Number System

In a digital system, the system can understand only the optional number system. In
these systems, digits symbols are used to represent different values, depending on the
index from which it settled in the number system.

In simple terms, for representing the information, we use the number system in the
digital system.

The digit value in the number system is calculated using:

1. The digit

2. The index, where the digit is present in the number.

3. Finally, the base numbers, the total number of digits available in the number
system.

Note: When the number system represents a digit from 0 - 9, the base of the number will be
10.

Types of Number System

In the digital computer, there are various types of number systems used for
representing information.
 1. Binary Number System

2. Decimal Number System

3. Hexadecimal Number System

4. Octal Number System

Binary Number System

Generally, a binary number system is used in the digital computers. In this number
system, it carries only two digits, either 0 or 1. There are two types of electronic pulses
present in a binary number system. The first one is the absence of an electronic pulse
representing '0'and second one is the presence of electronic pulse representing '1'. Each
digit is known as a bit. A four-bit collection (1101) is known as a nibble, and a collection
of eight bits (11001010) is known as a byte. The location of a digit in a binary number
represents a specific power of the base (2) of the number system.

Characteristics:

1. It holds only two values, i.e., either 0 or 1.

2. It is also known as the base 2 number system.

3. The position of a digit represents the 0 power of the base(2). Example: 2 0

4. The position of the last digit represents the x power of the base(2). Example: 2 x,
where x represents the last position, i.e., 1

Examples:

(10100)2, (11011)2, (11001)2, (000101)2, (011010)2.

Decimal Number System
The decimal numbers are used in our day to day life. The decimal number system
contains ten digits from 0 to 9(base 10). Here, the successive place value or position,
left to the decimal point holds units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so on.

The position in the decimal number system specifies the power of the base (10). The 0
is the minimum value of the digit, and 9 is the maximum value of the digit. For
example, the decimal number 2541 consist of the digit 1 in the unit position, 4 in the
tens position, 5 in the hundreds position, and 2 in the thousand positions and the value
will be written as:

(2×1000) + (5×100) + (4×10) + (1×1)

(2×103) + (5×102) + (4×101) + (1×100)
2000 + 500 + 40 + 1
2541

Octal Number System

The octal number system has base 8(means it has only eight digits from 0 to 7). There
are only eight possible digit values to represent a number. With the help of only three
bits, an octal number is represented.  Each set of bits has a distinct value between 0
and 7.

Below, we have described certain characteristics of the octal number system:

Characteristics:

1. An octal number system carries eight digits starting from 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and

7.

2. It is also known as the base 8 number system.

3. The position of a digit represents the 0 power of the base(8). Example: 8 0

4. The position of the last digit represents the x power of the base(8). Example: 8 x,
where x represents the last position, i.e., 1

Number Octal Number

0 000

1 001
 2 010

3 011

4 100

5 101

6 110

7 111

Examples:

(273)8, (5644)8, (0.5365)8, (1123)8, (1223)8.

Hexadecimal Number System

It is another technique to represent the number in the digital system called

the hexadecimal number system. The number system has a base of 16 means there
are total 16 symbols(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F) used for representing a
number. The single-bit representation of decimal values10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 are
represented by A, B, C, D, E, and F. Only 4 bits are required for representing a number
in a hexadecimal number. Each set of bits has a distinct value between 0 and 15. There
are the following characteristics of the octal number system:

Characteristics:

1. It has ten digits from 0 to 9 and 6 letters from A to F.

2. The letters from A to F defines numbers from 10 to 15.

3. It is also known as the base 16number system.

4. In hexadecimal number, the position of a digit represents the 0 power of the

base(16). Example: 160

5. In hexadecimal number, the position of the last digit represents the x power of
the base(16). Example: 16x, where x represents the last position, i.e., 1

Binary Number Hexadecimal Number

 0000 0

0001 1

0010 2

0011 3

0100 4

0101 5

0110 6

0111 7

1000 8

1001 9

1010 A

1011 B

1100 C

1101 D

1110 E

1111 F

Examples:

(FAC2)16, (564)16, (0ABD5)16, (1123)16, (11F3)16.

Number Base Conversion

In our previous section, we learned different types of number systems such as binary,
decimal, octal, and hexadecimal. In this part of the tutorial, we will learn how we can
change a number from one number system to another number system.

As, we have four types of number systems so each one can be converted into the
remaining three systems. There are the following conversions possible in Number
System

1. Binary to other Number Systems.

2. Decimal to other Number Systems.

3. Octal to other Number Systems.

4. Hexadecimal to other Number Systems.

Binary to other Number Systems

There are three conversions possible for binary number, i.e., binary to decimal, binary
to octal, and binary to hexadecimal. The conversion process of a binary number to
decimal differs from the remaining others. Let's take a detailed discussion on Binary
Number System conversion.

