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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
EEE 311 COURSEWARE
DETAILED COURSE INFORMATION
Course Title Electrical Engineering II

Course Code EEE 311 Credit Hours Four (4)

Session 2019/2020 Semester Second

Course Facilitator 1 Engr. Dr. D.B.N. Nnadi

Course Facilitator 2 Engr. H.I. Idoko

Course Facilitator 3 Engr. G.N. Ajah

Phone: 0803 725 1363
E-mail: [email protected]
COURSE CONTENTS
i. Energy and Electric Energy Supply Sources: Generation, Transmission, Distribution
and Utilization
ii. Review of Single Phased Balanced Systems: voltage, impedance, current, power
factor, real and reactive power calculations for single phase and three phase loads.
iii. Electromechanical Energy Conversions: Basic electromagnetic theory, torque
production, magnetic devices.
iv. Power Transformers: Theory and operation, equivalent circuit, phasor diagram,
regulation, efficiency and rating three phase delta/star connections

Reference materials:
1. Electric Power Generation, Transmission, and Distribution - Leonard Lee Grigsby
2. Electric Power System Fundamentals - Salvador Acha Daza
3. Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering – Giorgio Rizzoni
4. Electric Energy Systems : analysis and operation edited by Antonio
5. Gómez-Expósito, Antonio J. Conejo, Claudio A. Cañizares.
6. Any other textbook on basic electrical engineering

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FULL COURSE CONTENT AND FLOW OF COURSE DELIVERY

Modules Topics
1. Energy and Electric Energy Topic 1: Generation
Supply Sources Topic 2: Transmission
Topic 3: Distribution
Topic 4: Electric Power Utilization
2. AC Networks Topic 1:
Topic 2:
Topic 3:
3. Electromechanical Energy Topic 1:
Conversions Topic 2:
Topic 3:
4. Transformers Topic 1:
Topic 2:
Topic 3:

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Module 1
Energy and Electric Energy Supply Sources: Generation
Energy is a fundamental ingredient of modern society and its supply impacts
directly on the social and economic development of nations. Economic growth and
energy consumption go hand in hand. Coal, oil and natural gas have been the
traditional basic energy sources, and this implies dependence on third parties
(sometimes) for energy supply.
The electricity required to meet these consumption needs is generated in
production centers commonly called power plants or stations, where a source of
primary energy is converted into electric power with clearly defined characteristics.
1.1 Generation: Conventional and Renewables
There are many generation technologies, usually associated with the fuel used.
Conventional power stations can be discussed under the following: hydroelectric,
thermal, and nuclear.
1.1.1 Hydroelectric Power Generation
The primary source of energy used in hydroelectric stations is water. Hydroelectric
power generation involves the storage of a hydraulic fluid, water, conversion of the
hydraulic (potential) energy of the fluid into mechanical (kinetic) energy in a
hydraulic turbine, and conversion of the mechanical energy to electrical energy in
an electric generator.

Figure 1.1 Block diagram of a typical hydroelectric power plant

There are three main types of hydroelectric plant arrangements, which are
distinguished in system operation:

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1. Run-of-the-river plants, having small amounts of water storage and thus little
control of the flow through the plant.
2. Storage plants, having the ability to store water and thus control the flow
through the plant on a daily or seasonal basis.
3. Pumped storage plants, in which the direction of rotation of the turbines is
reversed during offpeak hours, pumping water from a lower reservoir to an
upper reservoir, thus ‘‘storing energy’’ for later production of electricity
during peak hours.
1.1.2 Thermal Generating Plants
Thermal generating plants (also referred to as steam plants) are designed and
constructed to convert energy from fuel (coal, oil, gas, or radiation) into electric
power. The actual conversion is accomplished by a turbine-driven generator.
Depending on what the fuel is being used, it may be termed coal-fired, oil-fired, or
gasfired stations.

Figure 1.2 Operational diagram of a thermal power plant

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The operating principle behind these stations is basically as follows:

1. The fuel is burned in a boiler to produce high-pressure steam.
2. High-pressure steam is converted in the steam turbine into mechanical
energy.
3. Mechanical energy, as in hydroelectric plants, is converted into electric power
by the generator.
There are two types of steam plant technologies that use gas as a fuel, as shown in
Figure 1.3. There are gas turbine plants where, gas combustion in high-pressure air
feeds a turbine that produces mechanical energy, in turn absorbed by an AC
generator. There are also combined cycle or combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT)
plants. The operation of these stations, as may be inferred from their name, involves
two types of cycles. In the primary cycle a compressor attached to the shaft of a gas
turbine absorbs air at atmospheric pressure, compresses it, and guides it to a
combustion chamber where the gas that triggers combustion is likewise injected.
The resulting gas expands in the turbine blades to produce mechanical energy. The
gas expelled from the turbine, which is still at a high temperature, is used to heat a
water vapor circuit where the latent heat in the gas is converted into mechanical
energy in a steam turbine. Finally, electricity is generated by one or two AC
generators connected to a single common shaft or two separate shafts, one for each
cycle

