The carry flag contains the last bit shifted out of the L.O. bit of the operand.
• The rcr instruction does not affect the zero, sign, parity, or auxiliary carry flags.

RCR OPERATION
ROL: The rol instruction is similar to the
rcl instruction in that it rotates its
operand to the left the specified
number of bits. The major difference is that rol shifts its operand’s H.O. bit ,rather than the carry, into bit zero.

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Rol also copies the output of the H.O. bit into the carry flag . The rol instruction sets the flags identically to
rcl. Other than the source of the value shifted into bit zero, this instruction behaves exactly like the rcl
instruction.
Like shl, the rol instruction is often useful for packing and unpacking data.

ROL OPERATION
ROR: The ror instruction relates to the rcr instruction in much the same way that the rol instruction relates to
rcl. That is, it is almost the same operation other than the source of the input bit to the operand. Rather than
shifting the previous carry flag into the H.O. bit of the destination operation, ror shifts bit zero into the H.O.
bit.

ROR OPERATION
String Instructions: A string is a collection of objects stored in contiguous memory locations. Strings are
usually arrays of bytes or words on 8086.All members of the 80x 86 families support five different string
instructions: MOVS, CMPS, SCAS, LODS, AND STOS.
The string instructions operate on blocks (contiguous linear arrays) of memory. For example, the movs
instruction moves a sequence of bytes from one memory location to another. The cmps instruction compares
two blocks of memory. The scas instruction scansa block of memory for a particular value. These string
instructions often require three operands, a destination block address, a source block address, and (optionally)
an element count. For example, when using the movs instruction to copy a string, you need a source address, a
destination address, and a count (the number of string elements to move).The operands for the string
instructions include:
• theSI (source index) register, • the DI (destination index) register,• the CX (count) register,
• theAX register, and • the direction flag in the FLAGS register.

The REP/REPE/REPZ and REPNZ/REPNE Prefixes: The repeat prefixes tell the 80x86 to do a multi-byte
string operation. The syntax for the repeat prefix is:
Field:
Label repeat mnemonic operand ; comment
For MOVS:
Rep movs {operands}
For CMPS:
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Repe cmps Repz cmps

{operands} {operands} Repne cmps {operands} Repnz cmps
{operands}
For SCAS:
Repe scas {operands} Repz scas {operands} Repne scas {operands} repnz scas {operands}
For STOS:
repstos {operands}
When specifying the repeat prefix before a string instruction, the string instruction repeats cx
times. Without the repeat prefix, the instruction operates only on a single byte,word, or double word.
If the direction flag is clear, the CPU increments si and di after operating upon eachstring element. If
the direction flag is set, then the 80x86 decrements si and di after processing eachstring element. The direction
flag may be set or cleared using the cld (clear direction flag) and std (setdirection flag) instructions.
The MOVS Instruction: The movsb (move string, bytes) instruction fetches the byte at address ds:si, stores it
at address es:di, and then increments or decrements the si and di registers by one. If the rep prefix is present,
the CPU checks cx to see if it contains zero. If not, then it moves the byte from ds:si to es:di and decrements
the cx register. This process repeats until cx becomes zero. The syntax is :
{REP} MOVSB {REP} MOVSW
The CMPS Instruction: The cmps instruction compares two strings. The CPU compares the string referenced
by es:di to the string pointed at by ds:si. Cx contains the length of the two strings (whenusing the rep prefix).
The syntax is: {REPE} CMPSB {REPE} CMPSW
To compare two strings to see if they are equal or not equal, you must compare corresponding elements
in a string until they don’t match or length of the string cx=0.Therepe prefix accomplishes this operation.
It will compare successive elements in a string as long as they are equal and cx is greater than zero.
The SCAS Instruction: The scas instruction, by itself, compares the value in the accumulator (al or ax)
against the value pointed at by es:di and then increments (or decrements) di by one or two. The CPU sets the
flags according to the result of the comparison. When using the repne prefix (repeat while not equal), scas
scans the string searching for the first string element which is equal to the value in the accumulator. The scas
instruction takes the following forms:{REPNE} SCASB {REPNE} SCASW The STOS

Instruction: The stos instruction stores the value in the accumulator at the location specified byes:di. After
storing the value, the CPU increments or decrements di depending upon the state of the direction flag. Its
primary use is to initialize arrays and strings to a constant value. {REP} STOSB
{REP} STOSW
The LODS Instruction: The lods instruction copies the byte or word pointed at by ds:si into the al or ax
register, after which it increments or decrements the si register by one or two.{REP} LODSB
{REP} LODSW

Flag Manipulation and Processor Control Instructions: These instructions control the functioning of the
available hardware inside the processor chip. These are categorized into two types; (a) flag manipulation
instructions and (b) machine control instructions.

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The flag manipulation instructions directly modify some of the flags of 8086. The machine control
instructions control the bus usage and execution. The flag manipulation instructions and their functions are as
follows:
CLC - Clear carry flag CMC - Complement carry flag STC - Set carry flag
CLD - Clear direction flag STD - Set direction flag CLI - Clear interrupt flag
STI - Set interrupt flag
These instructions modify the carry(CF), direction(DF) and interrupt(IF) flags directly. The DF and IF, which
may be modified using the flag manipulation instructions, further control the processor operation; like
interrupt responses and auto-increment or auto-decrement modes.
The machine control instructions supported by 8086 and 8088 are listed as follows along with
their functions. These machine control instructions do not require any operand.
WAIT - Wait for Test input pin to go low HLT - Halt the processor NOP - No
Operation ESC - Escape to external device like NDP (numeric co-processor) LOCK - Bus
lock instruction prefix.
After executing the HLT instruction, the processor enters the halt state. The two ways to pull it out of the halt
state are to reset the processor or to interrupt it.
When NOP instruction is executed, the processor does not perform any operation till 4 clock cycles,
except incrementing the IP by one. It then continues with further execution after 4 clock cycles.
ESC instruction when executed, frees the bus for an external master like a coprocessor or peripheral
devices.
The LOCK prefix may appear with another instruction. When it is executed, the bus access is not
allowed for another master till the lock prefixed instruction is executed completely. This instruction is used in
case of programming for multiprocessor systems.
The WAIT instruction when executed holds the operation of processor with the current status till the
logic level on the TEST pin goes low. The processor goes on inserting WAIT states in the instruction cycle,
till the TEST pin goes low. Once the TEST pin goes low, it continues further execution.
Program Flow Control Instructions: The control transfer instructions are used to transfer the control from
one memory location to another memory location. In 8086 program control instructions belong to three
groups: unconditional transfers, conditional transfers, and subroutine call and return instructions.
Unconditional Jumps: The jmp (jump) instruction unconditionally transfers control to another point in the
program. Intra segment jumps are always between statements in the same code segment. Intersegment jumps
can transfer control to a statement in a different code segment.
JMP Address

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Unconditional jump Conditional jump

Conditional Jump: The conditional jump instructions are the basic tool for creating loops and other
conditionally executable statements like if…..then statement. The conditional jumps test one or more bits in
the status register to see if they match some particular pattern. If the pattern matches, control transfers to the
target location. If the condition fails, the CPU ignores the conditional jump and execution continues with the
next instruction. Some instructions, for example, test the conditions of the sign, carry, overflow and zero flags.

Loop Instruction:
• These instructions are used to repeat a set of instructions several times.
• Format: LOOP Short-Label

• Operation: (CX) (CX)-1
• Jump is initialized to location defined by short label if CX≠0. Otherwise, execute next sequential
instruction.
• Instruction LOOP works with respect to contents of CX. CX must be preloaded with a count that
represents the number of times the loop is to be repeat.
• Whenever the loop is executed, contents at CX are first decremented then checked to determine if they
are equal to zero.
• If CX=0, loop is complete and the instruction following loop is executed.
• If CX ≠ 0, content return to the instruction at the label specified in the loop instruction.

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• LOOP AGAIN is almost same as: DEC CX, JNZ AGAIN

SUBROUTINE & SUBROUTINE HANDILING INSTRUCTIONS: CALL,

RET

 
 
 

A subroutine is a special segment of program that can be called for execution from any point in a
 
program.

 
An assembly language subroutine is also referred to as a “procedure”.

Whenever we  need the subroutine, a single instruction is inserted in to the main body of the program to call
subroutine.
  Transfers the flow of the program to the procedure.

 
CALL instruction differs from the jump instruction because a CALL saves a return address on the
o stack.
 The return address returns control to the instruction that immediately follows the CALL in a program
when a RET instruction executes.
  
To branch a subroutine the value in the IP or CS and IP must be modified.

After execution, we want to return the control to the instruction that  immediately follows the one called the
 subroutine i.e., the original value of IP or CS and IP must be preserved.
  
 Execution of the instruction causes the contents of IP to be saved on the stack. (this time (SP) (SP) -2 )



A new 16-bit (near-proc, mem16, reg16 i.e., Intra Segment) value which is specified by the instructions operand
is loaded into IP.
 
Examples: CALL 1234H
CALL BX
CALL [BX]
Return Instruction: RET instruction removes an address from the stack so the program returns to the
instruction following the CALL
• Every subroutine must end by executing an instruction that returns control to the main program. This is
the return (RET) instruction.
• By execution the value of IP or IP and CS that were saved in the stack to be returned back to their

corresponding registers. (this time (SP) (SP)+2 )

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MACROS: The macro directive allows the programmer to write a named block of source statements,
then use that name in the source file to represent the group of statements. During the assembly phase, the
assembler automatically replaces each occurrence of the macro name with the statements in the macro
definition.
Macros are expanded on every occurrence of the macro name, so they can increase the length of
the executable file if used repeatable. Procedures or subroutines take up less space, but the increased
overhead of saving and restoring addresses and parameters can make them slower. In summary, the
advantages and disadvantages of macros are,
Advantages
 Repeated small groups of instructions replaced by one macro 
 Errors in macros are fixed only once, in the definition 
 Duplication of effort is reduced 
 In effect, new higher level instructions can be created 
 Programming is made easier, less error prone 
  Generally quicker in execution than subroutines 
Disadvantages
 

 large programs, produce greater code size than procedures 

In
When to use Macros 
 To replace small groups of instructions not worthy of subroutines 
 To create a higher instruction set for specific applications 
 To create compatibility with other computers 
 To replace code portions which are repeated often throughout the program 

Minimum Mode 8086 System

•In a minimum mode 8086 system, the microprocessor 8086 is operated in minimum mode by strapping
its MN/MX pin to logic 1.
•In this mode, all the control signals are given out by the microprocessor chip itself. There is a single
microprocessor in the minimum mode system.
•The remaining components in the system are latches, transreceivers, clock generator, memory and I/O
devices. Some type of chip selection logic may be required for selecting memory or I/O devices,
depending upon the address map of the system.
•Latches are generally buffered output D-type flip-flops like 74LS373 or 8282. They are used for
separating the valid address from the multiplexed address/data signals and are controlled by the ALE
signal generated by 8086.
•Transreceivers are the bidirectional buffers and sometimes they are called as data amplifiers. They are
required to separate the valid data from the time multiplexed address/data signals.
•They are controlled by two signals namely, DEN and DT/R.

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•
The DEN signal indicates the direction of data, i.e. from or to the processor. The system contains
memory for the monitor and users program storage.
•Usually, EPROMs are used for monitor storage, while RAM for users program storage. A system may
contain I/O devices.
•The opcode fetch and read cycles are similar. Hence the timing diagram can be categorized in two parts,
the first is the timing diagram for read cycle and the second is the timing diagram for write cycle.
•The read cycle begins in T1 with the assertion of address latch enable (ALE) signal and also M / IO
signal. During the negative going edge of this signal, the valid address is latched on the local bus.
•The BHE and A0 signals address low, high or both bytes. From T1 to T4 , the M/IO signal indicates a
memory or I/O operation.
•At T2, the address is removed from the local bus and is sent to the output. The bus is then tristated. The
read (RD) control signal is also activated in T2.
•The read (RD) signal causes the address device to enable its data bus drivers. After RD goes low, the
valid data is available on the data bus.
•The addressed device will drive the READY line high. When the processor returns the read signal to

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high level, the addressed device will again tristate its bus drivers.
•A write cycle also begins with the assertion of ALE and the emission of the address. The M/IO signal is
again asserted to indicate a memory or I/O operation. In T2, after sending the address in T1, the
processor sends the data to be written to the addressed location.
•The data remains on the bus until middle of T4 state. The WR becomes active at the beginning of T2
(unlike RD is somewhat delayed in T2 to provide time for floating).
•The BHE and A0 signals are used to select the proper byte or bytes of memory or I/O word to be read or
write.

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Maximum Mode 8086 System

•In the maximum mode, the 8086 is operated by strapping the MN/MX pin to ground.
In this mode, the processor derives the status signal S2, S1, S0. Another chip called bus controller
derives the control signal using this status information.
•In the maximum mode, there may be more than one microprocessor in the system configuration.
•The components in the system are same as in the minimum mode system.
•The basic function of the bus controller chip IC8288, is to derive control signals like RD and WR (for
memory and I/O devices), DEN, DT/R, ALE etc. using the information by the processor on the status
lines.
•The bus controller chip has input lines S2, S1, S0 and CLK. These inputs to 8288 are driven by CPU.
•It derives the outputs ALE, DEN, DT/R, MRDC, MWTC, AMWC, IORC, IOWC and AIOWC. The
AEN, IOB and CEN pins are especially useful for multiprocessor systems
•AEN and IOB are generally grounded. CEN pin is usually tied to +5V. The significance of the

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MCE/PDEN output depends upon the status of the IOB pin.

•If IOB is grounded, it acts as master cascade enable to control cascade 8259A, else it acts as peripheral
data enable used in the multiple bus configurations.
•INTA pin used to issue two interrupt acknowledge pulses to the interrupt controller or to an interrupting
device.
•IORC, IOWC are I/O read command and I/O write command signals respectively.
These signals enable an IO interface to read or write the data from or to the address port. •The MRDC,
MWTC are memory read command and memory write command signals respectively and may be used
as memory read or write signals.
•All these command signals instructs the memory to accept or send data from or to the bus. •For both of
these write command signals, the advanced signals namely AIOWC and AMWTC are available.

•Here the only difference between in timing diagram between minimum mode and maximum mode is the
status signals used and the available control and advanced command signals. •R0, S1, S2 are set at the
beginning of bus cycle.8288 bus controller will output a pulse as on the ALE and apply a required signal
to its DT / R pin during T1.
•In T2, 8288 will set DEN=1 thus enabling transceivers, and for an input it will activate MRDC or
IORC. These signals are activated until T4. For an output, the AMWC or
AIOWC is activated from T2 to T4 and MWTC or IOWC is activated from T3 to T4. •The
status bit S0 to S2 remains active until T3 and become passive during T3 and T4.
•If reader input is not activated before T3, wait state will be inserted between T3 and T4.

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UNIT -II

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UNIT -II
Modular Programming: Instead of writing a large program in a single unit, it is better to write small
programs—which are parts of the large program. Such small programs are called program modules or
simply modules. Each such module can be separately written, tested and debugged. Once the debugging
of the small programs is over, they can be linked together. Such methodology of developing a large
program by linking the modules is called modular programming.
Assembler Directives:
Assembler directives are special instructions that provide information to the assembler but do not generate
any code. Examples include the segment directive, equ, assume, and end. These mnemonics are not valid
80x86 instructions. They are messages to the assembler, to generate address.
A pseudo-opcode is a message to the assembler, just like an assembler directive, how ever a
pseudo-opcode will emit object code bytes. Examples of pseudo-opcodes include byte, word, dword,
qword, and byte. These instructions emit the bytes of data specified by their operands but they are not true
80X86 machine instructions.
ASSUME: The ASSUME directive tell the assembler the name of the logical segment it should use for a
specified segment. Ex: ASSUME CS: Code, DS : Data, SS : Stack; or ASSUME CS: Code
Data Directives: The directives DB, DW, DD, DR and DT are used to (a) define different types of
variables or (b) to set aside one or more storage locations in memory-depending on the data type:
DB — Define Byte DW — Define Word DD — Define Double word
DQ — Define Quadword DT — Define Ten Bytes

The DB directive is used to declare a byte-type variable or to set aside one or more storage locations of
type byte in memory (Define Byte)
Example: Temp DB 42H; Temp is a variable allotted 1byte of memory location assigned with data 42H
The DW directive is used to declare a variable of type word or to reserve memory locations which can be
accessed as type double word (Define word)
Example: N2 DW 427AH; N2 variable is initialized with value 427AH when it is loaded into memory to
run.
The DD directive is used to declare a variable of type double word or to reserve memory locations which
can be accessed as type double word (Define double word)
Example: Big DD 2456756CH; Big variable is initialized with 4 bytes
The DQ directive is used to tell the assembler to declare a variable 4 words in length or to reverse 4
words of storage in memory (Define Quadword)
Example: Big DQ 2456756C88464567H; Big variable is initialized with 4 words (8 bytes)
The DT directive is used to tell the assembler to declare a variable 10 bytes in length or to reverse
10bytes of storage in memory (Define Ten bytes)
Example: Packed BCD DT 11223344556677889900H; 10 byte data is initialized to variable packed BCD
DUP: This directive operator is used to initialize several locations and to assign values to these locations.
Its format is: Name Data-Type Num DUP (value)
Example: TABLE DB 20 DUP(0) ; Reserve an array of 20 bytes of memory and initialize all
20 bytes with 0. Array is named TABLE
END: The END directive is placed after the last statement of a program to tell the assembler that this is
the end of the program module. The assembler will ignore any statement after an end directive.
The ENDP directive is used with the name of the procedure to indicate the end of a procedure to the
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assembler.
SQUARE NUM PROC
….
….
SQUARE NUM ENDP
The ENDS directive is used with the name of the segment to indicate the end of a segment to the
assembler.
CODE SEGMENT
…
…
CODE ENDS
EQU: The EQU directive is used to give a name to some value or to a symbol. Each time assembler
finds the name in the program it will replace the name with the value.
FACTOR EQU 03H; This statement should be written at the start
ADD AL, FACTOR; The assembler converts this instruction as ADD AL, 03H
EVEN: The EVEN directive instructs the assembler to increment the location of the counter to the next
even address if it is not already in the even address. If the word starts at an odd address, 8086 will take
2 bus cycles to get the 2 byte of the word. “A series of words can read much more quickly if they are at
even address”.

DATA HERE SEGMENT ; Location counter will point to 0009H after assembler reads next statement
SALES DB 9 DUP (?) ;Declare an array of 9 bytes
EVEN ; Increment location counter to 000AH
RECORD DW 100 DUP (?) ; Array of 100 words starting on even address for quicker read
DATA HERE ENDS ;

GLOBAL: This GLOBAL directive can be used in place of PUBLIC directive or in place of an EXTRN
directive. The GOLBAL directive is used to make the symbol available to other modules.
PUBLIC: The PUBLIC directive is used along with the EXTRN directive. This informs the assembler
that the labels, variables, constants, or procedures declared PUBLIC may be accessed by other assembly
modules to form their codes, but while using the PUBLIC declared labels, variables, constants or
procedures the user must declare them externals using the EXTRN directive.
EXTRN: This EXTRN directive is used to tell the assembler that the names or labels following the
directive are in some other assembly module.
GROUP: This GROUP directive is used to tell the assembler to group the logical segments named after
the directive into one logical group segment.
Example: SMALL SYSTEM GROUP CODE, DATA, STACK
ASSUME CS:SMALL SYSTEM, DS: SMALL SYSTEM, SS: SMALL SYSTEM OFFSET—
Is an operator which tells the assembler to determine the offset or the displacement of a named data item
(variable) or procedure from start of the segment which contains it. This operator is used to load the offset
of a variable into a register so that the variable can be accessed with one of the indexed addressing modes.
MOV AL, OFFSET N1
ORG – This ORG directive allows to set the location counter to a desired value at any point in the
program. The statement ORG 100H tells the assembler to set the location counter to 0100H.

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PROCEDURE: A PROC directive is used to define a label and to delineate a sequence of instructions that
are usually interpreted to be a subroutine, that is, called either from within the same physical segment
(near) or from another physical segment (far).

Syntax:
name PROC [type]

…..
name ENDP
Labels: A label, a symbolic name for a particular location in an instruction sequence, maybe defined in
one of three ways. The first way is the most common. The format is shown below: label: [instruction]
where "label" is a unique ASM86 identifier and "instruction" is an8086/8087/8088 instruction. This label
will have the following attributes:
1. Segment-the current segment being assembled.
2. Offset-the current value of the location counter.
3. Type-will be NEAR.
An example of this form of label definition is: ALAB: MOV AX, COUNT
Instruction Set of 8086:
There are 117 basic instructions in the instruction set of 8086.The instruction set of 8086 can be
divided into the following number of groups, namely:
1. Data copy / Transfer instructions 2. Arithmetic and Logical instructions
3. Branch instructions 4. Loop instructions
5. Machine control instructions 6. Flag Manipulation instructions
7. Shift and Rotate instructions 8. String instructions
Data copy / Transfer instructions: The data movement instructions copy values from one location to
another. These instructions include MOV, XCHG, LDS, LEA, LES, PUSH, PUSHF, PUSHFD,
POP,POPF, LAHF, AND SAHF.
MOV The MOV instruction copies a word or a byte of data from source to a destination. The destination
can be a register or a memory location. The source can be a register, or memory location or immediate
data. MOV instruction does not affect any flags. The mov instruction takes several different forms:
The MOV instruction cannot:
4. Set the value of the CS and IP registers.
5. Copy value of one segment register toa nother segment register (should copy to general register
first). MOV CS, DS (Invalid)
6. Copy immediate value to segment register (should copy to general register first). MOV CS, 2000H
(Invalid)
Example:
ORG 100h
MOV AX, 0B800h ; set AX = B800h
MOV DS, AX ; copy value of AX to DS.
MOV CL, 'A' ; CL = 41h (ASCII code).

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The XCHG Instruction: Exchange This instruction exchanges the contents of the specified source and
destination operands, which may be registers or one of them, may be a memory location. However,
exchange of data contents of two memory locations is not permitted.
Example: MOV AL, 5 ; AL = 5
MOV BL, 2 ; BL = 2
XCHG AL,BL ; AL = 2, BL = 5
PUSH: Push to stack; this instruction pushes the contents of the specified register/memory location on to
the stack. The stack pointer is decremented by 2, after each execution of the instruction. The actual
current stack-top is always occupied by the previously pushed data. Hence, the push operation decrements
SP by two and then stores the two byte contents of the operand onto the stack. The higher byte is pushed
first and then the lower byte. Thus out of the two decremented stack addresses the higher byte occupies
the higher address and the lower byte occupies the lower address.
4. PUSH AX
5. PUSH DS
6. PUSH [500OH] ; Content of location 5000H and 5001 H in DS are pushed onto the stack.

POP: Pop from Stack this instruction when executed loads the specified register/memory location with
the contents of the memory location of which the address is formed using the current stack
segment and stack pointer as usual. The stack pointer is incremented by 2. The POP instruction serves
exactly opposite to the PUSH instruction.
4. POP BX
5. POP DS
6. POP [5000H]

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PUSHF: Push Flags to Stack The push flag instruction pushes the flag register on to the stack; first the
upper byte and then the lower byte will be pushed on to the stack. The SP is decremented by 2, for each
push operation. The general operation of this instruction is similar to the PUSH operation.
POPF: Pop Flags from Stack The pop flags instruction loads the flag register completely (both bytes)
from the word contents of the memory location currently addressed by SP and SS. The SP is incremented
by 2for each pop operation.
LAHF: Load AH from Lower Byte of Flag This instruction loads the AH register with the lower byte of
the flag register. This instruction may be used to observe the status of all the condition code flags (except
overflow) at a time.
SAHF: Store AH to Lower Byte of Flag Register This instruction sets or resets the condition code flags
(except overflow) in the lower byte of the flag register depending upon the corresponding bit positions in
AH. If a bit in AH is 1, the flag corresponding to the bit position is set, else it is reset.
LEA: Load Effective Address The load effective address instruction loads the offset of an operand in the
specified register. This instruction is similar to MOV, MOV is faster than LEA.
LEA cx, [bx+si] ; CX (BX+SI) mod 64K If bx=2f00 H; si=10d0H cx 3fd0H
The LDS AND LES instructions:
• LDS and LES load a 16-bit register with offset address retrieved from a memory location then load
either DS or ES with a segment address retrieved from memory.
This instruction transfers the 32-bit number, addressed by DI in the data segment, into the BX and DS
registers.
• LDS and LES instructions obtain a new far address from memory.
– offset address appears first, followed by the segment address
• This format is used for storing all 32-bit memory addresses.
• A far address can be stored in memory by the assembler.
LDS BX,DWORD PTR[SI]
BL [SI];
BH [SI+1]
DS [SI+3:SI+2]; in the data segment
LES BX,DWORD PTR[SI]
BL [SI];
BH [SI+1]
ES [SI+3:SI+2]; in the extra segment

I/O Instructions: The 80x86 supports two I/O instructions: in and out15. They take the forms: In

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ax, port
in ax, dx out
port, ax out dx,
ax
port is a value between 0 and 255.
The in instruction reads the data at the specified I/O port and copies it into the accumulator. The
out instruction writes the value in the accumulator to the specified I/O port.
Arithmetic instructions: These instructions usually perform the arithmetic operations, like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division along with the respective ASCII and decimal adjust instructions. The increment and
decrement operations also belong to this type of instructions.
The ADD and ADC instructions: The add instruction adds the contents of the source operand to the
destination operand. For example, add ax, bx adds bx to ax leaving the sum in the ax register. Add
computes dest :=dest+source while adc computes dest :=dest+source+C where C represents the
value in the carry flag. Therefore, if the carry flag is clear before execution, adc behaves exactly like the
add instruction.

Example: CF=1

AX=98

DX=78 CX=94

BX=9E AX=2C
Both instructions affect the flags identically. They set the flags as follows:
• The overflow flag denotes a signed arithmetic overflow.
• The carry flag denotes an unsigned arithmetic overflow.
• The sign flag denotes a negative result (i.e., the H.O. bit of the result is one).
• The zero flag is set if the result of the addition is zero.
• The auxiliary carry flag contains one if a BCD overflow out of the L.O. nibble occurs.
• The parity flag is set or cleared depending on the parity of the L.O. eight bits of the result. If there is
even number of one bits in the result, the ADD instructions will set the parity flag to one (to denote even
parity). If there is an odd number of one bits in the result, the ADD instructions clear the parity flag (to
denote odd parity).
The INC instruction: The increment instruction adds one to its operand. Except for carry flag, inc sets
the flags the same way as Add ax, 1 same as inc ax. The inc operand may be an eight bit, sixteen bit. The
inc instruction is more compact and often faster than the comparable add reg, 1 or add mem, 1 instruction.
The AAA and DAA Instructions
The aaa (ASCII adjust after addition) and daa (decimal adjust for addition) instructions support
BCD arithmetic. BCD values are decimal integer coded in binary form with one decimal digit(0..9) per
nibble. ASCII (numeric) values contain a single decimal digit per byte, the H.O. nibble of the byte should

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contain zero (30 ….39).

The aaa and daa instructions modify the result of a binary addition to correct it for ASCII
or decimal arithmetic. For example, to add two BCD values, you would add them as though they were
binary numbers and then execute the daa instruction afterwards to correct the results.
Note: These two instructions assume that the add operands were proper decimal or ASCII values. If you
add binary(non-decimal or non-ASCII) values together and try to adjust them with these instructions, you
will not produce correct results.
Aaa (which you generally execute after an add, adc, or xadd instruction) checks the
value in al for BCD overflow. It works according to the following basic algorithm:
if ( (al and 0Fh) > 9 or (AuxC =1) ) then al := al + 6
else
ax := ax +6 endif
ah := ah + 1
AuxC := 1 ;Set auxilliary carry Carry := 1 ; and carry flags. Else
AuxC := 0 ;Clear auxilliary carry Carry := 0 ; and carry flags.
add al=08 +06; al=0E >9 al=0E+06=04
ah=00+01=01
al=04+03=08, now al<9,
so only clear ah=0
endif
al := al and 0Fh
The aaa instruction is mainly useful for adding strings of digits where there is exactly one decimal digit
per byte in a string of numbers.
The daa instruction functions like aaa except it handles packed BCD values rather than the one
digit per byte unpacked values aaa handles. As for aaa, daa’s main purpose is to add strings of BCD digits
(with two digits per byte). The algorithm for daa is
if ( (AL and 0Fh) > 9 or (AuxC = 1)) then al=24+77=9B, as B>9 add 6 to al
al := al + 6 al=9B+06=A1, as higher nibble A>9, add 60
AuxC := 1 ;Set Auxilliary carry. to al, al=A1+60=101
Endif Note: if higher or lower nibble of AL <9 then
if ( (al > 9Fh) or (Carry = 1)) then no need to add 6 to AL
al := al + 60h
Carry := 1; ;Set carry flag.
Endif
EXAMPLE:
Assume AL = 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1, ASCII
5 BL = 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1, ASCII 9
ADDAL,BL Result: AL= 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 = 6EH,which is incorrect
BCD AAA Now AL = 00000100, unpacked BCD 4.
CF = 1 indicates answer is 14 decimal
NOTE: OR AL with 30H to get 34H, the ASCII code for 4. The AAA instruction works only on the AL
register. The AAA instruction updates AF and CF, but OF, PF, SF, and ZF are left undefined.
EXAMPLES:
AL = 0101 1001 = 59 BCD ; BL = 0011 0101 = 35
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BCD ADD AL, BL AL = 1000 1110 = 8EH

DAA Add 01 10 because 1110 > 9 AL = 1001 0100 = 94
BCD AL = 1000 1000 = 88 BCD BL = 0100 1001 = 49 BCD
ADD AL, BL AL = 1101 0001, AF=1
DAA Add 0110 because AF =1, AL = 11101 0111 =
D7H 1101 > 9 so add 0110 0000
AL = 0011 0111= 37 BCD, CF =1
The DAA instruction updates AF, CF, PF, and ZF. OF is undefined after a DAA instruction.

The SUBTRACTION instructions: SUB, SBB, DEC, AAS, and DAS

The sub instruction computes the value dest :=dest - src. The sbb instruction computes dest :=dest
src - C.
The sub, sbb, and dec instructions affect the flags as follows:
• They set the zero flag if the result is zero. This occurs only if the operands are equal for sub and sbb.
The dec instruction sets the zero flag only when it decrements the value one.
• These instructions set the sign flag if the result is negative.
• These instructions set the overflow flag if signed overflow/underflow occurs.
• They set the auxiliary carry flag as necessary for BCD/ASCII arithmetic.
• They set the parity flag according to the number of one bits appearing in the result value.
• The sub and sbb instructions set the carry flag if an unsigned overflow occurs. Note that the dec
instruction does not affect the carry flag.
The aas instruction, like its aaa counterpart, lets you operate on strings of ASCII numbers with one
decimal digit (in the range 0..9) per byte. This instruction uses the following algorithm:
if ( (al and 0Fh) > 9 or AuxC = 1)
then al := al - 6
ah := ah - 1
AuxC := 1 ;Set auxilliary
carry Carry := 1 ; and carry
flags. else
AuxC := 0 ;Clear Auxilliary
carry Carry := 0 ; and carry flags.
endif
al := al and 0Fh
The das instruction handles the same operation for BCD values, it uses the
following algorithm:
if ( (al and 0Fh) > 9 or (AuxC = 1))
then al := al -6
AuxC =
1 endif
if (al > 9Fh or Carry = 1)
then al := al - 60h
Carry := 1 ;Set the Carry
flag. Endif

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EXAMPLE:
ASCII 9-ASCII 5 (9-5)
AL = 00111001 = 39H = ASCII 9
BL = 001 10101 = 35H = ASCII 5
SUB AL, BL Result: AL = 00000100 = BCD 04 and CF =
0 AAS Result: AL = 00000100 = BCD 04 and CF = 0
no borrow required
ASCII 5-ASCII 9 (5-9)
Assume AL = 00110101 = 35H ASCII
5 and BL = 0011 1001 = 39H = ASCII
9
SUB AL, BL Result: AL = 11111100 = - 4 in 2s complement and CF
=1 AAS Result: AL = 00000100 = BCD 04 and CF = 1, borrow needed
EXAMPLES:
AL 1000 0110 86 BCD ; BH 0101 0111 57 BCD

SUB AL,BH AL 0010 1111 2FH, CF = 0

DAS Lower nibble of result is 1111, so DAS automatically
subtracts 0000 0110 to give AL = 00101001 29
BCD AL 0100 1001 49 BCD BH 0111 0010 72
BCD SUB AL,BH AL 1101 0111 D7H, CF = 1
DAS Subtracts 0110 0000 (- 60H) because 1101 in upper nibble > 9
AL = 01110111= 77 BCD, CF=1 CF=1 means borrow was needed
The CMP Instruction: The cmp (compare) instruction is identical to the sub instruction with one
crucial difference– it does not store the difference back into the destination operand. The syntax for the
cmp instruction is very similar to sub, the generic form is cmpdest, src
Consider the following cmp instruction: cmp ax, bx
This instruction performs the computation ax-bx and sets the flags depending upon the result of the
computation. The flags are set as follows:
Z: The zero flag is set if and only if ax = bx. This is the only time ax-bx produces a zero result. Hence,
you can use the zero flag to test for equality or inequality.
S: The sign flag is set to one if the result is negative.
O: The overflow flag is set after a cmp operation if the difference of ax and bx produced an overflow or
underflow.
C: The carry flag is set after a cmp operation if subtracting bx from ax requires a borrow. This occurs
only when ax is less than bx where ax and bx are both unsigned values.
The Multiplication Instructions: MUL, IMUL, and AAM: This instruction multiplies an unsigned byte
or word by the contents of AL. The unsigned byte or word may be in any one of the general-purpose
registers or memory locations. The most significant word of the result is stored in DX, while the least
significant word of the result is stored in AX.
The mul instruction, with an eight bit operand, multiplies the al register by the operand and stores the
16 bit result in ax. So
mul operand (Unsigned) MUL BL i.e. AL * BL; Al=25 * BL=04; AX=00 (AH) 64 (AL)
imul operand (Signed) IMUL BL i.e. AL * BL; AL=09 * BL=-2; AL * 2’s comp(BL)
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AL=09 * BL (0EH)=7E; 2’s comp (7e)=-82

The aam (ASCII Adjust after Multiplication) instruction, adjust an unpacked decimal value after
multiplication. This instruction operates directly on the ax register. It assumes that you’ve multiplied two
eight bit values in the range 0..9 together and the result is sitting in ax (actually, the result will be sitting
in al since 9*9 is 81,the largest possible value; ah must contain zero). This instruction divides ax by 10
and leaves the quotient in ah and the remainder in al: mul bl; al=9, bl=9 al*bl=9*9=51H; AX=00(AH)
51(AL); AAM ; first hexadecimal value is converted to decimal value i.e. 51 to 81; al=81D; second
convert packed BCD to unpacked BCD, divide AL content by 10 i.e. 81/10 then AL=01, AH =08; AX =
0801
EXAMPLE:
AL 00000101 unpacked BCD 5
BH 00001001 unpacked BCD 9
MUL BH AL x BH; result in AX
AX = 00000000 00101101 = 002DH
AAM AX = 00000100 00000101 = 0405H, which is unpacked BCD for 45.
If ASCII codes for the result are desired, use next instruction OR AX, 3030H Put 3 in upper nibble of
each byte.
AX = 0011 0100 0011 0101 = 3435H, which is ASCII code for 45
The Division Instructions: DIV, IDIV, and AAD
The 80x86 divide instructions perform a 64/32 division (80386 and later only), a 32/16division or a 16/8
division. These instructions take the form:
Div reg For unsigned division
Div mem
Idiv reg For signed division
Idiv mem
The div instruction computes an unsigned division. If the operand is an eight bit operand ,div divides the
ax register by the operand leaving the quotient in al and the remainder(modulo) in ah. If the operand is a
16 bit quantity, then the div instruction divides the 32 bit quantity in dx ax by the operand leaving the
quotient in ax and the remainder in .
Note: If an overflow occurs (or you attempt a division by zero) then the80x86 executes an INT 0
(interrupt zero).
The aad (ASCII Adjust before Division) instruction is another unpacked decimal operation. It splits apart
unpacked binary coded decimal values before an ASCII division operation. The aad instruction is useful
for other operations. The algorithm that describes this instruction is
al := ah*10 + al AX=0905H; BL=06; AAD; AX=AH*10+AL=09*10+05=95D;
convert decimal to hexadecimal; 95D=5FH; al=5f;
DIV BL; AL/BL=5F/06; AX=05(AH)0F(AL) ah := 0
EXAMPLE:
AX = 0607H unpacked BCD for 67 decimal CH = 09H,
now adjust to binary
AAD Result: AX = 0043 = 43H = 67 decimal
DIV CH Divide AX by unpacked BCD in CH
Quotient: AL = 07 unpacked BCD Remainder:

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AH = 04 unpacked BCD Flags undefined after DIV

NOTE: If an attempt is made to divide by 0, the 8086 will do a type 0 interrupt.
CBW-Convert Signed Byte to Signed Word: This instruction copies the sign of a byte in AL to all the
bits in AH. AH is then said to be the sign extension of AL. The CBW operation must be done before a
signed byte in AL can be divided by another signed byte with the IDIV instruction. CBW affects no flags.
EXAMPLE:
AX = 00000000 10011011 155 decimal
CBW Convert signed byte in AL to signed word in
AX Result: AX = 11111111 10011011 155 decimal
CWD-Convert Signed Word to Signed Double word: CWD copies the sign bit of a word in AX to all
the bits of the DX register. In other words it extends the sign of AX into all of DX. The CWD operation
must be done before a signed word in AX can be divided by another signed word with the IDIV
instruction. CWD affects no flags.
EXAMPLE:
DX = 00000000 00000000
AX = 11110000 11000111 3897 decimal
CWD Convert signed word in AX to signed double word in DX:AX
Result DX = 11111111 11111111
AX = 11110000 11000111 3897 decimal

Logical, Shift, Rotate and Bit Instructions: The 80x86 family provides five logical instructions, four
rotate instructions, and three shift instructions. The logical instructions are and, or, xor, test, and not; the
rotates are ror, rol, rcr, and rcl; the shift instructions are shl/sal, shr, and sar.
The Logical Instructions: AND, OR, XOR, and NOT: The 80x86 logical instructions operate on a bit-
by-bit basis. Except not, these instructions affect the flags as follows:
• They clear the carry flag.
• They clear the overflow flag.
• They set the zero flag if the result is zero, they clear it otherwise.
• They copy the H.O. bit of the result into the sign flag.
• They set the parity flag according to the parity (number of one bits) in the result.
• They scramble the auxiliary carry flag.
The not instruction does not affect any flags.