Binary to Decimal Conversion

The process of converting binary to decimal is quite simple. The process starts from
multiplying the bits of binary number with its corresponding positional weights. And
lastly, we add all those products.
Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from binary to
decimal.

Example 1: (10110.001)2

We multiplied each bit of (10110.001)2 with its respective positional weight, and last we
add the products of all the bits with its weight.

(10110.001)2=(1×24)+(0×23)+(1×22)+(1×21)+(0×20)+
              (0×2-1)+(0×2-2)+(1×2-3)
(10110.001)2=(1×16)+(0×8)+(1×4)+(1×2)+(0×1)+
              (0×1⁄2)+(0×1⁄4)+(1×1⁄8)
(10110.001)2=16+0+4+2+0+0+0+0.125
(10110.001)2=(22.125 )10

Binary to Octal Conversion

The base numbers of binary and octal are 2 and 8, respectively. In a binary number,
the pair of three bits is equal to one octal digit. There are only two steps to convert a
binary number into an octal number which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we have to make the pairs of three bits on both sides of the
binary point. If there will be one or two bits left in a pair of three bits pair, we
add the required number of zeros on extreme sides.

2. In the second step, we write the octal digits corresponding to each pair.

Example 1: (111110101011.0011)2

1. Firstly, we make pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.

111       110       101       011.001       1

On the right side of the binary point, the last pair has only one bit. To make it a
complete pair of three bits, we added two zeros on the extreme side.

111       110       101       011.001       100

2. Then, we wrote the octal digits, which correspond to each pair.

(111110101011.0011)2=(7653.14)8

Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion

The base numbers of binary and hexadecimal are 2 and 16, respectively. In a binary
number, the pair of four bits is equal to one hexadecimal digit. There are also only two
steps to convert a binary number into a hexadecimal number which are as follows:
 1. In the first step, we have to make the pairs of four bits on both sides of the
binary point. If there will be one, two, or three bits left in a pair of four bits pair,
we add the required number of zeros on extreme sides.

2. In the second step, we write the hexadecimal digits corresponding to each pair.

Example 1: (10110101011.0011)2

1. Firstly, we make pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point.

111 1010 1011.0011

On the left side of the binary point, the first pair has three bits. To make it a complete
pair of four bits, add one zero on the extreme side.

0111 1010 1011.0011

2. Then, we write the hexadecimal digits, which correspond to each pair.

(011110101011.0011)2=(7AB.3)16

Decimal to other Number System

The decimal number can be an integer or floating-point integer. When the decimal
number is a floating-point integer, then we convert both part (integer and fractional) of
the decimal number in the isolated form(individually). There are the following steps that
are used to convert the decimal number into a similar number of any base 'r'.

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on integer and successive
part with base 'r'. We will list down all the remainders till the quotient is zero.
Then we find out the remainders in reverse order for getting the integer part of
the equivalent number of base 'r'. In this, the least and most significant digits
are denoted by the first and the last remainders.

2. In the next step, the multiplication operation is done with base 'r' of the
fractional and successive fraction. The carries are noted until the result is zero or
when the required number of the equivalent digit is obtained. For getting the
fractional part of the equivalent number of base 'r', the normal sequence of
carrying is considered.

Decimal to Binary Conversion

For converting decimal to binary, there are two steps required to perform, which are as
follows:

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the
successive quotient with the base of binary(2).

2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient
with the base of binary(2).

Example 1: (152.25)10

Step 1:

Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 2.

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/2 76 0 (LSB)

76/2 38 0

38/2 19 0

19/2 9 1

9/2 4 1

4/2 2 0

2/2 1 0

1/2 0 1(MSB)

(152)10=(10011000)2

Step 2:

Now, perform the multiplication of 0.27 and successive fraction with base 2.

Operation Result carry

 0.25×2 0.50 0

0.50×2 0 1

(0.25)10=(.01)2

Decimal to Octal Conversion

For converting decimal to octal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as
follows:

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the
successive quotient with the base of octal(8).

2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient
with the base of octal(8).

Example 1: (152.25)10

Step 1:

Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 8.

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/8 19 0

19/8 2 3

2/8 0 2

(152)10=(230)8

Step 2:

Now perform the multiplication of 0.25 and successive fraction with base 8.

Operation Result carry

0.25×8 0 2
(0.25)10=(2)8

So, the octal number of the decimal number 152.25 is 230.2

Decimal to hexadecimal conversion

For converting decimal to hexadecimal, there are two steps required to perform, which
are as follows:

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the
successive quotient with the base of hexadecimal (16).

