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UNIT IV CONTROL OF GASEOUS CONTAMINANTS
 
Factors affecting Selection of Control Equipment – Working principle - absorption,
adsorption, condensation, incineration, bio filters – Process control and Monitoring.

Introduction

The principle gaseous pollutants of concern in air pollutions are SO X, NOX, CO, the
hydrocarbons, and other organic and inorganic gases. In general these emissions may
be controlled by absorption, adsorption and incineration.
For example,
 SO2 may be absorbed using a solution of lime in water;
 hydrocarbons may be absorbed in activated carbon or incinerated; and
 CO may be completely burned to CO2.
Before an absorption or adsorption unit is designed there should be a match between
the absorbent or adsorbent material and the solute to be removed.

General methods

There are few general methods by which gaseous pollutants can be removed from the
industrial gaseous effluent stream.
1. Sorption of gaseous pollutants by absorption in a liquid
2. Adsorption on a solid
3. Decomposition or conversion of the pollutant, from toxic form to non-toxic stable
form, chemically either by combustion or by catalytic incineration.

Factors affecting Selection of Control Equipment 

Selection Considerations

While there are a wide variety of air pollution control equipment and systems available,
the suitability of each type in mitigating the amount of chemicals, vapors, and dust
emitted into the atmosphere and filtering and purifying the air within the work
environment is dependent on several factors. Some of the considerations that industry
professionals should keep in mind when choosing an air pollution control device include:

 The type(s) of air pollutant(s) needing removal

 Pollutant removal and reduction efficiencies
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Table 1 – Based on Pollutants Removed

Type of Control Types of Pollutants Examples of Pollutants

Equipment Removed
Scrubbers
Dry Scrubbers Gaseous compounds  Acid gases
 Hydrocarbon
compounds
 Heavy metals
 E.g., sulfur dioxide,
PAHs, hydrofluoric
acid, hydrochloric
acid, etc.

Wet Scrubbers Gaseous  Water-soluble

compounds; PM compounds
 Acid and alkaline gas
 VOCs
 Vapor
 Odorous compounds
 Dust

Air Filters
Mist Collectors Gaseous compounds  Vapor
 Mist
 Smoke
 Acid gas
 E.g., oil, water, etc.

Incinerators
Thermal Oxidizers Gaseous  VOCs
compounds; PM  Hydrocarbon
compounds
 Fumes
 Odorous and organic
compounds
 Solid wastes
 Soot

Catalytic Oxidizers Gaseous  VOCs

compounds; PM  Hydrocarbon
compounds
 Soot
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Catalytic Reactors Gaseous compounds  NOx (primarily)

 Other VOCs and
gases

Biofilters Gaseous compounds  Water-soluble

compounds
 VOCs
 Organic HAP
 Odorous compounds

 Some air pollution control devices, such as dry scrubbers and catalytic
converters, are more suitable for use in reducing gaseous compounds, while
others, such as air filters and electrostatic precipitators, are better employed for
collecting particulate matter.
 Other types of control equipment—e.g., wet scrubbers and incinerators—can
manage both gas and PM pollutants.
 The properties of the pollutants—e.g., acidity, alkalinity, moisture content, solubility,
chemical composition, etc.—also help determine the suitability of employing a
particular air pollution control device.

Table 1, above, indicates the type(s) of pollutant(s) each device can collect, convert, or
combust. Additionally, the table provides a few examples of the pollutants handled.

Table 2 – Filtration Efficiencies

Type of Control Equipment Control Efficiency

Scrubbers -
Dry Scrubbers Up to 99% (depending on gas compound); e.g.,
50% for mercury; 95% for sulfur dioxide
Wet Scrubbers 70–99% (for gas, depending on equip. model and
gas compound)

99% (for PM, depending on equip. model and

particulate size)
Air Filters -
Fabric Filters (Baghouses) 99.99% (even for fine particulates)
Cyclones 90% (for particulates ≥10–20 μm in diameter)
Electrostatic Precipitators 99+% (for particulates ≥1.0 μm in diameter)
Mist Collectors 99.9% (for droplets ≥0.3 μm in diameter)
Incinerators -
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Thermal Oxidizers 99.99% (for VOCs, 99.99+%)

Catalytic Oxidizers 99.99%
Catalytic Reactors 90+% (for NOx)

99.99% (for other gaseous pollutants)

Biofilters 98+%

 In regards to air pollution control equipment, efficiency refers to the amount of

emissions collected, controlled, reduced, or eliminated by a device represented by a
percentage value.
 Typically, when comparing air pollution control devices, industry professionals
consider the capture efficiency—i.e., the percentage of emissions gathered and
directed to a control device—and the control efficiency—i.e., the percentage of air
pollutants removed from an emission stream under ideal conditions.

The control efficiency value can be represented by the following equation:

 Whereas the uncontrolled pollutant emission rate represents the total value amount
of the pollutant concentration within emissions and exhaust produced by an
industrial application multiplied by the volumetric flow rate, the controlled pollutant
emission rate represents the amount of pollutant removed from the emissions and
exhaust by the air pollution control device.
 While control efficiencies provide a metric of the maximum amount of pollutants
which can be controlled by a device, a variety of conditions and circumstances can
affect a device’s overall (i.e., actual) efficiency, including the capture efficiency, age
and condition of the device, type(s) of pollutant(s) and its/their properties, pollutant
stream flow rates and concentrations, temperature, humidity, and device surface
area and volume.
 While changes to some factors can lead to decreases in overall efficiency, changes
to others can lead to increases in efficiency. For example, overall efficiency can be
represented by the following equation:

If the capture efficiency value worsens, overall control efficiency decreases, whereas if
the capture efficiency improves, overall control efficiency increases.
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Table 3 – Additional Considerations and Restrictions for Air Pollution Control

Equipment

Type of Control Device Considerations and Restrictions

Equipment
Scrubbers -
Dry Scrubbers  Gas streams should be cooled and diluted first to
allow for optimal pollutant removal conditions
 Spent reagents require specialized disposal

Wet Scrubbers  Liquid reagent must come into direct contact with
pollutant to allow for removal
 Optimal type determined by pollutant being
removed (gas or PM); e.g., PM is removed with
spray towers scrubbers, and gas is removed with
packed bed scrubbers
 For PM: smaller particle size results in lower
efficiency