Fig. 1.3 Gas turbine and CCGT power plants

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1.1.3 Nuclear Power Plants

Nuclear power plants, also known as atomic power plants, consist essentially of a
nuclear reactor that produces vast amounts of heat with the atomic fission of the
uranium. This heat is transferred to a fluid, carbon dioxide, liquid sodium, or water,
and carried to a heat exchanger where it is transferred to a water circuit. Like in
steam stations, the rest of the process involves transforming the steam produced
into mechanical energy in a steam turbine and then into electric power with an AC
generator. There are two drawbacks to the use of nuclear power plants which are
difficult to solve, and which have made them socially unacceptable in some
countries: (1) the magnitude of the catastrophe in the event of an accident, no
matter how low the risk, and, (2) the problem of eliminating radioactive waste.
1.1.4 Renewables
In electric power grids, most production presently takes place in the conventional
stations, described in the foregoing discussion. There are, however, other types of
power stations that are gradually acquiring significance. These are often called
alternative plants, characterized by their limited environmental impact and the use
of renewable sources of energy: wind, solar, biomass, and CHP (combined heat and
power or “cogeneration”) plants. Of all these technologies, the one that have
undergone most spectacular growth in recent years are wind and solar energy.
Wind Energy: The wind is a free, clean, and inexhaustible energy source. It has
served humankind well for many centuries by propelling ships and driving wind
turbines to grind grain and pump water. Wind farms may be fitted with
synchronous AC generators, such as the ones used in other types of power stations.
Solar Energy: The source of solar energy is abundant and may represent in the
future, one of the main sources of energy. Photovoltaic (PV) cells are used to convert
solar energy to electrical energy. You can have standalone PV systems and grid
connected systems. PV systems has witnessed advances in technology which are
making them more affordable with improved design. The normal output of a PV
panel is DC, but currently there are PV panels that produce AC outputs, they are
called solar microinverters
Biomass Generation: which means obtaining energy from biological resources—
energy crops (also called biomass feedstocks), livestock waste, or forestry residue,
and so on—uses a resource available in nearly any habitat and perhaps for that

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reason is gaining popularity in developing countries. The two basic approaches

taken in this technology are:
1. Direct combustion in specific furnaces to produce steam subsequently used in
a turbine cycle, like in conventional steam power stations.
2. Gasification of the organic matter to obtain a combustible gas, usually with a
high methane content, generally used to feed an internal combustion engine
or gas turbine coupled to an electric generator. Matter can be gasified with
physical–chemical or anaerobic biological processes.
1.2 Transmission
The purpose of the electric transmission system is the interconnection of the
electric energy producing power plants or generating stations with the loads.
Transmission grid lines consist of aluminum cables with a steel core that rest on
towers. Line design is based on both mechanical and electrical considerations. The
towers must be sturdy enough to bear the weight of the cables and withstand the
voltage in the cables while maintaining the minimum safety distance between
cables, between the cables and the towers, and between the cables and the ground.
A very visible assembly of insulators attaches the cables to the towers. Sometimes
two lines run along a parallel route, sharing the same towers: this is known as a
double circuit.
The concept of typical energy transmission and distribution systems - The
generating station produces the electric energy. The generator voltage is around 15
to 30 kV. This relatively low voltage is not appropriate for the transmission of
energy over long distances. At the generating station a transformer is used to
increase the voltage and reduce the current. In Nigeria, the voltage is increased to
350 kV and an extra-high-voltage (EHV) line transmits the generator-produced
energy to a distant substation. Such substations are located on the outskirts of large
cities or in the center of several large loads.

The voltage is reduced at the 330 kV/132 kV EHV substation to the high-voltage
level and high-voltage lines transmit the energy to high-voltage substations located
within cities. At the high-voltage substation the voltage is reduced to 66 kV or 33 kV,
as the case may be. Sub-transmission voltage lines connect the high-voltage
substation to many local distribution stations located within cities. Sub-
transmission lines are frequently located along major streets, The voltage is reduced
to 11 kV at the distribution substation. Several distribution lines emanate from each

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distribution substation as overhead or underground lines. Distribution lines (low

voltage distribute the energy along streets.

In the Nigerian electric power system, there’s installed capacity of approximately

6000MWe through a number of hydro (Kainji, Jebba, Shiroro), and thermal stations
(Egbin, Ughelli, Afam, Sapele). The transmission voltage levels are 330KV for the
grid transmission; 132KV for the sub-transmission lines, whilst the 33kV, 11KV and
lower voltages constitute the distribution networks. The System normal frequency
is 50Hz.

Table 1.1 Transmission lines on the basis

TABLE 1.2 Electricity Production, Consumption and Capacity in Nigeria

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Substations constitute a very fundamental component of the transmission grid.