2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient
with the base of hexadecimal (16).

Example 1: (152.25)10

Step 1:

Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 8.

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/16 9 8

9/16 0 9

(152)10=(98)16

Step 2:

Now perform the multiplication of 0.25 and successive fraction with base 16.

Operation Result carry

0.25×16 0 4

(0.25)10=(4)16

So, the hexadecimal number of the decimal number 152.25 is 230.4.

Octal to other Number System

Like binary and decimal, the octal number can also be converted into other number
systems. The process of converting octal to decimal differs from the remaining one.
Let's start understanding how conversion is done.

Octal to Decimal Conversion

The process of converting octal to decimal is the same as binary to decimal. The
process starts from multiplying the digits of octal numbers with its corresponding
positional weights. And lastly, we add all those products.

Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from octal to decimal.

Example 1: (152.25)8

Step 1:

We multiply each digit of 152.25 with its respective positional weight, and last we add
the products of all the bits with its weight.

(152.25)8=(1×82)+(5×81)+(2×80)+(2×8-1)+(5×8-2)
(152.25)8=64+40+2+(2×1⁄8)+(5×1⁄64)
(152.25)8=64+40+2+0.25+0.078125
(152.25)8=106.328125

So, the decimal number of the octal number 152.25 is 106.328125

Octal to Binary Conversion

The process of converting octal to binary is the reverse process of binary to octal. We
write the three bits binary code of each octal number digit.

Example 1: (152.25)8

We write the three-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, and 5.

(152.25)8=(001101010.010101)2

So, the binary number of the octal number 152.25 is (001101010.010101)2

Octal to hexadecimal conversion

For converting octal to hexadecimal, there are two steps required to perform, which are
as follows:

1. In the first step, we will find the binary equivalent of number 25.

 2. Next, we have to make the pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point. If
there will be one, two, or three bits left in a pair of four bits pair, we add the
required number of zeros on extreme sides and write the hexadecimal digits
corresponding to each pair.

Example 1: (152.25)8

Step 1:

We write the three-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, and 5.

(152.25)8=(001101010.010101)2

So, the binary number of the octal number 152.25 is (001101010.010101)2

Step 2:

1. Now, we make pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point.

0       0110       1010.0101       01

On the left side of the binary point, the first pair has only one digit, and on the right
side, the last pair has only two-digit. To make them complete pairs of four bits, add
zeros on extreme sides.

0000       0110       1010.0101       0100

2. Now, we write the hexadecimal digits, which correspond to each pair.

(0000       0110       1010.0101       0100)2=(6A.54)16

Hexa-decimal to other Number System

Like binary, decimal, and octal, hexadecimal numbers can also be converted into other
number systems. The process of converting hexadecimal to decimal differs from the
remaining one. Let's start understanding how conversion is done.

Hexa-decimal to Decimal Conversion

The process of converting hexadecimal to decimal is the same as binary to decimal. The
process starts from multiplying the digits of hexadecimal numbers with its
corresponding positional weights. And lastly, we add all those products. 

Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from hexadecimal to
decimal.
Example 1: (152A.25)16

Step 1:

We multiply each digit of 152A.25 with its respective positional weight, and last we
add the products of all the bits with its weight.

(152A.25)16=(1×163)+(5×162)+(2×161)+(A×160)+(2×16-1)+(5×16-2)
(152A.25)16=(1×4096)+(5×256)+(2×16)+(10×1)+(2×16 -1)+(5×16-2)
(152A.25)16=4096+1280+32+10+(2×1⁄16)+(5×1⁄256)
(152A.25)16=5418+0.125+0.125
(152A.25)16=5418.14453125

So, the decimal number of the hexadecimal number 152A.25 is 5418.14453125

Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

The process of converting hexadecimal to binary is the reverse process of binary to
hexadecimal. We write the four bits binary code of each hexadecimal number digit.

Example 1: (152A.25)16

We write the four-bit binary digit for 1, 5, A, 2, and 5.

(152A.25)16=(0001 0101 0010 1010.0010 0101)2

So, the binary number of the hexadecimal number 152.25

is (1010100101010.00100101)2

Hexadecimal to Octal Conversion

For converting hexadecimal to octal, there are two steps required to perform, which are
as follows:

1. In the first step, we will find the binary equivalent of the hexadecimal number.

2. Next, we have to make the pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.
If there will be one or two bits left in a pair of three bits pair, we add the
required number of zeros on extreme sides and write the octal digits
corresponding to each pair.

Example 1: (152A.25)16

Step 1:

We write the four-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, A, and 5.