Air Filters -
Fabric Filters  Abrasion, high temperatures (>290°C), and
(Baghouses) chemicals can damage filtration media
 Requires periodic cleaning of filtration media
 Available with catalytic filters bags for additional
chemical filtration
 High resistivity PM does not affect efficiency

Cyclones  Smaller particle size results in lower efficiency

 Capable of handling high gas stream
temperatures
 Generally used in conjunction with other air
pollution control devices

Electrostatic Precipitators  Cannot handle high or low resistivity particles

(requires moderate resistivity)
 PM size does not significantly affect efficiency

Mist Collectors  Cannot handle gas streams with large particulate

matter
 Limited to handling gas stream temperatures
<120°F
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Incinerators -
Thermal Oxidizers  Not ideal for halogen or sulfur compounds due to
the formation of corrosive gases

Catalytic Oxidizers  Older catalysts cannot handle gas streams with

PM

Catalytic Reactors  Catalyst contamination can reduce efficiency

 Cannot handle gas streams with PM

Biofilters 1. Pollutants must be water-soluble

 In addition to the type of air pollutant needing removal and the control efficiency of
an air pollution control device, industry professionals may also consider other device
characteristics when choosing equipment for their air pollution control application.

Table 3, above, notes some of the additional considerations and restrictions for each
type of air pollution control device.

Control of Gaseous Contaminants

There are a variety of approaches to remove gaseous pollutants from effluent streams:
absorption, adsorption, condensation, catalytic conversion, incineration and a few
new technologies.

ABSORPTION:
Absorption is the process in which a fluid is dissolved by a liquid or a solid
General Principle

Absorption is an operation involving selective mass transfer of a soluble vapor

component to a solvent liquid in a device that promotes intimate contact between the
gas and the liquid. The separation principle involved is the preferential solubility of a
gaseous component in the liquid. So-called physical absorption takes use of the
remarkable solubility of a gaseous pollutant in the solvent, and involves only the
dissolution process. For example, water is, by itself, quite efficient for removing soluble
acidic gaseous such as HCl, HF and the soluble basic gas NH3.
Gases of very little solubility such as SOx, H 2S and NOx, can be absorbed readily in an
alkaline solution such as NaOH. Thus, when water is used as the solvent, it may contain
added species, such as acids, alkaline, oxidants, or reducing agents to react with the
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gas being absorbed and enhance its solubility.

The equilibrium vapor pressure can be decreased almost zero by adding a chemical
reactant to the absorbing liquid. This in effect ties up or chemically changes the solute
gas, since the driving force for absorption is the difference between the partial pressure
of the soluble gas in the gas mixture and its equilibrium vapor pressure just above the
surface of the liquid. Due to chemical reactions involved, such an operation is called
chemical absorption.

Both in the physical and chemical absorption, the mechanism by which the species is
removed from the gas consists of three steps that occur in series: (1) diffusion of the
pollutant molecules through the gas to the surface of absorbing liquid, (2) dissolution
into the liquid at the interface, and (3) diffusion of the dissolved species from the
interface into the bulk of the liquid.

In the chemical absorption, the dissolved species reacts with the liquid species during its
diffusion and/or residence in the bulk. Figure 1 gives the scheme of the absorption
process.

Figure 1: The scheme of absorption process: two film model

The frequently encountered examples of the application of gas absorption in air

pollution control include:

1. Control of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from combustion sources

2. Removal and recovery of ammonia in fertilizer manufacture
3. Removal of hydrogen fluoride from glass furnace exhaust
4. Control of odorous gases from rendering plants
5. Recovery of water-soluble solvents such as acetone and methyl alcohol.

Gas Absorption Equipment

To achieve the high performance of absorption and low cost of both capital and
operation, the effective absorption equipment tends to meet the following criteria.
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 large contact surface between gas and liquid;

 enough contact time between two phases;
 highly turbulent mixing of gas and liquid;
 steady operation and appropriate flexibility;
 low pressure drop;
 simple device easy for maintenance;
 Anti-corrosion and anti-congestion while necessary.

There are two common types of towers, plate and packed, make effective pollution
control devices. They utilize simple mechanical methods of achieving good contacting
between the gas and liquid phases to provide favorable overall mass transfer.

Removal of pollutants by absorption of gases by moving liquid drops

Liquid absorption is one of the most versatile techniques used for reducing the pollutant
levels from various industrial gaseous effluents. In this process due to a concentration
gradient the pollutant from the gaseous phase is transferred across the gas-liquid
interface and the concentration decreases in the direction of mass transfer. Thus the
basic collection mechanism is diffusion.

Theory of absorption of gases by moving liquid drops

In this process, one constituent of a mixture in gaseous phase diffuses into a liquid due
to a concentration gradient. This is a process in which mass transfer of the pollutant gas
takes place from point of higher concentration to point of lower concentration by
diffusion. The removal of the pollutant gas takes place in three steps:

1. Diffusion of the pollutant gas to the surface of the liquid.

2. Transfer across the gas/liquid interface (dissolution).
3. Diffusion of the dissolved gas away from the interface into the liquid.

Control of gaseous Pollutants

The important devices, which are used to control emission of gaseous pollutants in
industries, are:

Absorption Units, like; spray towers, plate towers, packed towers, and venturi
scrubbers.
 Out of these devices, spray towers and venturi scrubbers can simultaneously
be used for removing particulate pollutants.
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 Scrubbers are generally less effective in removing gaseous pollutants than

towers, but then towers get frequently clogged by particulate matter.
 Other effective devices for removing gaseous pollutants are plate towers and
packed towers.
 These absorption units work on the principle of transfer of the pollutants from the
gas phase to the liquid phase. In other words, the pollutants from the dirty gas
get absorbed in the liquid, through which the gas is made to pass, in these units.
Such absorption takes place by diffusion as well as dissolution.
 The effectiveness of those devices, naturally, depends upon the solvent (liquid),
through which the gas is made to pass. When water is used as the solute, the
removal is restricted only to a few inorganic gases, such as NH 3, Cl2, and SO2.
 All such absorbent units must be properly designed for the given conditions,
before one of them is adopted. Care should also be taken

PRINCIPLE:
The pollutant gas (absorbate) when brought in contact with a solvent or liquid
(absorbent) gets adsorbed. The process of absorption may occur due to physical or
chemical phenomena. Absorption process is used to control the pollutants SO 2, NO2,
H2S and hydrocarbons. Ammonia is used as an absorbent for controlling SO 2.
Absorption is a process where transfer of a gaseous component from gas phase to
liquid phase takes place. More specifically in air pollution control, absorption involves
the removal of objectionable gaseous contaminant from a process stream by dissolving
them in liquid. Common terms used in absorption process are as follows:

1. Absorbent: the liquid, usually water, into which contaminant is absorbed

2. Absorbate: or solute the gaseous contaminant is being absorbed, such as SO2,
H2S, etc.
3. Carrier gas: the inert portion of gas stream, usually air, from which the
contaminant is to be removed.
4. Interface: the area where the gas phase and the absorbent contact each other.
5. Solubility: the capability of the gas to be dissolved in a liquid. Absorption
equipment used to remove gaseous contaminant is referred to as absorber or
wet scrubber.