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The AND instruction sets the zero flag if the two operands do not have any ones in corresponding bit
positions. AND AX, BX
The OR instruction will only set the zero flag if both operands contain zero. OR AX, BX
The XOR instruction will set the zero flag only if both operands are equal. Notice that the xor
operation will produce a zero result if and only if the two operands are equal. Many programmers
commonly use this fact to clear a sixteen bit register to zero since an instruction of the form
xor reg16, reg16; XOR AX, AX is shorter than the comparable mov reg,0 instruction.
You can use the and instruction to set selected bits to zero in the destination operand. This is known as
masking out data; Likewise, you can use the or instruction to force certain bits to one in the destination
operand;

The Shift Instructions: SHL/SAL, SHR, SAR: The 80x86 supports three different shift instructions (shl
and sal are the same instruction):shl (shift left), sal (shift arithmetic left), shr (shift right), and sar (shift
arithmetic right).

SHL/SAL: These instructions move each bit in the destination operand one bit position to the left the
number of times specified by the count operand. Zeros fill vacated positions at the L.O. bit; the H.O.
bit shifts into the carry flag.
The shl/sal instruction sets the condition code bits as follows:
• If the shift count is zero, the shl instruction doesn’t affect any flags.
• The carry flag contains the last bit shifted out of the H.O. bit of the operand.
• The overflow flag will contain one if the two H.O. bits were differen tprior to a single bit shift. The
overflow flag is undefined if the shift count is not one.
• The zero flag will be one if the shift produces a zero result.
• The sign flag will contain the H.O. bit of the result.
• The parity flag will contain one if there are an even number of one bits inthe L.O. byte of the result.
• The A flag is always undefined after the shl/sal instruction.
The shift left instruction is especially useful for packing data. For example, suppose
you have two nibbles in al and ah that you want to combine. You could use the
following code to do this:
shl ah, 4 ;
or al, ah ;Merge in H.O. four bits.
Of course, al must contain a value in the range 0..F for this code to work properly (the
shift left operation automatically clears the L.O. four bits of ah before the or instruction).

SHL OPERATION
H.O. four bits of al are not zero before this operation, you can easily clear them with an
and instruction:
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shl ah, 4 ;Move L.O. bits to H.O. position.

and al, 0Fh ;Clear H.O. four bits.
or al, ah ;Merge the bits.
Since shifting an integer value to the left one position is equivalent to multiplying that
value by two, you can also use the shift left instruction for multiplication by powers
of two:
shl ax, 1 ;Equivalent to AX*2
shl ax, 2 ;Equivalent to AX*4
shl ax, 3 ;Equivalent to AX*8
SAR:Thesar instruction shifts all the bits in the destination operand to the right one
bit, replicating the H.O. bit.
The sar instruction’s main purpose is to perform a signed division by some power of
two. Each shift to the right divides the value by two. Multiple right shifts divide the
previous shifted result by two, so multiple shifts produce the following results:

SAR OPERATION
sar ax, 1 ;Signed division by 2 sar
ax, 2 ;Signed division by 4 sar ax,
3 ;Signed division by 8 sar ax, 4
;Signed division by 16 sar ax, 5
;Signed division by 32 sar ax, 6
;Signed division by 64 sar ax, 7
;Signed division by 128 sar ax, 8
;Signed division by 256
There is a very important difference between the sar and idiv instructions. The idiv instruction always
truncates towards zero while sar truncates results toward the smaller result. For positive result s, an
arithmetic shift right by one position produces the same result as an integer division by two. However, if
the quotient is negative, idiv truncates towards zero while sar truncates towards negative infinity.
SHR: The shr instruction shifts all the bits in the destination operand to the right one bit shifting a zero
into the H.O. bit

SHR OPERATION
The shift right instruction is especially useful for unpacking data. shifting an unsigned integer value to the
right one position is equivalent to dividing that value by two, you can also use the shift right instruction
for division by powers of two:
shr ax, 1 ;Equivalent to AX/2
shr ax, 2 ;Equivalent to AX/4
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shr ax, 3 ;Equivalent to AX/8

shr ax, 4 ;Equivalent to AX/16
The Rotate Instructions: RCL, RCR, ROL, and ROR
The rotate instructions shift the bits around, just like the shift instructions, except the bits shifted out of
the operand by the rotate instructions re-circulate through the operand. They include rcl(rotate through
carry left), rcr(rotate through carry right), rol(rotate left), and ror(rotate right). These instructions all take
the forms :rcldest, count roldest, count rcr dest, count ror dest, count

RCL: The rcl(rotate through carry left), as its name implies, rotates bits to the left, through the carry
flag, and back into bit zero on the right. The rcl instruction sets the flag bits as follows:
• The carry flag contains the last bit shifted out of the H.O. bit of the operand.
• If the shift count is one, rcl sets the overflow flag if the sign changes as a result of the rotate. If the count
is not one, the overflow flag is undefined.
• The rcl instruction does not modify the zero, sign, parity, or auxiliary carry flags.

RCL OPERATION
RCR: The rcr (rotate through carry right) instruction is the complement to the rcl instruction. It shifts its
bits right through the carry flag and back into the H.O. bit. This instruction sets the flags in a manner
analogous to rcl:
• The carry flag contains the last bit shifted out of the L.O. bit of the operand.
• The rcr instruction does not affect the zero, sign, parity, or auxiliary carry flags.

RCR OPERATION
ROL: The rol instruction is similar to the rcl instruction in that it rotates its operand to the left the
specified number of bits. The major difference is that rol shifts its operand’s H.O. bit ,rather than the
carry, into bit zero. Rol also copies the output of the H.O. bit into the carry flag . The rol instruction sets
the flags identically to rcl. Other than the source of the value shifted into bit zero, this instruction behaves
exactly like the rcl instruction.
Like shl, the rol instruction is often useful for packing and unpacking data.

ROL OPERATION
ROR: The ror instruction relates to the rcr instruction in much the same way that the rol instruction
relates to rcl. That is, it is almost the same operation other than the source of the input bit to the operand.
Rather than shifting the previous carry flag into the H.O. bit of the destination operation, ror shifts bit
zero into the H.O. bit.

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ROR OPERATION
String Instructions: A string is a collection of objects stored in contiguous memory locations. Strings are
usually arrays of bytes or words on 8086.All members of the 80x 86 families support five different
string instructions: MOVS, CMPS, SCAS, LODS, AND STOS.
The string instructions operate on blocks (contiguous linear arrays) of memory. For example, the movs
instruction moves a sequence of bytes from one memory location to another. The cmps instruction
compares two blocks of memory. The scas instruction scansa block of memory for a particular value.
These string instructions often require three operands, a destination block address, a source block address,
and (optionally) an element count. For example, when using the movs instruction to copy a string, you
need a source address, a destination address, and a count (the number of string elements to move).The
operands for the string instructions include:
• theSI (source index) register, • the DI (destination index) register,• the CX (count) register,
• theAX register, and • the direction flag in the FLAGS register.

The REP/REPE/REPZ and REPNZ/REPNE Prefixes: The repeat prefixes tell the 80x86 to do a multi-
byte string operation. The syntax for the repeat prefix is:
Field:
Label repeat mnemonic operand ; comment
For MOVS:
Rep movs {operands}
For CMPS:
Repe cmps Repz cmps
{operands} {operands} Repne cmps {operands} Repnz cmps
{operands}
For SCAS:
Repe scas {operands} Repz scas {operands} Repne scas {operands} repnz scas {operands}
For STOS:
repstos {operands}
When specifying the repeat prefix before a string instruction, the string instruction repeats cx
times. Without the repeat prefix, the instruction operates only on a single byte,word, or double word.
If the direction flag is clear, the CPU increments si and di after operating upon eachstring element.
If the direction flag is set, then the 80x86 decrements si and di after processing eachstring element. The
direction flag may be set or cleared using the cld (clear direction flag) and std (setdirection flag)
instructions.
The MOVS Instruction: The movsb (move string, bytes) instruction fetches the byte at address ds:si,
stores it at address es:di, and then increments or decrements the si and di registers by one. If the rep prefix
is present, the CPU checks cx to see if it contains zero. If not, then it moves the byte from ds:si to es:di
and decrements the cx register. This process repeats until cx becomes zero. The syntax is :
{REP} MOVSB {REP} MOVSW

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The CMPS Instruction: The cmps instruction compares two strings. The CPU compares the string
referenced by es:di to the string pointed at by ds:si. Cx contains the length of the two strings (whenusing
the rep prefix). The syntax is: {REPE} CMPSB {REPE} CMPSW
To compare two strings to see if they are equal or not equal, you must compare corresponding
elements in a string until they don’t match or length of the string cx=0.Therepe prefix accomplishes
this operation. It will compare successive elements in a string as long as they are equal and cx is greater
than zero.
The SCAS Instruction: The scas instruction, by itself, compares the value in the accumulator (al or ax)
against the value pointed at by es:di and then increments (or decrements) di by one or two. The CPU sets
the flags according to the result of the comparison. When using the repne prefix (repeat while not equal),
scas scans the string searching for the first string element which is equal to the value in the accumulator.
The scas instruction takes the following forms:{REPNE} SCASB {REPNE} SCASW The STOS

Instruction: The stos instruction stores the value in the accumulator at the location specified byes:di.
After storing the value, the CPU increments or decrements di depending upon the state of the direction
flag. Its primary use is to initialize arrays and strings to a constant value. {REP} STOSB
{REP} STOSW
The LODS Instruction: The lods instruction copies the byte or word pointed at by ds:si into the al or ax
register, after which it increments or decrements the si register by one or two.{REP} LODSB
{REP} LODSW

Flag Manipulation and Processor Control Instructions: These instructions control the functioning of
the available hardware inside the processor chip. These are categorized into two types; (a) flag
manipulation instructions and (b) machine control instructions.
The flag manipulation instructions directly modify some of the flags of 8086. The machine control
instructions control the bus usage and execution. The flag manipulation instructions and their functions
are as follows:
CLC - Clear carry flag CMC - Complement carry flag STC - Set carry flag
CLD - Clear direction flag STD - Set direction flag CLI - Clear interrupt flag
STI - Set interrupt flag
These instructions modify the carry(CF), direction(DF) and interrupt(IF) flags directly. The DF and IF,
which may be modified using the flag manipulation instructions, further control the processor operation;
like interrupt responses and auto-increment or auto-decrement modes.
The machine control instructions supported by 8086 and 8088 are listed as follows along with
their functions. These machine control instructions do not require any operand.
WAIT - Wait for Test input pin to go low HLT - Halt the processor NOP - No
Operation ESC - Escape to external device like NDP (numeric co-processor) LOCK - Bus
lock instruction prefix.
After executing the HLT instruction, the processor enters the halt state. The two ways to pull it out of the
halt state are to reset the processor or to interrupt it.
When NOP instruction is executed, the processor does not perform any operation till 4 clock
cycles, except incrementing the IP by one. It then continues with further execution after 4 clock cycles.
ESC instruction when executed, frees the bus for an external master like a coprocessor or
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peripheral devices.
The LOCK prefix may appear with another instruction. When it is executed, the bus access is not
allowed for another master till the lock prefixed instruction is executed completely. This instruction is
used in case of programming for multiprocessor systems.
The WAIT instruction when executed holds the operation of processor with the current status till
the logic level on the TEST pin goes low. The processor goes on inserting WAIT states in the instruction
cycle, till the TEST pin goes low. Once the TEST pin goes low, it continues further execution.
Program Flow Control Instructions: The control transfer instructions are used to transfer the control
from one memory location to another memory location. In 8086 program control instructions belong to
three groups: unconditional transfers, conditional transfers, and subroutine call and return instructions.
Unconditional Jumps: The jmp (jump) instruction unconditionally transfers control to another point in
the program. Intra segment jumps are always between statements in the same code segment. Intersegment
jumps can transfer control to a statement in a different code segment.
JMP Address

Unconditional jump Conditional jump

Conditional Jump: The conditional jump instructions are the basic tool for creating loops and other
conditionally executable statements like the if…..then statement. The conditional jumps test one or more
bits in the status register to see if they match some particular pattern. If the pattern matches, control
transfers to the target location. If the condition fails, the CPU ignores the conditional jump and execution
continues with the next instruction. Some instructions, for example, test the conditions of the sign, carry,
overflow and zero flags.

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Loop Instruction:
• These instructions are used to repeat a set of instructions several times.
• Format: LOOP Short-Label
• Operation: (CX) (CX)-1
• Jump is initialized to location defined by short label if CX≠0. Otherwise, execute next sequential
instruction.
• Instruction LOOP works with respect to contents of CX. CX must be preloaded with a count that
represents the number of times the loop is to be repeat.
•Whenever the loop is executed, contents at CX are first decremented then checked to determine if
they are equal to zero.
• If CX=0, loop is complete and the instruction following loop is executed.
• If CX ≠ 0, content return to the instruction at the label specified in the loop instruction.
• LOOP AGAIN is almost same as: DEC CX, JNZ AGAIN
SUBROUTINE & SUBROUTINE HANDILING INSTRUCTIONS: CALL, RET


A subroutine is a special segment of program that can be called for execution from any point in a

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program.

An assembly language subroutine is also referred to as a “procedure”.

Whenever we need the subroutine, a single instruction is inserted in to the main body of the program to call
subroutine.

Transfers the flow of the program to the procedure.

CALL instruction differs from the jump instruction because a CALL saves a return address on the
o stack.
 The return address returns control to the instruction that immediately follows the CALL in a
program when a RET instruction executes.

To branch a subroutine the value in the IP or CS and IP must be modified.

After execution, we want to return the control to the instruction that immediately follows the one called the
subroutine i.e., the original value of IP or CS and IP must be preserved.

Execution of the instruction causes the contents of IP to be saved on the stack. (this time (SP) (SP) -2 )


A new 16-bit (near-proc, mem16, reg16 i.e., Intra Segment) value which is specified by the instructions
operand is loaded into IP.

Examples: CALL 1234H
CALL BX
CALL [BX]
Return Instruction: RET instruction removes an address from the stack so the program returns to the
instruction following the CALL
• Every subroutine must end by executing an instruction that returns control to the main program.
This is the return (RET) instruction.
• By execution the value of IP or IP and CS that were saved in the stack to be returned back to their
corresponding registers. (this time (SP) (SP)+2 )

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MACROS: The macro directive allows the programmer to write a named block of source
statements, then use that name in the source file to represent the group of statements. During the
assembly phase, the assembler automatically replaces each occurrence of the macro name with
the statements in the macro definition.
Macros are expanded on every occurrence of the macro name, so they can increase the
length of the executable file if used repeatable. Procedures or subroutines take up less space, but
the increased overhead of saving and restoring addresses and parameters can make them slower.
In summary, the advantages and disadvantages of macros are,
Advantages
Repeated small groups of instructions replaced by one macro
Errors in macros are fixed only once, in the definition
Duplication of effort is reduced
In effect, new higher level instructions can be created
Programming is made easier, less error prone
Generally quicker in execution than subroutines
Disadvantages
In large programs, produce greater code size than procedures
When to use Macros
To replace small groups of instructions not worthy of subroutines
To create a higher instruction set for specific applications
To create compatibility with other computers
To replace code portions which are repeated often throughout the program

Eg:-Write a program for the addition of two 8 – bit numbers.

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS:DATA

DATA SEGMENT
N1 DB 00H
N2 DB 00H
RES DB 00H
DATA ENDS
CODE
SEGMENT
START: MOV AX,
DATA MOV
DS, AX MOV
AL, N1 MOV
BL, N2 ADD
AL, BL MOV
RES, AL INT 3H
CODE ENDS
END START
Arithmetic operation – Multi byte Addition and Subtraction, Multiplication and Division –
Signed and unsigned Arithmetic operation, ASCII – arithmetic operation.
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Program No: 2(a) 8-Bit Addition

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA
DATA SEGMENT
NUM1 DB 00H
NUM2 DB 00H
RES DB 00H
DATA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
START: MOV AX, DATA
MOV DS, AX Input: 0000: 08h
MOV AL, NUM1 0001: 02h
MOV BL, NUM2 Output: 0002: 0Ah
ADD AL, BL
MOV RES, AL
INT 3H
CODE ENDS
END START

RES DB 00H
DATA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
START: MOV AX, DATA
MOV DS, AX
MOV AL, NUM1
MOV BL, NUM2
MUL BL
MOV RES, AL
INT 3H
CODE ENDS
END START

Program No: 2(d)

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

DATA SEGMENT
NUM1 DB 00H
NUM2 DB 00H
RES DB 00H
DATA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
START: MOV AX, DATA
MOV DS, AX
MOV AL, NUM1
MOV BL, NUM2
DIV BL
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MOV RES, AL Input: 0000:08h

INT 3H 0001:02h
CODE ENDS Output: 0002:04h
END START

Program No: 2(e) 16-Bit Addition

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

DATA SEGMENT
NUM1 DW 00H
NUM2 DW 00H
RES DW 00H
DATA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
START: MOV AX, DATA
MOV DS, AX
MOV AX, NUM1
MOV BX, NUM2
ADD AX, BX
MOV RES, AX Input: 0000:08h
INT 3H 0002:02h
CODE ENDS Output: 0004:04h
END START

Program No: 2(f) 16-Bit Subtraction

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

DATA SEGMENT
NUM1 DW 00H
NUM2 DW 00H
RES DW 00H
DATA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
START: MOV AX, DATA
MOV DS, AX
MOV AX, NUM1
MOV BX, NUM2
SUB AX, BX
MOV RES, AX Input: 0000:08h
INT 3H 0002:02h
CODE ENDS Output: 0004:04h
END START

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Program No: 2(g) 16-Bit Multiplication

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

DATA SEGMENT
NUM1 DW 00H
NUM2 DW 00H
RES1 DW 00H
RES2 DW 00H
DATA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
START: MOV AX, DATA
MOV DS, AX
MOV AX, NUM1
MOV BX, NUM2
MUL BX
MOV RES1, AX Input:
MOV RES2, DX
INT 3H
CODE ENDS Output:
END START

Program No: 2(h) 16-Bit Division

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

DATA SEGMENT
NUM1 DW 00H
NUM2 DW 00H
RES1 DW 00H
RES2 DW 00H
DATA ENDS
CODE SEGMENT
START: MOV AX, DATA
MOV DS, AX
MOV AX, NUM1
MOV BX, NUM2
DIV BX
MOV RES1, AX Input:
MOV RES2, DX
INT 3H
CODE ENDS Output: 0004:04h
END START

Program No: 2(i) Multi byte Addition

Assume cs: code, ds: data

Data segment

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Ip1 dd 12233449h
Ip2 dd 56677889h
Res dd 00000000h
Data ends
Code segment
Start: mov ax, data
mov ds,ax
mov si,offset ip1
mov di,offset ip2
mov bx,offset res
mov cx,03
sub ax,ax
mov al,[si]
mov dl,[di]
add al,dl
mov [bx],al
back: inc si
inc di
inc bx
mov al,[si]
mov dl,[di]
adc al,dl
mov [bx],al
loop back
nop
int 03h
code ends
end start

INPUT:

IP1: 11223344H
IP2: 55667788H

OUTPUT:

RES: 6688AACCH

Program No: 2(j) Multi byte Subtraction

Assume cs: code, ds: data

data segment
ip1 dd 55667788h
ip2 dd 11223344h
res dd 00000000h

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data ends
code segment
start: mov ax,data

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mov ds,ax
mov si,offset ip1
mov di,offset ip2
mov bx,offset res
mov cx,03
sub ax,ax
mov al,[si]
mov dl,[di]
sub al,dl
mov [bx],al
back:inc si
inc di
inc bx
mov al,[si]
mov dl,[di]
sbb al,dl
mov [bx],al
loop back
nop
int 03h
code ends
end start
******************

INPUT:
IP1: 55667788H
IP2: 11223344H

OUTPUT:
RES: 44444444H

ASCII ARTHMETICAL OPERATIONS

Program No: 2(k) ASCII Addition

Assume cs: code, ds: data

data segment
asc1 db 09H
asc2 db 06H
res dw 00h
data ends
code segment

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start: mov ax,

data mov ds,ax
xor ax,ax
mov al,asc1
mov bl,asc2
add al,bl aaa

or ax,3030h
mov res, ax
int 3H
code ends
end start

INPUT: ASC1: 09H

ASC2: 06H

OUTPUT:
RES: 3135H

Program No: 2(l) ASCII Subtraction

Assume cs: code, ds: data

data segment
asc1 db 09H
asc2 db 06H
res dw 00h
data ends
code segment
start: mov ax,data
mov ds,ax
xor ax,ax
mov al,asc1
mov bl,asc2
sub al,bl
aas

or ax,3030h
mov res,ax
int 3
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code ends
end start
INPUT: ASC1: 09H ASC2: 06H
OUTPUT:
RES: 3033H

Program No: 2(m) ASCII

Multiplication

Assume cs: code, ds: data

data segment
asc1 db 06H
asc2 db 02H
res dw 00h
data ends
code segment
start: mov ax, data
mov ds, ax
xor ax,ax
mov al,asc1
mov bl,asc2
mul bl
aam
or ax,3030h
mov res,ax
int 3H
code ends
end start

INPUT: ASC1: 06H ASC2: 02H

OUTPUT:
RES: 3132H

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program No: 2 (n) ASCII

Divisions

Assume cs: code, ds: data

Data segment

asc1 db 09H
asc2 db 03H
res dw 00h
Data ends
code segment
start: mov ax,data
mov ds,ax
xor ax,ax
mov al,asc1
mov bl,asc2
aad
div bl
or ax,3030h
mov res,ax
int 3H
code ends
end start

INPUT: ASC1: 09H

ASC2: 03H

OUTPUT:
RES: 3033H

Logic Operations - Shift and Rotate –Converting

packed BCD to unpacked BCD, BCD to ASCII
conversion.
Program No: 3(a) Logical AND operation

Assume cs: code, ds: data

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Data segment
op1 dw 00h
op2 dw 00h
res dw 00h
Data ends
Code segment
start: mov ax,data
mov ds,ax
mov ax,op1
mov bx,op2
and ax,bx
mov res,ax
int 3h
code ends
end start

INPUT: OP1:01h
OP2:01h

OUTPUT:
RES:01h

Program No: 3(b) Logical OR operation

assume cs: code, ds: data

data segment
op1 dw 00h
op2 dw 00h
res dw 00h
data ends
code segment
start: mov ax,data
mov ds,ax
mov ax,op1
mov bx,op2
or ax, bx
mov res,ax
int 3h
code ends
end start
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INPUT: OP1:01h
OP2:00h

OUTPUT:

RES:01h

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Program No: 3(c) Logical NOT operation

Assume cs: code, ds: data

data segment
op1 dw 00h
res dw 00h
data ends
code segment
start: mov ax, data
mov ds, ax
mov ax,op1

not ax
mov res, ax
int 3h
code ends
end start

INPUT: OP1:04h
OUTPUT:
RES: FBh

Program No: 3(d) Logical XOR operation

Assume cs: code, ds: data

data segment
op1 dw 00h
op2 dw 00h
res dw 00h
data ends
code segment
start: mov ax ,data
mov ds, ax
mov ax,op1

mov bx,op2
xor ax,bx
mov res,ax
int 3h
code ends
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end start

INPUT: OP1:01h OP2:00h

OUTPUT:
RES:01h
Program No: 3(e) RCL

Assume cs: code, ds: data

data segment
op1 db 0h
cnt db 00h
res db 00h
data ends
code segment
start: mov ax, data
mov ds ,ax
sub ax,
ax
mov al,op1
mov cl,
cnt
rcl al ,cl
mov res,al
int 3h
code ends
end start
INPUT: OP1:25h cnt:03h
OUTPUT:

RES:28h
Program No: 3(f) RCR

Assume cs: code, ds: data

data segment
op1 db 0h
cnt db 00h
res db 00h
data ends

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code segment
start: mov ax, data
mov ds, ax
sub ax, ax
mov al,op1
mov cl, cnt
rcr al, cl
mov res, al
int 3h
code ends end start
INPUT: OP1:25h cnt:03h
OUTPUT: RES:44h

Program No: 3(g) ROL

Assume cs: code, ds: data

data segment
op1 db 0h
cnt db 00h
res db 00h
data ends code segment
start: mov ax, data
mov ds, ax
sub ax, ax
mov al,op1

mov cl, cnt

rol al, cl
mov res, al
int 3h
code ends
end start
INPUT: OP1:25h
cnt:03h

OUTPUT:
RES:29h

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Program No: 3(h) ROR

Assume cs: code, ds: data

data segment
op1 db 0h
cnt db 00h
res db 00h
data ends
code segment
start: mov ax ,data
mov ds, ax
sub ax, ax
mov al,op1
mov cl, cnt
ror al, cl
mov res, al
int 3h

code ends
end start
INPUT: OP1:25h
cnt:03h
OUTPUT: RES:A4h

Program No: 3(i) SAR

Assume cs: code,ds: data

data segment
op1 db 0h
cnt db 00h
res db 00h
data ends
code segment
start: mov ax, data
mov ds, ax
sub ax, ax
mov al,op1
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mov cl, cnt

sar al, cl
mov res, al
int 3h

code ends
end start

INPUT: OP1:25h
cnt:03h
OUTPUT:
RES:04h

Program No: 3(j) SHL

Assume cs: code, ds: data

data segment
op1 db 00h
cnt db 00h
res db 00h
data ends
code segment

start: mov ax, data

mov ds, ax
sub ax, ax
mov al,op1
mov cl, cnt
shl al, cl
mov res, al
int 3h
code ends
end start

INPUT: OP1:25h
cnt:03h

OUTPUT:

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RES:28h

Program No: 3(k) SHR

Assume cs: code, ds: data

data segment
op1 db 0h
cnt db 00h
res db 00h
data ends
code segment
start: mov ax, data
mov ds, ax
sub ax, ax
mov al,op1
mov cl, cnt
shr al, cl
mov res ,al
int 3h
code ends
end start

INPUT: OP1:25h
cnt:03h

OUTPUT:
RES:04h

Program No: 3(l) PACKED TO ASCII

Assume cs: code, ds: data

data segment
ip1 db 56h
res dw 00h
data ends
code segment
start: mov ax, data
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mov ds, ax
xor ax, ax
mov al,ip1
mov dl, al
and al,0f0h
mov cl,4
ror al, cl
mov bh, al
and dl,0fh
mov bl, dl
add bx,3030h
mov res, bx
int 03h

code ends
end start

INPUT: OP1:56h

OUTPUT:
RES:3536h

Program No: 3(m) PAC`KED TO UNPACKED

assume cs: code, ds: data

data segment
ip1 db 56h
res dw 00h
data ends
code segment
start: mov ax, data
mov ds, ax
xor ax, ax
mov al,ip1
mov dl, al
and al,0f0h
mov cl,4

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ror al, cl
mov bh, al
and dl,0fh
mov bl, dl
mov res,bl
int 03h
code ends
end start

INPUT: OP1:56h

OUTPUT:
RES:0506h
4) By Using String Operation and Instruction Prefix: Move Block,
Reverse String, Sorting, Inserting, Deleting, Length of the String, String
Comparison.
Program No: 4(a) ASCENDING ORDER
Assume cs: code, ds: data
data segment
list db 76h,34h,23h,22h,02h,49h,15h,00h,00h
cnt db 08h
data ends
code segment
start: mov ax, data
mov ds, ax
mov cl, cnt
up: mov dl,cnt
mov si, offset list
xor ax, ax
again: mov al,[si]
cmp al,[si+1]
jl next
xchg al,[si+1]
mov [si],al
next: inc si
dec dl
jnz again
dec cl
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jnz up
int 3h

code ends
end start

Input: ds: 76 34 23 22 02 49 15 00 00
Output: ds: 0000:00 00 02 15 22 23 34 49 76 08.

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Program No: 4(b) BLOCK TRANSFER

Assume cs: code, ds: data, es: extra data segment

ipstr db 'empty vessels make much noise',24h data ends
extra segment
opstr db 100h dup(00) extra ends
code segment start: mov ax,data
mov ds,ax mov ax,extra mov es,ax
mov si,offset ipstr mov di,offset opstr cld

mov cx,29
rep movsb
nop
int 03h
code ends
end start

OUTPUT: es: 0000 : empty vessels make much noise.

Program No: 4(c) STRING LENGTH

Assume cs: code, ds: data data segment

string1 db 'empty vessels make more noise$' strlen equ($-string1)
org 0100h
res db 00h
cort db 'strlength found correct$'
incort db 'strlength found incorrect$' data ends
code segment
start: mov ax, data
mov ds, ax
sub cl, cl
mov bl, strlen
mov si, offset string1
back: lodsb
inc cl
cmp al,'$'
jnz back
mov res, cl
int 3h
code ends
end start
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INPUT: ’empty vessels make more noise’

OUTPUT: depending on string

Program No: 4(d) STRING COMPARISION

Assume cs: code, ds: data, es: data data segment

string1 db 'empty1$' strlen equ($-string1)
op1 db 'strings are unequal$' op2 db 'strings are equal$'
org 100h
res db 00h data ends extra segment
string2 db 'empty$' extra ends
code segment start: mov ax,data
mov ds,ax mov ax,extra mov es,ax
mov si,offset string1 movdi,offset string2 cld
mov cx, strlen
repe cmpsb
jz next
mov ah,09h
mov dx,'u'

int 21h jmp exitp

next: mov ah, 09h
mov dx, 'e'
int 21h
exitp: nop
mov res, dl
mov ah,4ch
int 21h
code ends
end start

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Program No: 4(e)

STRING REVERSE

Assume cs: code, ds: data, es: data

data segment
string1 db 'Empty$' strlen equ($-string1)
string2 db 5h dup(0)
data ends
code segment
start: mov ax, data
mov ds, ax mov es, ax
mov bx, offset string1
mov si, bx
mov di, offset string2
add di,5
cld
mov cx, strlen
sl: mov al,[si]
mov es:[di],al
inc si
dec di
loop sl
rep
mov sb,nop
int 03h
code ends
end start

INPUT: string1: empty

OUTPUT: string2: ytpme

DOS / BIOS Programming: Reading Keyboard (buffered with and

without echo) - Display Characters & Strings.
a) Read a character(s) from keyboard and echo using DOS function calls

Assume cs: code, ds: data data

segment
msg db 'enter characters from keyboard (# to end):','$' data
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ends
code segment
start: mov ax, data
mov ds, ax mov
ah,09h
mov dx,offset msg int
21h
next:mov ah,08h int 21h
mov ah,02h mov
dl,al int 21h cmp
al,'#' jne next mov
ah,4ch mov al,00h

int 21h code

ends
end start

OUTPUT: enter the character from keyboard

b) Reads a character(s) from keyboard without echo using DOS function calls.

assume cs:code, ds:data data

segment
msg db 'enter characters from keyboard (# to end):','$' data
ends
code segment
start: mov ax, data
mov ds, ax mov
ah,09h
mov dx,offset msg int
21h
next: mov ah,08h int
21h
cmp al,'#'
jne next
mov ah,4ch
mov al,00h
int 21h
code ends
end start
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OUTPUT: enter characters from keyboard: #

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UNIT -III

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UNIT-III

MSP 430 ARCHITECTURE:

Introduction:
The types of devices such as microprocessor, microcontroller, processor, digital signal
processor (DSP), amongst others, in a certain manner, are related to the same device – the ASIC
(Application Specific Integrated Circuit). Each processing device executes instructions,
following a determined program applied to the inputs and shares architectural characteristics
developed from the first microprocessors created in 1971. In the three decades after the
development of the first microprocessor, huge developments and innovations have been made in
this engineering field.
The programmable SoC (system-on-chip) concept started in 1972 with the 4-bit
TMS1000 microcomputer developed by Texas Instruments (TI), and in those days it was ideal
for applications such as calculators and ovens. This term was changed to Microcontroller Unit
(MCU), which was more descriptive of a typical application. Nowadays, MCUs are at the heart
of many physical systems, with higher levels of integration and processing power at lower power
consumption.
The following list presents several qualities that define a microcontroller:
1. Cost: Usually, the microcontrollers are high-volume, low cost devices;
2. Clock frequency: Compared with other devices (microprocessors and DSPs),
microcontrollers use a low clock frequency.
3. Microcontrollers today can run up to 100 MHz/ 100 Million Instructions Per Second
(MIPS)
4. Power consumption: orders of magnitude lower than their DSP and MPU cousins;
5. Bits: 4 bits (older devices) to 32 bits devices;
6. Memory: Limited available memory, usually less than 1 MByte;
7. Input/Output (I/O): Low to high (8-150) pin-out count.

Main characteristics of a MSP430 microcontroller

Although there are variants in devices in the family, a MSP430 microcontroller can be
characterized by:
Low power consumption:

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 A for RAM data retention;

 0.8 A for real time clock mode operation;
 250 A/MIPS at active operation.
Low operation voltage (from 1.8 V to 3.6 V).
 < 1 s clock start-up.
 < 50 nA port leakage.
 Zero-power Brown-Out Reset (BOR).
On-chip analogue devices:
 10/12/16-bit Analogue-to-Digital Converter (ADC);
 12-bit dual Digital-to-Analogue Converter (DAC);
 Comparator-gated timers;
 Operational Amplifiers (OP Amps);
 Supply Voltage Supervisor (SVS).
16 bit RISC CPU:
 Instructions processing on either bits, bytes or words;
 Compact core design reduces power consumption and cost;
 Compiler efficient;
 27 core instructions;
 7 addressing modes;
 Extensive vectored-interrupt capability.
Flexibility:
 Up to 256 kB In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash;
 Up to 100 pin options;
 USART, I2C, Timers;
 LCD driver;Embedded emulation.
MSP430 architecture:

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Address space:
All memory, including RAM, Flash/ROM, information memory, special
function registers (SFRs), and peripheral registers are mapped into a single, contiguous address
space.
The MSP430 is available with either Flash or ROM memory types.
The memory type is identified by the letter immediately following “MSP430” in the part
numbers.
Flash devices: Identified by the letter “F” in the part numbers, having the advantage that the code
space can be erased and reprogrammed.ROM devices: Identified by the letter “C” in the part
numbers. They have the advantage of being very inexpensive because they are shipped pre
programmed, which is the best solution for high-volume

For all devices, each memory location is formed by 1 data byte. The CPU is capable of
addressing data values either as bytes (8 bits) or words (16 bits). Words are always addressed at
an even address, which contain the least significant byte, followed by the next odd address,
which contains the most significant byte. For 8-bit operations, the data can be accessed from
either odd or even addresses, but for 16-bit operations, the data values can only beaccessed from
even addresses.
Flash/ROM:

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The start address of Flash/ROM depends on the amount of Flash/ROM present on the
device. The start address varies between 01100h (60k devices) to 0F800h (2k devices) and
always runs to the end of the address space at location 0FFFFh. Flash can be used for both code
and data. Word or byte tables can also be stored and read by the program from Flash/ROM. All
code, tables, and hard-coded constants reside in this memory space.
Information memory (Flash devices only):
The MSP430 flash devices contain an address space for information memory. It is like an
onboard EEPROM, where variables needed for the next power up can be stored during power
down. It can also be used as code memory. Flash memory may be written one byte or word at a
time, but must be erased in segments. The information memory is divided into two 128-byte
segments. The first of these segments is located at addresses 01000h through to 0107Fh
(Segment B), and the second is at address 01080h through to 010FFh (Segment A). This is the
case in 4xx devices. It is 256 bytes (4 segments of 64 bytes each) in 2xx devices.
Boot memory (Flash devices only):
The MSP430 flash devices contain an address space for boot memory, located between
addresses 0C00h through to 0FFFh. The “bootstrap loader” is located in this memory space,
which is an external interface that can be used to program the flash memory in addition to the
JTAG. This memory region is not accessible by other applications, so it cannot be overwritten
accidentally. The bootstrap loader performs some of the same functions as the JTAG interface
(excepting the security fuse programming), using the TI data structure protocol for UART
communication at a fixed data rate of 9600 baud.
RAM:
RAM always starts at address 0200h. The end address of RAM depends on the amount of
RAM present on the device. RAM is used for both code and data.
Peripheral Modules:
Peripheral modules consist of all on-chip peripheral registers that are mapped into the
address space. These modules can be accessed with byte or word instructions, depending if the
peripheral module is 8-bit or 16-bit respectively. The 16-bit peripheral modules are located in the
address space from addresses 0100 through to 01FFh and the 8-bit peripheral modules are
mapped into memory from addresses 0010h through to 00FFh.0
Special Function Registers (SFRs):
Some peripheral functions are mapped into memory with special dedicated functions. The
Special Function Registers (SFRs) are located at memory addresses from 0000h to 000Fh, and
are the specific registers for:
 Interrupt enables (locations 0000h and 0001h);
 Interrupt flags (locations 0002h and 0003h);
 Enable flags (locations 0004h and 0005h);
SFRs must be accessed using byte instructions only. See the device specific data sheets for the
applicable SFR bits.

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Central Processing Unit (MSP430 CPU):

The RISC type architecture of the CPU is based on a short instruction set (27
instructions), interconnected by a 3-stage instruction pipeline for instruction decoding. The CPU
has a 16-bit ALU, four dedicated registers and twelve working registers, which makes the
MSP430 a high performance microcontroller suitable for low power applications. The addition
of twelve working general purpose registers saves CPU cycles by allowing the storage of
frequently used values and variables instead of using RAM. The orthogonal instruction set
allows the use of any addressing mode for any instruction, which makes programming clear and
consistent, with few exceptions, increasing the compiler efficiency for high-level languages such
as C.

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Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

The MSP430 CPU includes an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that handles addition,
subtraction, comparison and logical (AND, OR, XOR) operations. ALU operations can affect the
overflow, zero, negative, and carry flags in the status register.
MSP430 CPU registers
The CPU incorporates sixteen 16-bit registers:
 Four registers (R0, R1, R2 and R3) have dedicated functions;
 There are 12 working registers (R4 to R15) for general use.
R0: Program Counter (PC)
The 16-bit Program Counter (PC/R0) points to the next instruction to be read from
memory and executed by the CPU. The Program counter is implemented by the number of bytes
used by the instruction (2, 4, or 6 bytes, always even). It is important to remember that the PC is
aligned at even addresses, because the instructions are 16 bits, even though the individual
memory addresses contain 8-bit values.
R1: Stack Pointer (SP)
The Stack Pointer (SP/R1) is located in R1. 1st: stack can be used by user to store data
for later use (instructions: store by PUSH, retrieve by POP); 2nd: stack can be used by user or by
compiler for subroutine parameters (PUSH, POP in calling routine; addressed via offset
calculation on stack pointer (SP) in called subroutine); 3rd: used by subroutine calls to store the
program counter value for return at subroutine's end (RET); 4th: used by interrupt - system stores
the actual PC value first, then the actual status register content (on top of stack) on return from
interrupt (RETI) the system get the same status as just before the interrupt happened (as long as
none has changed the value on TOS) and the same program counter value from stack.
R2: Status Register (SR)
The Status Register (SR/R2) stores the state and control bits. The system flags are
changed automatically by the CPU depending on the result of an operation in a register. The
reserved bits of the SR are used to support the constants generator. See the device-specific data
sheets for more details.

R2/R3: Constant Generator Registers (CG1/CG2)

Depending of the source-register addressing modes (As) value, six commonly used
constants can be generated without a code word or code memory access to retrieve them. This is
a very powerful feature, which allows the implementation of emulated instructions, for example,
instead of implementing a core instruction for an increment, the constant generator is used.