(152A.25)16=(0001 0101 0010 1010.0010 0101)2

So, the binary number of hexadecimal number 152A.25

is (0011010101010.010101)2

Step 2:

3. Then, we make pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.

001     010     100     101     010.001     001     010

4. Then, we write the octal digit, which corresponds to each pair.

(001010100101010.001001010)2=(12452.112)8

So, the octal number of the hexadecimal number 152A.25 is 12452.112

Gray Code
The Gray Code is a sequence of binary number systems, which is also known
as reflected binary code. The reason for calling this code as reflected binary code is
the first N/2 values compared with those of the last N/2 values in reverse order. In this
code, two consecutive values are differed by one bit of binary digits. Gray codes are
used in the general sequence of hardware-generated binary numbers. These numbers
cause ambiguities or errors when the transition from one number to its successive is
done. This code simply solves this problem by changing only one bit when the transition
is between numbers is done.

The gray code is a very light weighted code because it doesn't depend on the value of
the digit specified by the position. This code is also called a cyclic variable code as the
transition of one value to its successive value carries a change of one bit only.

How to generate Gray code?

The prefix and reflect method are recursively used to generate the Gray code of a
number. For generating gray code:

1. We find the number of bits required to represent a number.

2. Next, we find the code for 0, i.e., 0000, which is the same as binary.

3. Now, we take the previous code, i.e., 0000, and change the most significant bit
of it.

4. We perform this process reclusively until all the codes are not uniquely identified.
 5. If by changing the most significant bit, we find the same code obtained
previously, then the second most significant bit will be changed, and so on.

Process of generating Gray Code

Gray Code Table

Decimal Number Binary Number Gray Code

0 0000 0000

1 0001 0001

2 0010 0011

3 0011 0010
 4 0100 0110

5 0101 0111

6 0110 0101

7 0111 0100

8 1000 1100

9 1001 1101

10 1010 1111

11 1011 1110

12 1100 1010

13 1101 1011

14 1110 1001

15 1111 1000

Excess-3 Code
The excess-3 code is also treated as XS-3 code. The excess-3 code is a non-weighted
and self-complementary BCD code used to represent the decimal numbers. This code
has a biased representation. This code plays an important role in arithmetic operations
because it resolves deficiencies encountered when we use the 8421 BCD code for
adding two decimal digits whose sum is greater than 9. The Excess-3 code uses a
special type of algorithm, which differs from the binary positional number system or
normal non-biased BCD.

We can easily get an excess-3 code of a decimal number by simply adding 3 to each
decimal digit. And then we write the 4-bit binary number for each digit of the decimal
number. We can find the excess-3 code of the given binary number by using the
following steps:

1. We find the decimal number of the given binary number.

2. Then we add 3 in each digit of the decimal number.

 3. Now, we find the binary code of each digit of the newly generated decimal
number.

We can also add 0011 in each 4-bit BCD code of the decimal number for getting excess-
3 code.

The Excess-3 code for the decimal number is as follows:

Decimal Digit BCD Code Excess-3 Code

0 0000 0011

1 0001 0100

2 0010 0101

3 0011 0110

4 0100 0111

5 0101 1000

6 0110 1001

7 0111 1010

8 1000 1011

9 1001 1100

In excess-3 code, the codes 1111 and 0000 are never used for any decimal digit. Let's
take some examples of Excess-3 code.

Example 1: Decimal number 31

1. We find the BCD code of each digit of the decimal number.

Digit BCD

3 0011
 1 0001

2) Then, we add 0011 in both of the BCD code.

Decimal BCD Excess-3

3 0011+0011 0110

1 0001+0011 0100

3. So, the excess-3 code of the decimal number 31 is 0110 0100

Example 2: Decimal number 81.61

1. We find the BCD code of each digit of the decimal number.

Digit BCD

8 1000

1 0001

6 0110

1 0001

2) Then, we add 0011 in both of the BCD code.

Decimal BCD Excess-3

8 1000+0011 1011

1 0001+0011 0100

6 0110+0011 1001

3) So, the excess-3 code of the decimal number 81.61 is 1011 0100.1001 0100
Self-complementary property
A self-complementary binary code is a code which is always complimented in itself. By
replacing the bit 0 to 1 and 1 to 0 of a number, we find the 1's complement of the
number. The sum of the 1'st complement and the binary number of a decimal is equal
to the binary number of decimal 9.

Note: if we perform the 1's complement of excess-3 of a decimal number, it will be equal to
the excess-3 code of the 9's complement of that decimal number.

For example: If we perform 1's complement of the excess-3 code 1000(decimal 5),
complement value will be 0111, which is the excess-3 code of 9's complement of 5, i.e.,
4(0111).