Wet scrubbers usually cannot be operated to optimize simultaneous removal of both

gases and particulate matter. In designing absorber from gaseous emissions, optimum
mass transfer can be accomplished by:

1. Providing a large interfacial contact area.

2. Providing good mixing between gas and liquid phases.
3. Allowing sufficient residence or contact time between the phases.
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4. Ensuring a high degree of solubility of the contaminant in the absorbent.

MECHANISM OF ABSORPTION

The gaseous contaminant are removed in absorption process by passing (contacting) a

contaminated laden gas through a liquid. The following three steps occur during this
process:

Step1: The pollutant diffuses from bulk area of the gas phases to the gas liquid
interface.
Step2: Gaseous pollutant transfer across the interface to the liquid phase. This
second step is extremely rapid.
Step3: The pollutant diffuses bulk area of the liquid, making room for additional
gas molecule to absorb. The rate of mass transfer (absorption) is
dependent on the diffusion rate in either the gas phase or
liquid phase.

The diffusion rate of gaseous pollutant molecule through a gas is always faster than its
diffusion rate through the liquid because molecules in the gas are further apart than are
molecules in the liquid. However the mass transfer rate depends primarily upon the
solubility of the pollutant in the liquid.

SOLUBILITY

Solubility of contaminant affects the amount of contaminant that can be adsorbed. It is a

function of both the temperature and, to a lesser extent pressure of a system. As we
increase the temperature of the system the amount of gas that can be absorbed by
liquid decreases, while as with increasing the pressure generally absorption increases.
Under certain conditions, Henry’s law may also be used to express equilibrium solubility
of gas liquid system.

Henry's law

Henry's law is one of the gas laws formulated by William Henry in 1803 and states:

"At a constant temperature, the amount of a given gas that dissolves in a given type and
volume of liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas in equilibrium
with that liquid."

An equivalent way of stating the law is that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid:
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C=kPgas

where

C - is the solubility of a gas at a fixed temperature in a particular solvent (in units of M

or mL gas/L)

k - is Henry's law constant (often in units of M/atm)

Pgas - is the partial pressure of the gas (often in units of atm)

Restriction on Henry’s law:

1. Henry’s law can be used to predict solubility only when the equilibrium line is straight.
2. Henry’s law does not hold good for gases that react or dissociate upon dissolution.

ABSORPTION TECHNIQUES:

Different types of absorbers are used for control of gaseous pollutants. These include
spray towers, plate or tray towers and packed towers. The gas absorption units are so
designed that there occurs an intimate contact between the gas and the liquid. This will
ensure optimal absorption of gas into the liquid.

1. SPRAY TOWER:

Spray towers or spray chambers are a form of pollution control technology. They consist
of empty cylindrical vessels made of steel or plastic and nozzles that spray liquid into
the vessels. The inlet gas stream usually enters the bottom of the tower and moves
upward, while liquid is sprayed downward from one or more levels. This flow of inlet gas
and liquid in the opposite direction is called countercurrent flow. Fig. shows a typical
countercurrent-flow spray tower. This type of technology is a part of the group of air
pollution controls collectively referred to as wet scrubbers.

Countercurrent flow exposes the outlet gas with the lowest pollutant concentration to the
freshest scrubbing liquid. Many nozzles are placed across the tower at different heights
to spray all of the gas as it moves up through the tower. The reason for using many
nozzles is to maximize the number of fine droplets impacting the pollutant particles and
to provide a large surface area for absorbing gas.
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Theoretically, the smaller the droplets formed, the higher the collection efficiency
achieved for both gaseous and particulate pollutants. However, the liquid droplets must
be large enough to not be carried out of the scrubber by the scrubbed outlet gas stream.
Therefore, spray towers use nozzles to produce droplets that are usually 500 to 1,000
µm in diameter. Although small in size, these droplets are large compared to those
created in the venturi scrubbers that are 10 to 50 µm. The gas velocity is kept low, from
0.3 to 1.2 m/s (1 to 4 ft/s) to prevent excess droplets from being carried out of the tower.

In order to maintain low gas velocities, spray towers must be larger than other
scrubbers that handle they tend to agglomerate or hit the walls of the tower.
Consequently, the total liquid surface area for contact is reduced, reducing the
collection efficiency of the scrubber.

Gas Collection

Spray towers can be used for gas absorption, but they are not as effective as packed or
plate towers. Spray towers can be very effective in removing pollutants if the pollutants
are highly soluble or if a chemical reagent is added to the liquid.

For example, spray towers are used to remove HCl gas from the tail-gas exhaust in
manufacturing hydrochloric acid. In the production of superphosphate used in
manufacturing fertilizer, SiF4 and HF gases are vented from various points in the
processes. Spray towers have been used to remove these highly soluble compounds.
Spray towers are also used for odor removal in bone meal and tallow manufacturing
industries by scrubbing the exhaust gases with a solution of KMnO 4.
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Because of their ability to handle large gas volumes in corrosive atmospheres, spray
towers are also used in a number of flue gas desulfurization systems as the first or
second stage in the pollutant removal process.

In a spray tower, absorption can be increased by decreasing the size of the liquid
droplets and/or increasing the liquid-to-gas ratio (L/G). However, to accomplish either of
these, an increase in both power consumed and operating cost is required. In addition,
the physical size of the spray tower will limit the amount of liquid and the size of droplets
that can be used.