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Main features of the MSP430X CPU architecture:

The MSP430X CPU extends the addressing capabilities of the MSP430 family beyond 64
kB to 1 MB. To achieve this, there are some changes to the addressing modes and two new types
of instructions. One type of new instructions allows access to the entire address space, and the
other is designed for address calculations.
The MSP430X CPU address bus is 20 bits, but the data bus is still 16 bits. The CPU
supports 8-bit, 16-bit and 20-bit memory accesses. Despite these changes, the MSP430X CPU
remains compatible with the MSP430 CPU, having a similar number of registers

Addressing modes:
The MSP430 supports seven addressing modes for the source operand and four
addressing modes for the destination operand .The following sections describe each of the
addressing modes, with a brief description, an example and the number of CPU clock cycles
required for an instruction, depending on the instruction format and the addressing modes used.

Register Mode:
Register mode operations work directly on the processor registers, R4 through R15, or on
special function registers, such as the program counter or status register. They are very efficient
in terms of both instruction speed and code space. Description: Register contents are operands.
Source mode bits: As = 00 (source register defined in the opcode). Destination mode bit: Ad=0
(destination register defined in the opcode).Syntax: Rn. Length: One or two words.
Comment: Valid for source and destination.
Example 1: Move (copy) the contents of source (register R4) to destination (register R5).
Register R4 is not affected. Before operation: R4=A002h R5=F50Ah PC = PCpos
Operation: MOV R4, R5
After operation: R4=A002h R5=A002h PC = PCpos + 2
The first operand is in register mode and depending on the second operand mode, the
cycles required to complete an instruction will differ. Table 4-7 shows the cycles required to
complete an instruction, depending on the second operand mode.

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Indexed mode:
The Indexed mode commands are formatted as X(Rn), where X is a constant and Rn is
one of the CPU registers. The absolute memory location X+Rn is addressed. Indexed mode
addressing is useful for applications such as lookup tables.
Description: (Rn + X) points to the operand. X is stored in the next word.
Source mode bits: As = 01 (memory location is defined by the word immediately following the
opcode). Destination mode bit: Ad=1 (memory location is defined by the word immediately
following the opcode).
Syntax: X(Rn).
Length: Two or three words.
Comment: Valid for source and destination.
Example 2: Move (copy) the contents at source address (F000h +R5) to destination (register
R4).Before operation: R4=A002h R5=050Ah Loc:0xF50A=0123h
Operation: MOV F000h(R5), R4
After operation: R4=0123h R5=050Ah Loc:0xF50A=0123h

Symbolic mode:
Symbolic mode allows the assignment of labels to fixed memory locations, so that those
locations can be addressed. This is useful for the development of embedded programs.
Description: (PC + X) points to the operand. X is stored in the next word. Indexed mode X(PC)

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is used. Source mode bits: As = 01 (memory location is defined by the word immediately
following the opcode). Destination mode bit: Ad=1 (memory location is defined by the word
immediately following the opcode).
Syntax: ADDR.
Length: Two or three words.
Comment: Valid for source and destination.
Example 3: Move the content of source address XPT (x pointer) to
the destination address YPT (y pointer).
Before operation: XPT=A002h Location YPT=050Ah
Operation: MOV XPT, YPT
After operation: XPT= A002h Location YPT=A002h

Absolute mode:
Similar to Symbolic mode, with the difference that the label is preceded by “&”.
Description: The word following the instruction contains the absolute address. X is stored in the
next word. Indexed mode X(SR) is used. Source mode bits: As = 01 (memory location is defined
by the word immediately following the opcode). Destination mode bit: Ad=1 (memory location
is defined by the word immediately following the opcode).
Syntax: &ADDR.
Length: Two or three words.
Comment: Valid for source and destination.
Example 4: Move the content of source address XPT to the
destination address YPT.
Before operation: Location XPT=A002h Location YPT=050Ah
Operation: MOV &XPT, &YPT
After operation: Location XPT= A002h Location YPT=A002h

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Indirect register mode:

The data word addressed is located in the memory location pointed to by Rn. Indirect
mode is not valid for destination operands, but can be emulated with the indexed mode format
0(Rn). Description: Rn is used as a pointer to the operand.
Source mode bits: As = 10.
Syntax: @Rn.
Length: One or two words.
Comment: Valid only for source operand. The substitute for
destination operand is 0(Rn).
Example 5: Move the contents of the source address (contents of R4) to the destination (register
R5). Register R4 is not modified.
Before operation: R4=A002h R5=050Ah Loc:0xA002=0123h
Operation: MOV @(R4), R5
After operation: R4= A002h R5=0123h Loc:0xA002=0123h

ndirect auto increment mode:

Similar to indirect register mode, but with indirect auto increment mode, the operand is
incremented as part of the instruction. The format for operands is @Rn+. This is useful for
working on blocks of data.
Description: Rn is used as a pointer to the operand. Rn is

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incremented afterwards by 1 for byte instructions and by 2 for word

instructions.
Source mode bits: As = 11.
Syntax: @Rn+.
Length: One or two words.
Comment: Valid only for source operand. The substitute for destination operand is 0(Rn) plus
second instruction INCD Rn.
Example 6: Move the contents of the source address (contents of R4) to the destination (register
R5), then increment the value in register R4 to point to the next word.
Before operation: R4=A002h R5=050Ah Loc:0xA002=0123h
Operation: MOV @R4+, R5
After operation: R4= A004h R5=0123h Loc:0xA002=0123h

Immediate mode:
Immediate mode is used to assign constant values to registers or memory locations.
Description: The word following the instruction contains the immediate constant N. Indirect
autoincrement mode @PC+ is used.
Source mode bits: As = 11.
Syntax: #N.
Length: Two or three words. It is one word less if a constant in CG1
or CG2 can be used.
Comment: Valid only for source operand.
Example 7: Move the immediate constant E2h to the destination (register R5).
Before operation: R4=A002h R5=050Ah
Operation: MOV #E2h, R5
After operation: R4= A002h R5=00E2h

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Instruction set:
The MSP430 instruction set consists of 27 core instructions. Additionally, it supports 24 emulated
instructions. The core instructions have unique op-codes decoded by the CPU, while the emulated ones
need assemblers and compilers to generate their mnemonics.
There are three core-instruction formats:
 Double operand;
 Single operand;
 Program flow control - Jump.
Byte, word and address instructions are accessed using the .B, .W or .A extensions. If the extension is
omitted, the instruction is interpreted as a word instruction.

MSP430 Family:

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Introduction:
The MSP430 is a 16-bit microcontroller that has a number of special features
not commonly available with other microcontrollers:
 Complete system on-a-chip — includes LCD control, ADC, I/O ports, ROM, RAM, basic
timer, watchdog timer, UART, etc.
 Extremely low power consumption — only 4.2 nW per instruction, typical High speed —
300 ns per instruction @ 3.3 MHz clock, in register and register addressing mode
 RISC structure — 27 core instructions
 Orthogonal architecture (any instruction with any addressing mode)
 Seven addressing modes for the source operand
 Four addressing modes for the destination operand
 Constant generator for the most often used constants (–1, 0, 1, 2, 4, 8)
 Only one external crystal required — a frequency locked loop (FLL) oscillator
 derives all internal clocks
 Full real-time capability — stable, nominal system clock frequency is available after only
six clocks when the MSP430 is restored from low-power mode (LPM) 3; — no waiting
for the main crystal to begin oscillation and stabilize.
MSP430 Family:
The MSP430 family currently consists of three subfamilies:
1. MSP430C31x
2. MSP430C32x
3. MSP430C33x

MSP430C31x:

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MSP430C32x:

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Advantages of the MSP430 Concept:

The MSP430 concept differs considerably from other microcontrollers and offers some
significant advantages over more traditional designs.

RISC Architecture Without RISC Disadvantages

Typical RISC architectures show their highest performance in calculation- intensive
applications in which several registers are loaded with input data, all calculations are made
within the registers, and the results are stored back into RAM. Memory accesses (using
addressing modes) are necessary only for the LOAD instructions at the beginning and the
STORE instructions at the end of the calculations. The MSP430 can be programmed for such
operation, for example, performing a pure calculation task in the floating point without any I/O
accesses.
Pure RISC architectures have some disadvantages when running real-time applications
that require frequent I/O accesses, however. Time is lost whenever an operand is fetched and
loaded from RAM, modified, and then stored back into RAM.
The MSP430 architecture was designed to include the best of both worlds, taking
advantage of RISC features for fast and efficient calculations, and addressing modes for real-
time requirements:
1. The RISC architecture provides a limited number of powerful instructions, numerous
registers, and single-cycle execution times.
2. The more traditional microcomputer features provide addressing modes for all
instructions. This functionality is further enhanced with 100% orthogonality, allowing
any instruction to be used with any addressing mode.

MSP430C33x:

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Real-Time Capability With Ultra-Low Power Consumption

The design of the MSP430 was driven by the need to provide full real-time capability
while still exhibiting extremely low power consumption. Average power consumption is reduced
to the minimum by running the CPU and certain other functions of the MSP430 only when it is
necessary. The rest of the time (the majority of the time), power is conserved by keeping only
selected low-power peripheral functions active. But to have a true real-time capability, the device
must be able to shift from a low-power mode with the CPU off to a fully active mode with the
CPU and all other device functions operating nominally in a very short time. This was
accomplished primarily with the design of the system clock:
1. No second high frequency crystal is used — inherent delays can range from 20 ms to 200
ms until oscillator stability is reached
2. Instead, a sophisticated FLL system clock generator is used — generator output
frequency (MCLK) reaches the nominal frequency within 8 cycles after activation from
low power mode 3 (LPM3) or sleep mode
3. This design provides real-time capability almost immediately after the device comes out
of a LPM — as if the CPU is always active. Only two additional MCLK cycles (2 s @
fC = 1 MHz) are necessary to get the device from LPM3 to the first instruction of the
interrupt handler.
Digitally Controlled Oscillator Stability:
The digitally controlled oscillator (DCO) is voltage and temperature dependent, which
does not mean that its frequency is not stable. During the active mode, the integral error is
corrected to approximately zero every 30.5 s . This is accomplished by switching between two
different DCO frequencies. One frequency is higher than the programmed MCLK frequency and
the other is lower, causing the errors to essentially cancel-out. The two DCO frequencies are

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interlaced as much as possible to provide the smallest possible error at any given time. See
System Clock Generator for more information.

Stack Processing Capability:

The MSP430 is a true stack processor, with most of the seven addressing modes
implemented for the stack pointer (SP) as well as the other CPU registers (PC and R4 through
R15). The capabilities of the stack include:
1. Free access to all items on the stack — not only to the top of the stack (TOS)
2. Ability to modify subroutine and interrupt return addresses located on the stack
3. Ability to modify the stored status register of interrupt returns located on the stack
4. No special stack instructions — all of the implemented instructions may be used for the
stack and the stack pointer
5. Byte and word capability for the stack
6. Free mix of subroutine and interrupt handling — as long as no stack modification
(PUSH, POP, etc.) is made, no errors can occur

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UNIT- IV

UNIT – IV
Flash Memory:
Introduction:

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Flash memory is the most popular type of non-volatile storage, and it has been adopted
by most micrcontroller manufacturers. The ability to read/write hunder of thousands of times,
even while the processor is running, allows a degree of flexibility not previously available with
the older ROM and PROM technologies.
The flash memory in the MSP430 is used primarily to hold code. Because of the
flexibility in its design, it is possible to write and read the flash at run time with the CPU. This
allows you, for example, to reprogram the microcontroller with a new firmware image. It also
enables you to store information that will survive a restart, making it an easy and inexpensive
alternative to external
EEPROM devices:
Flash and Memory Organization:
The Flash memory in the MSP430 is usually divided into two sections, the main flash and
the Information flash.Main Flash - Represents the bulk of the MSP430’s flash and used for
program code and constant data. Itself divided into several flash banks, with each bank further
divided into segments. When a microcontroller is denoted to have ”32kB” of Flash, it is referring
to the Main flash:
Information Flash - Several extra segments of flash separate from the Main flash. These
are primarily intended for information such as calibration constants, but are much smaller than
the main banks. The location and amount of each of these sections depends on the specific
MSP430 you’re using, and the details are contained in the Memory Map included in the
datasheet of the particual MSP430 you’re using. Here is an example of the memory organization
of several MSP430 devices, taken from their datasheets. Only Flash sections are included. This
information was taken directly from the datasheet of the devices. Please note that some details
such as the breakdown of the flash segments were obtained from the linker file since the
datasheet lacked these specifics. The use of the linker will be discussed later.
We can see that for the FG4618 device, we have a total main flash size of:
01FFFFh - 003100h = 1CEFFh = 118527 bytes
This calculation is easily done use the Windows Calculator in hex mode (the h after each number
denotes it is in hex). After the subtraction, convert 1CEFF to decimal.

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Interrupts:
Interrupts represent an extremely important concept often not covered in programming
since they are not readily used in a PC by most programmers. However, it is critical for anyone
who programs microcontrollers to understand them and use them because of they advantages
they bring.
Imagine a microcontroller waiting for a packet to be received by a transceiver connected
to it. In this case, the microcontroller must constantly poll (check) the transceiver to see whether
any packet was received. This means that the microcontroller will draw a lot of current since the
CPU must act and use the communications module to do the polling (and the transceiver must do
the same). Worse, the CPU is occupied taking care of the polling while it could be doing
something more important (such as preparing to send a packet itself or processing other
information). Clearly,
If the CPU and the system are constantly polling the transceiver, both energy and CPU
load are wasted. Interrupts represent an elegant solution to this problem. In the application
above, a bettern solution would be to set things up so that the microcontroller would be informed
(interrupted) when a packet has been received. The interrupt set in this case would cause the
CPU to run a specific routing (code) to handle the received packet, such as sending it to the PC.
In the meantime and while no interrupt has occurred, the CPU is left to do its business or be in
low power mode and consume little current. This solution is much more efficient and, as we will
later cover, allows for significant power savings. Interrupts can occur for many reasons, and are
very flexible. Most microcontrollers have them and the MSP430 is no exception.
There are in general three types of interrupts:
1. System Reset
2. Non-maskable Interrupts (NMI)
3. Maskable Interrupts
The interrupts are presented in decreasing order of system importance. The first two types are
related to the microcontroller operating as it is supposed two. The last case is where all the

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modules allow interrupt capability and the user can take advantage of for the application. System
Reset interrupts simply occur because of any of the conditions that resets the microcontroller (a
reset switch, startup, etc ). These reset the microcontroller completely and are considered the
most critical of interrupts. usually you don’t configure anything that they do because they simply
restart the microcontroller. You have no or little control of these interrupts.
The second type of interrupts is the non maskable ones. Mask ability refers to the fact that
these interrupts cannot be disabled collectively and must be disabled and enabled individually.
These are interrupts in the category where the error can possible be handled without a reset. Just
like a normal PC, a microcontroller is a machine that has to be well oiled and taken care of. The
supply voltage has to be satisfied; the clocks have to be right, etc. These interrupts occur for the
following reasons:
 An edge on the RST/NMI pin when configured in NMI mode
 An oscillator fault has occurred because of failure
 An access violation to the flash memory occurred
These interrupts do not usually occur but they should be handled. By handled I mean code needs
to be written to do something to deal with the problem. If an oscillator has failed, a smart thing to
do would be to switch to another oscillator. The User’s Guide for the MSP430F2274 provides
more information about these type of interrupts. The last type of interrupts is the most common
one and the one you have a large control over. These are the interrupts that are produced by the
different modules of the MSP430 such as the I/O, the ADC, the Timers, etc. To use the interrupt,
we need the following procedure:
1. Setup the interrupt you wish and its conditions
2. Enable the interrupt/s
3. Write the interrupt handler
When the interrupt happens, the CPU stops executing anything it is currently executing.
It then stores information about what it was executing before the interrupt so it can return to it
when the interrupt handler is done (unless the interrupt handler changes things). The interrupt
handler is then called and the code in it is executed. Whenever the interrupt ends, the system
goes back to its original condition executing the original code (unless we changed something).
Another possibility is that the system was in a Low Power Mode, which means the CPU was off
and not executing any instructions. The procedure is similar to the one detailed above except that
once the interrupt handler has finished executing the MSP430 will return to the Low Power
Mode. Note that the CPU is always sourced from the DCO (or an external high speed crystal)
and this source must be on for the interrupt handler to be processed. The CPU will activate to run
the interrupt handler.
The process of going from CPU execution (or wakeup) to interrupt handler takes some
time. This is especially true whenever the system is originally in sleep mode and must wakeup
the DCO to source the CPU. Normally, it is nor critical but some applications might have issues
with it taken longer than desired. We will now discuss a useful example: Using the switch of the
EZ430-RF2500 to turn on and off the LED. This is best done by example. Two different listings

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are provided, the traditional way and an interrupt driver. You’ll realize the immense benefits of
using the interrupt solution quickly

Low Power Modes:

Low Power Modes (LPMs) represents the ability to scale the microcontroller’s power
usage by shutting off parts of the MSP430. The CPU and several other modules such as clocks
are not always needed. Many applications which wait until a sensor detects a certain event can
benefit from turning off unused (but still running) parts of the microcontroller to save energy,
turning them back on quickly when needed.
Each subsequent LPM in the MSP430 turns off more and more modules or parts of the
microcontroller, the CPU, clocks and . T covers the LPM modes available in the MSP430F1611,
which are similar to the ones available in most MSP430 derivatives. For the most accurate
information, refer to the User’s Guide and Datasheet of your particular derivative. Not
mentioned here are LPM5 and some other specialized LPMs. These are available only in select
MSP430 devices (in particular the newer F5xx series). However, the basic idea behind LPMs is
the same, i.e. gradual shut down of the microcontroller segments to achieve power reduction.
Active - Nothing is turned off (except maybe individual peripheral modules). No power savings

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1. LPM0 - CPU and MCLK are disabled while SMCLK and ACLK remain active
2. LPM1 - CPU and MCLK are disabled, and DCO and DC generator are disabled if the
DCO is not used for SMCLK. ACLK is active
3. LPM2- CPU, MCLK, SMCLK, DCO are disabled DC generator remains enabled. ACLK
is active
4. LPM3 - CPU, MCLK, SMCLK, DCO are disabled, DC generator is disabled, ACLK is
active
5. LPM4 - CPU and all clocks disabled
It is important to note that once parts of the microcontroller are shut off, they willIt is
important to note that once parts of the microcontroller are shut off, they will not operate until
specifically turned on again. However, we can exit a low power mode (and turn these parts back
on), and interrupts are extremely useful in this respect. Another Low Power Mode, LPM5, is
available in some derivatives of the MSP430
As an example of the savings that can be achieved by incorporating Low Power Modes into
the software design, I present Figure 9.1, which is shown in the MSP430F2274 User’s Guide:
We usually enter a low power mode with the interrupts enabled. If we don’t, we will not be able
to wake up the system.

Low Power Mode Savings

The x represents LPMs from 0 to 4 in the MSP430F2274. Another important thing to
know is that the low power modes don’t power down any modules such as the ADC or timers
and these must be turned off individually. This is because we might want to combine the low
power mode with them.
A simple example is going in a Low Power Mode while the ADC is sampling and then
waking up from the ADC interrupt when the sample has been obtained.
Analog to Digital Converters – ADCs:
Introduction:
The ADC is arguably one of the most important parts of a Microcontroller. Why is this?
The real world is analog and to be able to manipulate it digitally some sort of conversion is
required. Although many techniques are possible, using an Analog to Digital Converter (ADC or
A2D) is the most common when good signal fidelity is necessary. A more simple interface could

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be some threshold circuit that would allow you to know whether a signal passed a certain
threshold.
The resolution is obviously very poor and would not be used to sample real signals unless
it is required. The ADC is also probably the most difficult module to master. It is so because
despite the simplicity that is assumed during courses that cover it (in which we just assume the
ADC samples at a particular frequency and it does so perfectly to the available resolution.).
We will cover the ADC present in the MSP430F2274, a 10-bit SAR ADC. Most of the
information will easily carry over to other ADCs, even if these ADCs have different features.
What is an ADC? It is a device which converts the analog waveform at the input to the
equivalent representation in the digital domain. It does so by a variety of techniques which
depend on the architecture of the ADC itself. SAR stands for Successive Approximation and this
name indicates the general idea behind the conversion.
There are many architectures out there. The ADC samples and quantizes the input
waveform. Sampling means that it measures the voltage of the waveform at a particular moment
in time. In reality, the ADC cannot use an impulse but rather a larger time frame to sample so
that the value is stable. When we talk about the sampling frequency, we refer to the fact that the
ADC will be continuously sample. This is the most common mode discussed in DSP courses.
However, an ADC can sample one or in many other ways, depending on the application.
Quantization means it assigns a particular value, usually binary, to represent the analog voltage
present. Both of these important concepts will be discussed next.

ADC Parameters:
ADC Resolution:
Probably the most important and most cited parameter of the ADC is its resolution,
usually expressed in bits. The MSP430F2274 in our case has 10-bits of resolution. The resolution
is an extremely important parameter because it dictates how the lowest difference we can
differentiate. The higher the resolution, the more we can distinguish between minute differences
in the voltage. The resolution is specified in usually bits. This tells us how many different
voltage levels we can represent.
Quantization Levels = 2bits
For a 10-bit ADC we have a maximum of
210 = 1024 possible levels of voltages we can represent. That’s why higher bit ADCs
such as 16 and even 24 are used: you can readily distinguish between smaller changes in
the signal and your digital representation better approximates the original. For 16-bits we
have 216 = 65536 and for 24-bit we have more than 16 million different levels, a huge
increase due to the exponential nature. Note however that noise is a prevalent issue in
ADCs and becomes the major constraint at a certain point
The question now comes to how the number of levels is related to the input voltage? This
is simple. The number of levels possible is divided equally for the voltage range. If we have a 1V

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on the ADC’s input pin and assuming the ADC is operating with a voltage range of 3V, each
successive level from 0V to 3V is: 3V 1024 􀀀 1 = 0:00293V = 3mV
If the signal changes by less than 3mV we can’t distinguish the difference, but every
3mV change in signal level translates into an addition of 1 to the binary number. If we have 0V
at the input (without any noise), then we have 10 zeros (since it’s a 10-bit ADC and no signal at
the input). However, if we have 3mV at the input then we have 9 zeros followed by a one.
0V! 0000000000 = 0x00
3mV! 0000000001 = 0x01
You can think about the ADC as a staircase. For each range of voltages we assign an
equivalent binary number usually referred to as the ”code”. The binary representation is usually
replaced by hex since it is easier to read, as discussed in previous chapter. Note however that this
is the ideal case and no offset or errors are taken into account.

The following shows a simple 3-bit ADC. Such ADC does not exist but serves to show
how each new level is represented in binary:
Unfortunately, we cannot cover all the important details of ADCs. The interested reader is
referred to the following excellent sources of information:

The general equation of the MSP430F2274 (which can be assumed for most other ADCs
given a few changes) is:
NADC = 1023 _ Vin, VR VR+ VR
A simple example follows: Lets assume that the input voltage is 1V. VR+ and VR􀀀
represent the upper and lower limits of the voltage range. In our case we will have VR+ = VCC
and VR+ = VCC = VSS = 0V.
Using the equation above we have:
NADC = 1023 _1V 􀀀 0V 3V 􀀀 0V = 1023 _ 0:333 = 341 = 0x155
The binary representation is not shown because it is large and hexadecimal represents it
nicely. Notice that 1V is exactly a third of the voltage range and therefore the output code will be
a third of all the maximum number, 1023 in this case.

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ADC Sampling Frequency:

The Sampling Frequency is another critical parameter of the systems. Usually the ADC
manufacturer specifies this in SPS (samples per second). The waveform at the input of the ADC
might not stay constant. It might remain constant for long periods of time or change continuously
(as with a voice at the input). When we sample the data, if it doesn’t change, we can sample
once. However, it is more likely that we will setup the ADC to sample regularly. Different
signals at the input of the ADC will require different sampling speeds. It is possible to
oversample by sampling at a very high speed and therefore be able to capture different signals.
Realize that if not sampling fast enough, very quick events can not be detected. Speech
signals for example are generally considered to have important information for the region of
300Hz to 4000Hz. Using Nyquist’s theorem we realize that we must therefore sample at a
frequency twice the highest frequency (This is for low pass signals, i.e. signals where the lowest
frequency is relatively close to 0Hz).
I/O Ports:
The most straightforward form of input and output is through the digital input/output
ports using binary values (low or high, corresponding to 0 or 1).We already used these for
driving LEDs and reading switches. In this section we look at their wider capabilities. There are
10–80 input/output pins on different devices in the current portfolio of MSP430s; the F20xx has
one complete 8-pin port and 2 pins on a second port, while the largest devices have ten full ports.
Almost all pins can be used either for digital input/output or for other functions and their
operation must be configured when the devices starts up.
This can be tricky. For example, pin P1.0 on the F2013 can be a digital input, digital
output, input TACLK, output ACLK, or analog input A0+. This is a choice of five functions and
therefore needs at least 3 bits for selection. It was hard to puzzle this out for older devices but
newer data sheets have an admirably clear table for each pin in the section Application
Information. There is also a schematic drawing of the circuit associated with the pin. For
example, the function of P1.0 depends on P1DIR, P1SEL, and the analog enable register
SD16AE. This pin is a digital input by default after reset, which is true for most pins but not all.
A convenient feature of all peripherals in the MSP430 is that they are implemented in
much the same way in all devices and families. For example, ports P1 and P2 have interrupts in
all cases, from the 14-pin F20xx to the 100-pin FG4618. Up to eight registers are associated with
the digital input/output functions for each pin. Here are the registers for port P1 on a
MSP430F2xx, which has the maximum number. Each pin can be configured and controlled
individually; thus some pins can be digital inputs, some outputs, some used for analog functions,
and so on.
Port P1 input, P1IN: reading returns the logical values on the inputs if they are configured
for digital input/output. This register is read-only and volatile. It does not need to be initialized
because its contents are determined by the external signals.
Port P1 output, P1OUT: writing sends the value to be driven to each pin if it is configured as a
digital output. If the pin is not currently an output, the value is stored in

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a buffer and appears on the pin if it is later switched to be an output. This register is not
initialized and you should therefore write to P1OUT before configuring the pin for output.

Port P1 direction, P1DIR: clearing a bit to 0 configures a pin as an input, which is the default in
most cases.Writing a 1 switches the pin to become an output. This is for digital input and output;
the register works differently if other functions are selected using P1SEL.
Port P1 resistor enable, P1REN: setting a bit to 1 activates a pull-up or pull-down resistor on a
pin. Pull-ups are often used to connect a switch to an input as in the section “Read Input from a
Switch” on page 80. The resistors are inactive by default (0). When the resistor is enabled (1),
the corresponding bit of the P1OUT register selects whether the resistor pulls the input up to
VCC (1) or down to VSS (0).

Port P1 selection, P1SEL: selects either digital input/output (0, default) or an alternative function
(1). Further registers may be needed to choose the particular function.
Port P1 interrupt enable, P1IE: enables interrupts when the value on an input pin changes. This
feature is activated by setting appropriate bits of P1IE to 1. Interrupts are off (0) by default. The
whole port shares a single interrupt vector although pins can be enabled individually.

Port P1 interrupt edge select, P1IES: can generate interrupts either on a positive edge (0), when
the input goes from low to high, or on a negative edge from high to low (1). It is not possible to
select interrupts on both edges simultaneously but this is not a problem because the direction can
be reversed after each transition. Care is needed if the direction is changed while interrupts are
enabled because a spurious interrupt may be generated. This register is not initialized and should
therefore be set up before interrupts are enabled.

Port P1 interrupt flag, P1IFG: a bit is set when the selected transition has been detected on the
input. In addition, an interrupt is requested if it has been enabled. These bits can also be set by
software, which provides a mechanism for generating a software interrupt (SWI).
In some cases the configuration of a pin selected by these registers can be overruled by
another function. For example, P1.0 in the F2013 can also be used as input A0+ to the analog-to-
digital converter (SD16_A). This module includes an analog input enable register SD16AE.
Selecting channel 0 with this register connects P1.0 to the SD16_A, regardless of the settings of
P1SEL and P1DIR. This is made clear in the Application Information but needs careful reading.
Other ports are similar, although most have fewer registers: Ports other than P1 and P2 have only
the four registers PnIN, PnOUT, PnDIR, and PnSEL in the MSP430x1xx and MSP430x4xx
families. Here are a few points to watch about the input/output ports:
Interrupts are available only on ports P1 and P2 so the PnIE, PnIES, and PnIFG registers are
provided for only these two.
1. Pull resistors and the PnREN register are provided only in the MSP430F2xx family and
newer MSP430x4xx devices. Do not activate pull/resistors unless you are using a pin for

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digital input. Selecting a pull-up or pull-down on an output pin removes the full output
drive and gives only a feeble current through the pull-up to resistor instead.
2. Pins P2.6 and P2.7 on many devices in the MSP430F2xx family are exceptions to the
general rule and are not digital inputs by default. These pins can also be used for a
crystal, which is their default configuration. You should reconfigure these pins if the
internal VLO is used instead of a crystal.
3. There is no port 0 (P0) on modern devices. It was present in some members of
MSP430x3xx family and differed from the other ports in several ways, notably the
handling of interrupts.
Example
Write code to configure the pins of a F2013 as follows:
P1.0 and P1.1 are inputs A0+ and A0− to the SD16_A analog-to-digital converter
(ADC).
1. P1.2 is input CCI1A to Timer_A.
2. P1.3 is connected to the voltage reference VREF of SD16_A.
3. P1.4 is a digital output, initially driven low.
4. P1.5 is output TA0 from Timer_A.
5. P1.6 and P1.7 are not used; leave them unconfigured for now.
6. P2.6 and P2.7 are digital inputs with pull-up resistors; ACLK should be derived
The registers associated with input/output ports on many other microcontrollers are a little
peculiar because they are not simple memories. Many designs, including the Microchip
PIC16 and the Freescale HCS08, use the same register for input and output through a port.
In this case, reading the register usually returns the values on the pins, while writing to it
drives the values onto pins if they are configured as outputs. This has the curious effect that
writing a value to a port and immediately reading it back does not return the same value for bits
that are configured as input: The write operation puts values into the output buffer but the read
operation gives the values on the input pins due to the surrounding circuitry. Great care must be
used when handling these schizophrenic registers. This is not an issue with the MSP430 because
it has separate input and output registers. You would expect P1IN.x=P1OUT.x when pin x is an
output, which should be true provided that the output is not overloaded.
The digital input/output ports are sometimes called parallel ports because all eight pins
can be used simultaneously to read or write a complete byte. However, they are nothing like the
parallel port found on the back of old PCs. One byte is the largest unit that can be handled in
most MSP430 devices because of the way in which the addresses of the registers are arranged.
The exception is the FG6461X, where the registers for ports P7–P10 are laid out in the memory
map so that they may be accessed individually as bytes or in pairs as words. Thus the bytewide
ports P7 and P8 can also be handled as the wordwide port PA. For example, the (byte) register
P7IN has address 0x0038 and P8IN is at 0x039, so the 2 bytes can be treated as the word at
address 0x0038, which is the (word) register PAIN. Similarly, port PB is equivalent to ports P9
and P10.

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Circuit of an Input/Output Pin

often symmetric. More precisely, the channel exists when the voltage between the gate
and source, Vgs, exceeds a critical value called the threshold voltage, Vt . In most MOSFETs Vt
> 0 so current cannot flow between the source and drain when there is no difference in voltage
between the gate and source. This, called an enhancement-mode device, is indicated by the
broken line in the symbol for the devices in the figure.
We normally think of a MOSFET as a three-terminal device but in practice there is a
fourth connection to the body or substrate. The reason is that the source–body and drain–body
junctions act like n–p diodes, which must be kept reverse biased for correct operation of the
device. The body is typically connected to VSS in an integrated circuit, which is the most
negative point. In a discrete device, the body is connected to the source, as shown in the symbol.
A diode remains between the source and drain, which comes into play with inductive loads as we
see in the section “Driving Heavier Loads” on page 247.
The signs of the voltages and current are reversed in a p-channel MOSFET. The drain is
negative with respect to the source and the gate–source voltage must be made more negative than
the threshold voltage to turn on the channel. One of the most significant features of a MOSFET
is that the gate is separated from the channel by a thin layer of silicon dioxide, which is an
insulator. Thus there is no direct electrical connection between the source and channel. Instead,
the gate, oxide, and channel form a capacitor. This is reflected in the symbol by a gap between
the gate and channel. No current flows into a capacitor when the voltage across it is constant,
which is a key factor in the low power consumption of CMOS circuits. Thus the MSP430 can
retain the contents of its registers in LPM4 while drawing less than 1_A. On the other hand,
current must flow to charge and discharge the gate–channel capacitance when the transistors
change state and these accounts for most of the supply current in CMOS.
This gate oxide is only a few nanometers (10−9 m) thick in a modern transistor. Silicon
Dioxide is an excellent insulator but even this breaks down if the electric field across it becomes
too large. It is easy for a person to acquire large voltages through static electricity—walking
across a nylon carpet in dry weather generates enough charge to cause a spark when you next
touch a grounded conducting object. CMOS devices must therefore be handled only at
workstations that are protected against static electricity by grounding and an appropriate choice
of materials. Integrated circuits themselves are also protected by connecting diodes between

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inputs and the supply rails, as shown in Figure 7.1(a). Recall that current flows only in the
direction shown by the arrow symbol for the diode. These are reverse-biased in normal
operation, where VSS <Vin <VCC. They turn on to protect the circuit when the input strays by
more than about 0.3V outside the supply rails, Vin <VSS−0.3V or Vin >VCC+0.3V. The
magnitude of the current through these diodes should not exceed 2 mA.
The input protection diodes can cause a puzzling side effect. Suppose that a logical high
input is applied to a circuit whose power supply is not connected. Current flows through the
protection diode from the input to VCC, from where it supplies the rest of the circuit.
Thus the circuit works almost normally, despite having no apparent source of power.
After that diversion, we can explain the operation of a CMOS inverter with the aid of Figure 7.2.
A model inverter can be made with a pair of controlled switches, one between the output and
VSS to pull the output down to logic 0 and the other between the output and VCC to provide a
logic 1. Ideally one switch should always be closed and one open.
If the input is a logical 1, the output should be a logical 0, which needs the switch to VSS closed
and that to VCC open, as in Figure 7.2(a). The lower switch should therefore close when the
input is relatively positive (near VCC) and the upper switch should be open under the same
conditions, passing no current. Everything is reversed when the input is a logical 0, near VSS.
This can be achieved by using an n-channel MOSFET (n-MOSFET for short) for the
lower switch and a p-MOSFET for the upper switch, as shown in Figure 7.2(b). A channel is
created in the n-MOSFET, allowing conduction in the same way as a closed switch, when its
gate is driven positive by a high input or logical 1. When the input falls to a logic 0, so Vin =
VSS, there is no difference in potential between the gate and source of the MOSFET.
Thus Vgs = 0, the channel vanishes, and no current flows. This is just like an open sw

Configuration of Unused Pins

Not all of the input/output pins are used in most applications. Unused pins must never be
left unconnected in their default state as inputs. This follows a general rule that inputs to CMOS
must never be left unconnected or “floating.” A surprising number of problems can be caused by
floating inputs. The most trivial is that the input circuit draws an excessive current from the
power supply. This is because the input is likely to float to the midpoint of VSS and VCC,
turning on both MOSFETs and leading to the situation shown in Figure 7.2(c). The shoot-
through current may exceed 40_A, a huge waste by the standards of the MSP430.

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Old CMOS circuits, such as the 74HC family, are amazingly sensitive to floating inputs.
They may oscillate or refuse to work at all if an input is floating, even if the input belongs to an
unused gate or flip-flop. I have seen this happen many times when students have not taken heed
of the rule about floating inputs. Missing decoupling (bypass) capacitors can cause similar
problems. Floating inputs are also susceptible to noise and to static electricity if the product is
handled, which may lead to permanent damage.
There are three ways of avoiding these problems:
1. Wire the unused pins externally to a well-defined voltage, either VSS or VCC, and
configure them as inputs. The danger with this is that you might damage the MCU
if the pins are accidentally configured as outputs.
2. Leave the pins unconnected externally but connect them internally to either VSS or
VCC by using the pull-down or pull-up resistors. They are again configured as inputs. I
prefer this approach but it is restricted to the MSP430F2xx family because the others lack
internal pull resistors.
3. Leave the pins unconnected and configure them as outputs. The value in the output
register does not matter. This is perhaps the most robust solution and is recommended for
MSP430 devices that lack internal pull resistors. I am less keen on this approach for
experimental systems because it is easy to short-circuit pins with a test probe.
There is a helpful list of recommended connections for unused pins at the end of th
chapter on System Resets, Interrupts, and Operating Modes in the family user’s guides.
Digital Inputs:
Digital inputs to the MSP430 are typically connected to digital outputs from other circuits
or to components such as switches.We already used the digital inputs many times for
straightforward connections to a push button using the standard circuit shown in Figure 4.4. The
programs in Chapter 4 used polling but this is wasteful for inputs that change on a human
timescale—very slowly by electronic standards. Interrupts may be more efficient. A different
approach is also needed when a large number of inputs must be read.
Interrupts on Digital Inputs:
Ports P1 and P2 can request an interrupt when the value on an input changes. This is one
of the few interrupts that remains active in LPM4 and is therefore useful to wake the CPU in
portable equipment that lies idle for a long time. Interrupts for port P1 are controlled by the
registers P1IE and P1IES, mentioned previously, and similarly for port P2. There is a single
vector for each port, so the user must check P1IFG to determine the bit that caused the interrupt.
This bit must be cleared explicitly; it does not happen automatically as with interrupts that have a
single source.
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The direction of the transition that causes the interrupt can be changed in P1IES at anyn
time by the program. This is useful if both edges of a pulse need to be detected, for example,
when a button is pressed and released. There is a danger that spurious interrupts may be
generated, so it is a good idea to disable this interrupt, change P1IES, and clear any spurious

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flags in P1IFG before reenabling the interrupt. In fact, to practice this should not be a problem if
the direction is changed in the most obvious way. For instance, the port may wait for a low-to-
high transition while the input is low. An interrupt is requested when the input goes high. The
sensitivity is then changed to high-to-low to detect the next edge.
The use of interrupts is illustrated in Listing 7.1, which is perhaps the ultimate
development of the programs to light an LED when a button is pressed. The device spends most
of its time in LPM4, waiting for an interrupt on pin P2.1. Both the LED and the direction of the
transition for an interrupt are toggled in the ISR. Any pending requests for an interrupt are
cleared by a loop before returning to LPM4. I included this code as an example of how to avoid
spurious interrupts. Unfortunately it is not a particularly good idea here because it loses the
second edge of short pulses.

Multiplexed Inputs: Scanning a Matrix Keypad:

Many products require numerical input and provide a keypad for the user. These often
have 12 keys, like a telephone, or more. An individual connection for each switch would use an
exorbitant number of pins so they are usually arranged as a matrix instead. Only seven pins are
needed for a 12-key pad, as shown in Figure 7.3, or eight pins for 16 keys. As usual this
economy comes at a price. The matrix must be scanned, which is more complicated than reading
individual inputs. Moreover, the reading may become ambiguous if more than one key is
depressed.
There are, as usual, many ways of dealing with a keypad. Here is a straightforward
approach, although it needs refinement in practice. I do not worry about debouncing at this stage
and assume that no more than one switch is closed.