Why use Excess-3 code?

There are the following advantages of excess-3 code which make it required to use:

1. These codes are self-complementary.

2. These codes use biased representation.

3. The excess-3 code has no limitation, so that it considerably simplifies arithmetic

operations.

4. The codes 0000 and 1111 can cause a fault in the transmission line. The excess-
3 code doesn't use these codes and gives an advantage for memory
organization.

5. These codes are usually unweighted binary decimal codes.

6. This code has a vital role in arithmetic operations. It is because it resolves

deficiencies which are encountered when we use the 8421 BCD code for adding
two decimal digits whose sum is greater than 9.

ASCII Code
The ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. The ASCII
code is an alphanumeric code used for data communication in digital computers. The
ASCII is a 7-bit code capable of representing 2 7 or 128 number of different characters.
The ASCII code is made up of a three-bit group, which is followed by a four-bit code.
 o The ASCII Code is a 7 or 8-bit alphanumeric code.

o This code can represent 127 unique characters.

o The ASCII code starts from 00h to 7Fh. In this, the code from 00h to 1Fh is used
for control characters, and the code from 20h to 7Fh is used for graphic symbols.
o The 8-bit code holds ASCII, which supports 256 symbols where math and
graphic symbols are added.
o The range of the extended ASCII is 80h to FFh.

The ASCII characters are classified into the following groups:

Control Characters
The non-printable characters used for sending commands to the PC or printer are
known as control characters. We can set tabs, and line breaks functionality by this
code. The control characters are based on telex technology. Nowadays, it's not so much
popular in use. The character from 0 to 31 and 127 comes under control characters.
 Special Characters
All printable characters that are neither numbers nor letters come under the special
characters. These characters contain technical, punctuation, and mathematical
characters with space also. The character from 32 to 47, 58 to 64, 91 to 96, and 123 to
126 comes under this category.

Numbers Characters
This category of ASCII code contains ten Arabic numerals from 0 to 9.

Letters Characters
In this category, two groups of letters are contained, i.e., the group of uppercase
letters and the group of lowercase letters. The range from 65 to 90 and 97 to 122
comes under this category.

ASCII Table

Binary Hexadecimal Decimal ASCII Description Group

Symbol

000000 0 0 NUL The null character encourage the Control

0 device to do nothing Character

000000 1 1 SOH The symbol SOH(Starts of heading) Control

1 Initiates the header. Character

000001 2 2 STX The symbol STX(Start of Text) ends Control

0 the header and marks the beginning Character
of a message.

000001 3 3 ETX The symbol ETX(End of Text) Control

1 indicates the end of the message. Character

000010 4 4 EOT The EOT(end of text) symbol marks Control

0 the end of a completes transmission Character

000010 5 5 ENQ The ENQ(Enquiry) symbol is a Control

1 request that requires a response Character
000011 6 6 ACK The ACK(Acknowledge) symbol is a Control
0 positive answer to the request. Character

000011 7 7 BEL The BEL(Bell) symbol triggers a Control

1 beep. Character

000100 8 8 BS Lets the cursor move back one step Control

0 (Backspace) Character

000100 9 9 TAB A horizontal tab that moves the Control

1 (HT) cursor within a row to the next Character
predefined position (Horizontal Tab)

000101 A 10 LF Causes the cursor to jump to the Control

0 next line (Line Feed) Character

000101 B 11 VT The vertical tab lets the cursor jump Control

1 to a predefined line (Vertical Tab) Character

000110 C 12 FF Requests a page break (Form Feed) Control

0 Character

000110 D 13 CR Moves the cursor back to the first Control

1 position of the line (Carriage Return) Character

000111 E 14 SO Switches to a special presentation Control

0 (Shift Out) Character

000111 F 15 SI Switches the display back to the Control

1 normal state (Shift In) Character

001000 10 16 DLE Changes the meaning of the Control

0 following characters (Data Link Character
Escape)

001000 11 17 DC1 Control characters assigned Control

1 depending on the device used Character
 (Device Control)

001001 12 18 DC2 Control characters assigned Control

0 depending on the device used Character
(Device Control)

001001 13 19 DC3 Control characters assigned Control

1 depending on the device used Character
(Device Control)

001010 14 20 DC4 Control characters assigned Control

0 depending on the device used Character
(Device Control)

001010 15 21 NAK The negative response to a request Control

1 (Negative Acknowledge) Character

001011 16 22 SYN Synchronizes a data transfer, even if Control

0 no signals are transmitted Character
(Synchronous Idle)

001011 17 23 ETB Marks the end of a transmission Control

1 block (End of Transmission Block) Character

001100 18 24 CAN Makes it clear that transmission was Control

0 faulty and the data must be Character
discarded (Cancel)