2. PACKED TOWER:

In packed tower the contact time between vapour and liquid is increased by introducing
packing. The packing material has a large surface to volume ratio and a large void ratio
that offers minimum resistance to gas flow. Generally packed tower are operated
counter currently, with gas entering at the bottom of tower and liquid entering from the
top. Liquid flows over the surface of the packing in a thin film causing continuous
contact with the gases. Packed towers are highly efficient but they become easily
clogged when gas with high particulate loads are introduced.

Packed Tower is designed to remove liquor that absorbs or chemically reacts with the
pollutants. Some vapors can be simply removed by condensation through the cooling
effect of the circulating liquid. The cleaned air is then discharged to the atmosphere and
the contaminated scrubbing liquor is either disposed of in an approved manner or
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chemically treated and recycled. In some cases, the collected contaminants can be
recovered and reused.

In this tower processing, a packed bed is a hollow tube, pipe, or other vessel that is
filled with a packing material. The packing can be randomly filled with small objects like
Raschig rings or else it can be a specifically designed structured packing. Packed beds
may also contain catalyst particles or adsorbents such as zeolite pellets, granular
activated carbon, etc.

3. PLATE OR TRAY TOWER

Bubble cap plate tower

Plate scrubbers are counter-flow devices in which liquid moves downward and gas
moves upward. Liquid-gas contact is obtained in a mixing zone consisting of a plate with
some type of openings on it.

Openings can be perforations, valves, or slots. Often multiple plates are used. Liquid
flows downward from plate to plate. The simplest plate is the perforated plate or slotted
plate. Liquid flows over the perforations. The velocity of the air stream is sufficient to
prevent weeping (liquid flow) through the openings. The action creates a frothing
column above the plate. Liquid flows across the plate to a downcomer and then
downward to the next plate.

Bubble cap towers utilize the principle just described, except that the perforations are
covered with caps. Air bubbles out of slots or notches in the cap. This arrangement
causes effective gas dispersion and prevents liquid from weeping if the flow is
momentarily reduced. Plate towers have been widely used for mass transfer but also
have been used for particulate collection.
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Bubble Cap

Absorption Efficiency
Plate towers are effective for absorption. Efficiency can be increased by the addition of
plates and tower height. The pressure drop across the plate affects the efficiency.
Greater contact is achieved with higher pressure drop per plate. Liquid flows can also
be increased to enhance absorption efficiency.

Suitable solutions for various gaseous pollutants

S. No Gaseous pollutants Suitable solutions

1 Sulphur Dioxide NaOH, Na2SO4 & MgO
2 Nitrogen oxides Ca(OH)2 & Mg(OH)2
3 HCl Water & Ammonia solution
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ADSORPTION

“Adsorption is the process in which atoms, ions or molecules from a substance (it could
be gas, liquid or dissolved solid) adhere to a surface of the adsorbent”.

Characteristics of Adsorption

 The technique is based on the reaction of gases on the solid adsorbents.

 The adsorption may be physical or chemical.
 The bond may be physical binding where electrostatic forces hold the pollutant gas
or chemical bonding by reaction with the surface.
 In this method gas is passed through a bed of adsorbents packed in the specially
designed towers to allow the maximum contact between the two.
 Physical adsorption depends on the temperature and pressure conditions.
Adsorption is promoted by increase in pressure and decrease in temperature
 Chemical adsorption depends on the reactivity of the gases and their bond forming
capacity with the surface of the adsorbent, which provides surface for the reaction.
 Adsorbent can be regenerated for continuous reuse.
 In some cases it is not economical to regenerate, it better to dispose the pollutant
together with the adsorbent
 Activated carbon, molecular sieves, silica gel and activated alumina are the most
common adsorbents.
 Activated carbon has a large surface area per unit weight or volume of solid. For use
in a fixed bed or air or gas purification, the particles must be so sized that they
impose little difference to flow for a given sorption efficiency; the range of 4-20 mesh
encompasses the predominant portion of carbon for such use.
 The adsorption process is endothermic while desorption process is exothermic
and both are reversible.
 Gases with higher molecular weight and lower boiling points are preferentially
adsorbed and these displace gases which are less preferentially adsorbed effecting
separation. For example organic vapour in air can be preferentially adsorbed by
activated carbon than air.

Adsorption is used when

1. The pollutant gas is incombustible or difficult to burn.

2. The pollutant is sufficiently valuable to warrant recovery.
3. The pollutant is in very dilute concentration in the exhaust system.
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Gaseous pollutant control system based on adsorption on solids

Certain solids have different affinities for different Gases. If a gaseous mixture comes in
contact with an adsorbent solid, some of the components of the gas stream will
concentrate on the surface of the solid and separate from the main stream. There are
basically three types of adsorption processes.

1. The first type is physical adsorption or condensation of toxic or obnoxious

gases and vapors on solids at temperatures above the dew point.
2. The second type is chemical adsorption or chemisorptions, where a chemical
bonding occurs between the adsorbed pollutant and the solid adsorbent.
3. The last type is ion exchange solids, where an exchange of ions takes place.
The solids give up ions for the ions they adsorb from the fluid stream. This is
mostly applied in water softening where the solids give up sodium ions to the
water in exchange for magnesium and calcium ions, and this exchange
decreases or removes water hardness.

Of the three types of adsorption, physical adsorption is the most important in air
pollution control.

An adsorption processing unit consists of number of vessels containing the solid

adsorbent. The polluted gas passes through one vessel until the adsorbent is saturated
with pollutants, and then the gas is switched to another vessel. Regeneration of the
adsorbent is accomplished by steaming the first vessel to drive out the adsorbed
pollutants; steam and pollutants are collected, condensed and separated. The pollutants
may be treated further to give some useful-by-products and the condensed steam may
be disposed of safely as waste water.
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Fig. Adsorption system

The amount of pollutants which may be picked up could reach 25% of the weight of the
adsorbent. The effectiveness of the adsorbent is judged by the concentration of the
pollutants in the exit air stream. When the values of inlet and outlet concentrations
approach one another, it is high time to start the regeneration process. The
regeneration process is similar to adsorption process except that the driving force is
acting in opposite direction. Various types of adsorption systems practiced for industrial
operations are shown in following Fig.

Fig: Regeneration of an adsorption unit

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Fig: Two stage regenerative system

Adsorber 1 is adsorbing; Adsorber 2 is streaming; after number 1 is saturated and
number 2 is clean, their functions are reversed.