Connect the rows Y1–Y4 as inputs to the microcontroller while the columns X1–X3 are
driven by outputs. (It could equally well be the other way around.) Pull-up resistors are required
on the inputs. These could be internal for the MSP430F2xx family but must be provided
externally for other devices.
1. Drive X1 low and the other columns X2 and X3 high. This makes the switches in
column X1 active and the corresponding Y input goes low if a button is pressed.
Thus we can detect the state of switches 1, 4, 7, or *. The switches in the other columns
have no effect because both of their terminals are at VCC.
2. Drive X2 low and the other columns high to read the switches in column X2.

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3. Repeat this for column X3.

This process can be repeated as often as required.
A problem with this simple method arises if two buttons, such as 1 and 2, are pressed,
which short-circuits the column drives X1 and X2. This damages the output of the
microcontroller if they are connected directly. Resistors should therefore be connected between
the pins of the microcontroller and the columns of the keypad. Diodes could be used instead.
Another possibility for the MSP430F2xx family is to use the internal pull-ups instead of full-
strength outputs for columns that are not being addressed. Please remember to disable the pull-up
before trying to use the pin for “real” output. Usually only one key should be pressed at a time on
the pad. In fact there should be no problem identifying two keys held down simultaneously.
Difficulties arise when three buttons on the corners of a rectangle are pressed because it appears
that the button on the fourth corner is also down. An error must be noted for a standard keypad in
this case.
In other applications it is necessary to be able to read all the switches independently and
the solution is to put a diode in series with each switch. It is a waste of energy to scan the keypad
when no button is being pressed. In this case it is more efficient to drive all columns low and
wait for an interrupt generated by a falling edge on any of the row inputs. The keypad can then
be scanned to determine which key has been pressed. A complete program is given in the
application note Implementing an Ultralow-Power Keypad Interface with the MSP430 (slaa139).
Section 5.5.5 of
Application Reports (slaa024) shows how the ideas can be extended to scan different types of
input
Analog Aspects of “Digital” Inputs:
It is usually safe to assume that signals inside the microcontroller are straightforward
logical zeros and ones although there are a few exceptions to this comfortable situation, such as
the output of a comparator (see the section “Comparator_A” on page 371). Outside the
microcontroller there is no escape from the fact that the real world is analog. This raises many
issues, of which the most basic is the question, What analog voltages correspond to the digital
values 0 and 1? Take VSS = 0 for clarity. The precise input voltages Vin that correspond to
logical 0 and 1 depend on the technology but typical values for CMOS are
1. Inputs of 0 to 0.3VCC give logic 0.
2. Inputs of 0.7VCC to VCC give logic 1.
These are symmetric. The output voltage Vout for CMOS is typically below 0.1VCC for a
logical 0 and above 0.9VCC for a logical 1. This is again symmetric and the large gap between
the ranges for logical 0 and 1 means that CMOS is relatively insensitive to noise.
The logical value is undefined for an input that lies in the transition region between the two
ranges, which is typically 0.3VCC to 0.7VCC for CMOS. Inputs in this range also cause an
excessive current to flow through the input buffer, as shown in Figure 7.2(c). The apparent
logical value as seen from inside the microcontroller may also oscillate wildly between 0 and 1.

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The voltage on inputs should therefore pass rapidly through the transition zone. This is
particularly important for inputs that generate interrupts or provide clocks
(to a timer, for instance). An excellent feature of the MSP430 is that its inputs are provided with
Schmitt triggers, which eliminate many of these problems. This includes the standard port inputs,
which also protects their interrupts. Other digital inputs, such as the external clock to the timer,
also pass through the Schmitt triggers. The details are shown in Port pin schematics in the data
sheets. Figure 7.4 shows the output voltage as a function of the input voltage for a conventional
buffer and a Schmitt trigger. The major difference is that a Schmitt trigger displays
hysteresis. This is most easily explained by looking at the response to a slow triangular, wave on
the input in Figure 7.4(c).The input and output are initially at 0 voltage and the input voltage
rises gradually. The output remains safely in the range for logical 0 until the input passes through
the upper

Positive-going threshold voltage VIT+ at (i). At this point the output jumps abruptly to a
value that is well inside the range for a logical 1. It stays here while the input continues to rise
and after it has started to fall again. The output remains at a logical 1 even after the input has
fallen through VIT+ and does not change until the input crosses the lower threshold voltage VIT−
at (ii). At this point the output jumps to a logical 0 and remains here as the input falls further.
The second half of the plot shows the effect of (rather fanciful) noise on the input. The
output jumps from 0 to 1 when the input first goes above VIT+ at (iii). The noise pulls the input
back down below this threshold but the output remains cleanly at 1. Similarly, on thedownward
half of the wave, the output falls from 1 to 0 at point (iv) when the input first falls below VIT−
and is not affected by fluctuations that take the input back above this threshold. Thus a Schmitt
trigger has two desirable effects:

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1. It turns slowly varying inputs, which might cause problems while they pass slowly
through the undefined range of input voltages, into abrupt, clean logical transitions. It
eliminates the effect of noise on the input, provided that it is not large enough to span the
gap between the upward and downward thresholds.
2. Schmitt triggers have many other applications. A simple oscillator can be made by adding
a resistor and capacitor, for instance.
Another analog aspect of the inputs is that a small current flows into or out of the pin.
Ideally this would be 0 because the gates of MOSFETs act like capacitors but in reality the
capacitors leak slightly, as do the input protection diodes. Of course the circuit associated with
each pin is much more complicated than a simple inverter too. Having said all that, the pins of
the MPS430 have a low input leakage current, below ±50nA. This is roughly equivalent to a
resistance of 50M_ and means that leakage should rarely cause a serious drop in voltage across a
resistor in series with the input. The leakage current would not drop more than ±0.1V across a
2M_ resistor, for example. This allows large pull-up resistors to be used to save current, although
the input may then become sensitive to noise.
The low leakage current is also important if the input is used to detect the voltage on a
small capacitor (a few pF). This arises in touch sensors, which are also mentioned in the section
“Capacitative Touch Sensing with Comparator_A” on page 391. Finally, low leakage contributes
to a long battery life, particularly in devices with over 100 pins.
Before leaving this topic, let us look more closely at the way in which thresholds and
other parameters are specified in the data sheet. Table 7.1 shows a small extract for the F20xx.
There is a minimum and maximum for each of the two threshold voltages. When is each
important? Suppose that the input is initially at VSS:
1. The system should not respond to noise on the input, so any fluctuations in voltage
must be kept below the threshold VIT+. In this case we should choose the minimum value
of 1.35V to ensure that the input is never triggered.
2. On the other hand, we want to guarantee that the microcontroller responds when the
desired signal appears on the input.We must ensure that the input goes above the
maximum value of 2.25V to be certain that the Schmitt input is triggered.

Digital Outputs:
The standard circuits for connecting an LED to a pin of a microcontroller are shown in
Figure 4.3 and are repeated in Figure 7.9, which includes the transistors inside the MSP430.
Always include current-limiting resistors in series with the LEDs. Remember also that LED

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stands for light-emitting diode and that a diode passes current in only one direction, shown by
the arrow in the symbol. This refers to conventional current, which flows from positive to
negative. No light is produced if the LED is connected backward.

In the active high circuit (a) the LED lights when the p-MOSFET is switched on and the
n-MOSFET is off. Current flows from VCC through the p-MOSFET, out of the pin andn through
the LED to VSS. The pin therefore acts as a source of current. The opposite is true in the active
low circuit (b). This time current flows from VCC through the LED, into the pin and through the
n-MOSFET to VSS. The pin is said to be a current sink. In general n-MOSFETs have better
performance than p-MOSFETs and this is why many older ICs were better at sinking current
than sourcing current. LEDs were therefore usually connected active low. Most modern
microcontrollers are designed so that the performance of the output is more or less symmetric.
An important parameter is the maximum recommended current in or out of the port pins.
The data sheets are surprisingly reticent: No limiting currents are specified at the time of
writing.\ The section on Electrical Characteristics includes plots of the output voltage as a
function of current that go up to ±40 mA. This would be a startlingly high current for any
microcontroller, let alone a low-power device. I presume that it is measured for very short pulses
to avoid destructive overheating. In contrast, the product information center recommends that the
current should be limited to 4 or 5mA per pin and 25mA per port.
Consult them if your application approaches these bounds or see the section “Driving Heavier
Loads” on page 247 for circuits that allow the MSP430 to switch heavier loads.
There is usually no problem with connecting a few inputs to a single output. On the other
hand, you should never connect two ordinary outputs together because this causes contention if
they attempt to produce different outputs, which may damage them. Special circuits are used
where outputs must be connected together, such as on a bus. Three-state outputs are one type.
These have the two usual high or low states when they are driving the bus. The pin has a high
impedance in the third state so that it does not affect the voltage on the bus, which is released for
other outputs. This can be done in the MSP430 by switching the pin from output to input. Some
sort of control is needed to ensure that only one output attempts to drive the bus at a time. A
simpler approach is to use open-drain or open-collector outputs, which can pull the output down
to VSS but not up to VCC, for which a pull-up resistor is provided. More details will be given in
the section “Hardware for I²C” on page 535.

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Figure 7.9(c) shows how to connect a bicolor LED. This has two LEDs in a common
package, connected so that one color lights when the current flows in a particular direction and
the other color lights for current in the opposite direction. The package must be connected
between a pair of pins, which act as a simple H-bridge (see the section “Driving Heavier Loads”
on page 247). Suppose that pin P1.1 is driven high and P1.2 low. Current flows from VCC
through P1, LED1, and N2 to VSS. Similarly, LED2 is lit by driving P1.1 low and P1.2 high.
Neither LED is active if both pins are driven high or both low. The same technique can be used
for other loads that need both directions of current.
Multiplexed Displays
The idea behind the bidirectional output can be carried further as a way of multiplexing
LEDs, as shown in Figure 7.10. In general, N(N −1) LEDs can be driven from N pins by
extending this circuit. It relies on the one-way characteristic of a diode and its nonlinear relation
between current and voltage. A single LED is selected by driving one pin high,

one low, and configuring all other pins as inputs. For example, suppose that P1.0 is high, P1.2 is
low, and P1.1 is an input and therefore effectively disconnected. Current flows through D5 and
two of the series resistors, which limit the current in the usual way.
A parallel path lies through D3 and D1 but this has two LEDs in series. Each receives
only half the voltage, so very little current flows. The remaining LEDs are reverse biased.
We could light D6 instead by driving P1.0 low and P1.2 high, and similarly for other LEDs

Only one LED can be addressed at a time, which may seem a serious disadvantage. This
is resolved by repeatedly addressing each LED in turn. The eye does not detect that the LEDs are
flashing rather than continuously illuminated, provided the frequency is above 100 Hz or so. In

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fact LEDs are often more efficient when operated in this way, in the sense that they need a
smaller average current to produce the same apparent brightness. As usual this feature comes at a
price: The current must be higher during each pulse, and this may exceed the limit of the
MSP430’s pins.
A more conventional form of multiplexing is often used with seven-segment LED
displays. These tend to consume a large current, which clashes with the low-power ethos of the
MSP430, but are simpler than liquid crystal displays. The layout and circuit of a single digit are
shown in Figure 7.11(a). Note that there are usually eight segments, despite the name; the eighth
segment is a decimal point. In the circuit shown, the cathodes of all the LEDs are connected to
give a common cathode display. (The cathode is the negative terminal when the diode is forward
biased, shown by the bar on the symbol.) Common anode displays are equally common. The
usual resistors should be connected in series with each segment to limit the current. A higher
value may be needed for the decimal point because it draws a lower current. Sometimes the
segments comprise two or more LEDs in series, but this requires a higher voltage than an
MSP430 can provide.
Suppose that two digits are needed. This would require 16 pins of the microcontroller if
the displays were connected separately, which is excessive. They are usually multiplexed
instead, as shown in Figure 7.11(b). These are again common-cathode devices. The
corresponding segment pins of the displays are connected in parallel and the common cathodes
are used to select a particular digit. In principle each cathode could be connected to a pin of the
microcontroller but the current would exceed the rating of the MSP430 so I use an n-MOSFET
as a switch instead; this is described fully in the section “Driving Heavier Loads” on page 247.
The two digits are driven alternately. To select digit 1, the gate of its FET is driven to
VCC, which turns it on, while the gate of the FET for digit 2 is driven to VSS to turn it off.
Individual segments of digit 1 can then be lit by bringing the corresponding pins high or turned
off by pulling them low. Both displays feel the voltages on the segment lines but only digit 1 is
able to respond to them. The voltages on the FETs are then reversed to make digit 2 active and
the segment lines are changed to give the desired pattern. The details of the software, such as
using lookup tables to get the correct patterns on the segment linesA large, seven-segment
display needs more current than the MSP430 can provide itself.
This is not a problem because plenty of special ICs are available to drive LEDs. The
LEDs are usually driven from constant-current sources to give better control of illumination than
a simple resistor. Many have serial interfaces such as SPI or I²C (see Chapter 10), which save
pins on the microcontroller.

Watchdog Timer:
The main purpose of the watchdog timer is to protect the system against failure of the
software, such as the program becoming trapped in an unintended, infinite loop. Left to itself, the
watchdog counts up and resets the MSP430 when it reaches its limit. The code must therefore
keep clearing the counter before the limit is reached to prevent a reset.

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The operation of the watchdog is controlled by the 16-bit register WDTCTL. It is

guarded against accidental writes by requiring the password WDTPW = 0x5A in the upper byte.
A reset will occur if a value with an incorrect password is written to WDTCTL. This can be done
deliberately if you need to reset the chip from software. Reading WDTCTL returns 0x69 in the
upper byte, so reading WDTCTL and writing the value back violates the password and causes a
reset. The lower byte of WDTCTL contains the bits that control the operation of the watchdog
timer, shown in Figure 8.1. The RST/NMI pin is also configured using this register, which you
must not forget when servicing the watchdog—we see why shortly. This pin is described in the
section “Nonmaskable Interrupts” on page 195. Most bits are reset to 0 after a power-on reset
(POR) but are unaffected by a power-up clear (PUC). This distinction is important in handling
resets caused by the watchdog. The exception is the

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WDTCNTCL bit, labeled r0(w). This means that the bit always reads as 0 but a 1 can be
written to stimulate some action, clearing the counter in this case. The watchdog counter is a 16-
bit register WDTCNT, which is not visible to the user. It is clocked from either SMCLK
(default) or ACLK, according to the WDTSSEL bit. The reset output can be selected from bits 6,
9, 13, or 15 of the counter. Thus the period is 26 = 64, 512, 8192, or 32,768 (default) times the
period of the clock. This is controlled by the WDTISx bits in WDTCTL. The intervals are
roughly 2, 16, 250, and 1000 ms if the watchdog runs from ACLK at 32 KHz.
The watchdog is always active after the MSP430 has been reset. By default the clock is
SMCLK, which is in turn derived from the DCO at about 1 MHz. The default period of the
watchdog is the maximum value of 32,768 counts, which is therefore around 32 ms. You must
clear, stop, or reconfigure the watchdog before this time has elapsed. In almost all programs in
this book, I take the simplest approach of stopping the watchdog, which means setting the
WDTHOLD bit. This goes back to the first program to light LEDs,
If the watchdog is left running, the counter must be repeatedly cleared to prevent it
counting up as far as its limit. This is done by setting the WDTCNTCL bit in WDTCTL.
The task is often called petting, feeding, or kicking the dog, depending on your attitude toward
canines. The bit automatically clears again after WDTCNT has been reset.
The MSP430 is reset if the watchdog counter reaches its limit. Recall from the section
“Resets” on page 157 that there are two levels of reset. The watchdog causes a power-up clear,
which is the less drastic form. Most registers are reset to default values but some retain their
contents, which is vital so that the source of the reset can be determined. The watchdog timer
sets the WDTIFG flag in the special function register IFG1. This is cleared by a power-on reset
but its value is preserved during a PUC. Thus a program can check this bit to find out whether a
reset arose from the watchdog. shows a trivial program to demonstrate the watchdog. I selected
the clock from ACLK (WDTSSEL = 1) and the longest period (WDTISx = 00), which gives 1s

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with a 32 KHz crystal for ACLK. It is wise to restart any timer whenever its configuration is
changed so I also cleared the counter by setting the WDTCNTCL bit. LED1 shows the state of
button B1 and LED2 shows WDTIFG. The watchdog is serviced by rewriting the configuration
value in a loop while button B1 is held down. If the button is left up for more than 1s the
watchdog times out, raises the flag WDTIFG, and resets the device with a PUC.
This is shown by LED2 lighting.
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Suppose that the program became stuck in one of the tasks of the paced loop. Interrupts
would still be generated periodically and the watchdog would continue to be serviced correctly if
this were done in the ISR. On the other hand, the watchdog would expire and cause a reset with
the structure in Listing 8.2.
It is possible that the watchdog may time out during the initialization of a program, which
is carried out by the startup code before the user’s main() function is called. This would happen
if it took longer than 32 ms to initialize the RAM, which is possible if a large number of global
or static variables are used. In EW430 you can supply a function _low_level_init(), which is
called before the RAM is initialized. The watchdog can be stopped or reconfigured here.
Watchdogs vary considerably from one type of microcontroller to another. Some have a
set of passwords that must be used in a prescribed order, rather than a single value; a reset occurs
if a password is used out of sequence.Windowed watchdogs must be serviced only during a
particular part of their period, such as the last quarter; clearing the watchdog earlier than this
causes a reset. Some have their own built-in oscillator, which protects them from failure of the
main clocks. Many watchdogs are controlled by write-once registers, which means that their
configuration cannot be changed after an initial value has been written. This would be a problem
in the MSP430, where the watchdog may need to be reconfigured for low-power modes.
The reset caused by the watchdog can be a nuisance during development because a PUC
destroys much of the evidence that could help you to detect a problem that caused the watchdog
to time out. A solution might be to generate an interrupt rather than a reset by using the
watchdog as an interval timer, which is described shortly. The interrupt service routine could
copy critical data to somewhere safe, signal a problem by lighting an LED, or simply cause
execution to stop on a breakpoint. Nagy [4] has further suggestions.
Failsafe Clock Source for Watchdog Timer:
Newer devices, including the MSP430F2xx family and recent members of the
MSP430x4xx, have the enhanced watchdog timer+ (WDT+). This includes fail-safe logic to
preserve the watchdog’s clock. Suppose that the watchdog is configured to use ACLK and the
program enters low-power mode 4 to wait for an external interrupt, as in Listing 7.1. The old
watchdog (WDT) stops during LPM4 and resumes counting when the device is awakened. In
contrast, WDT+ does not let the device enter LPM4 because that would disable its clock.
Therefore it is not possible to use LPM4 with WDT+ active; thewatchdog must first be stopped
by setting WDTHOLD. Similarly, it is not possible to use LPM3 if WDT+ is active and gets its
clock from SMCLK. If its clock fails, WDT+ switches from ACLK or SMCLK to MCLK and

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takes this from the DCO if an external crystal fails. The watchdog interval may change
dramatically but there must be serious problems elsewhere if this happens.
Watchdog as an Interval Timer:
The watchdog can be used as an interval timer if its protective function is not desired. Set
the WDTTMSEL bit in WDTCTL for interval timer mode. The periods are the same as before
and again WDTIFG is set when the timer reaches its limit, but no reset occurs. The counter rolls
over and restarts from 0. An interrupt is requested if the WDTIE bit in the special function
register IE1 is set. This interrupt is maskable and as usual takes effect only if GIE is also set. The
watchdog timer has its own interrupt vector, which is fairly high in priority but not at the top. It
is not the same as the reset vector, which is taken if the counter times out in watchdog mode. The
WDTIFG flag is automatically cleared when the interrupt is serviced. It can be polled if
interrupts are not used. Many applications need a periodic “tick,” for which the watchdog timer
could be used in interval mode. The disadvantage is the limited selection of periods, but 1s is
convenient for a clock. Some of the previous examples that used Timer_A could be rewritten for
the watchdog instead and its use is illustrated in the standard sets of code examples from TI

Clock System:
All microcontrollers contain a clock module to drive the CPU and peripherals. The
conflicting requirements for clocks in high-performance, low-power microcontrollers were
described in the section “Clock Generator” on page 33. Figure 5.8 shows a simplified diagram of
the Basic Clock Module+ (BCM+) for the MSP430F2xx family. I concentrate on this because it
is the most recent design; I mention the extra features of the MSP430x4xx later. The details vary
between devices, even in the same family, and the second crystal oscillator XT2 is often omitted.
Recall that the clock module provides three outputs:
1. Master clock, MCLK is used by the CPU and a few peripherals.
2. Sub-system master clock, SMCLK is distributed to peripherals.
3. Auxiliary clock, ACLK is also distributed to peripherals.
Most peripherals can choose either SMCLK, which is often the same as MCLK and in the
megahertz range, or ACLK, which is typically much slower and usually 32 KHz. A few
peripherals, such as analog-to-digital converters, can also use MCLK and some, such as

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Timers, have their own clock inputs. The frequencies of all three clocks can be divided in
the BCM+ as shown in Figure 5.8. For example, you might wish to run the CPU at 8MHz for
rapid execution of code and therefore choose fMCLK = fDCOCLK = 8MHz. On the other hand,
it may be more convenient if the peripherals run from a slower clock, in which case you might
configure the divider for SMCLK with DIVSx to give fSMCLK = fDCOCLK/8 = 1MHz. Most
peripherals have their own dividers for their clock sources, which gives yet more control. Up to
four sources are available for the clock, depending on the family and variant:
Low- or high-frequency crystal oscillator, LFXT1: Available in all devices. It is usually
used with a low-frequency watch crystal (32 KHz) but can also run with a high-frequency crystal
(typically a few MHz) in most devices. An external clock signal can be used instead of a crystal
if it is important to synchronize the MSP430 with other devices in the system.
High-frequency crystal oscillator, XT2: Similar to LFXT1 except that it is restricted to high
frequencies. It is available in only a few devices and LFXT1 (or VLO) is used instead if XT2 is
missing.
Internal very low-power, low-frequency oscillator, VLO: Available in only the more
recent MSP430F2xx devices. It provides an alternative to LFXT1 when the accuracy of a crystal
is not needed. Digitally controlled oscillator, DCO: Available in all devices and one of the
highlights of the MSP430. It is basically a highly controllable RC oscillator that starts in less
than 1 _s in newer devices. It is not quite true that any of the clocks can come from any of the
sources, but the selection can seem bewildering. Fortunately the default configuration described
in the section
“Clock Generator” on page 33 is a good starting point. As a reminder, this is as follows:
1. ACLK comes from a low-frequency crystal oscillator at 32 KHz. There is no choice in
almost all devices, the exceptions being those with a VLO.
2. Both MCLK and SMCLK are supplied by the DCO with a frequency of around
1 MHz. This is stabilized by the FLL where present. You may wish to raise this frequency
provided that VCC is high enough to support it.
Most applications do not need MCLK to be highly accurate, so there is rarely a need for a
high-frequency crystal. A possible exception is those that use fast, asynchronous value.
We look at the characteristics of the sources in more detail. The Basic Clock Module+ is
controlled by four registers, DCOCTL and BCSCTL1–3. In addition there are bits in the special
function registers IFG1 and IE2 for reporting faults with the oscillators. Some of the clock
signals can be brought out to pins if needed to supply external components or for testing (I use
this later for Figure 5.10). This typically needs the pin to be configured for output using P1DIR
and the signal switched to the clock from the usual digital port with P1SEL.
Crystal Oscillators, LFXT1 and XT2:
Crystals are used when an accurate, stable frequency is needed:
1. Accurate means that the frequency is close to what it says on the package, typically
within 1 part in 105.
2. Stable means that does not change significantly with time or temperature.

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Crystals are cut from carefully grown, high-quality quartz with specific orientations to give
them high stability. Traditional crystals oscillated at frequencies of a few MHz but most small
microcontrollers use low-frequency watch crystals with a frequency of 32 KHz. These are
machined into complicated tuning fork shapes to give the low frequency. Adisadvantage is that
their frequency is more sensitive to temperature than high-frequency crystals, but they are
designed to be most stable near 25◦C. A change of 10◦C in the temperature causes the frequency
to fall by about 4 parts per million (ppm). Detailed specifications are given by the manufacturers,
such as Micro Crystal [58].
Stray capacitance of the PCB tracks to the crystal, which must be kept as short as possible.
External capacitors are needed with many microcontrollers but they are integrated into the
MSP430 for low-frequency crystals. The value is selected with the XCAPx bits in the BCSCTL3
register of the F20xx. The older Basic Clock Module (BCM, without the +) in the MSP430x1xx
has a fixed capacitance of 12 pF per pin. For a highly accurate frequency, the drive current of the
LFXT1 should also match the specification of the crystal. This sounds rather specialized but
systems with the MSP430 may run for 10 years on a single battery and extreme accuracy and
stability are needed if the clock is not to drift over this lifetime. The application note MSP430
LFXT1 Oscillator Accuracy (slaa225) describes some of the issues.
The oscillator is designed to run at low power and this renders it susceptible to
electromagnetic interference. This means that the printed circuit board must be laid out carefully.
There is detailed advice in the application note MSP430 32 KHz Crystal Oscillators (slaa322).
Having said that, the crystal on the Olimex 1121STK is perched up in the air over the MCU
itself, which seems to violate the rules but nevertheless works reliably.
It is also possible to use high-frequency crystals (above 400 KHz) with LFXT1 in most
devices and some have a second oscillator XT2, which works only at high frequencies.
External capacitors must be used with high-frequency crystals and the module must be
configured for a suitable range of frequencies. The module also accepts an external clock signal
on XIN.
The stability of crystals is reflected electrically in their high Q factor. This means that
they oscillate for a long time after being excited, like the ringing tone from a wine glass after it
has been tapped. The disadvantage of this is that the oscillator takes an equally long time to reach
a stable state, typically around 105 cycles. An oscillator based on a watch crystal therefore takes
nearly a second to start and is almost always left running continuously. It might seem better that
a 10MHz crystal starts in “only” 10 ms but the
CPU could have used around 105 cycles from the DCO in this time, which is enough to
complete many tasks and return to a low-power mode. A software delay loop can be included if
it is important to wait for the crystal to stabilize. This can be similar to those in the section
“Automatic Control Flashing Light by Software Delay” onThe auxiliary clock ACLK can be
derived only from LFXT1 in most devices so ACLK will not be available if there is no crystal.
Beware if you are using a TI development kit
Internal Low-Power, Low-Frequency Oscillator, VLO:

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The VLO is an internal RC oscillator that runs at around 12 KHz and can be used instead
of LFXT1 in some newer devices. It saves the cost and space required for a crystal and reduces
the current drawn. The data sheet for the F2013 shows that LFXT1 draws about 0.8_A, which
falls to 0.5_A with the VLO. (Both are impressively small currents.) Of course this comes at a
cost: accuracy and stability. The same data sheet quotes a range of frequency for fVLO from 4 to
20 KHz. This looks terrible at first sight but closer reading shows that it covers the full operating
range of the device in voltage and temperature.
A variation of 10◦C changes the frequency by about 5% instead of 5 ppm for a crystal.
Clearly you would not use the VLO for serious timing. On the other hand, its purpose is often to
wake the device periodically to check whether any inputs have changed, and accuracy is not
important. ACLK is taken from LFXT1 by default even where the VLO is present. This means
that current is wasted in LFXT1 and that pins P2.6 and P2.7 in the F20xx are configured for a
crystal. It is usually a good idea to reconfigure the BCM+ to use the VLO and redirect port
Digitally Controlled Oscillator, DCO:
One of the aims of the original design of the MSP430 was that it should be able to start
rapidly at full speed from a low-power mode, without waiting a long time for the clock to settle.
Early versions of the DCO started in 6_s, which has been reduced to 1–2_s in the MSP430F2xx
family. There are no erratic pulses: The output from the DCO starts cleanly after this delay. The
stability and accuracy also improved significantly since the early days of the MSP430 and
calibration values are now stored for a set of frequencies, giving an accuracy of 1–2%.
The frequency can be controlled through sets of bits in the module’s registers at three
levels. The numbers are taken from the data sheet for the F2013. The first two levels set the DCO
to a constant frequency:
RSELx: Selects one of 16 coarse ranges of frequency. The frequencies in each range are larger
than those in the one below by a factor of 1.3–1.4. The overall range is about 0.09–20 MHz.
DCOx: Selects one of eight steps within each range. Each step increases the frequency by about
8%, giving a factor of 1.7 from bottom to top of the range. Thus the ranges overlap slightly.
Figure 5.9 shows the frequency of the DCO in the low part of its range as a function of RSELx
and DCOx. There is roughly a constant ratio between values so a logarithmic scale would be
needed to show the full range clearly. TI does not provide much information about the innards of
the DCO. It appears to be based on a type of RC oscillator whose frequency is programmed by a
current, which is selected by RSEL. This feeds a ring counter whose period is adjusted with
DCO. An external resistor Rosc can be connected in some devices to regulate the current instead
of RSEL.
This could improve the stability of the frequency in older devices but is less useful in
newer ones. It could also be used to control the frequency by an external analog signal.

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Finer control of the average frequency is obtained by modulating the frequency of the oscillator
between the selected value of DCO and the next step up (DCO+1). This needs DCO < 7 of
course. Each period of 32 clock cycles contains MOD cycles with the higher frequency given by
(DCO+1) and (32−MOD) cycles with the lower frequency given by DCO. The average period
over these 32 cycles is therefore

The DCO does not simply produce MOD pulses of one frequency followed by
(32−MOD) of the other, but mixes them thoroughly. For example, setting MOD = 16 gives an
equal number of pulses of the two frequencies and they alternate: Each period given by DCO is
followed by one given by (DCO+1). This is shown on the oscilloscope in Figure 5.10. The top
trace shows the clean square wave seen in a single sweep. There is a longer period (DCO = 0) in
the center with shorter periods (DCO = 1) on either side.
The lower trace shows repeated sweeps with persistence, as would be seen on an analog
oscilloscope. The clock now appears to have jitter on the falling edges because of the two
different periods, but the positive edges, which are used for triggering, all overlap. A truly
periodic clock is found over the full period of 32 pulses (or fewer in special cases, such as that
shown here). The values of RSEL, DCO, and MOD can be changed at any time to alter the
frequency. Modulation can be turned off by setting MOD = 0 if a constant period is more
important than an accurate, average frequency. The modulator serves little purpose if the DCO
runs freely without calibration. There is nearly a factor of 2 between minimum and maximum
frequencies given in the data sheet for given values of RSEL and DCO, although this covers the
full range of temperature and supply voltage. Therefore it is pointless to specify the frequency
better than can be done with RSEL and DCO alone. A possible advantage of modulation is that
there is less electromagnetic interference (EMI) from the clock, because the energy is spread
over a wider range of frequencies, but this is not a large effect with periods that are only 8%
apart. A method to reduce EMI further is described in the application note Spread-Spectrum

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Clock Source Using an MSP430 (slaa291). Modulation is also used to generate accurate baud
rates for asynchronous communication as we shall see in the

The write to BCSCTL1 affects the whole byte, not just the RSELx bits, and clears the
other bits. It may therefore be necessary to reconfigure the other functions controlled by this
register (XT2OFF, XTS, and DIVAx) but the defaults are usually satisfactory. The calibration is
typically accurate within about 2% over the full range of operating conditions and to 0.2% at
room temperature with a 3V supply. This is still not as good as a crystal but is impressive
compared with a “plain vanilla” RC oscillator, whose frequency might vary by ±25%.
The F20xx has calibrated frequencies of 1, 8, 12, and 16 MHz. The values are stored in
segment A of the information memory, which is locked by default against programming and
erasing. You should not be able to overwrite these values by accident when downloading your
program unless you override the settings in the debugger
Control of the Clock Module through the Status Register
The clock module is controlled by 4 bits in the status register as well as its own
peripheral registers. This is because of the intimate connection between clocks and low-power
modes, which is discussed fully in the section “Low-Power Modes of Operation” on page 198. It
is rarely necessary to alter these bits directly because there are intrinsic functions or predefined
constants for each low-power mode. All bits are clear in the full-power, active mode. This is the
main effect of setting each bit in the MSP430F2xx:
1. CPUOFF disables MCLK, which stops the CPU and any peripherals that use MCLK.
2. SCG1 disables SMCLK and peripherals that use it.
3. SCG0 disables the DC generator for the DCO (disables the FLL in the MSP430x4xx
family).
4. OSCOFF disables VLO and LFXT1.
It is not as straightforward as this because the effects of the different bits interact with other.
For example, setting only SCG0 and SCG1 does not stop the DCO if it supplies MCLK, because
that would paralyze the processor. The DCO stops only if the source of MCLK is also switched
to LFXT1 or VLO. This is illustrated by the code example msp430x20x3_1_vlo. Here are the

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relevant two lines. You might worry that the first line would stop the CPU but it does not; the
DCO remains active while MCLK
Oscillator Faults:
A failure of a clock, MCLK in particular, is crippling. The clock module therefore detects
and recovers from the most likely fault, a failure of an oscillator that relies on a vulnerable
external crystal. Each oscillator has a flag that is raised to indicate a fault, which also sets the
OFIFG bit in the interrupt flag register IFG1. This in turn requests a nonmaskable interrupt if it
has been enabled. It also switches MCLK to the DCO if it was not already being used, which
ensures that the CPU remains active. The user’s software can then take appropriate action.
The flag LFXT1OF in BCSCTL3 is set if a fault is detected in LFXT1. A device with a
VLO can switch to this instead of LFXT1 but otherwise there is no other source for ACLK It
might be possible to reconfigure peripherals to use SMCLK from the DCO rather than ACLK.
Alternatively, the CPU can repeatedly poll LFXT1OF, which is cleared by the hardware if the
oscillator recovers. The OFIFG flag is not cleared automatically; this must be done in software.
The high-frequency oscillator XT2 has similar protection but a weakness of the MSP430x1xx
family is that it cannot detect a failure of LFXT1 with a low-frequency crystal.
OFIFG is also set by a power-on reset, which ensures that MCLK is initially taken from
the DCO. Again the flag must be cleared by the user. This should be done repeatedly in a loop
because the flag will be set again immediately until the crystal oscillator has reached a stable
state. This also means that unused oscillators must not be enabled, or they will appear to have a
permanent fault and OFIFG will never clear.
TI code examples demonstrate various configurations of the clocks. For example,
msp430x20x3_lpm3_vlo shows how to use the VLO instead of the default LFXT1 in the
F20xx and msp430x20x3_LFxtal_nmi shows how to handle an oscillator fault. There are similar
examples for other devices.
Frequency-Locked Loop, FLL:
The MSP430x4xx family has the more sophisticated FLL+ clock module. Much of this,
such as LFXT1 and XT2, is similar to the MSP430F2xx but the registers and bits have different
names. For example, the load capacitance for a low-frequency crystal is controlled by the
XCAPxPF bits in the FLL_CTL0 register. There are no dividers for the internal clocks but the
external signal from ACLK can be divided.
The main difference is of course the frequency-locked loop. This is hardware that aims to
lock the frequency of the DCO to that of LFXT1. The DCO in the FLL+ has only five ranges but
each covers a factor of about 10 in frequency and is divided into 29 taps. The modulator works in
the same way as that in the BCM+. The name makes the FLL sound complicated but its basic
mode of operation is simple. It relies on a feedback loop shown in Figure 5.11:
1. The range of the DCO is set with the FN_x bits and modulation may be suppressed by
setting SCFQ_M. Its output is at a frequency fDCO.
www.newnespress.com

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2. This is divided by a factor D specified with the FLLDx bits. This gives a frequency of
fDCO/D.
3. The divided signal is fed into a counter with a period of (N +1), where N is stored in the
lower 7 bits of SCFQCTL.
4. The counter overflows at a frequency of fDCO/[D(N +1)], which is compared with the
frequency of ACLK.
The controller adjusts fDCO one step up or down with the aim of bringing these frequencies
together. Thus the frequency of the DCO itself is given by fDCO = D(N +1)fACLK when the
loop has locked but this is not necessarily the frequency of the output. DCOCLK can be taken
either before or after the divider according to the setting of the DCOPLUS bit. When this bit is
clear, the divided output is taken and

The nomenclature is a little confusing because the divider apparently increases the
frequency of the clock, which is the opposite of the usual case. Do not forget the (N +1) in the
multiplier—it is not just N. There are 7 bits for N in SCFQCTL so the maximum value of (N +1)
is 128 and the maximum value of fDCOCLK is 4MHz (binary megahertz to be precise) if
fACLK = 32KHz and DCOPLUS = 0. This is well below the maximum frequency at which the
CPU can run, which is 16MHz in newer devices. DCOPLUS must be set for higher frequencies.
Itshows an example where DCOPLUS is used to raise the frequency of DCOCLK.
After a PUC, the FLL+ is configured for its lowest range of 0.65–6.1 MHz, DCOPLUS is
clear, D = 2, and N = 31. This gives fDCOCLK = 32fACLK, which is a binary megahertz
(220 Hz) if fACLK = 32 KHz. The DCO itself runs at twice the frequency of DCOCLK because
of D.
It takes some time for the FLL to lock and a software delay loop can be used to wait for
this (and for the crystal to stabilize). The FLL starts at the bottom of its range after a PUC.
It may have to reach the top of the range for the desired frequency, which requires up to 32×28 ≈
900 steps. This is the number of modulator steps times the number of usable taps—the highest
tap is not useful because it cannot be modulated. Each step takes one cycle of ACLK, which
corresponds to (N +1) or D(N +1) cycles of MCLK. This tells us the length of the delay loop
needed. A simple loop takes three cycles of MCLK per iteration, as we found in Listing 4.12, so
the stabilization loop needs about 300(N +1) or 300D(N +1) iterations. This is about 10,000≈

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0x2700 iterations using the default settings. You can therefore use the few lines of C that follow
to check that the FLL has locked to the default frequency. I also configured the capacitors to suit
the TI MSP430FG4618/F2013 Experimenter’s Board.
The program attempts to clear the oscillator fault flag OFIFG after the delay and checks
that this was successful. If not, the delay loop is repeated. This is simple but the program will
never leave the loop if OFIFG cannot be cleared. This could arise if ACLK fails or the
FLL has been incorrectly configured so that the desired frequency lies outside the range of the
DCO. The DCO error flag DCOF is set if the DCO’s frequency tap is in either its bottom or its
top position and this in turn sets OFIFG. DCOF clears when the tap is moved from its extremes.
An FLL is much simpler than its analog equivalent, the phase-locked loop (PLL), and is far
quicker to come into lock. Having said that, there appears to be no way of telling whether the
FLL has locked—only if it fails so badly that it moves to its top or bottom tap, which sets DCOF.

