Wasiu A.
Oke
Refs: Mec26, Mec16a, Mec24, OA05, OA03,MD05
MECHANICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS
OA03 Pg21, Mec26 Pg334
4.1 Introduction OA05 Pg5,Mec26 Pg374, Mec16a Pg 466, Mec26 Pg334/ Mec24 Pg259
Actuators are the devices used to generate motion (or action) or devices that convert energy to mechanical
motion or devices that are utilized to produce motion (linear motion or angular motion) or action.
Mechanical elements such as gears, cams, flexible mechanical elements, and so on are useful in
mechatronics applications. These elements are actuators that are generally mechanical. Another mechanical
force or torque is exerted, such as pulling or pushing, and the actuator will leverage that single movement to
generate the needed results.
4.2 Cam Mec26 Pg388
With a cam mechanism, one of the simple motions (e.g rotation) can be easily transformed into any other
motion. The cam and the follower mounted on a fixed frame are the two moving elements of a cam
mechanism. Cam devices are flexible, and nearly any arbitrarily specified motion can be obtained. They
offer the simplest and most compact way to transform motions, in some cases.
A cam is a machine element that has a curved groove or curved outline, which by its rotational or
oscillating motion, gives a predetermined specified motion to the follower that is in contact with it (see Fig.
4.1). The follower is made to rise, dwell and fall as the cam rotates. The shape of the cam determines the
lengths of time to be spent at each of these positions. The part that drives the follower upwards is the rise
section of the cam and its profile determines how quickly the cam follower will be lifted. The part that
lowers the follower is the fall section of the cam and its profile decides how fast the cam follower will fall.
The part that permits the follower to remain at the same level for a considerable period of time is the dwell
section of the cam. The cam dwell section is where it is circular with a radius that does not change. The cam
has a very essential function in the operation of several classes of machine, particularly those of the
automatic type, such as shoe machinery, printing presses, textile machinery, screw machines, and gear-
cutting machines. The cam is a crucial part of the mechanism in any class of machinery in which automatic
control and precise timing are paramount.
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4.2.1 Classification of cam mechanisms Mec26 Pg389, OA03 Pg12
The cam mechanisms can be classified by the modes of input/output motion, the configuration and
arrangement of the follower, and the shape of the cam. They can also be classified by the different types of
motion events of the follower and by means of a great diversity of the motion characteristics of the cam
profile. Figure 4.2 shows examples of different types of cam followers. Roller followers are basically ball or
roller bearings. They have the advantage of lower motion than a sliding contact but can be more expensive.
Flat-faced followers are frequently considered because they are not expensive and can be made smaller than
roller followers. Such followers are commonly used with engine valve cams. Although cams can be run dry,
they are regularly used with lubrication and may be immersed in an oil bath.
Fig. 4.2: Classification of cam mechanisms: (a) knife, (b) roller, (c) flat, (d) mushroom, (e) roller, and (f) roller.
4.2.1.1 Modes of input /output motion Mec26 Pg389, OA03 Pg12
The modes of input/output motion of cam include:
Rotating cam – translating follower (Fig. 4.2(a–e)).
Rotating follower (Fig. 4.2(f )): The follower arm oscillates or swings in a circular arc with respect to
the follower pivot.
Translating cam – translating follower.
Stationary cam – rotating follower: The follower system revolves with respect to the center line of the
vertical shaft.
4.2.1.2 Follower configuration Mec26 Pg389
The follower configuration can be any of the following:
Knife-edge (knife) follower (Fig. 4.2(a)).
Roller follower (Fig. 4.2 (b, e and f )).
Flat-faced (flat) follower (Fig. 4.2(c)).
Oblique flat-faced follower.
Spherical-faced (mushroom) follower (Fig. 4.2(d)).
4.2.1.3 Follower arrangement Mec26 Pg390
The follower arrangement can be any of the following forms:
In-line follower: The centre line of the follower passes through the centre line of the camshaft (Fig. 4.2
(a-d)).
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Offset follower: The centre line of the follower does not pass through the centre line of the cam shaft
(Fig. 4.2(e)). The offset results to a reduction of the side thrust present in the roller follower.
4.3 Gear Trains Mec26 Pg395
These are mechanisms that are very commonly utilized to transfer and transform rotational motion. They
are considered when a change in speed or torque of a rotating device is required. For instance, the driver can
use the gearbox to match the speed and torque requirements of the terrain with the engine power available.
The term gear train is used to portray a series of intermeshed gear wheels. The Gear train can be a simple or
compound gear train.
4.3.1 Simple gear train
This gear train is utilized for a system where each shaft carries only one gear wheel as shown in Fig. 4.3.