Fluidized adsorber

When a gas passed upward through a bed of granular adsorbent, the pressure drop
imposed by the bed is in opposition to its own weight. If the gas velocity is increased
to a sufficient value, the pressure drop equals the weight of the bed and the solids
begin to move. This motion is the beginning of fluidization. At higher gas velocities
(about 76.2 m/min) the granular adsorbent particles may be maintained at constant
motion. The pressure drop required for fluidization depends on the bed depth and
the densities of the gas stream and of the solid particles.
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Activated Carbon Adsorption system for air pollution control

The basic principle of operation for carbon adsorption is the mass transfer and
adsorption of a molecule from a liquid or gas into solid surface. Activated carbon is
manufactured in such a way as to produce extremely porous carbon particles whose
internal surface area is very large. This porous structure attracts and holds organic
molecules as well as certain metal and inorganic molecules.

Adsorption occurs because

(i) The contaminant has low solubility in the waste
(ii) The contaminant has greater affinity for the carbon than for the waste
(iii) A combination of two

The most common carbon adsorption processes are the granular activated carbon
(GAC) which is used in packed beds, and the powdered activated carbon.
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The activated carbon adsorption process is one of the most frequently applied
technologies for the removal of trace organic compounds from an aqueous solution.
Adsorption is a surface phenomenon in which soluble particles from a solution are
bonded onto a particular substrate. One of the most desirable properties of an
adsorbent is a high surface to volume ratio. Activated carbon ratio ranging from 500 to
1000 m2 /g is a good adsorbent for effective removal of organic compounds.

Carbon adsorption systems are either regenerative or non-regenerative.

1. Regenerative system usually contains more than one carbon bed. As one bed
actively removes pollutants, another bed is being regenerated for future use.
2. Non-regenerative systems have thinner beds of activated carbon. In a non-
regenerative adsorber, the spent carbon is disposed of when it becomes
saturated with the pollutant.

Regenerative system Non-regenerative system

Activated Carbon Treatment Process Applications

 Removal of refractory organic compounds, as well as residual

amounts of inorganic compounds such as nitrogen, sulfides, and
etc.
 Removal of taste and odour compounds
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Multiple fixed bed absorber:

In this, adsorbent is arranged in the form of beds or layers as depicted in Fig. As the
adsorption occurs, the adsorbent gets saturated with the adsorbate. For reuse, the gas
collected on the adsorbent must be removed. If this is not possible, the adsorbent must
be replaced.

CONDENSATION
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Condensation is a process used heavily throughout industry to convert a gas or vapor

to liquid. Any gas can be reduced to a liquid by sufficiently lowering the temperature (or
increasing the pressure).

When the temperature of a gaseous compound is reduced, its condensation occurs.

There are two devices commonly used to control gaseous pollutants, based on the
principle of condensation.

Condensation can be achieved by either increasing the pressure or reducing the

temperature of the gas. Generally, condensation systems operate at a constant
pressure (at the same pressure as the emission source). 

A removal efficiency of 95% is attainable with high inlet gas concentrations. However,

the minimum concentration of organic compounds obtained in the outlet gas effluent is
equal to the saturation concentration at the operation temperature. Chilled
water, brine, refrigerant propylene, and liquid nitrogen can be used as coolants.

Condensers work when the warmer vapor stream contacts a cooling medium. The heat
from the warm gases is transferred to the cooler medium. Then, as the warm gas
stream begins to cool, the kinetic energy of the gas is reduced. Condensation occurs
because the pollutant molecules are slowed and crowded so close together that the
attractive forces between the molecules cause them to condense into a liquid. This
phenomenon is known as the Vander Waals forces.  

Since the more common condensation device in air pollution control is based on
lowering temperatures (as opposed to increasing pressure), there are two different
methods of accomplishing this. Direct contact condensers operate by mixing the
contaminated gas stream with the cooling medium. Indirect (or surface) condensers
work when the contaminated gas stream is kept separate from the coolant medium,
similar to a radiator or heat exchanger. 

Condensation is normally used for the recovery of organic compounds from process or
tank vent gases or from releases during loading. Condensation is used to recover
valuable compounds prior to incineration, or to reduce the organic load entering other
control systems, such as adsorbers or absorbers. Adsorption and absorption processes
benefit from low condenser outlet temperatures.

The advantages of indirect condensation are product recovery, modest space

requirements, and no additional waste generated if the gas stream is dehumidified prior
to the condenser. The start-up and shutdown times of the unit are short. Condensers
 24

can handle nearly any flow stream with adequate concentration of organic compounds

(over 3000 ppm)
 
Disadvantages include corrosion or ice formation if water is allowed to condense in the
system. The incoming gas flow rate and its composition must be reasonably constant to
avoid changes in the temperature.

Characteristics of Condensation

1. Removal efficiency- 50-95%

2. Recovery – yes

3. Unsuitable inlet gas characteristics

(a) Compounds that can polymerize, foul, or solidify in a condenser

(b) Mixtures when recycling is required.

4. Advantages:
(a) High organic concentrations can be treated
(b) Modest space requirements

5. Disadvantages
(a) Explosive hazard
(b) Corrosion and ice formation
(c) Low operating temperatures normally required.

1. Surface condenser:

A more widely used condenser is the surface condenser. These systems are employed
extensively throughout chemical process industries.

Surface condensers are typically shell-and-tube heat exchangers. A condensation unit

generally consists of pre condenser(s) for water removal, condenser, and demister. The
elimination of an explosion hazard when flammable vapors are condensed requires
sophisticated control equipment and an inert operating environment of air tight
construction. Condensation of moisture and possible equipment freezing can be
avoided by desiccant that dries the incoming gas stream. Pre cooling and separation of
the organic compounds from water can be omitted by drying.
 25

Surface condenser flow chart

In this device, the cooling medium is passed through metal tubes over which the gas
with pollutants is passed .The vapour condenses on the surface of the tubes. This gets
collected as a film of liquid which can be drained off.

One of the biggest problems in surface condensers is the accumulation of air or inert

gases, which decrease the cooling capacity.

Advantages of surface condensers

 No direct contact between cooling water and condensate.

 The cooling water is not polluted.
 Manufacturing possible with non-metallic materials (e.g. graphite, PTFE).
 Horizontal or vertical installation.
 Condensation outside and inside of the pipes.
 26

2. Contact condenser:

Contact condensers are usually simple, low cost devices. The condensate usually
cannot be re-used because of contamination by the coolant. This may cause waste
disposal problems. The bulk of contact condensers use indirect or surface designs.