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UNIT- V

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UNIT V
Use of Continuous Mode
The continuous mode can be used to generate independent time intervals and output
frequencies. Each time an interval is completed, an interrupt is generated. The next time interval
is added to the TAxCCRn register in the interrupt service routine. Figure 17-6 shows two
separate time intervals, t0 and t1, being added to the capture/compare registers. In this usage, the
time interval is controlled by hardware, not software, without impact from interrupt latency. Up
to n (where n = 0 to 6), independent time intervals or output frequencies can be generated using

capture/compare registers.
Time intervals can be produced with other modes as well, where TAxCCR0 is used as the
period register. Their handling is more complex since the sum of the old TAxCCRn data and the
new period can be higher than the TAxCCR0 value. When the previous TAxCCRn value plus tx
is greater than the TAxCCR0 data, the TAxCCR0 value must be subtracted to obtain the correct
time interval.
Up/Down Mode
The up/down mode is used if the timer period must be different from 0FFFFh counts, and
if symmetrical pulse generation is needed. The timer repeatedly counts up to the value of
compare register TAxCCR0 and back down to zero (see Figure 17-7). The period is twice the
value in TAxCCR0.

The count direction is latched. This allows the timer to be stopped and then restarted in
the same direction it was counting before it was stopped. If this is not desired, the TACLR bit
must be set to clear the direction. Setting TACLR also clears the TAR value and the clock
divider counter logic (the divider setting remains unchanged).
In up/down mode, the TAxCCR0 CCIFG interrupt flag and the TAIFG interrupt flag are
set only once during a period, separated by one-half the timer period. The TAxCCR0 CCIFG
interrupt flag is set when the timer counts from TAxCCR0-1 to TAxCCR0, and TAIFG is set

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when the timer completes counting down from 0001h to 0000h. Figure 17-8 shows the flag set
cycle.

Changing Period Register TAxCCR0

When changing TAxCCR0 while the timer is running and counting in the down direction,
the timer continues its descent until it reaches zero. The new period takes effect after the counter
counts down to zero. When the timer is counting in the up direction, and the new period is
greater than or equal to the old period or greater than the current count value, the timer counts up
to the new period before counting down. When the timer is counting in the up direction and the
new period is less than the current count value, the timer begins counting down. However, one
additional count may occur before the counter begins counting down.
Use of Up/Down Mode
The up/down mode supports applications that require dead times between output signals
(see section Timer_A Output Unit). For example, to avoid overload conditions, two outputs
driving an H-bridge must never be in a high state simultaneously. In the example shown in
Figure 17-9, the tdead is:
tdead = ttimer × ( TAxCCR1 – TAxCCR2)
Where:
tdead = Time during which both outputs need to be inactive
ttimer = Cycle time of the timer clock
TAxCCRn = Content of capture/compare register n
The TAxCCRn registers are not buffered. They update immediately when written to.
Therefore, any required dead time is not maintained automatically.

Capture/Compare Blocks
Up to seven identical capture/compare blocks, TAxCCRn (where n = 0 to 7), are present
in Timer_A. Any of the blocks may be used to capture the timer data or to generate time
intervals.

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Capture Mode
The capture mode is selected when CAP = 1. Capture mode is used to record time events.
It can be used for speed computations or time measurements. The capture inputs CCIxA and
CCIxB are connected to external pins or internal signals and are selected with the CCIS bits. The
CM bits select the capture edge of the input signal as rising, falling, or both. A capture occurs on
the selected edge of the input signal. If a capture occurs:
• The timer value is copied into the TAxCCRn register.
• The interrupt flag CCIFG is set.
The input signal level can be read at any time via the CCI bit. Devices may have different
signals connected to CCIxA and CCIxB. See the device-specific data sheet for the connections of
these signals.
The capture signal can be asynchronous to the timer clock and cause a race condition. Setting the
SCS bit synchronizes the capture with the next timer clock. Setting the SCS bit to synchronize
the capture signal with the timer clock is recommended (see Figure 17-10).
Overflow logic is provided in each capture/compare register to indicate if a second
capture was performed before the value from the first capture was read. Bit COV is set when this
occurs .COV must be reset with software.

Capture Initiated by Software

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Captures can be initiated by software. The CMx bits can be set for capture on both edges.
Software then sets CCIS1 = 1 and toggles bit CCIS0 to switch the capture signal between VCC
and GND, initiating a capture each time CCIS0 changes state:
MOV #CAP+SCS+CCIS1+CM_3,&TA0CCTL1 ; Setup TA0CCTL1, synch. capture mode
; Event trigger on both edges of capture input.
XOR #CCIS0,&TA0CCTL1 ; TA0CCR1 = TA0R
NOTE: Capture Initiated by Software
In general, changing capture inputs while in capture mode may cause unintended capture
events. For this scenario, switching the capture input between VCC and GND, disabling the
capture mode is not required.
Compare Mode
The compare mode is selected when CAP = 0. The compare mode is used to generate
PWM output signals or interrupts at specific time intervals. When TAxR counts to the value in a
TAxCCRn, where n represents the specific capture/compare register.
• Interrupt flag CCIFG is set.
• Internal signal EQUn = 1.
• EQUn affects the output according to the output mode.
• The input signal CCI is latched into SCCI.
Output Unit
Each capture/compare block contains an output unit. The output unit is used to generate
output signals, such as PWM signals. Each output unit has eight operating modes that generate
signals based on the EQU0 and EQUn signals.
Output Modes
The output modes are defined by the OUTMOD bits and are described in Table 17-2. The
OUTn signal is changed with the rising edge of the timer clock for all modes except mode 0.
Output modes 2, 3, 6, and 7 are not useful for output unit 0 because EQUn = EQU0.

Output Example—Timer in Up Mode

The OUTn signal is changed when the timer counts up to the TAxCCRn value and rolls
from TAxCCR0 to zero, depending on the output mode. An example is shown in Figure 17-12
using TAxCCR0 and TAxCCR1.

Output Example – Timer in Continuous Mode

The OUTn signal is changed when the timer reaches the TAxCCRn and TAxCCR0
values, depending on the output mode. An example is shown in Figure 17-13 using TAxCCR0
and TAxCCR1.

Output Example – Timer in Up/Down Mode

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The OUTn signal changes when the timer equals TAxCCRn in both count direction and
when the timer equals TAxCCR0, depending on the output mode. An example is shown in
Figure 17-14 using TAxCCR0 and TAxCCR2.

Real Time Clock:

RTC Overview:

RTC_A Introduction
The RTC_A module provides a real-time clock and calendar function that can also be configured
as a general-purpose counter.
RTC_A features include:
• Configurable for real-time clock with calendar function or general-purpose counter
• Provides seconds, minutes, hours, day of week, day of month, month, and year in real-time
clock with calendar function
• Interrupt capability
• Selectable BCD or binary format in real-time clock mode
• Programmable alarms in real-time clock mode
• Calibration logic for time offset correction in real-time clock mode
RTC_A Operation
The RTC_A module can be configured as a real-time clock with calendar function
(calendar mode) or as a 32-bit general purpose counter (counter mode) with the RTCMODE bit.

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Counter Mode
Counter mode is selected when RTCMODE is reset. In this mode, a 32-bit counter is
provided that is directly accessible by software. Switching from calendar mode to counter mode
resets the count value (RTCNT1, RTCNT2, RTCNT3, RTCNT4), as well as the prescale
counters (RT0PS, RT1PS).
The clock to increment the counter can be sourced from ACLK, SMCLK, or prescaled versions
of ACLK or SMCLK. Prescaled versions of ACLK or SMCLK are sourced from the prescale
dividers (RT0PS and RT1PS). RT0PS and RT1PS output /2, /4, /8, 16, /32, /64, /128, and /256
versions of ACLK and SMCLK, respectively. The output of RT0PS can be cascaded with
RT1PS. The cascaded output can be used as a clock source input to the 32-bit counter.
Four individual 8-bit counters are cascaded to provide the 32-bit counter. This provides
8-bit, 16-bit, 24-bit, or 32-bit overflow intervals of the counter clock. The RTCTEV bits select
the respective trigger event. An RTCTEV event can trigger an interrupt by setting the
RTCTEVIE bit. Each counter, RTCNT1 through RTCNT4, is individually accessible and may be
written to. RT0PS and RT1PS can be configured as two 8-bit counters or cascaded into a single
16-bit counter.
RT0PS and RT1PS can be halted on an individual basis by setting their respective
RT0PSHOLD and RT1PSHOLD bits. When RT0PS is cascaded with RT1PS, setting
RT0PSHOLD causes both RT0PS and RT1PS to be halted. The 32-bit counter can be halted
several ways depending on the configuration. If the 32-bit counter is sourced directly from
ACLK or SMCLK, it can be halted by setting RTCHOLD. If it is sourced from the output of
RT1PS, it can be halted by setting RT1PSHOLD or RTCHOLD. Finally, if it is sourced from the
cascaded outputs of RT0PS and RT1PS, it can be halted by setting RT0PSHOLD, RT1PSHOLD,
or RTCHOLD.
Calendar Mode
Calendar mode is selected when RTCMODE is set. In calendar mode, the RTC_A
module provides seconds, minutes, hours, day of week, day of month, month, and year in
selectable BCD or hexadecimal format. The calendar includes a leap-year algorithm that
considers all years evenly divisible by four as leap years. This algorithm is accurate from the
year 1901 through 2099.

Real-Time Clock and Prescale Dividers

The prescale dividers, RT0PS and RT1PS, are automatically configured to provide a 1-s
clock interval for the RTC_A. RT0PS is sourced from ACLK. ACLK must be set to 32768 Hz
(nominal) for proper RTC_A calendar operation. RT1PS is cascaded with the output ACLK/256
of RT0PS. The RTC_A is sourced with the /128 output of RT1PS, thereby providing the required
1-s interval. Switching from counter to calendar mode clears the seconds, minutes, hours, day-of-

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week, and year counts and sets day-of-month and month counts to 1. In addition, RT0PS and
RT1PS are cleared.
When RTCBCD = 1, BCD format is selected for the calendar registers. The format must
be selected before the time is set. Changing the state of RTCBCD clears the seconds, minutes,
hours, day-of-week, and year counts and sets day-of-month and month counts to 1. In addition,
RT0PS and RT1PS are cleared.
In calendar mode, the RT0SSEL, RT1SSEL, RT0PSDIV, RT1PSDIV, RT0PSHOLD,
RT1PSHOLD, and RTCSSEL bits are don't care. Setting RTCHOLD halts the real-time counters
and prescale counters, RT0PS and RT1PS.
Real-Time Clock Alarm Function
The RTC_A module provides for a flexible alarm system. There is a single user-
programmable alarm that can be programmed based on the settings contained in the alarm
registers for minutes, hours, day of week, and day of month. The user-programmable alarm
function is only available in the calendar mode of operation.
Each alarm register contains an alarm enable (AE) bit that can be used to enable the
respective alarm register. By setting AE bits of the various alarm registers, a variety of alarm
events can be generated.
• Example 1: A user wishes to set an alarm every hour at 15 minutes past the hour; that is,
at 00:15:00, 01:15:00, 02:15:00, and so on. This is possible by setting RTCAMIN to 15.
By setting the AE bit of the RTCAMIN and clearing all other AE bits of the alarm
registers, the alarm is enabled. When enabled, the AF is set when the count transitions
from 00:14:59 to 00:15:00, 01:14:59 to 01:15:00, 02:14:59 to 02:15:00, etc.
• Example 2: A user wishes to set an alarm every day at 04:00:00. This is possible by
setting RTCAHOUR to 4. By setting the AE bit of the RTCHOUR and clearing all other
AE bits of the alarm registers, the alarm is enabled. When enabled, the AF is set when the
count transitions from 03:59:59 to 04:00:00.
• Example 3: A user wishes to set an alarm for 06:30:00. RTCAHOUR would be set to 6
and RTCAMIN would be set to 30. By setting the AE bits of RTCAHOUR and
RTCAMIN, the alarm is enabled. Once enabled, the AF is set when the the time count
transitions from 06:29:59 to 06:30:00. In this case, the alarm event occurs every day at
06:30:00.
• Example 4: A user wishes to set an alarm every Tuesday at 06:30:00. RTCADOW
would be set to 2, RTCAHOUR would be set to 6 and RTCAMIN would be set to 30. By
setting the AE bits of
RTCADOW, RTCAHOUR and RTCAMIN, the alarm is enabled. Once enabled, the AF
is set when the the time count transitions from 06:29:59 to 06:30:00 and the RTCDOW
transitions from 1 to 2.
• Example 5: A user wishes to set an alarm the fifth day of each month at 06:30:00.
RTCADAY would be set to 5, RTCAHOUR would be set to 6 and RTCAMIN would be
set to 30. By setting the AE bits of RTCADAY, RTCAHOUR and RTCAMIN, the alarm

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is enabled. Once enabled, the AF is set when the the time count transitions from 06:29:59
to 06:30:00 and the RTCDAY equals 5.
Reading or Writing Real-Time Clock Registers in Calendar Mode
Because the system clock may be asynchronous to the RTC_A clock source, special care
must be taken when accessing the real-time clock registers.
In calendar mode, the real-time clock registers are updated once per second. To prevent reading
any realtime clock register at the time of an update, which could result in an invalid time being
read, a keepout window is provided. The keepout window is centered approximately -128/32768
s around the update transition. The read-only RTCRDY bit is reset during the keepout window
period and set outside the keepout the window period. Any read of the clock registers while
RTCRDY is reset is considered to be potentially invalid, and the time read should be ignored.
An easy way to safely read the real-time clock registers is to use the RTCRDYIFG
interrupt flag. Setting RTCRDYIE enables the RTCRDYIFG interrupt. Once enabled, an
interrupt is generated based on the rising edge of the RTCRDY bit, causing the RTCRDYIFG to
be set. At this point, the application has nearly a complete second to safely read any or all of the
real-time clock registers. This synchronization process prevents reading the time value during
transition. The RTCRDYIFG flag is reset automatically when the interrupt is serviced, or can be
reset with software. In counter mode, the RTCRDY bit remains reset. RTCRDYIE is a don't care
and RTCRDYIFG remains reset.

Real-Time Clock Interrupts

The RTC_A module has five interrupt sources available, each with independent enables
and flags.
Real-Time Clock Interrupts in Calendar Mode
In calendar mode, five sources for interrupts are available, namely RT0PSIFG,
RT1PSIFG, RTCRDYIFG, RTCTEVIFG, and RTCAIFG. These flags are prioritized and
combined to source a single interrupt vector.
The interrupt vector register (RTCIV) is used to determine which flag requested an
interrupt. The highest-priority enabled interrupt generates a number in the RTCIV register (see
register description).
This number can be evaluated or added to the program counter (PC) to automatically
enter the appropriate software routine. Disabled RTC interrupts do not affect the RTCIV value.
Any access, read or write, of the RTCIV register automatically resets the highest-pending
interrupt flag. If another interrupt flag is set, another interrupt is immediately generated after
servicing the initial interrupt.
In addition, all flags can be cleared via software.
The user-programmable alarm event sources the real-time clock interrupt, RTCAIFG.
Setting RTCAIE enables the interrupt. In addition to the user-programmable alarm, the RTC_A
module provides for an interval alarm that sources real-time clock interrupt, RTCTEVIFG. The
interval alarm can be selected to cause an alarm event when RTCMIN changed or RTCHOUR

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changed, every day at midnight (00:00:00) or every day at noon (12:00:00). The event is
selectable with the RTCTEV bits. Setting the RTCTEVIE bit enables the interrupt.
The RTCRDY bit sources the real-time clock interrupt, RTCRDYIFG, and is useful in
synchronizing the read of time registers with the system clock. Setting the RTCRDYIE bit
enables the interrupt. RT0PSIFG can be used to generate interrupt intervals selectable by the
RT0IP bits. In calendar mode, RT0PS is sourced with ACLK at 32768 Hz, so intervals of 16384
Hz, 8192 Hz, 4096 Hz, 2048 Hz,
1024 Hz, 512 Hz, 256 Hz, or 128 Hz are possible. Setting the RT0PSIE bit enables the interrupt.
RT1PSIFG can generate interrupt intervals selectable by the RT1IP bits. In calendar mode,
RT1PS is sourced with the output of RT0PS, which is 128 Hz (32768/256 Hz). Therefore,
intervals of 64 Hz, 32 Hz,
16 Hz, 8 Hz, 4 Hz, 2 Hz, 1 Hz, or 0.5 Hz are possible. Setting the RT1PSIE bit enables the
interrupt
Real-Time Clock Interrupts in Counter Mode
In counter mode, three interrupt sources are available: RT0PSIFG, RT1PSIFG, and
RTCTEVIFG. RTCAIFG and RTCRDYIFG are cleared. RTCRDYIE and RTCAIE are don't
care. RT0PSIFG can be used to generate interrupt intervals selectable by the RT0IP bits. In
counter mode,
RT0PS is sourced with ACLK or SMCLK, so divide ratios of /2, /4, /8, /16, /32, /64,
/128, and /256 of the respective clock source are possible. Setting the RT0PSIE bit enables the
interrupt. RT1PSIFG can be used to generate interrupt intervals selectable by the RT1IP bits. In
counter mode, RT1PS is sourced with ACLK, SMCLK, or the output of RT0PS, so divide ratios
of /2, /4, /8, /16, /32, /64, /128, and /256 of the respective clock source are possible. Setting the
RT1PSIE bit enables the interrupt.
The RTC_A module provides for an interval timer that sources real-time clock interrupt,
RTCTEVIFG. The interval timer can be selected to cause an interrupt event when an 8-bit, 16-
bit, 24-bit, or 32-bit overflow occurs within the 32-bit counter. The event is selectable with the
RTCTEV bits. Setting the RTCTEVIE bit enables the interrupt.
Real-Time Clock Calibration
The RTC_A module has calibration logic that allows for adjusting the crystal frequency
in approximately +4-ppm or –2-ppm steps, allowing for higher time keeping accuracy from
standard crystals.The RTCCAL bits are used to adjust the frequency. When RTCCALS is set,
each RTCCAL LSB causes a ≈ +4-ppm adjustment. When RTCCALS is cleared, each RTCCAL
LSB causes a ≈ –2-ppm adjustment. Calibration is available only in calendar mode. In counter
mode (RTCMODE = 0), the calibration logic is disabled.
Calibration is accomplished by periodically adjusting the RT1PS counter based on the
RTCCALS and RTCCALx settings. In calendar mode, the RT0PS divides the nominial 37268-
Hz low-frequency (LF) crystal clock input by 256. A 64-minute period has 32768 cycles/sec ×
60 sec/min × 64 min = 125829120 cycles. Therefore a –2-ppm reduction in frequency (down
calibration) approximately equates to adding an additional 256 cycles every 125829120 cycles

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(256/125829120 = 2.035 ppm). This is accomplished by holding the RT1PS counter for one
additional clock of the RT0PS output within a 64-minute period.
Similary, a +4-ppm increase in frequency (up calibration) approximately equates to
removing 512 cycles every 125829120 cycle (512/125829120 = 4.069 ppm). This is
accomplished by incrementing the RT1PS counter for two additional clocks of the RT0PS output
within a 64-minute period. Each RTCCALx calibration bit causes either 256 LF crystal clock
cycles to be added every 64 minutes or 512 LF crystal clock cycles to be subtracted every 64
minutes, giving a frequency adjustment of approximately –2 ppm or +4 ppm, respectively.
To calibrate the frequency, the RTCCLK output signal is available at a pin. The
RTCCALF bits can be used to select the frequency rate of the RTCCLK output signal, either no
signal, 512 Hz, 256 Hz, or 1 Hz.
The basic flow to calibrate the frequency is as follows:
1. Configure the RTCCLK pin.
2. Measure the RTCCLK output signal with an appropriate resolution frequency counter;
that is, within the resolution required.
3. Compute the absolute error in ppm: Absolute Error (ppm) = |106 × ( fMEASURED
fRTCCLK) / fRTCCLK|, where
fRTCCLK is the expected frequency of 512 Hz, 256 Hz, or 1 Hz.
4. Adjust the frequency, by performing the following:
(a) If the frequency is too low, set RTCALS = 1 and apply the appropriate RTCCALx
bits, where
RTCCALx = (Absolute Error) / 4.069, rounded to the nearest integer.
(b) If the frequency is too high, clear RTCALS = 0 and apply the appropriate RTCCALx bits,
where RTCCALx = (Absolute Error) / 2.035, rounded to the nearest integer.
For example, assume that RTCCLK is output at a frequency of 512 Hz. The measured
RTCCLK is 511.9658 Hz. The frequency error is approximately 66.8 ppm low. To increase the
frequency by 66.8 ppm,
RTCCALS would be set, and RTCCAL would be set to 16 (66.8/4.069). Similarly,
assume that the measured RTCCLK is 512.0125 Hz. The frequency error is approximately 24.4
ppm high. To decrease the frequency by 24.4 ppm, RTCCALS would be cleared, and RTCCAL
would be set to 12 (24.4 / 2.035).
The calibration corrects only initial offsets and does not adjust for temperature and aging
effects. This can be handled by periodically measuring temperature and using the crystal's
charateristic curve to adjust the ppm based on temperature as required. In counter mode
(RTCMODE = 0), the calibration logic is disabled.
RTC_A Registers
The RTC_A module registers are listed in and Table 22-1. The base register for the
RTC_A module registers can be found in the device-specific data sheet.
PWM (Pulse Width Modulation control):
Introduction

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Pulse-width modulation (PWM) is a method by which digital circuit elements can output
analog values using only high and low voltage signals. This is achieved by alternating between
high and low at the correct intervals to achieve a signal with an equivalent DC voltage to the
desired analog value. The fraction of the period in which the signal is high is known as the duty
cycle. PWM signals have a variety of uses. This application note will discuss two possible uses,
both implemented on the Texas Instruments (TI) DRV8412 motor driver card: 1) driving a
brushed DC motor, and 2) communicating an analog value to a test point.
The information presented in this application note is an implementation of PWM on the
TI MSP430G2231 microcontroller in C. This is one of the microcontrollers featured in TI’s
recently released MSP430 LaunchPad (MSP-EXP430G2). More specifically, this application
note will cover how to code PWM on the MSP430 LaunchPad, as well as possible uses for the
DRV8412 motor driver card Coding PWM through Software
Pulse-width modulation is done on the MSP430 through the timer. A timer on the
MSP430 increases a register by one every clock cycle on the MSP430. There are four options for
the MSP430 timer, pictured in Table 1 below. MC_0 disables the timer. MC_1 counts from
0x0000 to the value stored in the CCR0 register, resets to 0x0000, and repeats. MC_2 counts
from 0x0000 to 0xFFFF, resets to 0x0000, and repeats. MC_3 counts from 0x0000 to the value
stored in the CCR0 register, counts down from this value to 0x0000, and repeats. Graphical
representations of MC_1 through MC_3 are attached as Figure 1 through Figure 3, which are
taken from TI’s MSP430x2xx User’s Guide.

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To program the timer in a certain mode, we have to use the control register on the MSP430. For
example, if we wish to program Timer A to count 1000 values, we use the TACTL register.
TACTL stands for “Timer A Control”. Also, since the count begins from 0x0000, to count 1000
values, we would set CCR0 to 999. The code would be as follows:
CCR0 = 1000 – 1;
TACTL = MC_1;
Now, we can set which pin to output the PWM signal. For example, from pg. 6 of the
MSP430G2231 datasheet, pin 4 is “P1.2/TA0.1/A2”. We want to use this pin as “TA0.1”. To do
this, we have to set second bit of both the P1SEL and P1DIR registers accordingly. Generally, to
set the Px.y pin, we must set the PxSEL and PxDIR registers accordingly at bit y. A 0 in PxDIR
is input; a 1 is output. A 0 in PxSEL means general purpose input/output, while a 1 in PxSEL
reflects a special purpose based on the pin. For example, to use the timer, we would set the
appropriate bits in PxSEL and PxDIR to 1. To use the ADC converter (A2), we would set PxSEL
to 1 and PxDIR to 0. The code to set the pin as a timer is as follows:
P1DIR |= BIT2;
P1SEL |= BIT2;
We use the |= operator so the bits we do not wish to change remain the same. Next, we must set
the PWM mode through the CCTLx register, where x is the port number of the pin. For example,
to use “P1.2/TA0.1/A2”, we would use CCTL1. The modes are pictured below in Table 2.

If the mode used has only one description, e.g. “Set”, then the pin performs this action
when it reaches CCR1. So, if the PWM is in OUTMOD_1, the register will go high when the
timer reaches CCR1 and stay high until it is reset manually. If the mode used has two
descriptions, the first description is performed when CCR1 is reached, and the second is
performed when CCR0 is reached. For example, if we are in OUTMOD_3, the register will set at

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CCR1 and then reset at CCR0. To use the PWM to achieve a duty cycle of 20%, we would use
the following code:
CCTL1 = OUTMOD_7;
CCR1 = 200 - 1;
Since we are in MC_2, which counts up to CCR0, the pin is set high just before 0x0000, when
the timer register equals CCR0. Then, the pin outputs high until CCR1 is reached, when it resets.
The timer, in our example code, will count from 0 to 999. From 0 to 199, the register will be
high, and from 200 to 999, the register will be low. This achieves a 20% duty cycle.
Results
PWM has many possible applications. TI’s DRV8412 motor driver card provides two
examples of how PWM can be used. First, the PWM signal can be used to drive a brushed DC
motor. In this case, increasing the duty cycle from 0% to 100% increases the speed and torque of
the motor. Sensing current feedback through the DRV8412 can also allow for advanced PI
control of the brushed DC motor.
Also, the DRV8412 has special PWM DACs. This allows a microcontroller to
communicate analog values through digital signals sent to the DRV8412. At first, it may seem
that DACs should merely provide an analog version of the pulse-width modulated signal.
However, one must remember that a DAC is essentially a low-pass filter, and if the frequency of
the pulses is significantly higher than the cut-off frequency of the DAC, the DAC will just output
an analog value equal to the average DC voltage. The output of this DAC will be: duty cycle *
Vcc. Beyond the DRV8412, there are many other uses for PWM signals. PWM allows us to
digitally create analog voltage levels for control functions and power supplies. Also, PWM can
create analog signals for arbitrary waveforms, including music and speech. With the ability to
code PWM on the MSP430, a broad set of options for analog signal generation through digital
sources are available.
ADC:
Introduction
The analog-to-digital converter (ADC) of the MSP430 family can work in two modes:
the 12-bit mode or the 14-bit mode. Hardware registers allow easy adaptation to different ADC
tasks. The following paragraphs describe the modes and hardware registers

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Characteristics of the 14-Bit ADC

1. Monotonic over the complete ADC range
2. Eight analog inputs; may be switched individually to digital input mode
3. Programmable current source on four analog inputs. Independent of the selected
conversion input: current source output and ADC input pins may be different
4. Relative (ratiometric) or absolute measurement possible
5. Sample and hold function with defined sampling time
6. End-of-conversion flag usable with interrupt or polling
7. Last conversion result is stored until start of next conversion
8. Low power consumption and possibility to power down the peripheral
9. Interrupt mode without CPU processing possible
10. Programmable 12-bit or 14-bit resolution
11. Four programmable ranges (one quarter of SVcc each)
12. Fast conversion time
13. Four clock adaptations possible (MCLK, MCLK/2, MCLK/3, MCLK/4)
14. Internal and external reference supply possible
15.Large supply voltage range
ADC Function and Modes
The MSP430 14-bit ADC has two range modes and two measurement modes.

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The two range modes are:

1.14-bit mode: The ADC converts the input range from AVss to SVcc. The ADC automatically
searches for one of the four ADC ranges (A, B, C, or D) that is appropriate for the input voltage
to be measured.
2.12-bit mode: The ADC uses only one of the four ranges (A, B, C, or D). The range is fixed by
software. Each range covers a quarter of the voltage at the SVcc terminal. This conversion mode
is used if the voltage range of the input signal is known.
The two measurement modes are:
1. Ratiometric mode: A value is measured as a ratio to other values, independent of the actual
SVcc voltage.
2. Absolute mode: A value is measured as an absolute value.
Figure 2 shows different methods to connect analog signals to the MSP430 ADC.
The methods shown are valid for the 12-bit and 14-bit conversion modes:
1. Current supply for resistive sensors Rsens1 at analog input A0
2. Voltage supply for resistive sensors Rsens2 at analog input A1
3. Direct connection of input signals Vin at analog input A2
4. Four-wire circuitry with current supply Rsens3 at output A3 and inputs A4 and A5
5. Reference diode with voltage supply Dr1 at analog input A6
6. Reference diode with current supply Dr2 at analog input A7
The calculation formulas for all connection methods shown in Figure 2 are explained in the
application report, Application Basics for the MSP430 14-Bit ADC

Function of the ADC

See Figures 1, 9, and 12 for this explanation. The full range of the ADC is made by 4128
equal resistors connected between the SVcc pin and the AVss (AGND) pin. Setting the
conversion-start (SOC) bit in the ACTL control register activates the ADC clock for a new
conversion to begin.
The normal ADC sequence starts with the definition of the next conversion; this is done
by setting the bits in the ACTL control register with a single instruction. The power-down (PD)

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bit is set to zero; the SOC bit is not changed by this instruction. After a minimum 6- s delay to
allow the ADC hardware to settle, the SOC bit may be set. The ADC clock starts after the SOC
bit is set, and a new conversion starts.
If the 12-bit mode is selected (RNGAUTO = 0) then a 12-bit conversion starts in a fixed
range (A, B, C or D) selected by the bits ACTL.9 to ACTL.10. If the 14-bit mode is selected
(RNGAUTO = 1), a sample is taken from the selected input Ax that is used only for the range
decision. The found range is fixed afterwards – it delivers the two MSBs of the result – and the
conversion continues like the 12-bit conversion. This first decision is made by the block range
MUX. This first step fixes the range and therefore the 2 MSBs. Each range contains a block of
128 resistors. To obtain the 12 LSBs, a sample is taken from the selected input Ax and is used
for the conversion. The 12-bit conversion consists of two steps: The seven MSBs are found by a
successive approximation using the blockn resistor decode. The sampled input voltage is
compared to the voltages generated by the fixed 27 (128) equally weighted resistors connected in
series. The resistor whose leg voltages are closest to the sampled input voltage-which means
between the two leg voltages—is connected to the capacitor array (see Figure 1).
The five LSBs are found by a successive approximation process using the block capacitor
array. The voltage across the selected resistor (the sampled voltage lies between the voltages at
the two legs of the resistor) is divided into 25 (32) steps and compared to the sampled voltage.
After these three sequences, a 14-bit respective 12-bit result is available in the register ADAT.
Figure 3 shows where the result bits of an analog-to-digital conversion come from:

ADC Timing Restrictions

To get the full accuracy for the ADC measurements, some timing restrictions need
to be considered: If the ADCLK frequency is chosen too high, an accurate 14- or 12-bit
conversion cannot be assured. This is due to the internal time constants of the sampling analog
input and conversion network. The ADC is still functional, but the conversion results show a
higher noise level (larger bandwidth of results for the same input signal) with higher conversion
frequencies. If the ADCLK frequency is chosen too low, then an accurate 14- or 12-bit
conversion cannot be assured due to charge losses within the capacitor array of the ADC. This
remains true even if the input signal is constant during the sampling time.
After the ADC module has been activated by resetting the power-down bit, at least 6 s
(power-up time in Figure 9) must elapse before a conversion is started. This is necessary to allow
the internal biases to settle. This power-up time is automatically ensured for MCLK frequencies
up to 2.5 MHz if the measurement is started the usual way: by separation of the definition and
the start of the measurement inside of the subroutine:

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MOV #xxx,&ACTL ; Define ADC measurement

CALL #MEASR ; Start measurement with SOC=1, ADC result in ADAT
If higher MCLK frequencies are used, then a delay needs to be inserted between the
definition and the start of the measurement. See the source of the MEASR subroutine in section
2.2.2. The number n of additional delay cycles (MCLK cycles) needed is:n (6 s
MCLK) –15
If the input voltage changes very fast, then the range sample and the conversion sample
may be captured in different ranges. See section 2.2.1 if this cannot be tolerated. For applications
like an electricity meter, this doesn’t matter: the error occurs as often for the increasing voltage
as for the decreasing voltage so the resulting error is zero.
After the start of a conversion, no modification of the ACTL register is allowed until the
conversion is complete. Otherwise the ADC result will be invalid. The previously described
timing errors lead to spikes in the ADC characteristic: the ADC seems to get caught at certain
steps of the ADC. This is not an ADC error; the reasons are violations of the ADC timing
restrictions. See Figure 4. The x-axis shows the range A from step 0 to step 4096, the y-axis
shows the ADC error (steps).
The ADC always runs at a clock rate set to one twelfth of the selected ADCLK.
The frequency of the ADCLK should be chosen to meet the conversion time defined in the
electrical characteristics (see data sheet). The correct frequency for the ADCLK can be selected
by two bits (ADCLK) in the control register ACTL. The MCLK clock signal is then divided by a
factor of 1, 2, 3, or 4. See Section 3.5.

Sample and Hold

The sampling of the ADC input takes 12 ADCLK cycles; this means the sampling gate is
open during this time (12 s at1 MHz). The sampling time is identical for the range decision
sample and the data conversion sample. The input circuitry of an ADC input pin, Ax, can be seen
simplified as an RC low pass filter during the sampling period (12/ADCLK): 2 k in series
with 42 pF. The 42-pF capacitor (the sample-and-hold capacitor) must be charged during the 12
ADCLK cycles to (nearly) the final voltage value to be measured, or to within 2–14 of this value.

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The sample time limits the internal resistance, Ri, of the source to be measured:
((Ri _2 ),42 pF _12
ln_214_ADCLK
Solved for Ri with ADCLK = 1 MHz this results in:
Ri _ 27.4 k
This means, for the full resolution of the ADC, the internal resistance of the input signal must be
lower than 27.4 k. If a resolution of n bits is sufficient, then the internal resistance of the ADC
input source can be higher:
Absolute and Relative Measurements
The 14-bit ADC hardware allows absolute and relative modes of measurement.
Relative Measurements
As Figure 6 shows, relative measurements use resistances (sensors) that are independent
of the supply voltage. This is the typical way to use the ADC. The advantage is independence
from the supply voltage; it does not matter if the battery is new (Vcc = 3.6 V) or if it has reached
the end of life (Vcc = 2.5 V).

Absolute Measurements
As Figure 7 shows, absolute measurements measure voltages and currents. The reference
used for the conversion is the voltage applied to the SVcc terminal, regardless of whether an
external reference is used or if SVcc is connected to AVcc internally. An external reference is
necessary if the supply voltage AVcc (the normal reference) cannot be used for reference
purposes, for example a battery supply.

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Using the ADC in 14-Bit Mode

The 14-bit mode is used if the range of the input voltage exceeds one ADC range.
The total input signal range is from analog ground (AVss) to the voltage at SVcc (external
reference voltage or AVcc)
The dashed boxes at the AVss and SVcc voltage levels indicate the saturation areas of the
ADC; the measured results are 0h at AVss and 3FFFh at SVcc. The saturation areas are smaller
than 10 ADC steps. The nominal ADC formula for the 14-bit conversion is:
N _VAx
VREF 214_ VAx _N VREF214
Where:
N = 14-bit result of the ADC conversion
VAx = Input voltage at the selected analog input Ax [V]
VREF = Voltage at pin SVcc (external reference or internal AVcc) [V]

Timing
The two ADCLK bits (ACTL.13 and ACTL.14) in the ACTL control register are used to
select the ADCLK frequency best suited for the ADC. The MCLK clock signal can be divided
by a factor 1, 2, 3, or 4 to get the best suited ADCLK. Using the autorange mode
(RNGAUTO/ACTL.11 = 1) executes a 14-bit conversion. The selected analog input signal at
input Ax is sampled twice. The range decision is made after the first sampling of the input signal;
the 12-bit conversion is made after the second sampling. Both samplings are 12 ADCLK cycles
in length. Altogether the 14-bit conversion takes 132 ADCLK cycles. See
Figure 9 for timing details.

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The input signal must be valid and steady during this sampling period to obtain an
accurate conversion. It is also recommended that no activity occur during the conversion at
analog inputs that are switched to the digital mode. If the input voltage to the ADC changes
during the measurement, it is possible for the range decision sample to be taken in a different
ADC range than the conversion sample. The result of these conditions is saturated values:
1. Increasing input voltage: nFFFh with range n = 0...2
2. Decreasing input voltage:n000h with range n = 1...3
The saturated result is the best possible result under this circumstance: an analog input
that changes from 2FF0h to 3020h during the sampling period delivers the saturated result 2FFFh
and not 2000h.
The following software sequence can be used to check the result of an A/D conversion if
the two samples (range and conversion) were taken in different ranges. If this is the case, the
measurement is repeated.
Software Example
The often-used measurement subroutine MEASR is shown below. It contains all
necessary instructions for a measurement that uses polling for the completion check. The
subroutine assumes a preset ACTL register; all bits except the SOC bit must be defined before
the setting of the SOC bit. The subroutine may be used for 12-bit and 14-bit conversions. Up to
an MCLK frequency of 2.5 MHz no additional delays are necessary to ensure the power-up time.
ADC measurement subroutine.
Call: MOV #xxx,&ACTL ; Define ADC measurement. Pd=0
CALL #MEASR; Measure with ADC
BIS #PD,&ACTL ; Power down the ADC ; ... ; ADC result in ADAT
MEASR BIC.B #ADIFG,&IFG2 ; Clear EOC flag ; Insert delays here (NOPs)
BIS #SOC,&ACTL ; Start measurement
M0 BIT.B #ADIFG,&IFG2 ; Conversion completed?
JZ M0 ; No
RET ; Result in ADAT
Using the ADC in 12-Bit Mode
The following mode is used if the range of the input voltage is known. If, for example, a
temperature sensor is used whose signal range always fits into one range (for example range B),
then the 12-bit mode is the right selection. The measurement time with MCLK = 1 MHz is only
96 s compared with 132 if the auto range mode is used. Figure 10 shows the four ranges
compared to the voltage at SVcc. The possible ways to connect sensors to the MSP430 are the
same as shown for the 14-bit ADC in Figure 2. This mode should be used only if the signal range
is known and the saved 36
ADCLK cycles are a real advantage.

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NOTE: The ADC results 0000h and 0FFFh mean underflow and
overflow: the voltage at the measured analog input is below or above the limits of the
programmed range.
All of the formulas given for the 12-bit mode assume a faultless conversion result N:
0 < N < 0FFFh
If underflow or overflows are not checked, erroneous calculation results occur.
Figure 11 shows how any of the four ADC ranges appears to the software:

Comparator
The comparator compares the analog voltages at the + and – input terminals. If the +
terminal is more positive than the – terminal, the comparator output CBOUT is high. The
comparator can be switched on or off using control bit CBON. The comparator should be
switched off when not in use to reduce current consumption. When the comparator is switched
off, CBOUT is always low. The bias current of the comparator is programmable.
Analog Input Switches
The analog input switches connect or disconnect the two comparator input terminals to
associated port pins using the CBIPSELx and CBIMSELx bits. The comparator terminal inputs
can be controlled individually. The CBIPSELx/CBIMSELx bits allow:
• Application of an external signal to the + and – terminals of the comparator
• Application of an external current source (for example, a resistor) to the + or – terminal
of the comparator
• The mapping of both terminals of the internal multiplexer to the outside
Internally, the input switch is constructed as a T-switch to suppress distortion in the
signal path The CBEX bit controls the input multiplexer, permuting the input signals of the
comparator's + and – terminals. Additionally, when the comparator terminals are permuted, the
output signal from the comparator is inverted too. This allows the user to determine or
compensate for the comparator input offset voltage.