They have three chief functions: they are the interconnection buses for lines, the
transformation nodes that feed the distribution networks that reach consumers, and
the centers where system measurement, protection, interruption, and dispatch
equipment are sited. Typically, several high-voltage lines feed into the substation,
which steps the voltage down and sends the resulting current over the outgoing
(lower voltage) transmission or distribution lines. Materially, the substation is
structured around thick bars to which the various lines connect. Circuit opening and
closing facilities ensure the connection and disconnection operations needed for
dispatch, configuration changes, or the isolation of failed lines or other elements.
There is a wide variety of substation configurations. Busbar numbers and
arrangement (single, split, double, or triple bar substations, with or without transfer
bars, or ring-shaped) and the number of circuit breaker and dispatch devices per
outgoing or incoming line determine the configuration type. Increasing the number
of such devices increases substation costs but enhances safety, preventing such
anomalies as momentary downstream outages due to simple dispatching
operations.
The most representative technological facility in substations is the transformer,
which raises or lowers voltage.

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1.3 Distribution Systems

The physical structure of most power systems consists of generation facilities
feeding bulk power into a high-voltage bulk transmission network that in turn
serves any number of distribution substations. A typical distribution substation will
serve from one to as many as ten feeder circuits. A typical feeder circuit may serve
numerous loads of all types. A light to medium industrial customer may take service
from the distribution feeder circuit primary, while a large industrial load complex
may take service directly from the bulk transmission system. All other customers,
including residential and commercial, are typically served from the secondary of
distribution transformers that are in turn connected to a distribution feeder circuit.
The substations normally house circuit breakers that protect the feeders, that is,
lines running to other transformer stations where the voltage is stepped down again
to supply low-voltage power, in our case in Nigeria, 110V, to residential customers,
wholesalers, and retailers, etc. Consumers connect into the system at the voltage
level best suited to the scale of consumption.

Figure 1.4 Representative portion of a typical power system configuration

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1.4 Electric Power Utilization

Utilization is the ‘‘end result’’ of the generation, transmission, and distribution of
electric power. The energy carried by the transmission and distribution system is
turned into useful work, light, heat, or a combination of these items at the utilization
point. Understanding and characterizing the utilization of electric power is critical
for proper planning and operation of power systems. Improper characterization of
utilization can result of over or under building of power system facilities and
stressing of system equipment beyond design capabilities.
The term load refers to a device or collection of devices that draw energy from the
power system. Individual loads (devices) range from small light bulbs to large
induction motors to arc furnaces.
1.4.1 Basic Load Characterization
A number of terms are used to characterize the magnitude and intensity of loads.
Several such terms are defined and uses outlined below.
Energy — Energy use (over a specified period of time) is a key identifying
parameter for power system loads. Energy use is often recorded for various
portions of the power system (e.g., homes, businesses, feeders, substations,
districts). Utilities report aggregate system energy use over a variety of time frames
(daily, weekly, monthly, and annually).
Metering — Electrical metering deals with two basic quantities: energy and power.
Energy is equivalent to work. Power is the rate of doing work. Power applied (or
consumed) for any length of time is energy. In mathematical terms, power
integrated over time is energy. The basic electrical unit of energy is the watthour.
The basic unit of power is the watt. The watthour meter measures energy (in
watthours), while the wattmeter measures the rate of energy, power (in watthours
per hour or simply watts). For a constant power level, power multiplied by time is
energy. For example, a watthour meter connected for two hours in a circuit using
500 watts (500 watthours per hour) will register 1000 watthours.
Demand — Loads require specific amounts of energy over short periods of time.
Demand is a measure of this energy and is expressed in terms of power (kilowatts
or Megawatts). Instantaneous demand is the peak instantaneous power use of a
device, facility, or system. Demand, as commonly referred to in utility discussions, is
an integrated demand value, most often integrated over 10, 15, or 30 min.

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Integrated demand values are determined by dividing the energy used by the time
interval of measurement or the demand interval.
Demand Factor — Demand factor is a ratio of the maximum demand to the total
connected load of a system or the part of the system under consideration. Demand
factor is often used to express the expected diversity of individual loads within a
facility prior to construction. Use of demand factors allows facility power system
equipment to be sized appropriately for the expected loads
Load Factor — Load factor is similar to demand factor and is calculated from the
energy use, the demand, and the period of time associated with the measurement. A
high load factor is typically desirable, indicating that a load or group of loads
operates near its peak most of the time, allowing the greatest benefit to be derived
from any facilities installed to serve the load.
Energy use
Load factor= (1.1)
Demand × Time

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1.4.2 Load Curves and Load Duration

Load curves and load duration curves graphically convey very detailed information
about the characteristics of loads over time. Load curves typically display the load of
a customer class, feeder, or other portion of a power system over a 24-hour period.
Load duration curves display the cumulative amount of time that load levels are
experienced over a period of time.
The curves themselves represent the demand of a certain class of customers or
portion of the system. The area under the curve represents the corresponding
energy use over the time period under consideration. Load curves provide easily
interpreted information regarding the peak load duration as well as the variation
between minimum and maximum load levels. Load curves provide key information
for daily load forecasts allowing planners and operators to ensure system capacity is
available to meet customer needs.

Figure 1.5 Load curve for commercial customer

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ASSIGNMENT: Discuss common faults in distribution systems and the protective

and control devices used to mitigate these faults. SUBMIT NEXT CLASS (16/04/21)

EEE 311 COURSEWARE 2019/2020