In contact condenser, the cooling medium and the gaseous pollutants are made to have
a direct contact with each other. As the vapors get cooled, they condense and are easily
removed along with the water, and the clean gas comes out from the top of the
condenser.

Gaseous Pollutant control by Incineration or Combustion:

It is a fact that combustion or incineration is a major source of air pollution. And

surprisingly, the same combustion processes effectively serve to control air pollutants.
This is carried out by converting certain pollutants (e.g., hydrocarbons, carbon
monoxide) to carbon dioxide and water.
 27

INCINERATION

Destruction of organic vapour by combustion, called incineration, can be brought about

by one of the following three methods depending upon the nature of the components in
the vapour, their composition and concentration.

1. Direct Flame Combustion

2. Thermal Incineration
3. Catalytic Incineration

The process called incineration or combustion—chemically, rapid oxidation—can be

used to convert VOCs and other gaseous hydrocarbon pollutants to carbon dioxide and
water.

 Incineration of VOCs and hydrocarbon fumes usually is accomplished in a

special incinerator called an afterburner.
 For efficient oxidation during combustion, supply of oxygen, optimal temperature
and time are necessary.
 Incineration is widely used in industry when the fumes from a stack contain toxic
pollutants, especially those with offensive odours.

Combustion process involves three distinct components

1. Fuel : A solid, liquid or gaseous substance with energy rich C-C or C-H bonds
among others, which are broken up during combustion
2. Oxidant : A substance which aids in combustion process by breaking the chemical
bonds allowing the release of heat.
3. Diluent : A substance that does not take part in the combustion process but
acts as carrier of the fuel or the oxidants. Most common diluents is Nitrogen
present in the air

To incinerate is to destroy by combustion process, with or without the aid of a catalyst.

Incineration is widely used in industry when the fumes from a stack contain toxic
pollutants, especially those with offensive odors.

Combustion is an exothermic chemical reaction which usually takes place in air

composed of mainly oxygen and nitrogen. As air contains 21% oxygen and 79% of
nitrogen by volume so for every mole of oxygen supplied through air there are
0.79/0.21 = 3.76 moles of nitrogen and the common combustion reactions involving
carbon & hydrogen can be written as

C + 02 + 3.76 N2 → CO2 + 3.76 N2

 28

H2 + ½ O2 + 1.88 N2 → H20 + 1.88 N2

The above combustion reactions are the stoichiometric equations for combustion
processes assuming complete combustion of fuel which occurs only when each fuel
molecule reacts with oxygen. In view of this for many combustion processes higher
volumes of air than the stoichiometric requirement should be supplied for achieving
complete combustion. In the presence of 50% excess air the actual combustion
reactions taking place can be written as

C + 1.5 O2 + 5.64 N2 → CO2 + 0.5 O2 + 5.64 N2

H2 + 1.5 x ½ O2 + 2.82 N2 → H20 + 0.50 O2 + 2.82 N2

Incomplete combustion may result in the absence of excess air due to less statistical
probability for O2 molecules to react with the carbon resulting in undesirable gaseous
pollutant emissions.

For example in the absence of sufficient excess air the combustion reaction of carbon
can be represented as

C + O2 + 3.76 N2 → 0.8 CO2 + 0.2 CO + 0.1 O2 + 3.76 N2

The exact amount of air to be supplied to any fuel depends upon the characteristics of
the fuel, temperature of the combustion process and the extent of turbulence and is
given by the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio AFR.

The stoichiometrically required air-fuel ratio for any given combustion reaction can be
given by

M air x nair
AFR =
M fuel x nfuel

where Mair = molecular weight of air.

Since normal air has a composition of 21% O2 and 79% N2

M air = 0.21 x 32 + 0.79 x 28 = 28.97

n air = number of moles of air, i.e. the number of moles of O 2 and number of moles of N2

M fuel = molecular weight of fuel

n fuel = number of moles of fuel

 29

28.97 x nair
AFR =
M fuel x nfuel

Heat of combustion

In most industrial and commercial applications of combustion, the products of

combustion leave the flame as hot gases and their heat can be transferred to heat
something.

Fundamental aspects of the combustion process

In all combustion reactions the main components are fuel, oxidizer and ignition which
can be represented as Fuel + Oxidizer + ignition = products of combustion. Excess
air is an important factor for the low pollution content of combustion processes. Lack of
air causes incomplete combustion. Apart from this factor, the following causes can
impair the completeness of combustion and release various types of pollutants:

(a) inadequate mixing of fuel and combustion air (local lack of air)
(b) insufficient pulverizing of solid fuels or atomizing of liquid fuels
(c) sudden cooling of the flame gases through combustion chamber walls
(d) too short residence time at high temperatures
(e) flames burning in lifted condition, escaping of intermediate products from under
the flame base.

During incomplete combustion the following pollutants can be formed and reach the
environment in the form of emissions: carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (C nHm),
oxidized hydrocarbons, and others such as odorous substances and soot (products of
incomplete combustion: PIC).

Carbon monoxide (CO) is the intermediate product in the combustion process of carbon
to CO2, CO oxidation requires a so-called ignition temperature of at least 990 K and
for a complete burn-up a certain residence time at this temperature is required. If
combustion temperature and residence time in the flame are insufficient, or if there is
a lack of air, part of the CO can escape into the exhaust gas. Hence there is a dramatic
increase of the exhaust gases' CO content when there is not enough air.

Types of Incinerations

1. Flare or Direct-flame combustion:

 30

In this device, the waste gases are directly burnt with or without the addition of auxiliary
fuels. Direct-flame combustions are most often used in petrochemical plants and
refineries.

The factors affecting the efficiency and economy of flame combustion are the
temperature of combustion, the time of contact of the gases, the concentration of
oxygen in the gases and turbulence of the gases. The device for direct-flame
incineration is often a conventional burner firing into an enclosure or even into the open,
if practicable.

Petrochemical plants and petroleum refineries make use of vertically oriented open-fired
combustors. These are referred to as flares. Combustible gases are burned in open air,
which produces flare.

For destroying fuel gases which cannot be tackled by any other method, flares are
used. A flare is a combustion process in which a burner open to the atmosphere is kept
at a height (5—100 m from gas) away, from people and other material structures so that
the heat liberated cannot do any damage.