The overall gear ratio for such a gear train is the ratio of the angular velocities at the input and output shafts
Fig. 4.3: Simple gear train. Mec26 Pg395, OA03 Pg21
defined as
ZA Number of teeth on C
G (4.1)
ZC Number of teeth on A
Consider a simple gear train consisting of wheels A , B and C , as in Fig. 4.3. A has 7 teeth and C has 21 teeth.
Then, from Eq. (4.1), G 21/ 7 3 .
The job of wheel B is simply to change the direction of rotation of the output wheel from what it would have
been with just the two wheels A and C intermeshed. The intermediate wheel B is regarded as the idler wheel.
4.3.2 Compound gear train
This gear train is used to illustrate a gear train when two wheels are mounted on a common shaft. Figure
4.4(a and b) displays two examples of a compound gear train. The gear train in Fig. 4.4(b) permits the input
Fig. 4.4: Compound gear train. Mec26 Pg395, OA03 Pg22
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and output shafts to be in line. An alternative way of achieving this is the epicyclic gear train.
When two gear wheels are mounted on the same shaft they have the same angular velocity. Hence, for both
the compound gear trains shown in Fig. 4.4(a) or (b), ZB ZC . The overall gear ratio becomes
ZA Z A ZB ZC ZA ZC NB ND
G u u u u (4.2)
ZD ZB ZC ZD ZB ZD N A NC
In order to ensure that the input and output shafts of Fig. 4.4(b) are in line, the following equation must be
satisfied
rA rB rC rD (4.3)
Examples
(1) In a compound gear train of the form shown in Fig. 4.4(a), A that is the first driver, having 15 teeth,
B having 30 teeth, C having 18 teeth and D , the final driven wheel, having 36 teeth. Compute the
overall gear ratio.
By substituting the given values in Eq. (4.2), it becomes
NB ND 30 36
G u u 4
N A NC 15 18
(2) If an angular velocity of 240 rev / min (or 240 rpm ) is an input to wheel A shown in Fig. 4.4(a), then
determine the output angular velocity of wheel D when G equals to the G obtained in (1).
From Eq. (4.2):
ZD 240 / 4 60 rev / min .
4.4 Ratchet and Pawl Mec26 Pg399,OA03 Pg24
The basic form of a ratchet mechanism is shown in Fig. 4.5. It consists of a wheel, known as a ratchet,
with saw-shaped teeth, which engage with an arm known as a pawl. The arm is pivoted and can move back
and forth to engage the wheel. The shape of teeth are made in such a way that rotation can only occur in one
direction. It is employed to lock a mechanism when it is holding a load. It is used in winch to wind up a
cable on drum.
Fig. 4.5: Ratchet and pawl. Mec26 Pg399, OA03 Pg24
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Wasiu A. Oke
4.5 Belt and Chain Drives Mec26 Pg400
Belts and chains are flexible mechanical elements and they are used to usually replace a group of bearings,
gears, and shafts or similar power transmission devices. They are utilized for power transmission when
relatively long distances are involved. They have the following functions:
to reduce torque by increasing speed,
to increase torque by reducing speed,
to change axis of rotation,
to convert rotary motion into linear motion, and
to convert linear motion into rotary motion.
The actuators or motors that drive an output of most machines would have to be bulky and heavy without
any transmission device. Thus, designers can reduce size and weight of each actuator of a machine by
smartly using mechanical transmission devices.
4.5.1 Belt drives Mec26 Pg400
These are basically just a pair of rolling cylinders, with the motion of one cylinder being transferred to the
other by a belt (see Fig. 4.6). Belt drives use the motion that develops between the pulleys attached to the
shafts and the belt around the arc of contact in order to transmit torque. Slip can occur because the transfer
Fig. 4.6: Belt drive.
relies on motion forces. The advantage of the belt drives as a method of transmitting power between the two
shafts is that the length of the belt can be adjusted easily to suit a wide range of shaft-to-shaft distances.
With belt drive, the system is protected automatically against overload since slipping occurs if the loading
exceeds the maximum tension that can be sustained by frictional forces. A belt drive is more suitable than
gears if the distances between shafts are large while gears are preferred over small distances. In order to
obtain gearing effect, different size of pulleys can be considered. Nevertheless, the gear ratio is limited to
about 3:1 because of the need to maintain a sufficient arc of contact between the belt and the pulleys. The
transmitted torque is due to the differences in tension that occur in the belt during operation. This difference
results to the belt tight and slack sides. If T1 and T2 are the tensions on tight side and on the slack side as
shown in Fig. 4.6, then the torque TA with pulley A as the driver and torque TB when pulley B is the driven can
be obtained as
TA (T1 T2 )rA , (4.4)
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and
TB (T1 T2 )rB (4.5)
where rA and rB are the radii of pulleys A and B respectively.