001100 19 25 EM Indicates the end of the storage Control

1 medium (End of Medium) Character

001101 1A 26 SUB Replacement for a faulty sign Control

0 (Substitute) Character

001101 1B 27 ESC Initiates an escape sequence and Control

1 thus gives the following characters a Character
special meaning (Escape)
001110 1C 28 FS File separator. Control
0 Character

001110 1D 29 GS Group separator. Control

1 Character

001111 1E 30 RS Record separator. Control

0 Character

001111 1F 31 US Unit separator. Control

1 Character

010000 20 32 SP Blank space Special

0 Character

010000 21 33 ! Exclamation mark Special

1 Character

010001 22 34 Only quotes above Special

0 Character

010001 23 35 # Pound sign Special

1 Character

010010 24 36 $ Dollar sign Special

0 Character

010010 25 37 % Percentage sign Special

1 Character

010011 26 38 & Commercial and Special

0 Character

010011 27 39 Apostrophe Special

1 Character

010100 28 40 ( Left bracket Special

0 Character

010100 29 41 ) Right bracket Special

1 Character

010101 2A 42 * Asterisk Special

0 Character

010101 2B 43 + Plus symbol Special

1 Character

010110 2C 44 , Comma Special

0 Character

010110 2D 45 - Dash Special

1 Character

010111 2E 46 . Full stop Special

0 Character

010111 2F 47 / Forward slash Special

1 Character

011000 30 48 0 Numbers
0

011000 31 49 1 Numbers
1

011001 32 50 2 Numbers
0

011001 33 51 3 Numbers
1

011010 34 52 4 Numbers
0
011010 35 53 5 Numbers
1

011011 36 54 6 Numbers
0

011011 37 55 7 Numbers
1

011100 38 56 8 Numbers
0

011100 39 57 9 Numbers
1

011101 3A 58 : Colon Special

0 characters

011101 3B 59 ; Semicolon Special

1 characters

011110 3C 60 < Small than bracket Special

0 characters

011110 3D 61 = Equals sign Special

1 characters

011111 3E 62 > Bigger than symbol Special

0 characters

011111 3F 63 ? Question mark Special

1 characters

100000 40 64 @ At symbol Special

0 characters

100000 41 65 A Capital
1 letters

100001 42 66 B Capital
0 letters

100001 43 67 C Capital
1 letters

100010 44 68 D Capital
0 letters

100010 45 69 E Capital
1 letters

100011 46 70 F Capital
0 letters

100011 47 71 G Capital
1 letters

100100 48 72 H Capital
0 letters

100100 49 73 I Capital
1 letters

100101 4A 74 J Capital
0 letters

100101 4B 75 K Capital
1 letters

100110 4C 76 L Capital
0 letters

100110 4D 77 M Capital
1 letters
100111 4E 78 N Capital
0 letters

100111 4F 79 O Capital
1 letters

101000 50 80 P Capital
0 letters

101000 51 81 Q Capital
1 letters

101001 52 82 R Capital
0 letters

101001 53 83 S Capital
1 letters

101010 54 84 T Capital
0 letters

101010 55 85 U Capital
1 letters

101011 56 86 V Capital
0 letters

101011 57 87 W Capital
1 letters

101100 58 88 X Capital
0 letters

101100 59 89 Y Capital
1 letters

101101 5A 90 Z Capital
0 letters

101101 5B 91 [ Left square bracket Special

1 character

101110 5C 92 \ Inverse/backward slash Special

0 character

101110 5D 93 ] Right square bracket Special

1 character

101111 5E 94 ^ Circumflex Special

0 character

101111 5F 95 _ Underscore Special

1 character

110000 60 96 ` Gravis (backtick) Special

0 character

110000 61 97 A Lowercase
1 letters

110001 62 98 B Lowercase
0 letters

110001 63 99 C Lowercase
1 letters

110010 64 100 D Lowercase

0 letters

110010 65 101 E Lowercase

1 letters

110011 66 102 F Lowercase

0 letters
110011 67 103 G Lowercase
1 letters

110100 68 104 H Lowercase

0 letters

110100 69 105 I Lowercase

1 letters

110101 6A 106 J Lowercase

0 letters

110101 6B 107 K Lowercase

1 letters

110110 6C 108 L Lowercase

0 letters

110110 6D 109 M Lowercase

1 letters

110111 6E 110 N Lowercase

0 letters

110111 6F 111 O Lowercase

1 letters

111000 70 112 P Lowercase

0 letters

111000 71 113 Q Lowercase

1 letters

111001 72 114 R Lowercase

0 letters

111001 73 115 S Lowercase

1 letters

111010 74 116 T Lowercase

0 letters

111010 75 117 U Lowercase

1 letters

111011 76 118 v Lowercase

0 letters

111011 77 119 w Lowercase

1 letters

111100 78 120 x Lowercase

0 letters

111100 79 121 y Lowercase

1 letters

111101 7A 122 z Lowercase

0 letters

111101 7B 123 { Left curly bracket Special

1 characters