The flare is usually employed to remove hydrocarbons and organic vapours,

odorous compounds in refineries and chemical works. It can also burn gases such
as NH3, HCN or other toxic or dangerous gases. If aromatic hydrocarbons are
present, they burn with smokey flame. This can be avoided by injecting a steam
into the flame, which reacts and forms hydrogen and CO both burn smokelessly.
However, such steam-injected flare are little noisy.

Complete combustion normally takes place in the afterburner provided a temperature

well above 500 oC is maintained there. The afterburner maintains continuous contact of
the vapour-laden gas with the flame from an auxiliary burner. An adequate retention
time of 0.2 S or, more in the combustion zone is provided by proper design of the
afterburner chamber.

Hydrocarbons can be burnt to CO2 and H2O and the exit gas stream is odorless. Direct
flame incineration is the method of choice if two criteria are satisfied. First, the gas
stream must have an energy concentration greater than 3.7 MJ/m3. At this energy
concentration, the gas flame is self-supporting after ignition. Below this point,
supplementary fuel is required. The second-requirement is that none of the byproducts
of combustion be toxic. In some cases the combustion byproduct may be more toxic
than the original pollutant gas.
 31

Fig: Flare Fig: Duct type burner

ADVANTAGES OF FLARE
1. Can be an economical way to dispose of sudden releases of large amounts of
gas;
2. In many cases do not require auxiliary fuel to support combustion; and
3. Can be used to control intermittent or fluctuating waste streams.

DISADVANTAGES OF FLARE
1. Can produce undesirable noise, smoke, heat radiation, and light.
2. Can be a source of SOx, NOx, and CO;
3. Cannot be used to treat waste streams with halogenated compounds; and.
4. Released heat from combustion is lost

2. Thermal Combustion:

This process usually becomes necessary when the gaseous pollutant concentration is
too low, and it is difficult to carry out direct-flame combustion. Thermal combustion is
carried out by a thermal incinerator or after burner. An heat exchanger preheats the
air/gas with gaseous pollutants. This preheated gas is passed over to the incineration
equipped with a burner.
 32

The temperature of the incinerator may be in the range 500-1000°C, and this actually
depends on the nature of the pollutant to be oxidized. Combustion with thermal
incinerators has to be carefully carried out so that the oxidation process is efficient and
complete. Incomplete combustion may produce more pollutants e.g. carbon monoxide.

In general, destruction efficiencies are above 95%. One of the major advantages of
thermal incinerators is the near total destruction of the hazardous waste without any
residual waste being generated. Maintenance of the equipment and the initial cost are
relatively reasonable. However, the main disadvantage is the need for fuels to support
the high temperatures of combustion.

3. Catalytic Combustion:

Some catalytic materials enable oxidation to be carried out in gases that have an
energy content less than 3.7 MJ/m3. Conventionally, the catalyst is placed in beds
similar to adsorption beds. Frequently, the active catalyst is a platinum or a
palladium compound. The supporting lattice is usually a ceramic. Aside from
expense, a major drawback of the catalysts is their susceptibility to poisoning by sulphur
and lead compounds in trace amounts.

By employing a catalyst, the combustion can be made faster and complete, and the
catalyst can be used again and again.

Catalytic combustion has been successfully applied to printing press, varnish cooking,
and asphalt oxidation emissions. A large number of hydrocarbons are catalytically
decomposed to give harmless compounds.

Carbon monoxide can be removed by using copper (Cu2+) catalyst.

 33

Catalyst should be
 Cheap
 Long lasting
 Should be able to function at required temperatures.
 Capable of formed into variety of shapes

Catalytic incineration is the least expensive and flame incineration is the most
expensive. Catalytic incineration destroys organic fumes and renders them harmless by
giving carbon dioxide and water as products of combustion. Here, the catalyst plays its
role in speeding up the reaction by allowing the combustion to take place at a lower
temperature, around 315 0C. The inlet stream of toxic wastes is heated in the recovery
unit; it then moves on to a catalyst where it is converted into harmless substances. A
plate-and-frame arrangement of the catalyst is the normal way of using it. This way the
toxic waste will come into good contact with the catalytic substance, where it is burned
and rendered harmless at a relatively low temperature.

The key to the success of catalytic incineration is the fact that active sites on the
catalyst must be made abundantly available to the oncoming toxic gas. Otherwise, the
catalyst will become ineffective in doing the job it is meant to do. To maintain the
catalyst in an active state and to achieve complete combustion, oxygen has to be
maintained at 1% excess than required.
 34

ADVANTAGES

1. Lower fuel requirements;

2. Lower operating temperatures;
3. Little or no insulation requirements;
4. Reduced fire hazards; and
5. Less volume/size required

DISADVANTAGES

1. High initial cost;

2. Catalyst poisoning is possible;
3. Particulate often must first be removed; and
4. Spent catalyst that cannot be regenerated may need to be disposed

BIO FILTERS 

A bio-filter is composed of a porous medium (of compost, wood chips) that supports
the microorganisms forming a film. The polluted air is first passed through a humidifier
and then through the bio-filter. A great majority of VOCs in the air (approximately 90%)
get biodegraded, and clean air comes out of the bio-filter

Control Devices for Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs):

There are several volatile organic compounds, arising from industrial and domestic
activities that cause air pollution. Good examples of VOCs are alcohols, ketones,
organic acids, phenols and organic solvents. The conventional methods (e.g.
 35

combustion, adsorption) of treatment VOCs require large quantities of energy, besides

creating secondary pollution. Biodegradation by microorganisms is a preferred method
for controlling air pollution of VOCs.

The efficiency of biodegradation depends on the individual compounds and

based on this, VOCs are broadly categorized as follows:

i. Rapidly degraded VOCs—alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, organic acids.

ii. Slowly degraded VOCs—hydrocarbons, phenols, organic solvents (chloromethane).

iii. Very slowly degraded VOCs—polyaromatic hydrocarbons, polyhalogenated

hydrocarbons.

There are mainly two types of reactor designs for the biodegradation of VOCs.