Angular velocity isQ / rA for pulley A andQ / rB for pulley B . However, the power transmitted P is the
product of the torque and the angular velocity. Then for either pulley
P (T1 T2 )Q (4.6)
whereQ is the belt speed.
Types of belts OA03 Pg27,MD05 Pg302
The types of belts shown in Fig. 4.7 include:
Flat: It generates little noise, and can transmit power over long distances. Crowned pulleys are used in
order to keep the belts from running off the pulleys.
Round: It has a circular cross section and it is used with grooved pulleys.
V belts: These are used with grooved pulleys. They are the most commonly used type of belt, particularly
in automotive and industrial machines.
Timing belts: They require toothed wheels, and they can run at slow or fast speed, do not stretch or slip.
Fig. 4.7: Types of belts.
4.5.2 Chain drives Mec26 Pg401, MD05 Pg308
Slip can be prevented by the use of chains (see Fig. 4.8), which lock into teeth on the rotating cylinders to
provide the equivalent of a pair of intermeshing gear wheels. Chain drives are useful for applications with
Fig. 4.8: Roller chain.
large distances between the respective shafts, slow speed, and high torque. A chain drive has equal gear ratio
relationship as a simple gear train. The drive mechanism used in a bicycle is an example of a chain drive.
Example
(1) The maximum belt tension in the belt drive shown in Fig. 4.6 is required to be limited to 1KN . The
torque/moment on the pulley A is 77.8 N / m and radii rA ,and rB are 0.1m and 0.25m respectively.
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Determine:
(a) Change in tension. (c) Lower tension.
(b) Torque on the pulley B .
Solution
(a) Substitute the given values in Eq. (4.4) will yield
dT T1 T2 TA / rA 77.8/ 0.1 778 N (1)
(b) Substitute the given value and Eq. (1) in Eq. (4.5) will lead to
TB (T1 T2 )rB 778 u 0.25 194.5 N / m (2)
(c) Substitute the given value in Eq. (1) produces
T2 T1 778 1000 778 222 N (3)
4.6 Bearings OA03 Pg30
Bearings are used primarily to reduce or prevent friction forces (which produce heat that wastes energy and
result in wear) when two surfaces are in contact and one is moving with respect to the other. The job of the
bearing is to guide the movement of one part relative to another with minimum friction and maximum
accuracy. The common types of bearings include plain journal bearings, and ball and roller bearings.
4.6.1 Plain journal bearings
These bearings are used to support rotating shafts that are loaded in radial direction as shown in Fig. 4.8.
The word journal is utilized for a shaft. In essence, the bearing consists of an insert of appropriate material
which is fitted between the shaft and the support. This inserted material (liner) may be an aluminum alloy,
white metal, copper alloy, bronze, etc. The liner offers lower friction and less wear than if the shaft is
Fig. 4.8: Plain journal bearing. Fig. 4.9: Hydrodynamic journal bearing.
rotated in a hole in the support. The bearing may be a lubricated or dry rubbing bearing. Regarding
lubricated bearing, the lubrication may be any of the following:
Hydrodynamic: It consists of a shaft rotating in the oil continuously (see Fig. 4.9). The load is carried by
pressure degenerated in the oil as a result of the shaft rotating.
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Hydrostatic: It is used to shun excessive wear that usually occurred at start-up in hydrodynamic types
and when there is only a low load, oil is pumped into the load bearing area at sufficient high pressure to
lift the shaft off the metal when at rest.
Solid- film: It is a coating of a solid material such as molybdenum disulphide or graphite.
Boundary layer: It is a thin layer of lubricant which sticks to the surface of the bearing.
4.6.2 Ball and roller bearings
In this type of bearing, the major load is transferred from the rotating shaft to its support by rolling
contact rather than sliding contact. A rolling element bearing consists of four major elements (see Fig. 4.10):
an outer race, an inner race, the rolling element (balls or rollers), and a cage to separate the rolling elements.
Fig. 4.10: Major elements of a ball bearing.
There are several forms of ball bearings and they include (see Fig. 4.11a):
(a) Deep-groove: It can be employed for a wide range of load and speed.
(b) Filling slot: It cannot be used when there is an axial load.
(c) Angular contact: It is good for both axial and radial loads.
(d) Double row: It is capable of withstanding higher radial loads.
(e) Self aligning: It can withstand shaft misalignment.
(f) Thrust grooved race: It is designed to withstand axial loads but is not suitable for radial loads.
Fig. 4.11a: Types of ball bearings. Fig. 4.11b: Roller bearings.
Also, the familiar examples of roller bearings include (see Fig. 4.11b):
(a) straight roller
(b) taper roller
(c) needle roller
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