111110 7C 124 l Vertical line Special

0 characters

111110 7D 125 } Right curly brackets Special

1 characters

111111 7E 126 ~ Tilde Special

0 characters

111111 7F 127 DEL The DEL(Delete) symbol deletes a Control

1 character. This is a control character characters
 that consists of the same number in
all positions.

The values are typically represented in ASCII code tables in decimal, binary, and
hexadecimal form.

Example 1:
(100101011000011110110110000110101001110000110111111
01001 110111011101001000000011000101100100110011)2
Step 1: In the first step, we we make the groups of 7-bits because the ASCII code is 7
bit.

1001010 1100001 1110110 1100001 1010100 1110000 1101111 1101001 1101110

1110100 1000000 0110001 0110010 0110011

Step 2: Then, we find the equivalent decimal number of the binary digits either from
the ASCII table or 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 scheme.

Binary Decimal

64 32 16 8 4 2 1 64+8+2=74
1   0   0   1 0 1 0

64 32 16 8 4 2 1 64+32+1=94
1    1   0   0 0 0 1

64 32 16 8 4 2 1 64+32+16+4+2=118
1   1   1   0 1 1 0

64 32 16 8 4 2 1 64+32+1=97
1   1   0   0 0 0 1

64 32 16 8 4 2 1 64+16+4=84
1   0   1   0 1 0 0

64 32 16 8 4 2 1 64+32+16=112
1   1   1   0 0 0 0
 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 64+32+8+4+2+1=111
1   1   0   1 1 1 1

64 32 16 8 4 2 1 64+32+8+1=105
1   1   0   1 0 0 1

64 32 16 8 4 2 1 64+32+8+4+2=110
1   1   0   1 1 1 0

64 32 16 8 4 2 1 64+32+16+4=116
1   1   1   0 1 0 0

64 32 16 8 4 2 1 64
1   0   0   0 0 0 0

64 32 16 8 4 2 1 32+16+1=49
0   1   1   0 0 0 1

64 32 16 8 4 2 1 32+16+2=50
0   1   1   0 0 1 0

64 32 16 8 4 2 1 32+16+2+1=51
0   1   1   0 0 1 1

Step 3: Last, we find the equivalent symbol of the decimal number from the ASCII
table.

Decimal Symbol

74 J

94 a

118 v

97 a
 84 T

112 p

111 o

105 i

110 n

116 t

64 @

49 1

50 2

51 3

Signed and Unsigned Binary Numbers

The integer variables are represented in a signed and unsigned manner. The positive
and negative values are differentiated by using the sign flag in signed numbers. The
unsigned numbers do not use any flag for the sign, i.e., only positive numbers can be
stored by the unsigned numbers.

It is very easy to represent positive and negative numbers in our day to day life. We
represent the positive numbers without adding any sign before them and the negative
number with - (minus) sign before them. But in the digital system, it is not possible to
use negative sign before them because the data is in binary form in digital computers.
For representing the sign in binary numbers, we require a special notation.

Binary Numbers Representation

Our computer can understand only (0, 1) language. The binary numbers are
represented in both ways, i.e., signed and unsigned. The positive numbers are
represented in both ways- signed and unsigned, but the negative numbers can only be
described in a signed way. The difference between unsigned and signed numbers is that
unsigned numbers do not use any sign bit for positive and negative numbers
identification, but the signed number used.
Unsigned Numbers
As we already know, the unsigned numbers don't have any sign for representing
negative numbers. So the unsigned numbers are always positive. By default, the
decimal number representation is positive. We always assume a positive sign in front of
each decimal digit.

There is no sign bit in unsigned binary numbers so it can only represent its magnitude.
In zero and one, zero is an unsigned binary number. There is only one zero (0) in this
representation, which is always positive. Because of one unique binary equivalent form
of a number in unsigned number representation, it is known as unambiguous
representation technique. The range of the unsigned binary numbers starts from 0 to
(2n-1).

Example: Represent the decimal number 102 in unsigned binary numbers.

We will change this decimal number into binary, which has the only magnitude of the
given name.

Decimal Operation Result Remainder

102 102/2 51 0

51 51/2 25 1
 25 25/2 12 1

12 12/2 6 0

6 6/2 3 0

3 3/2 1 1

1 1/2 0 1

So the binary number of (102)10 is (1100110)2, a 7-bit magnitude of the decimal

number 102.