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Port Logic
The Px.y pins associated with a comparator channel are enabled by the CBIPSELx or
CBIMSELx bits to disable its digital components while used as comparator input. Only one of
the comparator input pins is selected as input to the comparator by the input multiplexer at a
time.
Input Short Switch
The CBSHORT bit shorts the Comp_B inputs. This can be used to build a simple sample-
and-hold for the Comparator

input switches in series with the short switch (Ri), and the resistance of the external source (RS).
The total internal resistance (RI) is typically in the range of 1 kΩ. The sampling capacitor CS
should be greater thanN 100 pF. The time constant, Tau, to charge the sampling capacitor CS can
be calculated with the following equation:
Tau = (RI + RS) × CS
Depending on the required accuracy, 3 to 10 Tau should be used as a sampling time. With 3 Tau
the sampling capacitor is charged to approximately 95% of the input signals voltage level, with 5
Tau it is charged to more than 99%, and with 10 Tau the sampled voltage is sufficient for 12-bit
accuracy.
Output Filter
The output of the comparator can be used with or without internal filtering. When control
bit CBF is set, the output is filtered with an on-chip RC filter. The delay of the filter can be
adjusted in four different steps. All comparator outputs are oscillating if the voltage difference
across the input terminals is small. Internal and external parasitic effects and cross coupling on
and between signal lines, power supply lines, and other parts of the system are responsible for
this behavior as shown in Figure 32-3. The comparator output oscillation reduces the accuracy
and resolution of the comparison result. Selecting the output filter can reduce errors associated
with comparator oscillation.

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Reference Voltage Generator

The Comp_B reference block diagram is shown

The voltage reference generator is used to generate VREF, which can be applied to either
comparator input terminal. The CBREF1x (VREF1) and CBREF0x (VREF0) bits control the
output of the voltage generator. The CBRSEL bit selects the comparator terminal to which
VREF is applied. If external signals are applied to both comparator input terminals, the internal
reference generator should be turned off to reduce current consumption. The voltage reference
generator can generate a fraction of the device's VCC or of the voltage reference of the integrated
precision voltage reference source. Vref1 is used while CBOUT is 1 and Vref0 is used while
CBOUT is 0. This allows the generation of a hysteresis without using external components.
Comp_B, Port Disable Register CBCTL3
The comparator input and output functions are multiplexed with the associated I/O port
pins, which are digital CMOS gates. When analog signals are applied to digital CMOS gates,
parasitic current can flow from VCC to GND. This parasitic current occurs if the input voltage is
near the transition level of the gate. Disabling the port pin buffer eliminates the parasitic current
flow and therefore reduces overall current consumption.
The CBPDx bits in the CBCTL3 register, when set, disable the corresponding Px.y input
buffer as shown in Figure 32-5. When current consumption is critical, any Px.y pin connected to
analog signals should be disabled with their associated CBPDx bits.Selecting an input pin to the
comparator multiplexer with the CBIPSEL or CBIMSEL bits automatically disables the input
buffer for that pin, regardless of the state of the associated CBPDx bit.

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Comp_B Interrupts
One interrupt flag and one interrupt vector is associated with the Comp_B. The interrupt
flag CBIFG is set on either the rising or falling edge of the comparator output, selected by the
CBIES bit. If both the CBIE and the GIE bits are set, then the CBIFG interrupt flag generates an
interrupt request.
NOTE: Changing the value of the CBIES bit might set the comparator interrupt flag CBIFG.
This can happen even when the comparator is disabled (CBON = 0). It is recommended to clear
CBIFG after configuring the comparator for proper interrupt behavior during operation.
Comp_B Used to Measure Resistive Elements
The Comp_B can be optimized to precisely measure resistive elements using single slope
analog-todigital conversion. For example, temperature can be converted into digital data using a
thermistor, by comparing the thermistor's capacitor discharge time to that of a reference resistor
as shown in Figure 32-A reference resister Rref is compared to Rmeas.

The resources used to calculate the temperature sensed by Rmeas are:

• Two digital I/O pins charge and discharge the capacitor.
• I/O is set to output high (VCC) to charge capacitor, reset to discharge.
• I/O is switched to high-impedance input with CBPDx set when not in use.
• One output charges and discharges the capacitor through Rref.
• One output discharges capacitor through Rmeas.
• The + terminal is connected to the positive terminal of the capacitor.
• The – terminal is connected to a reference level, for example 0.25 × VCC.
• The output filter should be used to minimize switching noise.
• CBOUT is used to gate Timer_A CCI1B, capturing capacitor discharge time.
More than one resistive element can be measured. Additional elements are connected to
CB0 with available I/O pins and switched to high impedance when not being measured. The

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thermistor measurement is based on a ratiometric conversion principle. The ratio of two

capacitor discharge times is calculated as shown in Figure 32-7.

The VCC voltage and the capacitor value should remain constant during the conversion, but are
not critical since they cancel in the ratio

Direct Memory Access:

Introduction
The DMA controller transfers data from one address to another, without CPU intervention,
across the entire address range. For example, the DMA controller can move data from the ADC
conversion memory to RAM. Devices that contain a DMA controller may have up to eight DMA
channels available. Therefore, depending on the number of DMA channels available, some
features described in this chapter are not applicable to all devices. See the device-specific data
sheet for number of channels supported.
Using the DMA controller can increase the throughput of peripheral modules. It can also
reduce system power consumption by allowing the CPU to remain in a low-power mode, without
having to awaken to move data to or from a peripheral.
DMA controller features include:
• Up to eight independent transfer channels
• Configurable DMA channel priorities
• Requires only two MCLK clock cycles per transfer
• Byte or word and mixed byte and word transfer capability
• Block sizes up to 65535 bytes or words
• Configurable transfer trigger selections
• Selectable-edge or level-triggered transfer
• Four addressing modes
• Single, block, or burst-block transfer modes

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DMA Operation
The DMA controller is configured with user software. The setup and operation of the
DMA is discussed in the following sections.
DMA Addressing Modes
The DMA controller has four addressing modes. The addressing mode for each DMA
channel is independently configurable. For example, channel 0 may transfer between two fixed
addresses, while channel 1 transfers between two blocks of addresses. The addressing modes are
shown in Figure 11-2.
The addressing modes are:
• Fixed address to fixed address
• Fixed address to block of addresses
• Block of addresses to fixed address
• Block of addresses to block of addresses
The addressing modes are configured with the DMASRCINCR and DMADSTINCR
control bits. The DMASRCINCR bits select if the source address is incremented, decremented,
or unchanged after each transfer. The DMADSTINCR bits select if the destination address is
incremented, decremented, or unchanged after each transfer.
Transfers may be byte to byte, word to word, byte to word, or word to byte. When
transferring word to byte, only the lower byte of the source-word transfers. When transferring
byte to word, the upper byte of the destination-word is cleared when the transfer occurs.

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DMA Transfer Modes

The DMA controller has six transfer modes selected by the DMADT bits as listed in
Table 11-1. Each channel is individually configurable for its transfer mode. For example,
channel 0 may be configured in single transfer mode, while channel 1 is configured for burst-
block transfer mode, and channel 2 operates in repeated block mode. The transfer mode is
configured independently from the addressing mode. Any addressing mode can be used with any
transfer mode.
Two types of data can be transferred selectable by the DMAxCTL DSTBYTE and
SRCBYTE fields. The source and/or destination location can be either byte or word data. It is
also possible to transfer byte to byte, word to word, or any combination.

Single Transfer
In single transfer mode, each byte/word transfer requires a separate trigger. The single
transfer state diagram is shown in Figure 11-3.
The DMAxSZ register is used to define the number of transfers to be made. The
DMADSTINCR and DMASRCINCR bits select if the destination address and the source address
are incremented or decremented after each transfer. If DMAxSZ = 0, no transfers occur.
The DMAxSA, DMAxDA, and DMAxSZ registers are copied into temporary registers.
The temporary values of DMAxSA and DMAxDA are incremented or decremented after each
transfer. The DMAxSZ register is decremented after each transfer. When the DMAxSZ register
decrements to zero, it is reloaded from its temporary register and the corresponding DMAIFG
flag is set. When DMADT = {0}, the DMAEN bit is cleared automatically when DMAxSZ
decrements to zero and must be set again for another transfer to occur.

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In repeated single transfer mode, the DMA controller remains enabled with DMAEN = 1,
and a transfer occurs every time a trigger occurs.

Block Transfer
In block transfer mode, a transfer of a complete block of data occurs after one trigger.
When DMADT = {1} ,the DMAEN bit is cleared after the completion of the block transfer and
must be set again before another block transfer can be triggered. After a block transfer has been
triggered, further trigger signals occurring during the block transfer are ignored. The block
transfer state diagram is shown in Figure 11-4.
The DMAxSZ register is used to define the size of the block, and the DMADSTINCR
and DMASRCINCR bits select if the destination address and the source address are incremented
or decremented after each transfer of the block. If DMAxSZ = 0, no transfers occur. The
DMAxSA, DMAxDA, and DMAxSZ registers are copied into temporary registers. The
temporary values of DMAxSA and DMAxDA are incremented or decremented after each
transfer in the block. The DMAxSZ register is decremented after each transfer of the block and
shows the number of transfers remaining in the block. When the DMAxSZ register decrements
to zero, it is reloaded from its temporary register and the corresponding DMAIFG flag is set.
During a block transfer, the CPU is halted until the complete block has been transferred.
The block transfer takes 2 × MCLK × DMAxSZ clock cycles to complete. CPU execution
resumes with its previous state after the block transfer is complete.
In repeated block transfer mode, the DMAEN bit remains set after completion of the block
transfer. The next trigger after the completion of a repeated block transfer triggers another block
transfer

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Burst-Block Transfer

In burst-block mode, transfers are block transfers with CPU activity interleaved. The
CPU executes two MCLK cycles after every four byte/word transfers of the block, resulting in
20% CPU execution capacity. After the burst-block, CPU execution resumes at 100% capacity
and the DMAEN bit is cleared. DMAEN must be set again before another burst-block transfer
can be triggered. After a burst-block transfer has been triggered, further trigger signals occurring
during the burst-block transfer are ignored. The burst-block transfer state diagram is shown in
Figure 11-5.
The DMAxSZ register is used to define the size of the block, and the DMADSTINCR
and DMASRCINCR bits select if the destination address and the source address are incremented
or decremented after each transfer of the block. If DMAxSZ = 0, no transfers occur.
The DMAxSA, DMAxDA, and DMAxSZ registers are copied into temporary registers.
The temporary values of DMAxSA and DMAxDA are incremented or decremented after each
transfer in the block. The DMAxSZ register is decremented after each transfer of the block and
shows the number of transfers remaining in the block. When the DMAxSZ register decrements
to zero, it is reloaded from its temporary register and the corresponding DMAIFG flag is set.
In repeated burst-block mode, the DMAEN bit remains set after completion of the burst-
block transfer and no further trigger signals are required to initiate another burst-block transfer.
Another burst-block transfer begins immediately after completion of a burst-block transfer. In
this case, the transfers must be stopped by clearing the DMAEN bit, or by an (non)maskable
interrupt (NMI) when ENNMI is set. In repeated burstblock mode the CPU executes at 20%
capacity continuously until the repeated burst-block transfer is stopped.

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Initiating DMA Transfers

Each DMA channel is independently configured for its trigger source with the
DMAxTSEL. The DMAxTSEL bits should be modified only when the DMACTLx DMAEN bit
is 0. Otherwise, unpredictable
DMA triggers may occur.Table 11-2 describes the trigger operation for each type of module. See
the device-specific data sheet for the list of triggers available, along with their respective
DMAxTSEL values. When selecting the trigger, the trigger must not have already occurred, or
the transfer does not take place.
NOTE: DMA trigger selection and USB
On devices that contain a USB module, the triggers selection from DMA channels
0, 1, or 2
can be used for the USB time stamp event selection (see the USB module description for
further details).
Edge-Sensitive Triggers
When DMALEVEL = 0, edge-sensitive triggers are used, and the rising edge of the
trigger signal initiates the transfer. In single-transfer mode, each transfer requires its own trigger.
When using block or burstblock modes, only one trigger is required to initiate the block or burst-
block transfer.
Level-Sensitive Triggers

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When DMALEVEL = 1, level-sensitive triggers are used. For proper operation, level-
sensitive triggers can only be used when external trigger DMAE0 is selected as the trigger. DMA
transfers are triggered as long as the trigger signal is high and the DMAEN bit remains set.
The trigger signal must remain high for a block or burst-block transfer to complete. If the
trigger signal goes low during a block or burst-block transfer, the DMA controller is held in its
current state until the trigger goes back high or until the DMA registers are modified by
software. If the DMA registers are not modified by software, when the trigger signal goes high
again, the transfer resumes from where it was when the trigger signal went low. When
DMALEVEL = 1, transfer modes selected when DMADT = {0, 1, 2, 3} are recommended
because the DMAEN bit is automatically reset after the configured transfer.
Halting Executing Instructions for DMA Transfers
The DMARMWDIS bit controls when the CPU is halted for DMA transfers. When
DMARMWDIS = 0, the CPU is halted immediately and the transfer begins when a trigger is
received. In this case, it is possible that CPU read-modify-write operations can be interrupted by
a DMA transfer. When DMARMWDIS = 1, the CPU finishes the currently executing read-
modify-write operation before the DMA controller halts the CPU and the transfer begins
Stopping DMA Transfers
There are two ways to stop DMA transfers in progress:
• A single, block, or burst-block transfer may be stopped with an NMI, if the ENNMI bit
is set in register
DMACTL1.
• A burst-block transfer may be stopped by clearing the DMAEN bit.
DMA Channel Priorities
The default DMA channel priorities are DMA0 through DMA7. If two or three triggers
happen simultaneously or are pending, the channel with the highest priority completes its transfer
(single, block, or burst-block transfer) first, then the second priority channel, then the third
priority channel. Transfers in progress are not halted if a higher-priority channel is triggered. The
higher-priority channel waits until the transfer in progress completes before starting.
The DMA channel priorities are configurable with the ROUNDROBIN bit. When the
ROUNDROBIN bit is set, the channel that completes a transfer becomes the lowest priority. The
order of the priority of the channels always stays the same, DMA0-DMA1-DMA2, for example,
for three channels. When the ROUNDROBIN bit is cleared, the channel priority returns to the
default priority.

DMA Transfer Cycle Time

The DMA controller requires one or two MCLK clock cycles to synchronize before each
single transfer or complete block or burst-block transfer. Each byte/word transfer requires two
MCLK cycles after synchronization, and one cycle of wait time after the transfer. Because the

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DMA controller uses MCLK, the DMA cycle time is dependent on the MSP430 operating mode
and clock system setup.
If the MCLK source is active but the CPU is off, the DMA controller uses the MCLK
source for each transfer, without reenabling the CPU. If the MCLK source is off, the DMA
controller temporarily restarts MCLK, sourced with DCOCLK, for the single transfer or
complete block or burst-block transfer. The CPU remains off and after the transfer completes,
MCLK is turned off. The maximum DMA cycle time for all operating modes is shown in Table
11-3.

Using DMA with System Interrupts

DMA transfers are not interruptible by system interrupts. System interrupts remain
pending until the completion of the transfer. NMIs can interrupt the DMA controller if the
ENNMI bit is set. System interrupt service routines are interrupted by DMA transfers. If an
interrupt service routine or other routine must execute with no interruptions, the DMA controller
should be disabled prior to executing the routine.
DMA Controller Interrupts
Each DMA channel has its own DMAIFG flag. Each DMAIFG flag is set in any mode
when the corresponding DMAxSZ register counts to zero. If the corresponding DMAIE and GIE
bits are set, an interrupt request is generated.
All DMAIFG flags are prioritized, with DMA0IFG being the highest, and combined to
source a single interrupt vector. The highest-priority enabled interrupt generates a number in the
DMAIV register. This number can be evaluated or added to the program counter (PC) to
automatically enter the appropriate software routine. Disabled DMA interrupts do not affect the
DMAIV value. Any access, read or write, of the DMAIV register automatically resets the highest
pending interrupt flag. If another interrupt flag is set, another interrupt is immediately generated
after servicing the initial interrupt.
For example, assume that DMA0 has the highest priority. If the DMA0IFG and DMA2IFG flags
are set when the interrupt service routine accesses the DMAIV register, DMA0IFG is reset
automatically. After the RETI instruction of the interrupt service routine is executed, the
DMA2IFG generates another interrupt
Remote Controller of Air Conditioner using MSP430:

Design Features

1. Ultra Low Power with FRAM Technology

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2. Infrared Code Sending with Optimized Timer

3. Matrix Key Scan for 14 Buttons
4. Segment LCD

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UNIT-V

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UNIT V

Universal Serial Communication Interface (USCI) Overview

The USCI modules support multiple serial communication modes. Different USCI
modules support different modes. Each different USCI module is named with a different letter.
For example, USCI_A is different from USCI_B, etc. If more than one identical USCI module is
implemented on one device, those modules are named with incrementing numbers. For example,
if one device has two USCI_A modules, they are named USCI_A0 and USCI_A1. See the
device-specific data sheet to determine which USCI modules, if any, are implemented on which
devices.
USCI_Ax modules support:
• UART mode
• Pulse shaping for IrDA communications
• Automatic baud-rate detection for LIN communications
• SPI mode
USCI_Bx modules support:
• I2C mode
• SPI mode

USCI Introduction – UART Mode

In asynchronous mode, the USCI_Ax modules connect the device to an external system
via two external pins, UCAxRXD and UCAxTXD. UART mode is selected when the UCSYNC
bit is cleared. UART mode features include:
• 7- or 8-bit data with odd, even, or non-parity
• Independent transmit and receive shift registers
• Separate transmit and receive buffer registers
• LSB-first or MSB-first data transmit and receive
• Built-in idle-line and address-bit communication protocols for multiprocessor systems
• Receiver start-edge detection for auto wake up from LPMx modes (wake up from
LPMx.5 is not
supported)
• Programmable baud rate with modulation for fractional baud-rate support
• Status flags for error detection and suppression
• Status flags for address detection
USCI Operation – UART Mode
In UART mode, the USCI transmits and receives characters at a bit rate asynchronous to
another device. Timing for each character is based on the selected baud rate of the USCI. The
transmit and receive functions use the same baud-rate frequency.
USCI Initialization and Reset

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• Independent interrupt capability for receive and

transmit
The USCI is reset by a PUC or by setting the UCSWRST bit. After a PUC, the
UCSWRST bit is automatically set, keeping the USCI in a reset condition. When set, the
UCSWRST bit resets the UCRXIE, UCTXIE, UCRXIFG, UCRXERR, UCBRK, UCPE, UCOE,
UCFE, UCSTOE, and UCBTOE bits, and sets the UCTXIFG bit. Clearing UCSWRST releases
the USCI for operation. To avoid unpredictable behavior, configure or reconfigure the USCI_A
module only when UCSWRST is set.
Character Format
The UART character format (see Figure 36-2) consists of a start bit, seven or eight data
bits, an even/odd/no parity bit, an address bit (address-bit mode), and one or two stop bits. The
UCMSB bit controls the direction of the transfer and selects LSB or MSB first. LSB first is
typically required for UART communication.

Asynchronous Communication Format

When two devices communicate asynchronously, no multiprocessor format is required
for the protocol. When three or more devices communicate, the USCI supports the idle-line and
address-bit multiprocessor communication formats.

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Idle-Line Multiprocessor Format

When UCMODEx = 01, the idle-line multiprocessor format is selected. Blocks of data
are separated by an idle time on the transmit or receive lines (see Figure 36-3). An idle receive
line is detected when ten or more continuous ones (marks) are received after the one or two stop
bits of a character. The baud-rate generator is switched off after reception of an idle line until the
next start edge is detected. When an idle line is detected, the UCIDLE bit is set.

The first character received after an idle period is an address character. The UCIDLE bit
is used as an address tag for each block of characters. In idle-line multiprocessor format, this bit
is set when a received character is an address.
The UCDORM bit is used to control data reception in the idle-line multiprocessor format.
When
UCDORM = 1, all non-address characters are assembled but not transferred into the
UCAxRXBUF, and interrupts are not generated. When an address character is received, the
character is transferred into
UCAxRXBUF, UCRXIFG is set, and any applicable error flag is set when UCRXEIE = 1. When
UCRXEIE = 0 and an address character is received but has a framing error or parity error, the
character is not transferred into UCAxRXBUF and UCRXIFG is not set.
If an address is received, user software can validate the address and must reset UCDORM
to continue receiving data. If UCDORM remains set, only address characters are received. When
UCDORM is cleared during the reception of a character, the receive interrupt flag is set after the
reception completed. The UCDORM bit is not modified by the USCI hardware automatically.
For address transmission in idle-line multiprocessor format, a precise idle period can be
generated by the USCI to generate address character identifiers on UCAxTXD. The double-
buffered UCTXADDR flag indicates if the next character loaded into UCAxTXBUF is preceded
by an idle line of 11 bits. UCTXADDR is automatically cleared when the start bit is generated.
Transmitting an Idle Frame
The following procedure sends out an idle frame to indicate an address character
followed by associated data:

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1. Set UCTXADDR, then write the address character to UCAxTXBUF. UCAxTXBUF

must be ready for
new data (UCTXIFG = 1). This generates an idle period of exactly 11 bits followed by
the address character. UCTXADDR is reset automatically when the address character is
transferred from UCAxTXBUF into the shift register.
2. Write desired data characters to UCAxTXBUF. UCAxTXBUF must be ready for new
data (UCTXIFG =
1). The data written to UCAxTXBUF is transferred to the shift register and transmitted as
soon as the shift register is ready for new data. The idle-line time must not be exceeded
between address and data transmission or between data transmissions. Otherwise, the
transmitted data is misinterpreted as an address
Address-Bit Multiprocessor Format
When UCMODEx = 10, the address-bit multiprocessor format is selected. Each
processed character contains an extra bit used as an address indicator (see Figure 36-4). The first
character in a block of characters carries a set address bit that indicates that the character is an
address. The USCI UCADDR bit is set when a received character has its address bit set and is
transferred to UCAxRXBUF.
The UCDORM bit is used to control data reception in the address-bit multiprocessor
format. When UCDORM is set, data characters with address bit = 0 are assembled by the
receiver but are not transferred to UCAxRXBUF and no interrupts are generated. When a
character containing a set address bit is received, the character is transferred into UCAxRXBUF,
UCRXIFG is set, and any applicable error flag is set when UCRXEIE = 1. When UCRXEIE = 0
and a character containing a set address bit is received but has a framing error or parity error, the
character is not transferred into UCAxRXBUF and
UCRXIFG is not set.
If an address is received, user software can validate the address and must reset UCDORM
to continue receiving data. If UCDORM remains set, only address characters with address bit = 1
are received. The UCDORM bit is not modified by the USCI hardware automatically.
When UCDORM = 0, all received characters set the receive interrupt flag UCRXIFG. If
UCDORM is cleared during the reception of a character, the receive interrupt flag is set after the
reception is completed.
For address transmission in address-bit multiprocessor mode, the address bit of a
character is controlled by the UCTXADDR bit. The value of the UCTXADDR bit is loaded into
the address bit of the character transferred from UCAxTXBUF to the transmit shift register.
UCTXADDR is automatically cleared when the start bit is generated.
Break Reception and Generation
When UCMODEx = 00, 01, or 10, the receiver detects a break when all data, parity, and
stop bits are low, regardless of the parity, address mode, or other character settings. When a
break is detected, the UCBRK bit is set. If the break interrupt enable bit (UCBRKIE) is set, the
receive interrupt flag UCRXIFG is also set.

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In this case, the value in UCAxRXBUF is 0h, because all data bits were zero. To transmit
a break, set the UCTXBRK bit, then write 0h to UCAxTXBUF. UCAxTXBUF must be ready for
new data (UCTXIFG = 1). This generates a break with all bits low. UCTXBRK is automatically
cleared when the start bit is generated.

Automatic Baud-Rate Detection

When UCMODEx = 11, UART mode with automatic baud-rate detection is selected. For
automatic baudrate detection, a data frame is preceded by a synchronization sequence that
consists of a break and a synch field. A break is detected when 11 or more continuous zeros
(spaces) are received. If the length of the break exceeds 21 bit times the break timeout error flag
UCBTOE is set. The USCI can not transmit data while receiving the break/sync field. The synch
field follows the break as shown in Figure 36-5.

For LIN conformance, the character format should be set to eight data bits, LSB first, no
parity, and one stop bit. No address bit is available.
The synch field consists of the data 055h inside a byte field (see Figure 36-6). The
synchronization is based on the time measurement between the first falling edge and the last
falling edge of the pattern. The transmit baud-rate generator is used for the measurement if
automatic baud-rate detection is enabled by setting UCABDEN. Otherwise, the pattern is
received but not measured. The result of the measurement is transferred into the baud-rate
control registers (UCAxBR0, UCAxBR1, and UCAxMCTL). If the length of the synch field
exceeds the measurable time, the synch timeout error flag UCSTOE is set.

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The UCDORM bit is used to control data reception in this mode. When UCDORM is set,
all characters are received but not transferred into the UCAxRXBUF, and interrupts are not
generated. When a break/synch field is detected, the UCBRK flag is set. The character following
the break/synch field is transferred into UCAxRXBUF and the UCRXIFG interrupt flag is set.
Any applicable error flag is also set. If the UCBRKIE bit is set, reception of the break/synch sets
the UCRXIFG. The UCBRK bit is reset by user software or by reading the receive buffer
UCAxRXBUF.
When a break/synch field is received, user software must reset UCDORM to continue
receiving data. If UCDORM remains set, only the character after the next reception of a
break/synch field is received. The UCDORM bit is not modified by the USCI hardware
automatically. When UCDORM = 0, all received characters set the receive interrupt flag
UCRXIFG. If UCDORM is cleared during the reception of a character, the receive interrupt flag
is set after the reception is complete.
The counter used to detect the baud rate is limited to 07FFFh (32767) counts. This means
the minimum baud rate detectable is 488 baud in oversampling mode and 30 baud in low-
frequency mode.
The automatic baud-rate detection mode can be used in a full-duplex communication system
with some restrictions. The USCI can not transmit data while receiving the break/sync field and,
if a 0h byte with framing error is received, any data transmitted during this time gets corrupted.
The latter case can be discovered by checking the received data and the UCFE bit.
Transmitting a Break/Synch Field
The following procedure transmits a break/synch field:
1. Set UCTXBRK with UMODEx = 11.
2. Write 055h to UCAxTXBUF. UCAxTXBUF must be ready for new data (UCTXIFG =
1).
This generates a break field of 13 bits followed by a break delimiter and the synch
character. The length of the break delimiter is controlled with the UCDELIMx bits.
UCTXBRK is reset automatically when the synch character is transferred from
UCAxTXBUF into the shift register.
3. Write desired data characters to UCAxTXBUF. UCAxTXBUF must be ready for new
data
(UCTXIFG = 1).
The data written to UCAxTXBUF is transferred to the shift register and transmitted as
soon as the shift register is ready for new data.
IrDA Encoding and Decoding
When UCIREN is set, the IrDA encoder and decoder are enabled and provide hardware
bit shaping for IrDA communication.
IrDA EncodingThe encoder sends a pulse for every zero bit in the transmit bitstream coming
from the UART (see Figure 36-7). The pulse duration is defined by UCIRTXPLx bits specifying
the number of one-half clock periods of the clock selected by UCIRTXCLK.

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To set the pulse time of 3/16 bit period required by the IrDA standard, the BITCLK16
clock is selected with UCIRTXCLK = 1 ,and the pulse length is set to six one-half clock cycles
with UCIRTXPLx = 6 – 1 = 5. When UCIRTXCLK = 0, the pulse length tPULSE is based on
BRCLK and is calculated as:
UCIRTXPLx = tPULSE × 2 × fBRCLK – 1 When UCIRTXCLK = 0 ,the prescaler UCBRx
must to be set to a value greater or equal to 5.
IrDA Decoding
The decoder detects high pulses when UCIRRXPL = 0. Otherwise, it detects low pulses.
In addition to the analog deglitch filter, an additional programmable digital filter stage can be
enabled by setting UCIRRXFE. When UCIRRXFE is set, only pulses longer than the
programmed filter length are passed. Shorter pulses are discarded. The equation to program the
filter length UCIRRXFLx is:
UCIRRXFLx = (tPULSE − tWAKE) × 2 × fBRCLK – 4
Where:
tPULSE = Minimum receive pulse width
tWAKE = Wake time from any low-power mode. Zero when
the device is in active mode.
Automatic Error Detection
Glitch suppression prevents the USCI from being accidentally started. Any pulse on
UCAxRXD shorter than the deglitch time tt (approximately 150 ns) is ignored (see the device-
specific data sheet for
parameters). When a low period on UCAxRXD exceeds tt, a majority vote is taken for the start
bit. If the majority vote fails to detect a valid start bit, the USCI halts character reception and
waits for the next low period on UCAxRXD. The majority vote is also used for each bit in a
character to prevent bit errors.
The USCI module automatically detects framing errors, parity errors, overrun errors, and
break conditions when receiving characters. The bits UCFE, UCPE, UCOE, and UCBRK are set
when their respective condition is detected. When the error flags UCFE, UCPE, or UCOE are
set, UCRXERR is also set. The error conditions are described in Table 36-1.

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When UCRXEIE = 0 and a framing error or parity error is detected, no character is

received into
UCAxRXBUF. When UCRXEIE = 1, characters are received into UCAxRXBUF and any
applicable error bit is set. When any of the UCFE, UCPE, UCOE, UCBRK, or UCRXERR bit is
set, the bit remains set until user software resets it or UCAxRXBUF is read. UCOE must be reset
by reading UCAxRXBUF. Otherwise, it does not function properly. To detect overflows reliably
the following flow is recommended. After a character was received and UCAxRXIFG is set, first
read UCAxSTAT to check the error flags including the overflow flag UCOE. Read
UCAxRXBUF next. This clears all error flags except UCOE, if UCAxRXBUF was overwritten
between the read access to UCAxSTAT and to UCAxRXBUF. Therefore, the UCOE flag should
be checked after reading UCAxRXBUF to detect this condition. Note that, in this case, the
UCRXERR flag is not set.
USCI Receive Enable
The USCI module is enabled by clearing the UCSWRST bit and the receiver is ready and
in an idle state. The receive baud rate generator is in a ready state but is not clocked nor
producing any clocks.
The falling edge of the start bit enables the baud rate generator and the UART state machine
checks for a valid start bit. If no valid start bit is detected the UART state machine returns to its
idle state and the baud rate generator is turned off again. If a valid start bit is detected, a
character is received.
When the idle-line multiprocessor mode is selected with UCMODEx = 01 the UART
state machine checks for an idle line after receiving a character. If a start bit is detected another
character is received. Otherwise the UCIDLE flag is set after 10 ones are received and the UART
state machine returns to its idle state and the baud rate generator is turned off.
Receive Data Glitch Suppression
Glitch suppression prevents the USCI from being accidentally started. Any glitch on
UCAxRXD shorter than the deglitch time tt (approximately 150 ns) is ignored by the USCI, and
further action is initiated as shown in Figure 36-8 (see the device-specific data sheet for
parameters).

When a glitch is longer than tt, or a valid start bit occurs on UCAxRXD, the USCI receive
operation is started and a majority vote is taken (see Figure 36-9). If the majority vote fails to
detect a start bit, the USCI halts character reception.

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USCI Transmit Enable

The USCI module is enabled by clearing the UCSWRST bit and the transmitter is ready
and in an idle state. The transmit baud-rate generator is ready but is not clocked nor producing
any clocks. A transmission is initiated by writing data to UCAxTXBUF. When this occurs, the
baud-rate generator is enabled, and the data in UCAxTXBUF is moved to the transmit shift
register on the next BITCLK after the transmit shift register is empty. UCTXIFG is set when
new data can be written into UCAxTXBUF. Transmission continues as long as new data is
available in UCAxTXBUF at the end of the previous byte transmission. If new data is not in
UCAxTXBUF when the previous byte has transmitted, the transmitter returns to its idle state and
the baud-rate generator is turned off.
UART Baud-Rate Generation
The USCI baud-rate generator is capable of producing standard baud rates from
nonstandard source frequencies. It provides two modes of operation selected by the UCOS16 bit.
The baud-rate is generate using the BRCLK that can be sourced by the external clock
UCAxCLK, or the internal clocks ACLK or SMCLK depending on the UCSSELx settings.
Low-Frequency Baud-Rate Generation
The low-frequency mode is selected when UCOS16 = 0. This mode allows generation of
baud rates from low frequency clock sources (for example, 9600 baud from a 32768-Hz crystal).
By using a lower input frequency, the power consumption of the module is reduced. Using this
mode with higher frequencies and higher prescaler settings causes the majority votes to be taken
in an increasingly smaller window and, thus, decrease the benefit of the majority vote.
In low-frequency mode, the baud-rate generator uses one prescaler and one modulator to
generate bit clock timing. This combination supports fractional divisors for baud-rate generation.
In this mode, the maximum USCI baud rate is one-third the UART source clock frequency
BRCLK. Timing for each bit is shown in Figure 36-10. For each bit received, a majority vote is
taken to determine the bit value. These samples occur at the N/2 – 1/2, N/2, and N/2 + 1/2
BRCLK periods, where N is the number of BRCLKs per BITCLK.

Modulation is based on the UCBRSx setting (see Table 36-2). A 1 in the table indicates
that m = 1 and the corresponding BITCLK period is one BRCLK period longer than a BITCLK
riod with m = 0. The modulation wraps around after eight bits but restarts with each new start bit.

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Oversampling Baud-Rate Generation

The oversampling mode is selected when UCOS16 = 1. This mode supports sampling a
UART bitstream with higher input clock frequencies. This results in majority votes that are
always 1/16 of a bit clock period apart. This mode also easily supports IrDA pulses with a 3/16
bit time when the IrDA encoder and decoder are enabled.
This mode uses one prescaler and one modulator to generate the BITCLK16 clock that is
16 times faster than the BITCLK. An additional divider and modulator stage generates BITCLK
from BITCLK16. This combination supports fractional divisions of both BITCLK16 and
BITCLK for baud-rate generation. In this mode, the maximum USCI baud rate is 1/16 the UART
source clock frequency BRCLK. When UCBRx is set to 0 or 1, the first prescaler and modulator
stage is bypassed and BRCLK is equal to BITCLK16 – in this case, no modulation for the
BITCLK16 is possible and, thus, the UCBRFx bits are ignored. Modulation for BITCLK16 is
based on the UCBRFx setting (see Table 36-3). A 1 in the table indicates that the corresponding
BITCLK16 period is one BRCLK period longer than the periods m = 0. The modulation restarts
with each new bit timing. Modulation for BITCLK is based on the UCBRSx setting (see Table
36-2) as previously described.

Setting a Baud Rate

For a given BRCLK clock source, the baud rate used determines the required division
factor N:

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N = fBRCLK/Baudrate The division factor N is often a noninteger value, thus, at least one
divider and one modulator stage is used to meet the factor as closely as possible. If N is equal or
greater than 16, the oversampling baud-rate generation mode can be chosen by setting
UCOS16.
Low-Frequency Baud-Rate Mode Setting
In low-frequency mode, the integer portion of the divisor is realized by the prescaler:
UCBRx = INT(N) and the fractional portion is realized by the modulator with the following
nominal formula: UCBRSx = round[( N – INT(N)) × 8] Incrementing or decrementing the
UCBRSx setting by one count may give a lower maximum bit error for any given bit. To
determine if this is the case, a detailed error calculation must be performed for each bit for each
UCBRSx setting.
Oversampling Baud-Rate Mode Setting
In the oversampling mode, the prescaler is set to: UCBRx = INT(N/16) and the first stage
modulator is set to: UCBRFx = round([(N/16) – INT(N/16)] × 16)
When greater accuracy is required, the UCBRSx modulator can also be implemented
with values from 0 to 7. To find the setting that gives the lowest maximum bit error rate for any
given bit, a detailed error calculation must be performed for all settings of UCBRSx from 0 to 7
with the initial UCBRFx setting, and with the UCBRFx setting incremented and decremented by
one.
Transmit Bit Timing
The timing for each character is the sum of the individual bit timings. Using the
modulation features of the baud-rate generator reduces the cumulative bit error. The individual
bit error can be calculated using the following steps.

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Receive Bit Timing

Receive timing error consists of two error sources. The first is the bit-to-bit timing error
similar to the transmit bit timing error. The second is the error between a start edge occurring and
the start edge being accepted by the USCI module. Figure 36-11 shows the asynchronous timing
errors between data on the UCAxRXD pin and the internal baud-rate clock. This results in an
additional synchronization error. The synchronization error tSYNC is between –0.5 BRCLKs
and +0.5 RCLKs, independent of the selected baudrate generation mode.

Using the USCI Module in UART Mode With Low-Power Modes

The USCI module provides automatic clock activation for use with low-power modes.
When the USCI clock source is inactive because the device is in a low-power mode, the USCI
module automatically activates it when needed, regardless of the control-bit settings for the clock
source. The clock remains active until the USCI module returns to its idle condition. After the
USCI module returns to the idle condition, control of the clock source reverts to the settings of
its control bits.
USCI Interrupts in UART Mode
The USCI has only one interrupt vector that is shared for transmission and for reception.
USCI_Ax and USC_Bx do not share the same interrupt vector.
UART Transmit Interrupt Operation
The UCTXIFG interrupt flag is set by the transmitter to indicate that UCAxTXBUF is
ready to accept another character. An interrupt request is generated if UCTXIE and GIE are also
set. UCTXIFG is automatically reset if a character is written to UCAxTXBUF. UCTXIFG is set
after a PUC or when UCSWRST = 1. UCTXIE is reset after a PUC or when UCSWRST = 1.
UART Receive Interrupt Operation
The UCRXIFG interrupt flag is set each time a character is received and loaded into
UCAxRXBUF. An interrupt request is generated if UCRXIE and GIE are also set. UCRXIFG
and UCRXIE are reset by a system reset PUC signal or when UCSWRST = 1. UCRXIFG is
automatically reset when UCAxRXBUF is read.
Additional interrupt control features include:
• When UCAxRXEIE = 0, erroneous characters do not set UCRXIFG.
• When UCDORM = 1, nonaddress characters do not set UCRXIFG in multiprocessor
modes. In plain
UART mode, no characters are set UCRXIFG.
• When UCBRKIE = 1, a break condition sets the UCBRK bit and the UCRXIFG flag.
UCAxIV, Interrupt Vector Generator
The USCI interrupt flags are prioritized and combined to source a single interrupt vector.
The interrupt vector register UCAxIV is used to determine which flag requested an interrupt. The
highest-priority enabled interrupt generates a number in the UCAxIV register that can be
evaluated or added to the program counter to automatically enter the appropriate software

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routine. Disabled interrupts do not affect the UCAxIV value. Any access, read or write, of the
UCAxIV register automatically resets the highest-pending interrupt flag. If another interrupt flag
is set, another interrupt is immediately generated after servicing the initial interrupt.
USB Introduction

The features of the USB module include:

• Fully compliant with the USB 2.0 full-speed specification

– Full-speed device (12 Mbps) with integrated USB transceiver (PHY)
– Up to eight input and eight output endpoints
– Supports control, interrupt, and bulk transfers
– Supports USB suspend, resume, and remote wakeup
• A power supply system independent from the PMM system
– Integrated 3.3-V LDO regulator with sufficient output to power entire MSP430 and
system circuitry
from 5-V VBUS
– Integrated 1.8-V LDO regulator for PHY and PLL
– Easily used in either bus-powered or self-powered operation
– Current-limiting capability on 3.3-V LDO output
– Autonomous power-up of device on arrival of USB power possible (low or no battery
condition)
• Internal 48-MHz USB clock
– Integrated programmable PLL
– Highly-flexible input clock frequencies for use with lowest-cost crystals
• 1904 bytes of dedicated USB buffer space for endpoints, with fully configurable size to a
granularity of
eight bytes
• Timestamp generator with 62.5-ns resolution
• When USB is disabled
– Buffer space is mapped into general RAM, providing additional 2KB to the system
– USB interface pins become high-current general purpose I/O pins
NOTE: Use of the word device
The word device is used throughout the chapter. This word can mean one of two things,
depending on the context. In a USB context, it means what the USB specification refers to as a
device, function, or peripheral; that is, a piece of equipment that can be attached to a USB host or
hub. In a semiconductor context, it refers to an integrated circuit such as then MSP430. To avoid
confusion, the term USB device in this document refers to the USB-context meaning of the word.
The word device by itself refers to silicon devices such as the MSP430.
Figure 42-1 shows a block diagram of the USB module.