1. Bio-filters and 2. Bio-scrubbers.

Bio-filter

WORKING

Bio filtration is a relatively new pollution control technology. It is an attractive technique

for the elimination of malodorous gas emissions and of low concentrations of volatile
organic compounds (VOCs). 
The most common style bio filter is just a big box. Some can be as big as a basketball
court or as small as one cubic yard. A bio filter’s main function is to bring
microorganisms into contact with pollutants contained in an air stream. The box that
makes up this bio filter contains a filter material, which is the breeding ground for the
microorganisms. The microorganisms live in a thin layer of moisture, the "bio-film",
 36

which surrounds the particles that make up the filter media. During the bio filtration
process, the polluted air stream is slowly pumped through the bio-filter and the
pollutants are absorbed into the filter media. The contaminated gas is diffused in the
bio filter and adsorbed onto the bio film. This gives microorganisms the opportunity to
degrade the pollutants and to produce energy and metabolic byproducts in the form
of CO2 and H2O.
This biological degradation process occurs by oxidation, and can be written as follows:

CO2 + H2O + Heat + BiomassOrganic Pollutant + O2

 The process involved (bio reaction) is a green process.

 Thermal and catalytic control units consume large volumes of expensive fuel
 Bio reactors only use small amounts of electrical power to drive two or three small
motors
 Normally, bioreactors do not require full-time labor and the only operating supplies
needed are small quantities of macronutrients.
 While the use of bio filtration in India is not used, hundreds of these systems are
successfully operating in Europe, Netherland, New Zealand. Bio filters have been
designed primarily for odor control at wastewater treatment plants, rendering plants
and composting operations. However, bio-filters are becoming more popular in
treatment of VOC sand other organic compounds.
 Bio filtration utilizes a supported media for microbial growth to remove odors and
organic contaminates from air streams. The filter consists of a closed chamber
containing contaminate degrading microbes and absorbed water suspended in a
filter medium. The filter medial is designed to provide a high capacity for water
uptake, have a long working life, and provide a low pressure drop for the gases
passing through the media.
 37

Types of filtering media

Most bio filters use media such as sand, crushed rock, river gravel, or some form of
plastic or ceramic material shaped as small beads and rings.
Advantages of bio-filters: They are simple and cost-effective. Certain poorly soluble
pollutants (hydrocarbons) can be easily removed by this approach. Bio-filters can be
successfully used for the biodegradation of several xenobiotic e.g. chloromethane.

Disadvantages of bio-filters: It is rather difficult to control process conditions (pH,

temperature). When compost is used as support material, it generates unpleasant
odours. Bio-filters require large areas.

Bio-scrubbers:

Bio-scrubber is a modified water scrubber. The spray into the gas stream is a sludge of
suspended microbes which increases the aqueous solubility of the VOCs and removes
them more effectively than water alone. The sludge then flows to a water treatment
plant to biodegrade the dissolved VOCs and generate a new sludge.

This method appears best suited for large air flows because of their low backpressure
and small size. Their disadvantage is operating a wastewater treatment plant in addition
to one that destroys the VOCs, rather than just stripping VOCs from the water,
generating a non-odorous sludge.

Thus, bio-scrubbing is helpful to deal with toxic and odorous gases. Microbiological
methods for scrubbing of waste effluents are available, although, in general, their
performance at the point of waste discharge remains to be determined.

Bio-trickle filters
 38

Bio-trickle filter consists of a sheet of a plastic or other microbial support medium hung
in the contaminated air stream. The sheet is bathed continuously by a recirculating
stream of water containing the nutrients and vitamins required by the microbes. Bio-
oxidation rates per unit volume are high so bio-trickle filters can be as small as physico-
chemical units.

Their disadvantages are that at high loading rates, biological reactions approach zero
order kinetics and are incapable of responding to peak loads, accidental discharges and
explosion incidents. Bio-trickle filters would seem to be susceptible to microbially
produced bactericides and to invasion of less-desirable microbial populations.

Biological air pollution control is related to wastewater treatment and is only slowly
being accepted on an industrial scale. Wastewater usually contains a. suitable mixture
of nitrogen, phosphate and other chemicals as microbial growth factors. In contrast,
industrial waste air might contain only a single carbon-, hydrogen molecule. Therefore,
the bio-filter medium must supply the other growth factors including water so that the
microorganisms may metabolize the “the empty calories” in the contaminated air.

Important 2 marks Questions

1. Write the few general methods by which gaseous pollutants can be removed
from the industrial gaseous effluent stream.
 39

2. What is meant by absorption?

3. What is meant by adsorption?
4. Differentiate adsorption and absorption.
5. Define absorption as it relates to air pollution control devices.
6. List the factors influencing the efficiency of absorption process
7. Define the terms: absorbents and absobate.
8. Define control efficiency value and overall control efficiency.
9. Write the criteria for efficient adsorption of pollutants.
10. Define Henry's law.
11. Define condensers.
12. What do you mean by regenerative system and non-regenerative systems?
13. What is meant by Incinerator?
14. What is thermal Incinerator?
15. What is meant by flare?
16. What is meant by catalytic incinerator? Why it is superior to others?
17. Name few catalyst and supporting materials used in catalytic incinerator.
18. What is bio-filter?
19. What are the advantages of bio-filtration?
20. What are the disadvantages of bio-filtration?
21. Write the mechanism of Bio-trickle filters.

Important Big Questions

1. Discuss in detail about the factors affecting selection of control equipment to

control the gaseous pollutants in air (or) Write the various factors to be
considered for selection of equipment to control the gaseous pollutants in air.
2. Write the general principle involved in absorption
3. Discuss on absorption method of control of gaseous contaminants (or) How is
the gaseous pollutant removed by absorption? Explain
4. Describe the following absorption techniques used to control the gaseous air
pollutants (i) spray tower (ii) packed tower (iii) plate or tray tower.
 40

5. Write in detail about gaseous pollutant control system based on adsorption

technique.
6. Briefly discuss on types of carbon adsorption system to remove gaseous
pollutants from air with suitable neat sketch.
7. Write a brief notes on engineering design of condensation mode of air pollution
control. (or) Describe the removal of gaseous pollutants by surface condenser
and contact condenser.
8. Write a short note about condensation process with examples.
9. What is meant by incineration? How is gaseous pollutants controlled by direct
combustion method? Explain.
10. Write a short note about thermal incineration with sketches.
11. Explain about catalytic incineration with diagram.
12. What is meant by biofilter? How is it used to remove gaseous pollutants from
gaseous effluents? Explain (or) Explain about bio filter mechanism for removal of
gaseous pollutant (or) Explain briefly about the methods of biological air
treatment system.
13. Explain about working principle of bio scrubber.
14. Write a short note bio-trickle filter.

*****