Optimal Foraging Theory
By: Christina Ceballos
Peer Review Reflection
It was helpful to see how other readers interpreted the information that I was
trying to educate them about. One helpful suggestion given by Joann Lam was to
rewrite some sentences that lacked a clear meaning and required rereading multiple
times to understand the message. Afterwards I made sure to reread the sentences I
wrote to make sure they made sense. Other helpful suggestions that were given by
Daniela Hernandez and Miles Austin was some changes to the formatting of the
definition. The location of the incorrectly titled image’s location could be better improved
by moving it down so the text is not broken up in difficult to understand sections. I
moved the image off to the side of the paper so that the text was not so broken up.
General Overview
The optimal foraging theory (hereby referred to as OFT) is a theory in behavioral
ecology which quantifies the profitability of prey consumed by a predator in relation to
the amount of time it takes to hunt the prey. This is a formula that measures the amount
of energy it takes for the organism to hunt and how long it takes for the prey to be
hunted. The goal of OFT is for the organism to use the least amount of energy to
capture the most profitable prey. A profitable prey is defined as containing the most
nutrients, vitamins, and protein. The purpose of OFT is for predators to be able to
maximize the amount of nutrition they receive for the effort they input when hunting a
prey.
Optimal Foraging Model
To construct an optimal foraging model (hereby referred to as OFM), the
environmental factors, time spent foraging, and the prey that was captured for
consumption are needed (Irons & et. al, 1986). Figure 1 perfectly represents how the
OFM is conceived. It is broken down into the amount of time it takes for the organism to
capture their prey compared to the amount of
nutrients present in their prey (Webster, 1941). If it
takes a long time for the prey to be captured, then the
prey’s nutritional value should fall along the line where
the nutritious value is above the nutrient level of a
prey that takes a short travel time to hunt in order for
this outing to be in align with the OFT. The straight
horizontal lines colored in blue, and orange are there to Figure 1. This graph compares the
maximum amount of energy an organism
represent the coefficient of determination. Or in simpler should expend depending on the
profitability of their prey choice (Irons,
terms, the R squared value, which is a statistical exam 1986).
that aims to measure how accurate the regression on the
linear model is. In regards for the blue and orange lines, those are there to symbolize
the amount of energy an organism can obtain depending on the time they spend
foraging. The blue line represents the energy intake an organism can have when they
forage for a short period of time. The same applies for the orange line which represents
the energy received when foraging for a long time period.
This is so that the predator will be able to have the maximum amount of net
energy gain for the effort and stress the predator went through to get their meal.
Organisms that have a balance between the food they consume and the time they
forage will have a higher fitness rate. This is an organism’s ability to pass on their
genetic material to their very own offspring through reproduction. Those that are able to
conserve their energy and divert it to the most efficient locations will have the ability to
reproduce at more successful rates. This is because the body can support more life
forms within itself. When species are able to save some energy on hunting, they are
then able to divert that saved energy into other tasks such as mating, caring for their
young, or defending their territory from foreign invaders.
Types of Predators that Utilize OFT through different methods
Grazers- this branch of predators are generally
herbivores. Though some grazers can be
omnivorous, meaning that they eat both plants and
meat. Grazers are unique in that they consume a
small percentage of the prey that they have
captured. They do not have the intention to kill the
animal; an example of this would be a mosquito.
Carnivores- these are organisms that primarily
Figure 2. This cartoon illustrates
how the foxes are going to use a
consume meat and other organisms. An example of
small amount of energy to hunt by
this would be a hawk that eats snakes, smaller
waiting in front of a deer crossing
sign; a guarantee that deer will
birds, and small rodents.
cross by.
Parasites- organisms that directly feed off their host and the host does not receive any
benefits. An example of this is a flea ingesting blood from a dog to intake the vitamins
and proteins from the dog’s blood.
Parasitoids- these are consumers are usually insects like wasps, that live in close
proximity to their host. Eventually leading to the death of their host since the host’s body
has been taken over by the insect.
Application of OFT
An example of the OFT could be described using a lion. In the African savannahs
male lions sleep for anywhere between sixteen and twenty hours a day (Hockey 2015).
Though in order for them to survive, they must hunt large profitable prey like zebras or
gazelles that contain around 175 calories per gram. So, if they were to go hunting it
would have to be for a good reason and not for trivial reasons because that would be a
waste of their precious energy resources. Lions hunt larger animals since they need
more nutrients to sustain themselves and it is more profitable to hunt one large animal
instead of several smaller ones. The larger they are the greater the amount of protein,
which can range anywhere from 28-35 grams per 10 pounds. Whereas smaller animals
might range from 10-15 grams of protein. Everyday male and female lions only have
15,00 kcal of energy to use while hunting. The amount of energy that it would take for
lions to hunt many small preys, would only tire out the lion to the point where it would be
too much work for such a small profit.
Real World Research
Currently Christina Ceballos is working with Dr. Jennifer Burnaford on a research
project that is designed to investigate the effects that humans have in the foraging
habits of the Black oystercatchers (Haematopus
bachmani) (hereby referred to as BOC) at Dana
Point and Laguna Beach. Ultimately, after Christina
Ceballos conducts several behavioral surveys, she
will calculate if the BOC are engaging in the optimal
foraging strategy.
The purpose of this project is to ensure that the Figure 3. An image of a Black
oystercatcher feeding on a small
BOC are utilizing the best of their resources while using fish in a stream.
the least amount of energy so that they can use that energy in more efficient ways
(Russell 2012). The effect of humans visiting the intertidal zone will have a large impact
on the habitat sustainability and impact the black oystercatcher’s ability to forage. The
presence of humans might deter them since they might consider their safety threatened.
At the end of the project, she hopes to learn more about ways that us humans
can change our habits so that we can be better at protecting our wildlife and
ecosystems. The changes might range from closing certain sections of the intertidal
zones at the times when the birds forage, to providing the birds with a greater amount of
food.
Reference list
o Hockey, P.A.R., and L.G. Underhill. 2015. Diet of the African black oystercatcher
on rocky shores: spatial, temporal and sex-related variation. South African
Journal of Zoology. 19(1):1-11.
o Irons, D. B., R. G. Anthony, and J. A. Estes. 1986. Foraging strategies of the
Glaucous-Winged Gulls in a Rocky Intertidal Community. Ecology. 67(6):1460-
1474.
o Matthew Clark. (2013). Hunting Lions. The Antioch Review, 71(1), 59–71.
o Russell, B.D., and Connell S.D. 2012. Origins and consequences of global and
local stressors: incorporating climatic and non-climatic phenomena that buffer or
accelerate
ecological change. Mar Biol. 159(11):2646–2652.
o Webster, J.D., 1941.The feeding habits of the black oystercatcher in North
America. Condor. 43(4):156–167.