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USB Operation
The USB module is a comprehensive full-speed USB device compliant with the USB 2.0
specification. The USB engine coordinates all USB-related traffic. It consists of the USB SIE
(serial interface engine) and USB Buffer Manager (UBM). All traffic received on the USB
receive path is de-serialized and placed into receive buffers in the USB buffer RAM. Data in the
buffer RAM marked 'ready to be sent' are serialized into packets and sent to the USB host.
The USB engine requires an accurate 48-MHz clock to sample the incoming data stream.
This is generated by a PLL that is fed from one of the system oscillators (XT1 or XT2). A crystal
of 4 MHz or greater is required. In addition to crystal operation, the crystal bypass mode can also
be used to supply the clock required by the PLL. The PLL is very flexible and can adapt to a
wide range of crystal and input frequencies, allowing for cost-effective clock designs.
NOTE: The reference clock to the PLL depends on the device configuration. On devices that
contain the optional XT2, the reference clock to the PLL is XT2CLK, regardless of whether or
not
XT1 is available. If the device has only XT1, then the reference is XT1CLK. See the
devicespecific data sheet for clock sources available.
NOTE: The USB module only supports active operation during power modes AM through
LPM1.
The USB buffer memory is where data is exchanged between the USB interface and the
application software. It is also where the usage of endpoints 1 to 7 are defined. This buffer
memory is implemented such that it can be easily accessed like RAM by the CPU or DMA while
USB module is not in suspend condition.
USB Transceiver (PHY)

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The physical layer interface (USB transceiver) is a differential line driver directly
powered from VUSB (3.3 V). The line driver is connected to the DP and DM pins, which form
the signaling mechanism of the USB interface. When the PUSEL bit is set, DP and DM are
configured to function as USB drivers controlled by the USB core logic. When the bit is cleared,
these two pins become "Port U", which is a pair of high-current general purpose I/O pins. In this
case, the pins are controlled by the Port U control registers. Port U is powered from the VUSB
rail, separate from the main device DVCC. If these pins are to be used, whether for USB or
general purpose use, it is necessary that VUSB be properly powered from either the internal
regulators or an external source.
D+ Pullup Via PUR Pin
When a full-speed USB device is attached to a USB host, it must pull up the D+ line (DP
pin) for the host to recognize its presence. The MSP430 USB module implements this with a
software-controlled pin that activates a pullup resistor. The bit that controls this function is
PUR_EN. If software control is not desired, the pullup can be connected directly to VUSB.

Shorts on Damaged Cables and Clamping

USB devices must tolerate connection to a cable that is damaged, such that it has
developed shorts on either ground or VBUS. The device should not become damaged by this
event, either electrically or physically. To this end, the MSP430 USB power system features a
current limitation mechanism that limits the available transceiver current in the event of a short
to ground. The transceiver interface itself therefore does not need a current limiting function.
Note that if VUSB is to be powered from a source other than the integrated regulator, the
absence of current-limiting in the transceiver means that the external power source must itself be
tolerant of this same shorting event, through its own means of current limiting.

Port U Control
When PUSEL is cleared, the Port U pins (PU.0 and PU.1) function as general-purpose,
high-current I/O pins. These pins can only be configured together as either both inputs or both
outputs. Port U is supplied by the VUSB rail. If the 3.3-V LDO is not being used in the system
(disabled), the VUSB pin can be supplied externally.
PUOPE controls the enable of both outputs residing on the Port U pins. Setting PUIPE =1
causes both input buffers to be enabled. When Port U outputs are enabled (PUOPE = 1), the
PUIN0 and PUIN1 pins mirror what is present on the outputs assuming PUIPE = 1. To use the
Port U pins as inputs, the outputs should be disabled by setting PUOPE = 0, and enabling the
input buffers by setting PUIPE = 1. Once configured as inputs (PUIPE = 1), the PUIN0 and
PUIN1 bits can be read to determine the respective input values.
When PUOPE is set, both Port U pins function as outputs, controlled by PUOUT0 and
PUOUT1. When driven high, they use the VUSB rail, and they are capable of a drive current
higher than other I/O pins on the device. See the device-specific datasheet for parameters. By

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default, PUOPE and PUIPE are cleared. PU.0 and PU.1 are high-impedance (input buffers are
disabled and outputs are disabled).
USB Power System
The USB power system incorporates dual LDO regulators (3.3 V and 1.8 V) that allow
the entire MSP430 device to be powered from 5-V VBUS when it is made available from the
USB host. Alternatively, the power system can supply power only to the USB module, or it can
be unused altogether, as in a fully selfpowered device. The block diagram is shown in Figure 42-
2

The 3.3-V LDO receives 5 V from VBUS and provides power to the transceiver, as well
as the VUSB pin. Using this setup prevents the relatively high load of the transceiver and PLL
from loading a local system power supply, if used. Thus it is very useful in battery-powered
devices.
The 1.8-V LDO receives power from the VUSB pin – which is to be sourced either from
the internal 3.3-V LDO or externally – and provides power to the USB PLL and transceiver. The
1.8-V LDO in the USB module is not related to the LDO that resides in the MSP430 Power
Management Module (PMM). The inputs and outputs of the LDOs are shown in Figure 42-2.
VBUS, VUSB, and V18 need to be connected to external capacitors. The V18 pin is not intended
to source other components in the system, rather it exists solely for the attachment of a load
capacitor.
Enabling and Disabling
The 3.3-V LDO is enabled or disabled by setting or clearing VUSBEN, respectively.
Even if enabled, if the voltage on VBUS is detected to be low or nonexistent, the LDO is
suspended. No additional current is consumed while the LDO is suspended. When VBUS rises
above the USB power brownout level, the LDO reference and low voltage detection become
enabled. When VBUS rises further above the launch voltage VLAUNCH, the LDO module
becomes enabled (see Figure 42-3). See device-specific data sheet for value of VLAUNCH.

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The 1.8-V LDO can be enabled or disabled by setting SLDOEN accordingly. By default,
the 1.8-V LDO is controlled automatically according to whether power is available on VBUS.
This auto-enable feature is controlled by SLDOAON. In this case, that the SLDOEN bit does not
reflect the state of the 1.8-V LDO. If the user wishes to know the state while using the auto-
enable feature, the USBBGVBV bit in
USBPWRCTL can be read. In addition, to disable the 1.8-V LDO, SLDOAON must be cleared
along with SLDOEN. If providing VUSB from an external source, rather than through the
integrated 3.3-V LDO, keep in mind that if 5 V is not present on VBUS, the 1.8-V LDO is not
automatically enabled. In this situation, either VBUS much be attached to USB bus power, or the
SLDOAON bit must be cleared and SLDOEN set.
It is required that power from the USB cable's VBUS be directed through a Schottky
diode prior to entering the VBUS terminal. This prevents current from draining into the cable's
VBUS from the LDO input, allowing the MSP430 to tolerate a suspended or unpowered USB
cable that remains electrically connected.
The VBONIFG flag can be used to indicate that the voltage on VBUS has risen above the
launch voltage. In addition to the VBONIFG being set, an interrupt is also generated when
VBONIE = 1. Similarly, the VBOFFIFG flag can be used to indicate that the voltage on VBUS
has fallen below the launch voltage. In addition to the VBOFFIFG being set, an interrupt is also
generated when VBOFFIE = 1. The USBBGVBV bit can also be polled to indicate the level of
VBUS; that is, above or below the launch voltage.
Powering the Rest of the MSP430 From USB Bus Power Via VUSB
The output of the 3.3-V LDO can be used to power the entire MSP430 device, sourcing
the DVCC rail. If this is desired, the VUSB and DVCC should be connected externally. Power
from the 3.3-V LDO is sourced into DVCC (see Figure 42-4).

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With this connection made, the MSP430 allows for autonomous power up of the device
when VBUS rises above VLAUNCH. If no voltage is present on VCORE – meaning the device
is unpowered (or, in LPMx.5 mode) – then both the 3.3-V and 1.8-V LDOs automatically turn on
when VBUS rises above VLAUNCH. Note that if DVCC is being driven from VUSB in this
manner, and if power is available from VUSB, attempting to place the device into LPMx.5
results in the device immediately re-powering. This is because it re-creates the conditions of the
autonomous feature described above (no VCORE but power available on VBUS). The resulting
drop of VCORE would cause the system to immediately power up again. When DVCC is being
powered from VUSB, it is up to the user to ensure that the total current being drawn from VBUS
stays below IDET.
Powering Other Components in the System from VUSB
There is sufficient current capacity available from the 3.3-V LDO to power not only the
entire MSP430 but also other components in the system, via the VUSB pin.
If the device is to always be connected to USB, then perhaps no other power system is
needed. If it only occasionally connects to USB and is battery-powered otherwise, then sourcing
system power via the 3.3-V LDO takes power burden away from the battery. Alternatively, if the
battery is rechargeable, the recharging can be driven from VUSB.
Self-Powered Devices
Some applications may be self-powered, in that the VUSB power is supplied externally.
In these cases, the 3.3-V LDO would be disabled (VUSBEN = 0). For proper USB operation, the
voltage on VBUS can still be detected, even while the 3.3-V LDO disabled, by setting
USBDETEN = 1. When VBUS rises above the USB power brownout level, low voltage
detection becomes enabled. When VBUS rises further above the launch voltage VLAUNCH, the
voltage on VBUS is detected.
Current Limitation and Overload Protection
The 3.3-V LDO features current limitation to protect the transceiver during shorted-cable
conditions. A short or overload condition – that is, when the output of the LDO becomes current-

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limited to IDET. This is reported to software via the VUOVLIFG flag. See device-specific data
sheet for value of IDET.
If this event occurs, it means USB operation may become unreliable, due to insufficient power
supply. As a result, software may wish to cease USB operation. If the OVLAOFF bit is set, USB
operation is automatically terminated by clearing VUSBEN.
During overload conditions, VUSB and V18 drop below their nominal output voltage. In
power scenarios where DVCC is exclusively supplied from VUSB, repetitive system restarts
may be triggered as long the short or overload condition exists. For this reason, firmware should
avoid re-enabling USB after detection of an overload on the previous power session, until the
cause of failure can be identified. Ultimately, it is the user's responsibility to ensure that the
current drawn from VBUS does not exceed IDET.
The VUOVLIFG flag can be used to indicate an overcurrent condition on the 3.3-V LDO.
When an
overcurrent condition is detected, VUOVLIFG = 1. In addition to the VUOVLIFG being set, an
interrupt is also generated when VUOVLIE = 1. The USB power system brownout circuit is
supplied from VBUS or DVCC, whichever carries the higher voltage.
USB Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)
The PLL provides the low-jitter high-accuracy clock needed for USB operation (see
Figure

The reference clock to the PLL depends on the device configuration. On devices that
contain the optional XT2, the reference clock to the PLL is XT2CLK, regardless if XT1 is
available. If the device has only XT1, then the reference is XT1CLK. A four-bit prescale counter
controlled by the UPQB bits allows division of the reference to generate the PLL update clock.
The UPMB bits control the divider in the feedback path and define the multiplication rate of the
PLL (see Equation 20).
Where CLKSEL is the PLL reference clock frequency DIVQ is derived from Table 42-1
DIVM represents the value of UPMB field Table 42-2 lists some common clock input
frequencies for CLKSEL, along with the appropriate register settings for generating the nominal
48-MHz clock required by the USB serial engine. For crystal operation, a 4 MHz or higher
crystal is required. For crystal bypass mode of operation, 1.5 MHz is the lowest external clock
input possible for CLKSEL.
If USB operation is used in a bus-powered configuration, disabling the PLL is necessary
to pass the USB requirement of not consuming more than 500 μA. The UPLLEN bit enables or

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disables the PLL. The PFDEN bit must be set to enable the phase and frequency discriminator.
Out-of-lock, loss-of-signal, and out-of-range are indicated and flagged in the interrupt flags
OOLIFG, LOSIFG, OORIFG, respectively.
Modifying the Divider Values
Updating the values of UPQB (DIVQ) and UPMB (DIVM) to select the desired PLL
frequency must occur simultaneously to avoid spurious frequency artifacts. The values of UPQB
and UPMB can be calculated and written to their buffer registers; the final update of UPQB and
UPMB occurs when the upper byte of UPLLDIVB (UPQB) is written.
PLL Error Indicators
The PLL can detect three kinds of errors. Out-of-lock (OOL) is indicated if a frequency
correction is performed in the same direction (that is, up or down) for four consecutive update
periods. Loss-of-signal (LOS) is indicated if a frequency correction is performed in the same
direction (that is, up or down) for 16 consecutive update periods. Out-of-range (OOR) is
indicated if PLL was unable to lock for more than 32 update periods. OOL, LOS, and OOR
trigger their respective interrupt flags (USBOOLIFG, USBLOSIFG, USBOORIFG) if errors
occur, and interrupts are generated if enabled by their enable bits (USBOOLIE, USBLOSIE,
USBOORIE).

PLL Startup Sequence

To achieve the fastest startup of the PLL, the following sequence is recommended.
1. Enable VUSB and V18.
2. Wait 2 ms for external capacitors to charge, so that proper VUSB is in place. (During
this time, the
USB registers and buffers can be initialized.)
3. Activate the PLL, using the required divider values.
4. Wait 2 ms and check PLL. If it stays locked, it is ready to be used.

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USB Controller Engine

The USB controller engine transfers data packets arriving from the USB host into the
USB buffers, and also transmits valid data from the buffers to the USB host. The controller
engine has dedicated, fixed buffer space for input endpoint 0 and output endpoint 0, which are
the default USB endpoints for control transfers.
The 14 remaining endpoints (seven input and seven output) may have one or more USB
buffers assigned to them. All the buffers are located in the USB buffer memory. This memory is
implemented as "multiport" memory, in that it can be accessed both by the USB buffer manager
and also by the CPU and DMA. Each endpoint has a dedicated set of descriptor registers that
describe the use of that endpoint (see Figure 42-6). Configuration of each endpoint is performed
by setting its descriptor registers. These data structures are located in the USB buffer memory
and contain address pointers to the next memory buffer for receive or transmit.
Assigning one or two data buffers to an endpoint, of up to 64 bytes, requires no further
software involvement after configuration. If more than two buffers per endpoint are desired,
however, software must change the address pointers on the fly during a receive or transmit
process. Synchronization of empty and full buffers is done using validation flags. All events are
indicated by flags and fire a vector interrupt when enabled. Transfer event indication can be
enabled separately.

USB Serial Interface Engine (SIE)

The SIE logic manages the USB packet protocol requirements for the packets being
received and transmitted on the bus. For packets being received, the SIE decodes the packet
identifier field (packet ID) to determine the type of packet being received and to ensure the
packet ID is valid. For token and data packets being received, the SIE calculates the packet cycle
redundancy check (CRC) and compares the value to the CRC contained in the packet to verify
that the packet was not corrupted during transmission.
For token and data packets being transmitted, the SIE generates the CRC that is
transmitted with the packet. For packets being transmitted, the SIE also generates the
synchronization field (SYNC), which is an eight-bit field at the beginning of each packet. In
addition, the SIE generates the correct packet ID for all packets being transmitted. Another major
function of the SIE is the overall serial-to-parallel conversion of the data packets being received
or transmitted.

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USB Buffer Manager (UBM)

The USB buffer manager provides the control logic that interfaces the SIE to the USB
endpoint buffers. One of the major functions of the UBM is to decode the USB device address to
determine if the USB host is addressing this particular USB device. In addition, the endpoint
address field and direction signal are decoded to determine which particular USB endpoint is
being addressed. Based on the direction of the USB transaction and the endpoint number, the
UBM either writes or reads the data packet to or from the appropriate USB endpoint data buffer.
The TOGGLE bit for each output endpoint configuration register is used by the UBM
to track successful output data transactions. If a valid data packet is received and the data packet
ID matches the expected packet ID, the TOGGLE bit is toggled. Similarly, the TOGGLE bit for
each input endpoint configuration is used by the UBM to track successful input data transactions.
If a valid data packet is transmitted, the TOGGLE bit is toggled. If the TOGGLE bit is cleared, a
DATA0 packet ID is transmitted in the data packet to the host. If the TOGGLE bit is set, a
DATA1 packet ID is transmitted in the data packet to the host. See Section 42.3 regarding details
of USB transfers.
USB Buffer Memory
The USB buffer memory contains the data buffers for all endpoints and for SETUP
packets. In that the buffers for endpoints 1 to 7 are flexible, there are USB buffer configuration
registers that define them, and these too are in the USB buffer memory. (Endpoint 0 is defined
with a set of registers in the USB control register space.) Storing these in open memory allows
for efficient, flexible use, which is advantageous because use of these endpoints is very
application-specific.
This memory is implemented as "multiport" memory, in that it can be accessed both by
the USB buffer manager and also by the CPU and DMA. The SIE allows CPU or DMA access,
but reserves priority. As a result, CPU or DMA access is delayed using wait states if a conflict
arises with an SIE access. When the USB module is disabled (USBEN = 0), the buffer memory
behaves like regular RAM. When changing the state of the USBEN bit (enabling or disabling the
USB module), the USB buffer memory should not be accessed within four clocks before and
eight clocks after changing this bit, as doing so reconfigures the access method to the USB
memory.
Accessing of the USB buffer memory by CPU or DMA is only possible if the USB PLL is
active. When a host requests suspend condition the application software (for example, USB
stack) of client has to switch off the PLL within 10 ms. Note that the MSP430 USB suspend
interrupt occurs around 5 ms after the host request.
Each endpoint is defined by a block of six configuration "registers" (based in RAM, they
are not true registers in the strict sense of the word). These registers specify the endpoint type,
buffer address, buffer size and data packet byte count. They define an endpoint buffer space that
is 1904 bytes in size. An additional 24 bytes are allotted to three remaining blocks – the EP0_IN
buffer, the EP0_OUT buffer, and the SETUP packet buffer (see Table 42-3).

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Software can configure each buffer according to the total number of endpoints needed.
Single or double buffering of each endpoint is possible. Unlike the descriptor registers for
endpoints 1 to 7, which are defined as memory entries in USB RAM, endpoint 0 is described by
a set of four registers (two for output and two for input) in the USB control register set. Endpoint
0 has no base-address register, since these addresses are hardwired. The bit positions have been
preserved to provide consistency with endpoint_n (n = 1 to 7).
USB Fine Timestamp
The USB module is capable of saving a timestamp associated with particular USB events
(see Figure 42- 7). This can be useful in compensating for delays in software response. The
timestamp values are based on the USB module's internal timer, driven by USBCLK.
Up to four events can be selected to generate the timestamp, selected with the TSESEL
bits. When they occur, the value of the USB timer is transferred to the timestamp register
USBTSREG, and thus the exact moment of the event is recorded. The trigger options include
one of three DMA channels, or a softwaredriven event. The USB timer cannot be directly
accessed by reading.
Furthermore, the value of the USB timer can be used to generate periodic interrupts.
Since the USBCLK can have a frequency different from the other system clocks, this gives
another option for periodic system interrupts. The UTSEL bits select the divider from the USB
clock. UTIE must be set for an interrupt vector to get triggered. The timestamp register is set to
zero on a frame-number-receive event and pseudo-start-of-frame. TSGEN enables or disables the
time stamp generator.
Suspend and Resume Logic
The USB suspend and resume logic detects suspend and resume conditions on the USB
bus. These events are flagged in SUSRIFG and RESRIFG, respectively, and they fire dedicated
interrupts, if the interrupts are enabled (SUSRIE and RESRIE). The remote wakeup mechanism,
in which a USB device can cause the USB host to awaken and resume the device, is triggered by
setting the RWUP bit of the USBCTL register. See Section 42.2.6 for more information.
Reset Logic
A PUC resets the USB module logic. When FRSTE = 1, the logic is also reset when a
USB reset event occurs on the bus, triggered from the USB host. (A USB reset also sets the
RSTRIFG flag.) USB buffermemory is not reset by a USB reset.

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USB Vector Interrupts

The USB module uses a single interrupt vector generator register to handle multiple USB
interrupts. All USB-related interrupt sources trigger the USBVECINT (also called USBIV)
vector, which then contains a 6-bit vector value that identifies the interrupt source. Each of the
interrupt sources results in a different offset value read. The interrupt vector returns zero when
no interrupt is pending.
Reading the interrupt vector register clears the corresponding interrupt flag and updates
its value. The interrupt with highest priority returns the value 0002h; the interrupt with lowest
priority returns the value 003Eh when reading the interrupt vector register. Writing to this
register clears all interrupt flags.
For each input and output endpoints resides an USB transaction interrupt indication enable.
Software may set this bit to define if interrupts are to be flagged in general. To generate an
interrupt the corresponding interrupt enable and flag must be set.
Power Consumption
USB functionality consumes more power than is typically drawn in the MSP430. Since
most MSP430applications are power sensitive, the MSP430 USB module has been designed to
protect the battery by ensuring that significant power load only occurs when attached to the bus,
allowing power to be drawn from VBUS.
The two components of the USB module that draw the most current are the transceiver
and the PLL. The transceiver can consume large amounts of power while transmitting, but in its
quiescent state – that is, when not transmitting data – the transceiver actually consumes very
little power. This is the amount specified as IIDLE. This amount is so little that the transceiver
can be kept active during suspend mode without presenting a problem for bus-powered
applications. Fortunately the transceiver always has access to VBUS power when drawing the
level of current required for transmitting.
The PLL consumes a larger amount of current. However, it need only be active while
connected to the host, and the host can supply the power. When the PLL is disabled (for
example, during USB suspend), USBCLK automatically is sourced from the VLO.
Suspend and Resume
All USB devices must support the ability to be suspended into a no-activity state, and
later resumed. When suspended, a device is not allowed to consume more than 500uA from the
USB's VBUS power rail, if the device is drawing any power from that source. A suspended
device must also monitor for a resume event on the bus.
The host initiates a suspend condition by creating a constant idle state on the bus for more
than 3.0 ms. It is the responsibility of the software to ensure the device enters its low power
suspend state within 10 ms of the suspend condition. The USB specification requires that a
suspended bus-powered USB device not draw in excess of 500 μA from the bus.
Entering Suspend

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When the host suspends the USB device, a suspend interrupt is generated (SUSRIFG).
From this point, the software has 10 ms to ensure that no more than 500uA is being drawn from
the host via VBUS.
For most applications, the integrated 3.3-V LDO is being used. In this case, the following actions
should be taken:
• Disable the PLL by clearing UPLLEN (UPLLEN = 0)
• Limit all current sourced from VBUS that causes the total current sourced from VBUS
equal to 500 μA minus the suspend current, ISUSPEND (see the device-specific data
sheet).
Disabling the PLL eliminates the largest on-chip draw of power from VBUS. During
suspend, the USBCLK is automatically sourced by the VLO (VLOCLK), allowing the USB
module to detect resume when it occurs. It is a good idea to also then ensure that the RESRIE bit
is also set, so that an interrupt is generated when the host resumes the device. If desired, the high
frequency crystal can also be disabled to save additional system power, however it does not
contribute to the power from VBUS since it draws power from the DVCC supply.
Entering Resume Mode
When the USB device is in a suspended condition, any non-idle signaling, including reset
signaling, on the host side is detected by the suspend and resume logic and device operation is
resumed. RESRIFG is set, causing an USB interrupt. The interrupt service routine can be used to
resume USB operation.
USB Transfers
The USB module supports control, bulk, and interrupt data transfer types. In accordance
with the USB specification, endpoint 0 is reserved for the control endpoint and is bidirectional.
In addition to the control endpoint, the USB module is capable of supporting up to 7 input
endpoints and 7 output endpoints. These additional endpoints can be configured either as bulk or
interrupt endpoints. The software handles all control, bulk, and interrupt endpoint transactions.

Control Transfers
Control transfers are used for configuration, command, and status communication
between the host and the USB device. Control transfers to the USB device use input endpoint 0
and output endpoint 0. The three types of control transfers are control write, control write with
no data stage, and control read. Note that the control endpoint must be initialized before
connecting the USB device to the USB
Control Write Transfer
The host uses a control write transfer to write data to the USB device. A control write
transfer consists of a setup stage transaction, at least one output data stage transaction, and an
input status stage transaction. The stage transactions for a control write transfer are:
• Setup stage transaction:
1. Input endpoint 0 and output endpoint 0 are initialized by programming the appropriate
USB endpoint configuration blocks. This entails enabling the endpoint interrupt (USBIIE
= 1) and enabling the endpoint (UBME = 1). The NAK bit for both input endpoint 0 and
output endpoint 0 must be cleared.
2. The host sends a setup token packet followed by the setup data packet addressed to
output endpoint 0. If the data is received without an error, then the UBM writes the data

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to the setup data packet buffer, sets the setup stage transaction bit (SETUPIFG = 1) in the
USB Interrupt Flag register (USBIFG), returns an ACK handshake to the host, and
asserts the setup stage transaction interrupt. Note that as long as SETUPIFG = 1, the
UBM returns a NAK handshake for any data stage or status stage transactions regardless
of the endpoint 0 NAK or STALL bit values.
3. The software services the interrupt, reads the setup data packet from the buffer, and
then decodes the command. If the command is not supported or invalid, the software
should set the STALL bit in the output endpoint 0 configuration register
(USBOEPCNFG_0) and the input endpoint 0 configuration register (USBIEPCNFG_0) .
This causes the device to return a STALL handshake for any data or status stage
transaction. For control write transfers, the packet ID used by the host for the first data
packet output is a DATA1 packet ID and the TOGGLE bit must match.
NOTE: When using USBIV, SETUPIFG is cleared upon reading USBIV. In addition, the NAK
onb input endpoint 0 and output endpoint 0 are also cleared. In this case, the host may send or
receive the next setup packet even if MSP430 did not perform the first setup packet. To prevent
this, first read the SETUPIFG directly, perform the required setup, and then use the USBIV for
further processing.
NOTE: The priority of input endpoint 0 is higher than the setup flag inside USBIV
(SETUPIFG). Therefore, if both the USBIEPIFG.EP0 and SETUPIFG are pending, reading
USBIV gives the higher priority interrupt (EP0) as opposed to SETUPIFG. Therefore, read
SETUPIFG directly, process the pending setup packet, then proceed to read the USBIV.
• Data stage transaction:
1. The host sends an OUT token packet followed by a data packet addressed to output
endpoint 0. If the data is received without an error, the UBM writes the data to the output
endpoint buffer
(USBOEP0BUF), updates the data count value, toggles the TOGGLE bit, sets the NAK
bit, returns an ACK handshake to the host , and asserts the output endpoint interrupt 0
(OEPIFG0).
2. The software services the interrupt and reads the data packet from the output endpoint
buffer. To read the data packet, the software first needs to obtain the data count value
inside the
USBOEPBCNT_0 register. After reading the data packet, the software should clear the
NAK bit to allow the reception of the next data packet from the host.
3. If the NAK bit is set when the data packet is received, the UBM simply returns a NAK
handshake to the host. If the STALL bit is set when the data packet is received, the UBM
simply returns a STALL handshake to the host. If a CRC or bit stuff error occurs when
the data packet is received, then no handshake is returned to the host.
• Status stage transaction:
1. For input endpoint 0, the software updates the data count value to zero, sets the
TOGGLE bit, then clears the NAK bit to enable the data packet to be sent to the host.
Note that for a status stage transaction, a null data packet with a DATA1 packet ID is sent
to the host.
2. The host sends an IN token packet addressed to input endpoint 0. After receiving the
IN token, the UBM transmits a null data packet to the host. If the data packet is received
without errors by the host, then an ACK handshake is returned. The UBM then toggles
the TOGGLE bit and sets the NAK bit.

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3. If the NAK bit is set when the IN token packet is received, the UBM simply returns a
NAK handshake to the host. If the STALL bit is set when the IN token packet is received,
the UBM simply returns a STALL handshake to the host. If no handshake packet is
received from the host, then the UBM prepares to retransmit the same data packet again.
Control Write Transfer with No Data Stage Transfer
The host uses a control write transfer to write data to the USB device. A control write
with no data stage transfer consists of a setup stage transaction and an input status stage
transaction. For this type of transfer, the data to be written to the USB device is contained in the
two byte value field of the setup stage transaction data packet.
The stage transactions for a control write transfer with no data stage transfer are:
• Setup stage transaction:
1. Input endpoint 0 and output endpoint 0 are initialized by programming the appropriate
USB endpoint configuration blocks. This entails programming the buffer size and buffer
base address,
selecting the buffer mode, enabling the endpoint interrupt (USBIIE = 1), initializing the
TOGGLE bit, enabling the endpoint (UBME = 1). The NAK bit for both input endpoint 0
and output endpoint 0 must be cleared.
2. The host sends a setup token packet followed by the setup data packet addressed to
output endpoint 0. If the data is received without an error then the UBM writes the data to
the setup data packet buffer, sets the setup stage transaction (SETUP) bit in the USB
status register, returns an
ACK handshake to the host, and asserts the setup stage transaction interrupt. Note that as
long as the setup transaction (SETUP) bit is set, the UBM returns a NAK handshake for
any data stage or status stage transaction regardless of the endpoint 0 NAK or STALL bit
values.
3. The software services the interrupt and reads the setup data packet from the buffer then
decodes the command. If the command is not supported or invalid, the software should
set the STALL bits in the output endpoint 0 and the input endpoint 0 configuration
registers before clearing the setup stage transaction (SETUP) bit. This causes the device
to return a STALL handshake for data or status stage transactions. After reading the data
packet and decoding the command, the software should clear the interrupt, which
automatically clears the setup stage transaction status bit.
NOTE: When using USBIV, the SETUPIFG is cleared upon reading USBIV. In addition, the
NAK o input endpoint 0 and output endpoint 0 is also cleared. In this case, the host may send or
receive the next setup packet even if MSP430 did not perform the first setup packet. To prevent
this, first read the SETUPIFG directly, perform the required setup, and then use the USBIV for
further processing.
NOTE: The priority of input endpoint 0 is higher than setup flag inside USBIV. Therefore, if
both the USBIEPIFG.EP0 and SETUPIFG are pending, reading the USBIV gives the higher
priority interrupt (EP0) as opposed to the SETUPIFG. Therefore, read SETUPIFG directly,
process the pending setup packet, then proceed to read the USBIV.
• Status stage transaction:
1. For input endpoint 0, the software updates the data count value to zero, sets the
TOGGLE bit then clears the NAK bit to enable the data packet to be sent to the host.
Note that for a status stage transaction a null data packet with a DATA1 packet ID is sent
to the host.

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2. The host sends an IN token packet addressed to input endpoint 0. After receiving the
IN token, the
UBM transmits a null data packet to the host. If the data packet is received without errors
by the host, then an ACK handshake is returned. The UBM then toggles the TOGGLE
bit, sets the NAK bit, and asserts the endpoint interrupt.
3. If the NAK bit is set when the IN token packet is received, the UBM simply returns a
NAK handshake to the host. If the STALL bit is set when the IN token packet is received,
the UBM simply returns a STALL handshake to the host. If no handshake packet is
received from the host, then the UBM prepares to retransmit the same data packet again.
Control Read Transfer
The host uses a control read transfer to read data from the USB device. A control read
transfer consists of a setup stage transaction, at least one input data stage transaction and an
output status stage transaction. The stage transactions for a control read transfer are:
• Setup stage transaction:
1. Input endpoint 0 and output endpoint 0 are initialized by programming the appropriate
USB endpoint configuration blocks. This entails enabling the endpoint interrupt (USBIIE
= 1) and enabling the endpoint (UBME = 1). The NAK bit for both input endpoint 0 and
output endpoint 0 must be cleared.
2. The host sends a setup token packet followed by the setup data packet addressed to
output endpoint 0. If the data is received without an error, then the UBM writes the data
to the setup buffer, sets the setup stage transaction (SETUP) bit in the USB status
register, returns an ACK handshake to the host, and asserts the setup stage transaction
interrupt. Note that as long as the setup transaction (SETUP) bit is set, the UBM returns a
NAK handshake for any data stage or status stage transactions regardless of the endpoint
0 NAK or STALL bit values.
3. The software services the interrupt and reads the setup data packet from the buffer then
decodes the command. If the command is not supported or invalid, the software should
set the STALL bits in the output endpoint 0 and the input endpoint 0 configuration
registers before clearing the setup stage transaction (SETUP) bit. This causes the device
to return a STALL handshake for a data stage or status stage transactions. After reading
the data packet and decoding the command, the software should clear the interrupt, which
automatically clears the setup stage transaction status bit. The software should also set the
TOGGLE bit in the input endpoint 0 configuration register. For control read transfers, the
packet ID used by the host for the first input data packet is a DATA1 packet ID.
NOTE: When using USBIV, the SETUPIFG is cleared upon reading USBIV. In addition, it also
the clears NAK on input endpoint 0 and output endpoint 0. In this case, the host may send or
receive the next setup packet even if MSP430 did not perform the first setup packet. To prevent
this, first read the SETUPIFG directly, perform the required setup, and then use the USBIV for
further processing.
NOTE: The priority of input endpoint 0 is higher than the setup flag inside USBIV. Therefore, if
both the USBIEPIFG.EP0 and SETUPIFG are pending, reading the USBIV gives the higher
priority interrupt (EP0) as opposed to the SETUPIFG. Therefore, read SETUPIFG directly,
process the pending setup packet, then proceed to read the USBIV.
• Data stage transaction:

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1. The data packet to be sent to the host is written to the input endpoint 0 buffer by the
software. The software also updates the data count value then clears the input endpoint 0
NAK bit to enable the data packet to be sent to the host.
2. The host sends an IN token packet addressed to input endpoint 0. After receiving the
IN token, the UBM transmits the data packet to the host. If the data packet is received
without errors by the host, then an ACK handshake is returned. The UBM sets the NAK
bit and asserts the endpoint interrupt.
3. The software services the interrupt and prepares to send the next data packet to the
host.
4. If the NAK bit is set when the IN token packet is received, the UBM simply returns a
NAK handshake to the host. If the STALL bit is set when the IN token packet is received,
the UBM simply returns a STALL handshake to the host. If no handshake packet is
received from the host, then the UBM prepares to retransmit the same data packet again.
5. The software continues to send data packets until all data has been sent to the host.
• Status stage transaction:
1. For output endpoint 0, the software sets the TOGGLE bit, then clears the NAK bit to
enable the data packet to be sent to the host. Note that for a status stage transaction a null
data packet with a DATA1 packet ID is sent to the host.
2. The host sends an OUT token packet addressed to output endpoint 0. If the data packet
is received Transfers without an error then the UBM updates the data count value,
toggles the TOGGLE bit, sets the NAK bit, returns an ACK handshake to the host, and
asserts the endpoint interrupt.
3. The software services the interrupt. If the status stage transaction completed
successfully, then the software should clear the interrupt and clear the NAK bit.
4. If the NAK bit is set when the input data packet is received, the UBM simply returns a
NAK handshake to the host. If the STALL bit is set when the in data packet is received,
the UBM simply returns a STALL handshake to the host. If a CRC or bit stuff error
occurs when the data packet is received, then no handshake is returned to the host.
Interrupt Transfers
The USB module supports interrupt data transfers both to and from the host. Devices that
need to send or receive a small amount of data with a specified service period are best served by
the interrupt transfer type. Input endpoints 1 through 7 and output endpoints 1 through 7 can be
configured as interrupt endpoints.
Interrupt OUT Transfer
The steps for an interrupt OUT transfer are:
1. The software initializes one of the output endpoints as an output interrupt endpoint by
programming the appropriate endpoint configuration block. This entails programming the
buffer size and buffer base address, selecting the buffer mode, enabling the endpoint
interrupt, initializing the toggle bit, enabling the endpoint, and clearing the NAK bit.
2. The host sends an OUT token packet followed by a data packet addressed to the output
endpoint. If the data is received without an error then the UBM writes the data to the
endpoint buffer, updates the data count value, toggles the toggle bit, sets the NAK bit,
returns an ACK handshake to the host, and asserts the endpoint interrupt.
3. The software services the interrupt and reads the data packet from the buffer. To read
the data packet, the software first needs to obtain the data count value. After reading the

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data packet, the software should clear the interrupt and clear the NAK bit to allow the
reception of the next data packet from the host.
4. If the NAK bit is set when the data packet is received, the UBM simply returns a NAK
handshake to the host. If the STALL bit is set when the data packet is received, the UBM
simply returns a STALL handshake to the host. If a CRC or bit stuff error occurs when
the data packet is received, then no handshake is returned to the host device.
In double buffer mode, the UBM selects between the X and Y buffer based on the
value of the toggle bit. If the toggle bit is a 0, the UBM writes the data packet to the X
buffer. If the toggle bit is a 1, the UBM writes the data packet to the Y buffer. When a
data packet is received, the software could determine which buffer contains the data
packet by reading the toggle bit. However, when using double buffer mode, the
possibility exists for data packets to be received and written to both the X and Y buffer
before the software responds to the endpoint interrupt. In this case, simply using the
toggle bit to determine which buffer contains the data packet would not work. Hence, in
double buffer mode, the software should read the X buffer NAK bit, the Y buffer NAK
bit, and the toggle bits to determine the status of the buffers.
Interrupt IN Transfer
The steps for an interrupt IN transfer are:
1. The software initializes one of the input endpoints as an input interrupt endpoint by
programming the appropriate endpoint configuration block. This entails programming the
buffer size and buffer base address, selecting the buffer mode, enabling the endpoint
interrupt, initializing the toggle bit, enabling the endpoint, and setting the NAK bit.
2. The data packet to be sent to the host is written to the buffer by the software. The
software also updates the data count value then clears the NAK bit to enable the data
packet to be sent to the host.
3. The host sends an IN token packet addressed to the input endpoint. After receiving the
IN token, the UBM transmits the data packet to the host. If the data packet is received
without errors by the host, then an ACK handshake is returned. The UBM then toggles
the toggle bit, sets the NAK bit, and asserts the endpoint interrupt.
4. The software services the interrupt and prepares to send the next data packet to the
host.
5. If the NAK bit is set when the in token packet is received, the UBM simply returns a
NAK handshake to the host. If the STALL bit is set when the IN token packet is received,
the UBM simply returns a STALL handshake to the host. If no handshake packet is
received from the host, then the UBM prepares to retransmit the same data packet again.
In double buffer mode, the UBM selects between the X and Y buffer based on the value
of the toggle bit. If the toggle bit is a 0, the UBM reads the data packet from the X buffer.
If the toggle bit is a 1, the UBM reads the data packet from the Y buffer.
Bulk Transfers
The USB module supports bulk data transfers both to and from the host. Devices that
need to send or receive a large amount of data without a suitable bandwidth are best served by
the bulk transfer type. In endpoints 1 through 7 and out endpoints 1 through 7 can all be
configured as bulk endpoints.
Bulk OUT Transfer
The steps for a bulk OUT transfer are:

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1. The software initializes one of the output endpoints as an output bulk endpoint by
programming the appropriate endpoint configuration block. This entails programming the
buffer size and buffer base address, selecting the buffer mode, enabling the endpoint
interrupt, initializing the toggle bit, enabling the endpoint, and clearing the NAK bit.
2. The host sends an out token packet followed by a data packet addressed to the output
endpoint. If the data is received without an error then the UBM writes the data to the
endpoint buffer, updates the data count value, toggles the toggle bit, sets the NAK bit,
returns an ACK handshake to the host, an asserts the endpoint interrupt.
3. The software services the interrupt and reads the data packet from the buffer. To read
the data packet, the software first needs to obtain the data count value. After reading the
data packet, the software should clear the interrupt and clear the NAK bit to allow the
reception of the next data packet from the host.
4. If the NAK bit is set when the data packet is received, the UBM simply returns a NAK
handshake to the host. If the STALL bit is set when the data packet is received, the UBM
simply returns a STALL handshake to the host. If a CRC or bit stuff error occurs when
the data packet is received, then no handshake is returned to the host.
In double buffer mode, the UBM selects between the X and Y buffer based on the value
of the toggle bit. If the toggle bit is a 0, the UBM writes the data packet to the X buffer. If
the toggle bit is a 1, the UBM writes the data packet to the Y buffer. When a data packet
is received, the software could determine which buffer contains the data packet by
reading the toggle bit. However, when using double buffer mode, the possibility exists for
data packets to be received and written to both the X and Y buffer before the software
responds to the endpoint interrupt. In this case, simply using the toggle bit to determine
which buffer contains the data packet would not work. Hence, in double buffer mode, the
software should read the X buffer NAK bit, the Y buffer NAK bit, and the toggle bits to
determine the status of the buffers.
Bulk IN Transfer
The steps for a bulk IN transfer are:
1. The software initializes one of the input endpoints as an input bulk endpoint by
programming the appropriate endpoint configuration block. This entails programming the
buffer size and buffer base address, selecting the buffer mode, enabling the endpoint
interrupt, initializing the toggle bit, enabling the endpoint, and setting the NAK bit.
2. The data packet to be sent to the host is written to the buffer by the software. The
software also updates the data count value then clears the NAK bit to enable the data
packet to be sent to the host.
3. The host sends an IN token packet addressed to the input endpoint. After receiving the
IN token, the UBM transmits the data packet to the host. If the data packet is received
without errors by the host, then an ACK handshake is returned. The UBM then toggles
the toggle bit, sets the NAK bit, and asserts the endpoint interrupt.
4. The software services the interrupt and prepares to send the next data packet to the
host.
5. If the NAK bit is set when the in token packet is received, the UBM simply returns a
NAK handshake to the host. If the STALL bit is set when the In token packet is received,
the UBM simply returns a STALL handshake to the host. If no handshake packet is
received from the host, then the UBM prepares to retransmit the same data packet again.
In double buffer mode , the UBM selects between the X and Y buffer based on the value

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of the toggle bit. If the toggle bit is a 0, the UBM reads the data packet from the X buffer.
If the toggle bit is a 1, the UBM reads the data packet from the Y buffer.
Universal Serial Communication Interface (USCI): SPI mode
The universal serial communication interface (USCI) modules support multiple serial
communication modes. Different USCI modules support different modes. Each different USCI
module is named with a different letter. For example, USCI_A is different from USCI_B. If
more than one identical USCI module is implemented on one device, those modules are named
with incrementing numbers. For example, if one device has two USCI_A modules, they are
named USCI_A0 and USCI_A1. See the device-specific data sheet to determine which USCI
modules, if any, are implemented on which devices.
USCI_Ax modules support:
• UART mode
• Pulse shaping for IrDA communications
• Automatic baud-rate detection for LIN communications
• SPI mode
USCI_Bx modules support:
• I2C mode
• SPI mode

USCI Introduction – SPI Mode

In synchronous mode, the USCI connects the device to an external system via three or
four pins:
UCxSIMO, UCxSOMI, UCxCLK, and UCxSTE. SPI mode is selected when the UCSYNC bit is
set, and
SPI mode (3-pin or 4-pin) is selected with the UCMODEx bits.
SPI mode features include:
• 7-bit or 8-bit data length
• LSB-first or MSB-first data transmit and receive
• 3-pin and 4-pin SPI operation
• Master or slave modes
• Independent transmit and receive shift registers
• Separate transmit and receive buffer registers
• Continuous transmit and receive operation
• Selectable clock polarity and phase control
• Programmable clock frequency in master mode
• Independent interrupt capability for receive and transmit
• Slave operation in LPM4
USCI Operation – SPI Mode
In SPI mode, serial data is transmitted and received by multiple devices using a shared
clock provided by the master. An additional pin, UCxSTE, is provided to enable a device to
receive and transmit data and is controlled by the master.
Three or four signals are used for SPI data exchange:
• UCxSIMO – slave in, master out
Master mode: UCxSIMO is the data output line.
Slave mode: UCxSIMO is the data input line.
• UCxSOMI – slave out, master in

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Master mode: UCxSOMI is the data input line.

Slave mode: UCxSOMI is the data output line.
• UCxCLK – USCI SPI clock
Master mode: UCxCLK is an output.
Slave mode: UCxCLK is an input.
• UCxSTE – slave transmit enable
Used in 4-pin mode to allow multiple masters on a single bus. Not used in 3-pin mode.
USCI Initialization and Reset
The USCI is reset by a PUC or by the UCSWRST bit. After a PUC, the UCSWRST bit is
automatically set, keeping the USCI in a reset condition. When set, the UCSWRST bit resets the
UCRXIE, UCTXIE, UCRXIFG, UCOE, and UCFE bits, and sets the UCTXIFG flag. Clearing
UCSWRST releases the USCI for operation.
Character Format
The USCI module in SPI mode supports 7-bit and 8-bit character lengths selected by the
UC7BIT bit. In 7- bit data mode, UCxRXBUF is LSB justified and the MSB is always reset. The
UCMSB bit controls the direction of the transfer and selects LSB or MSB first.

Master Mode

shows the USCI as a master in both 3-pin and 4-pin configurations. The USCI initiates
data transfer when data is moved to the transmit data buffer UCxTXBUF. The UCxTXBUF data
is moved to the
transmit (TX) shift register when the TX shift register is empty, initiating data transfer on
UCxSIMO starting with either the MSB or LSB, depending on the UCMSB setting. Data on
UCxSOMI is shifted into the receive shift register on the opposite clock edge. When the
character is received, the receive data is moved from the receive (RX) shift register to the
received data buffer UCxRXBUF and the receive interrupt flag UCRXIFG is set, indicating the
RX/TX operation is complete.
A set transmit interrupt flag, UCTXIFG, indicates that data has moved from UCxTXBUF
to the TX shift register and UCxTXBUF is ready for new data. It does not indicate RX/TX
completion. To receive data into the USCI in master mode, data must be written to UCxTXBUF,
because receive and transmit operations operate concurrently.
Pin SPI Master Mode
In 4-pin master mode, UCxSTE is used to prevent conflicts with another master and
controls the master as described in Table 37-1. When UCxSTE is in the master-inactive state:

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• UCxSIMO and UCxCLK are set to inputs and no longer drive the bus.
• The error bit UCFE is set, indicating a communication integrity violation to be handled
by the user.
• The internal state machines are reset and the shift operation is aborted. If data is written
into UCxTXBUF while the master is held inactive by UCxSTE, it is transmit as soon as
UCxSTE transitions to the master-active state. If an active transfer is aborted by UCxSTE
transitioning to the master-inactive state, the data must be rewritten into UCxTXBUF to
be transferred when UCxSTE transitions back to the master-active state. The UCxSTE
input signal is not used in 3-pin master mode.
Slave Mode

shows the USCI as a slave in both 3-pin and 4-pin configurations. UCxCLK is used as
the input for the SPI clock and must be supplied by the external master. The data-transfer rate is
determined by this clock and not by the internal bit clock generator. Data written to UCxTXBUF
and moved to the TX shift register before the start of UCxCLK is transmitted on UCxSOMI.
Data on UCxSIMO is shifted into the receive shift register on the opposite edge of UCxCLK and
moved to UCxRXBUF when the set number of bits are received. When data is moved from the
RX shift register to UCxRXBUF, the UCRXIFG interrupt flag is set, indicating that data has
been received. The overrun error bit UCOE is set when the previously received data is not read
from UCxRXBUF before new data is moved to UCxRXBUF.
4-Pin SPI Slave Mode
In 4-pin slave mode, UCxSTE is used by the slave to enable the transmit and receive
operations and is provided by the SPI master. When UCxSTE is in the slave-active state, the
slave operates normally. When UCxSTE is in the slave- inactive state:
• Any receive operation in progress on UCxSIMO is halted.
• UCxSOMI is set to the input direction.
• The shift operation is halted until the UCxSTE line transitions into the slave transmit
active state. The UCxSTE input signal is not used in 3-pin slave mode.
SPI Enable
When the USCI module is enabled by clearing the UCSWRST bit, it is ready to receive
and transmit. In master mode, the bit clock generator is ready, but is not clocked nor producing
any clocks. In slave mode, the bit clock generator is disabled and the clock is provided by the

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master. A transmit or receive operation is indicated by UCBUSY = 1. A PUC or set UCSWRST

bit disables the USCI immediately and any active transfer is terminated.
Transmit Enable
In master mode, writing to UCxTXBUF activates the bit clock generator, and the data
begins to transmit. In slave mode, transmission begins when a master provides a clock and, in 4-
pin mode, when the UCxSTE is in the slave-active state.
Receive Enable
The SPI receives data when a transmission is active. Receive and transmit operations
operate concurrently.
Serial Clock Control
UCxCLK is provided by the master on the SPI bus. When UCMST = 1, the bit clock is
provided by the USCI bit clock generator on the UCxCLK pin. The clock used to generate the bit
clock is selected with the UCSSELx bits. When UCMST = 0, the USCI clock is provided on the
UCxCLK pin by the master, the bit clock generator is not used, and the UCSSELx bits are don't
care. The SPI receiver and transmitter operate in parallel and use the same clock source for data
transfer.
The 16-bit value of UCBRx in the bit rate control registers (UCxxBR1 and UCxxBR0) is
the division factor of the USCI clock source, BRCLK. The maximum bit clock that can be
generated in master mode is BRCLK. Modulation is not used in SPI mode, and UCAxMCTL
should be cleared when using SPI mode for USCI_A. The UCAxCLK/UCBxCLK frequency is
given by:
fBitClock = fBRCLK / UCBRx
If UCBRx = 0, fBitClock = fBRCLK
Even UCBRx settings result in even divisions and, thus, generate a bit clock with a 50/50 duty
cycle.
Odd UCBRx settings result in odd divisions. In this case, the high phase of the bit clock is one
BRCLK cycle longer than the low phase. When UCBRx = 0, no division is applied to BRCLK,
and the bit clock equals BRCLK.
Serial Clock Polarity and Phase
The polarity and phase of UCxCLK are independently configured via the UCCKPL and
UCCKPH control bits of the USCI. Timing for each case is shown in Figure
Using the SPI Mode With Low-Power Modes
The USCI module provides automatic clock activation for use with low-power modes.
When the USCI clock source is inactive because the device is in a low-power mode, the USCI
module automatically activates it when needed, regardless of the control-bit settings for the clock
source. The clock remains active until the USCI module returns to its idle condition. After the
USCI module returns to the idle condition, control of the clock source reverts to the settings of
its control bits. In SPI slave mode, no internal clock source is required because the clock is
provided by the external master. It is possible to operate the USCI in SPI slave mode while the

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device is in LPM4 and all clock sources are disabled. The receive or transmit interrupt can wake
up the CPU from any low-power mode.

USCI Interrupts in SPI Mode

The USCI has only one interrupt vector that is shared for transmission and for reception.
USCI_Ax and USC_Bx do not share the same interrupt vector.
SPI Transmit Interrupt Operation
The UCTXIFG interrupt flag is set by the transmitter to indicate that UCxTXBUF is ready to
accept another character. An interrupt request is generated if UCTXIE and GIE are also set.
UCTXIFG is automatically reset if a character is written to UCxTXBUF. UCTXIFG is set after a
PUC or when UCSWRST = 1. UCTXIE is reset after a PUC or when UCSWRST = 1.
SPI Receive Interrupt Operation
The UCRXIFG interrupt flag is set each time a character is received and loaded into
UCxRXBUF. An interrupt request is generated if UCRXIE and GIE are also set. UCRXIFG and
UCRXIE are reset by a system reset PUC signal or when UCSWRST = 1. UCRXIFG is
automatically reset when UCxRXBUF is read.
UCxIV, Interrupt Vector Generator
The USCI interrupt flags are prioritized and combined to source a single interrupt vector.
The interrupt vector register UCxIV is used to determine which flag requested an interrupt. The
highest-priority enabled interrupt generates a number in the UCxIV register that can be evaluated
or added to the program counter (PC) to automatically enter the appropriate software routine.
Disabled interrupts do not affect the UCxIV value. Any access, read or write, of the UCxIV
register automatically resets the highest-pending interrupt flag. If another interrupt flag is set,
another interrupt is immediately generated after servicing the initial interrupt.
Universal Serial Communication Interface (USCI) Overview: I2C Mode
The USCI modules support multiple serial communication modes. Different USCI
modules support different modes. Each different USCI module is named with a different letter.
For example, USCI_A is different from USCI_B, etc. If more than one identical USCI module is
implemented on one device, those modules are named with incrementing numbers. For example,
if one device has two USCI_A modules, they are named USCI_A0 and USCI_A1. See the
device-specific data sheet to determine which USCI modules, if any, are implemented on each
device.

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USCI_Ax modules support:

• UART mode
• Pulse shaping for IrDA communications
• Automatic baud-rate detection for LIN communications
• SPI mode
USCI_Bx modules support:
• I2C mode
• SPI mode
USCI Introduction – I2C Mode
In I2C mode, the USCI module provides an interface between the device and I2C-
compatible devices connected by the two-wire I2C serial bus. External components attached to
the I2C bus serially transmit and/or receive serial data to/from the USCI module through the 2-
wire I2C interface.
The I2C mode features include:
• Compliance to the Philips Semiconductor I2C specification v2.1
• 7-bit and 10-bit device addressing modes
• General call• START/RESTART/STOP
• Multi-master transmitter/receiver mode• Slave receiver/transmitter mode
• Standard mode up to 100 kbps and fast mode up to 400 kbps support
• Programmable UCxCLK frequency in master mode• Designed for low power
• Slave receiver START detection for auto wake up from LPMx modes (wake up from
LPMx.5 is not supported)• Slave operation in LPM4

USCI Operation – I2C Mode

The I2C mode supports any slave or master I2C-compatible device. Figure 38-2 shows an
example of an I2C bus. Each I2C device is recognized by a unique address and can operate as
either a transmitter or a receiver. A device connected to the I2C bus can be considered as the
master or the slave when performing data transfers. A master initiates a data transfer and
generates the clock signal SCL. Any device addressed by a master is considered a slave. I2C data

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is communicated using the serial data (SDA) pin and the serial clock (SCL) pin. Both SDA and
SCL are bidirectional and must be connected to a positive supply voltage using a pullup resistor.

USCI Initialization and Reset

The USCI is reset by a PUC or by setting the UCSWRST bit. After a PUC, the
UCSWRST bit is automatically set, keeping the USCI in a reset condition. To select I2C
operation, the UCMODEx bits must be set to 11. After module initialization, it is ready for
transmit or receive operation. Clearing UCSWRST releases the USCI for operation. To avoid
unpredictable behavior, configure or reconfigure the USCI module only when UCSWRST is set.
Setting UCSWRST in I2C mode has the following effects:
• I2C communication stops.
• SDA and SCL are high impedance.
• UCBxI2CSTAT, bits 6–0 are cleared.
• Registers UCBxIE and UCBxIFG are cleared.
• All other bits and register remain unchanged.
I2C Serial Data
One clock pulse is generated by the master device for each data bit transferred. The I2C
mode operates with byte data. Data is transferred MSB first as shown in Figure 38-3. The first
byte after a START condition consists of a 7-bit slave address and the R/W bit. When R/W = 0,
the master transmits data to a slave. When R/W = 1, the master receives data from a slave. The
ACK bit is sent from the receiver after each byte on the ninth SCL clock.

START and STOP conditions are generated by the master and are shown in Figure 38-3.
A START condition is a high-to-low transition on the SDA line while SCL is high. A STOP
condition is a low-to-high transition on the SDA line while SCL is high. The bus busy bit,
UCBBUSY, is set after a START and cleared after a STOP. Data on SDA must be stable during
the high period of SCL (see Figure 38-4). The high and low state of SDA can only change when
SCL is low, otherwise START or STOP conditions are generated.

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I2C Addressing Modes

The I2C mode supports 7-bit and 10-bit addressing modes.
7-Bit Addressing
In the 7-bit addressing format (see Figure 38-5), the first byte is the 7-bit slave address
and the R/W bit. The ACK bit is sent from the receiver after each byte.

10-Bit Addressing
In the 10-bit addressing format (see Figure 38-6), the first byte is made up of 11110b plus
the two MSBs of the 10-bit slave address and the R/W bit. The ACK bit is sent from the receiver
after each byte. Them next byte is the remaining eight bits of the 10-bit slave address, followed
by the ACK bit and the 8-bit data. See I2C Slave 10-bit Addressing Mode and I2C Master 10-bit
Addressing Mode for details how to use the 10-bit addressing mode with the USCI module.

Repeated Start Conditions

The direction of data flow on SDA can be changed by the master, without first stopping a
transfer, by issuing a repeated START condition. This is called a RESTART. After a RESTART
is issued, the slave address is again sent out with the new data direction specified by the R/W bit.
The RESTART condition is shown in Figure

I2C Module Operating Modes

In I2C mode, the USCI module can operate in master transmitter, master receiver, slave
transmitter, or slave receiver mode. The modes are discussed in the following sections. Time
lines are used to illustrate the modes.Figure 38-8 shows how to interpret the time-line figures.
Data transmitted by the master is represented by grey rectangles; data transmitted by the slave is
represented by white rectangles. Data transmitted by the USCI module, either as master or slave,
is shown by rectangles that are taller than the others. Actions taken by the USCI module are
shown in grey rectangles with an arrow indicating where in the data stream the action occurs.
Actions that must be handled with software are indicated with white rectangles with an arrow
pointing to where in the data stream the action must take place.
Slave Mode
The USCI module is configured as an I2C slave by selecting the I2C mode with
UCMODEx = 11 and UCSYNC = 1 and clearing the UCMST bit. Initially, the USCI module
must to be configured in receiver mode by clearing the UCTR bit to receive thenI2C address.
Afterwards, transmit and receive operations are controlled automatically, depending on the R/W
bit received together with the slave address.
The USCI slave address is programmed with the UCBxI2COA register. When UCA10 =
0, 7-bit addressing is selected. When UCA10 = 1, 10-bit addressing is selected. The UCGCEN
bit selects if the slave responds to a general call. When a START condition is detected on the

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bus, the USCI module receives the transmitted address and compare it against its own address
stored in UCBxI2COA. The UCSTTIFG flag is set when address received matches the USCI
slave address.

I2C Slave Transmitter Mode

Slave transmitter mode is entered when the slave address transmitted by the master is
identical to its own address with a set R/W bit. The slave transmitter shifts the serial data out on
SDA with the clock pulses that are generated by the master device. The slave device does not
generate the clock, but it does hold SCL low while intervention of the CPU is required after a
byte has been transmitted.
If the master requests data from the slave, the USCI module is automatically configured as a
transmitter and UCTR and UCTXIFG become set. The SCL line is held low until the first data to
be sent is written into the transmit buffer UCBxTXBUF. Then the address is acknowledged, the
UCSTTIFG flag is cleared, and the data is transmitted. As soon as the data is transferred into the
shift register, the UCTXIFG is set again. After the data is acknowledged by the master, the next
data byte written into UCBxTXBUF is transmitted or, if the buffer is empty, the bus is stalled
during the acknowledge cycle by holding SCL low until new data is written into UCBxTXBUF.
If the master sends a NACK succeeded by a STOP condition, the UCSTPIFG flag is set. If the
NACK is succeeded by a repeated START condition, the USCI I2C state machine returns to its
address-reception state.

I2C Slave Receiver Mode

Slave receiver mode is entered when the slave address transmitted by the master is
identical to its own address and a cleared R/W bit is received. In slave receiver mode, serial data

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bits received on SDA are shifted in with the clock pulses that are generated by the master device.
The slave device does not generate the clock, but it can hold SCL low if intervention of the CPU
is required after a byte has been received. If the slave should receive data from the master, the
USCI module is automatically configured as a receiver and UCTR is cleared. After the first data
byte is received, the receive interrupt flag UCRXIFG is set. The USCI module automatically
acknowledges the received data and can receive the next data byte.
If the previous data was not read from the receive buffer UCBxRXBUF at the end of a
reception, the bus is stalled by holding SCL low. As soon as UCBxRXBUF is read, the new data
is transferred into UCBxRXBUF, an acknowledge is sent to the master, and the next data can be
received. Setting the UCTXNACK bit causes a NACK to be transmitted to the master during the
next acknowledgment cycle. A NACK is sent even if UCBxRXBUF is not ready to receive the
latest data. If the UCTXNACK bit is set while SCL is held low, the bus is released, a NACK is
transmitted immediately, and UCBxRXBUF is loaded with the last received data. Because the
previous data was not read, that data is lost. To avoid loss of data, the UCBxRXBUF must be
read before UCTXNACK is set. When the master generates a STOP condition, the UCSTPIFG
flag is set. If the master generates a repeated START condition, the USCI I2C state machine
returns to its address reception state.

I2C Slave 10-Bit Addressing Mode

The 10-bit addressing mode is selected when UCA10 = 1 and is as shown in Figure 38-
11. In 10-bit addressing mode, the slave is in receive mode after the full address is received. The
USCI module indicates this by setting the UCSTTIFG flag while the UCTR bit is cleared. To
switch the slave into transmitter mode, the master sends a repeated START condition together
with the first byte of the address but with the R/W bit set. This sets the UCSTTIFG flag if it was
previously cleared by software, and the USCI modules switches to transmitter mode with UCTR
= 1.

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Master Mode
The USCI module is configured as an I2C master by selecting the I2C mode with
UCMODEx = 11 and UCSYNC = 1 and setting the UCMST bit. When the master is part of a
multi-master system, UCMM must be set and its own address must be programmed into the
UCBxI2COA register. When UCA10 = 0, 7-bit addressing is selected. When UCA10 = 1, 10-bit
addressing is selected. The UCGCEN bit selects if the USCI module responds to a general call.
I2C Master Transmitter Mode
After initialization, master transmitter mode is initiated by writing the desired slave
address to the UCBxI2CSA register, selecting the size of the slave address with the UCSLA10
bit, setting UCTR for transmitter mode, and setting UCTXSTT to generate a START condition.
The USCI module checks if the bus is available, generates the START condition, and transmits
the slave address. The UCTXIFG bit is set when the START condition is generated and the first
data to be transmitted can be written into UCBxTXBUF. As soon as the slave acknowledges the
address, the UCTXSTT bit is cleared.
The data written into UCBxTXBUF is transmitted if arbitration is not lost during
transmission of the slave address. UCTXIFG is set again as soon as the data is transferred from
the buffer into the shift register. If there is no data loaded to UCBxTXBUF before the
acknowledge cycle, the bus is held during the acknowledge cycle with SCL low until data is
written into UCBxTXBUF. Data is transmitted or the bus is held, as long as the UCTXSTP bit or
UCTXSTT bit is not set.
Setting UCTXSTP generates a STOP condition after the next acknowledge from the
slave. If UCTXSTP is set during the transmission of the slave's address or while the USCI
module waits for data to be written into UCBxTXBUF, a STOP condition is generated, even if
no data was transmitted to the slave. When transmitting a single byte of data, the UCTXSTP bit
must be set while the byte is being transmitted or anytime after transmission begins, without
writing new data into UCBxTXBUF. Otherwise, only the address is transmitted. When the data
is transferred from the buffer to the shift register, UCTXIFG is set, indicating data transmission
has begun, and the UCTXSTP bit may be set.
Setting UCTXSTT generates a repeated START condition. In this case, UCTR may be
set or cleared to configure transmitter or receiver, and a different slave address may be written
into UCBxI2CSA if desired. If the slave does not acknowledge the transmitted data, the not-
acknowledge interrupt flag UCNACKIFG is set. The master must react with either a STOP
condition or a repeated START condition. If data was already written into UCBxTXBUF, it is

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discarded. If this data should be transmitted after a repeated START, it must be written into
UCBxTXBUF again. Any set UCTXSTT is also discarded. To trigger a repeated START,
UCTXSTT must be set again.

I2C Master Receiver Mode

After initialization, master receiver mode is initiated by writing the desired slave address
to the UCBxI2CSA register, selecting the size of the slave address with the UCSLA10 bit,
clearing UCTR for receiver mode, and setting UCTXSTT to generate a START condition.
The USCI module checks if the bus is available, generates the START condition, and
transmits the slave address. As soon as the slave acknowledges the address, the UCTXSTT bit is
cleared. After the acknowledge of the address from the slave, the first data byte from the slave is
received and acknowledged and the UCRXIFG flag is set. Data is received from the slave, as
long as UCTXSTP or
UCTXSTT is not set. If UCBxRXBUF is not read, the master holds the bus during reception of
the last data bit and until the UCBxRXBUF is read. If the slave does not acknowledge the
transmitted address, the not-acknowledge interrupt flag
UCNACKIFG is set. The master must react with either a STOP condition or a repeated
START condition. Setting the UCTXSTP bit generates a STOP condition. After setting
UCTXSTP, a NACK followed by a STOP condition is generated after reception of the data from
the slave, or immediately if the USCI module is currently waiting for UCBxRXBUF to be read.
If a master wants to receive a single byte only, the UCTXSTP bit must be set while the byte is
being received. For this case, the UCTXSTT may be polled to determine when it is cleared:
BIS.B #UCTXSTT, &UCB0CTL1 ;Transmit START cond.
POLL_STT BIT.B #UCTXSTT, &UCB0CTL1 ;Poll UCTXSTT bit
JC POLL_STT ;When cleared,
BIS.B #UCTXSTP, &UCB0CTL1 ;transmit STOP cond.
Setting UCTXSTT generates a repeated START condition. In this case, UCTR may be set or
cleared to configure transmitter or receiver, and a different slave address may be written into
UCBxI2CSA if desired.

Arbitration
If two or more master transmitters simultaneously start a transmission on the bus, an
arbitration procedure is invoked. Figure 38-15 shows the arbitration procedure between two
devices. The arbitration procedure
uses the data presented on SDA by the competing transmitters. The first master transmitter that
generates a logic high is overruled by the opposing master generating a logic low. The arbitration
procedure gives priority to the device that transmits the serial data stream with the lowest binary
value. The master transmitter that lost arbitration switches to the slave receiver mode and sets the
arbitration lost flag UCALIFG. If two or more devices send identical first bytes, arbitration
continues on the subsequent bytes.

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If the arbitration procedure is in progress when a repeated START condition or STOP condition
is transmitted on SDA, the master transmitters involved in arbitration must send the repeated
START condition or STOP condition at the same position in the format frame. Arbitration is not
allowed between:
• A repeated START condition and a data bit
• A STOP condition and a data bit
• A repeated START condition and a STOP condition
I2C Clock Generation and Synchronization
The I2C clock SCL is provided by the master on the I2C bus. When the USCI is in
master mode, BITCLK is provided by the USCI bit clock generator and the clock source is
selected with the UCSSELx bits. In slave mode, the bit clock generator is not used and the
UCSSELx bits are don't care.n The 16-bit value of UCBRx in registers UCBxBR1 and
UCBxBR0 is the division factor of the USCI clock source, BRCLK. The maximum bit clock that
can be used in single master mode is fBRCLK/4. In multi-master mode, the maximum bit clock
is fBRCLK/8. The BITCLK frequency is given by:
fBitClock = fBRCLK/UCBRx
The minimum high and low periods of the generated SCL are:
tLOW,MIN = tHIGH,MIN = (UCBRx/2)/fBRCLK when UCBRx is even
tLOW,MIN = tHIGH,MIN = ((UCBRx – 1)/2)/fBRCLK when UCBRx is odd
The USCI clock source frequency and the prescaler setting UCBRx must to be chosen
such that themminimum low and high period times of the I2C specification are met.
During the arbitration procedure the clocks from the different masters must be synchronized. A
device that first generates a low period on SCL overrules the other devices, forcing them to start
their own low periods. SCL is then held low by the device with the longest low period. The other
devices must wait for SCL to be released before starting their high periods. Figure 38-16 shows
the clock synchronization. This allows a slow slave to slow down a fast master.

Clock Stretching
The USCI module supports clock stretching and also makes use of this feature as
described in the Operation Mode sections. The UCSCLLOW bit can be used to observe if

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another device pulls SCL low while the USCI module already released SCL due to the following
conditions:
• USCI is acting as master and a connected slave drives SCL low.
• USCI is acting as master and another master drives SCL low during arbitration.
The UCSCLLOW bit is also active if the USCI holds SCL low because it is waiting as
transmitter for data being written into UCBxTXBUF or as receiver for the data being read
from UCBxRXBUF.
The UCSCLLOW bit might get set for a short time with each rising SCL edge because the logic
observes the external SCL and compares it to the internally generated SCL.
Using the USCI Module in I2C Mode With Low-Power Modes
The USCI module provides automatic clock activation for use with low-power modes.
When the USCI clock source is inactive because the device is in a low-power mode, the USCI
module automatically activates it when needed, regardless of the control-bit settings for the clock
source. The clock remains active until the USCI module returns to its idle condition. After the
USCI module returns to the idle condition, control of the clock source reverts to the settings of
its control bits. In I2C slave mode, no internal clock source is required because the clock is
provided by the external master. It is possible to operate the USCI in I2C slave mode while the
device is in LPM4 and all internal clock sources are disabled. The receive or transmit interrupts
can wake up the CPU from any low-power mode.
USCI Interrupts in I2C Mode
The USCI has only one interrupt vector that is shared for transmission, reception, and the
state change. USCI_Ax and USC_Bx do not share the same interrupt vector. Each interrupt flag
has its own interrupt enable bit. When an interrupt is enabled and the GIE bit is set, the interrupt
flag generates an interrupt request. DMA transfers are controlled by the UCTXIFG and
UCRXIFG flags on devices with a DMA controller.
I2C Transmit Interrupt Operation
The UCTXIFG interrupt flag is set by the transmitter to indicate that UCBxTXBUF is
ready to accept another character. An interrupt request is generated if UCTXIE and GIE are also
set. UCTXIFG is automatically reset if a character is written to UCBxTXBUF or if a NACK is
received. UCTXIFG is set when UCSWRST = 1 and the I2C mode is selected. UCTXIE is reset
after a PUC or when UCSWRST = 1.
I2C Receive Interrupt Operation
The UCRXIFG interrupt flag is set when a character is received and loaded into
UCBxRXBUF. An interrupt request is generated if UCRXIE and GIE are also set. UCRXIFG
and UCRXIE are reset after a
PUC signal or when UCSWRST = 1. UCRXIFG is automatically reset when UCxRXBUF is
read.
I2C State Change Interrupt Operation

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UCBxIV, Interrupt Vector Generator

The USCI interrupt flags are prioritized and combined to source a single interrupt vector.
The interrupt vector register UCBxIV is used to determine which flag requested an interrupt. The
highest-priority enabled interrupt generates a number in the UCBxIV register that can be
evaluated or added to the PC to automatically enter the appropriate software routine. Disabled
interrupts do not affect the UCBxIV value. Any access, read or write, of the UCBxIV register
automatically resets the highest-pending interrupt flag. If another interrupt flag is set, another
interrupt is immediately generated after servicing the initial interrupt

A Low-Power Battery-Less Wireless Temperature and Humidity Sensor for the TI PaLFI
Device:
Introduction
Several applications require hermetically sealed environments, where physical parameter
measurements such as temperature, humidity, or pressure are measured and, for several reasons,
a battery-less operation is required. In such applications, a wireless data and power transfer is
necessary. This application report shows how to implement an easy-to-use low-power wireless
humidity and temperature sensor comprising a SHT21 from Sensrion, a MSP430F2274
microcontroller, and a TMS37157 PaLFI (passive low-frequency interface). The complete power
for the wireless sensor and the MSP430F2274 is provided by the RFID base station (ADR2)
reader included in the eZ430-TMS37157 demo kit.
The application is divided in four steps:
• Charge phase: Generate an RF field of 134.2 kHz from the ADR2 reader to the wireless
sensor
module to charge the power capacitor.
• Downlink phase: Send command or instruction to wireless sensor to start measurement.
• Measurement and recharge phase: Trigger measurement of temperature, recharge the
power
capacitor on the sensor device, and trigger humidity measurement.
• Uplink phase: Send measurement results via RF interface (134.2 kHz) back to ADR2
reader.
Hardware Description
Device Specifications
MSP430F2274
The MSP430F2274 is a 16-bit microcontroller from the 2xx family of the ultra-low-
power MSP430™ family of devices from Texas Instruments.[2] The supply voltage for this

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microcontroller ranges from 1.8 V to 3.6 V. The MCU is capable of operating at frequencies up
to 16 MHz. It also has an internal very-low-power low-frequency oscillator (VLO) that operates
at 12 kHz at room temperature. It has two 16-bit timers (Timer_A and Timer_B), each with three
capture/compare registers. An integrated 10-bit analog-to-digital converter (ADC10) supports
conversion rates of up to 200 ksps. The current consumption of 0.7 mA during standby mode
(LPM3) and 250 mA during active mode makes it an excellent choice for battery-powered
applications.
TMS37157 PaLFI
The TMS37157 PaLFI is a dual interface passive RFID product from Texas Instruments.
The device can communicate via the RF and the SPI (wired) interfaces. It offers 121 bytes of
programmable EEPROM memory. The complete memory can be altered through the wireless
interface, if the communication/read distances between the reader antenna and the PaLFI antenna
are less than 10 cm to 30 cm (depending on the antenna geometry and reader power). For
wireless memory access, a battery supply is not required. A microcontroller with a SPI interface
has access to the entire memory through the 3-wire SPI interface of the TMS37157. In addition,
the TMS37157 can pass through received data from the wireless interface to the microcontroller
and send data from the microcontroller back over the wireless interface. If the TMS37157 is
connected to a battery, it offers a battery charge function and a battery check function without
waking the microcontroller. If connected to a battery, the TMS37157 has an ultralow power
consumption of about 60 nA in standby mode and about 70 μA in active mode. The PaLFI can
completely switch off the microcontroller, resulting in an ultralow power consumption of the
complete system.
SHT21 Humidity and Temperature Sensor
The extremely small SHT21 digital humidity and temperature sensor integrates sensors,
calibration memory, and digital interface on 3x3 mm footprint. This results in cost savings,
because no additional components are need and no investments in calibration equipment or
process are necessary. One-chip integration allows for lowest power consumption, thus enabling
energy harvesting and passive RFID solutions. The complete over-molding of the sensor chip,
with the exception of the humidity sensor area, protects the reflow solderable sensor against
external impact and leads to an excellent long term stability.
About Sensirion
The Swiss sensor manufacturer Sensirion AG is a leading international supplier of
CMOS-based sensor components and systems. Its range of high-quality products includes
humidity and temperature sensors, mass flow meters and controllers, gas and liquid flow sensors,
and differential pressure sensors. Sensirion supports its international OEM customers with tailor-
made sensor system solutions for a wide variety of applications. Among others, they include
analytical instruments, consumer goods, and applications in the medical technology, automotive
and HVAC sectors. Sensirion products are distinguished by their use of patented CMOSens®
technology. This enables customers to benefit from intelligent system integration,
Interfaces from MSP430F2274 to TMS37157 and SHT21
Interface Between MSP430F2274 and TMS37157 PaLFI
Figure 1 shows the interface between MSP430F2274 and TMS37157. The TMS37157 is
connected to the MSP430F2274 through a 3-wire SPI interface. To simplify communication
between the MSP430F2274 and TMS37157, the BUSY pin of the TMS37157 is connected to the
MSP430. The BUSY pin indicates the readiness of the TMS37157 to receive the next data byte
from the MSP430F2274. The PUSH pin is used to wake up the PaLFI from standby mode so that

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the MSP430F2274 can access the EEPROM of the PaLFI. CLKAM is used for the antenna
automatic tune feature of the PaLFI target board.

Interface Between MSP430F2274 and SHT21

Figure 2 shows the interface between MSP430F2274 and SHT21. I2C is used to connect
both devices. The MSP430F2274 contains two communication modules. One is used as UART
connection to a host PC, the other one is used to communicate to the TMS37157. Therefore, the
I2C interface has been implemented completely in software.

Hardware Changes to Original PaLFI Board

Several changes were made to the standard PaLFI board to implement the wireless sensor
application. The most important change is to use an external DC/DC converter attached to VCL
to generate a VBAT/VCC voltage out of the 134.2-kHz RF field. Figure 3 shows the basic
principle of this circuit.

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The input of the dc/dc converter TPS71433 is connected to VCL via diode D1. D1
prevents the resonance circuit (consisting of LR and CR ) from any disturbances coming from
the dc/dc converter. Capacitor CBAT stores the energy derived from the RF field.
Using an external dc/dc converter instead of the internal of the TMS37157 overcomes two
issues. The first advantage of an external dc/dc converter is that it can provide higher output
currents in comparison to the internal regulator (80 mA compared to 5 mA). The second
advantage using an external regulator is the simpler flow for the application and the firmware
(see Table 1).

Layout

Software and Firmware Description

This section describes the Windows GUI and the MSP430F2274 firmware used for this
application report. The Windows software used in this application report is based on the software
that is supplied with the eZ430-TMS37157. An additional tab was inserted to control the

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wireless sensor application. Prior to using this application report, make sure that you have the
right firmware, corresponding to this application report, loaded onto your PaLFI Wireless Sensor
target board.

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