Signed Numbers
The signed numbers have a sign bit so that it can differentiate positive and negative
integer numbers. The signed binary number technique has both the sign bit and the
magnitude of the number. For representing the negative decimal number, the
corresponding symbol in front of the binary number will be added.

The signed numbers are represented in three ways. The signed bit makes two possible
representations of zero (positive (0) and negative (1)), which is an ambiguous
representation. The third representation is 2's complement representation in which no
double representation of zero is possible, which makes it unambiguous representation.
There are the following types of representation of signed binary numbers:

1. Sign-Magnitude form
In this form, a binary number has a bit for a sign symbol. If this bit is set to 1,
the number will be negative else the number will be positive if it is set to 0.
Apart from this sign-bit, the n-1 bits represent the magnitude of the number.

2. 1's Complement
By inverting each bit of a number, we can obtain the 1's complement of a
number. The negative numbers can be represented in the form of 1's
complement. In this form, the binary number also has an extra bit for sign
representation as a sign-magnitude form.

3. 2's Complement
By inverting each bit of a number and adding plus 1 to its least significant bit, we
can obtain the 2's complement of a number. The negative numbers can also be
 represented in the form of 2's complement. In this form, the binary number also
has an extra bit for sign representation as a sign-magnitude form.

1's complement
In number representation techniques, the binary number system is the most used
representation technique in digital electronics. The complement is used for representing
the negative decimal number in binary form. Different types of complement are
possible of the binary number, but 1's and 2's complements are mostly used for binary
numbers. We can find the 1's complement of the binary number by simply inverting the
given number. For example, 1's complement of binary number 1011001 is 0100110.
We can find the 2's complement of the binary number by changing each bit(0 to 1 and
1 to 0) and adding 1 to the least significant bit. For example, 2's complement of binary
number 1011001 is (0100110)+1=0100111.

For finding 1's complement of the binary number, we can implement the logic circuit
also by using NOT gate. We use NOT gate for each bit of the binary number. So, if we
want to implement the logic circuit for 5-bit 1's complement, five NOT gates will be
used.

Example 1: 11010.1101

For finding 1's complement of the given number, change all 0's to 1 and all 1's to 0. So
the 1's complement of the number 11010.1101 comes out 00101.0010.

Example 2: 100110.1001

For finding 1's complement of the given number, change all 0's to 1 and all 1's to 0. So,
the 1's complement of the number 100110.1001 comes out 011001.0110.

1's Complement Table

 Binary Number 1's Complement

0000 1111

0001 1110

0010 1101

0011 1100

0100 1011

0101 1010

0110 1001

0111 1000

1000 0111

1001 0110

1010 0101

1011 0100

1100 0011

1101 0010

1110 0001

1111 0000

Use of 1's complement

1's complement plays an important role in representing the signed binary numbers. The
main use of 1's complement is to represent a signed binary number. Apart from this, it
is also used to perform various arithmetic operations such as addition and subtraction.
In signed binary number representation, we can represent both positive and negative
numbers. For representing the positive numbers, there is nothing to do. But for
representing negative numbers, we have to use 1's complement technique. For
representing the negative number, we first have to represent it with a positive sign,
and then we find the 1's complement of it.

Let's take an example of a positive and negative number and see how these numbers
are represented.

Example 1: +6 and -6

The number +6 is represented as same as the binary number. For representing both
numbers, we will take the 5-bit register.

So the +6 is represented in the 5-bit register as 0 0110.

The -6 is represented in the 5-bit register in the following way:

1. +6=0 0110

2. Find the 1's complement of the number 0 0110, i.e., 1 1001. Here, MSB denotes
that a number is a negative number.

Here, MSB refers to Most Significant Bit, and LSB denotes the Least Significant Bit.

Example 2: +120 and -120

The number +120 is represented as same as the binary number. For representing both
numbers, take the 8-bit register.

So the +120 is represented in the 8-bit register as 0 1111000.

The -120 is represented in the 8-bit register in the following way:

 1. +120=0 1111000

2. Now, find the 1's complement of the number 0 1111000, i.e., 1 0000111. Here,
the MSB denotes the number is the negative number.

2's complement
Just like 1's complement, 2's complement is also used to represent the signed binary
numbers. For finding 2's complement of the binary number, we will first find the 1's
complement of the binary number and then add 1 to the least significant bit of it.

For example, if we want to calculate the 2's complement of the number 1011001, then
firstly, we find the 1's complement of the number that is 0100110 and add 1 to the
LSB. So, by adding 1 to the LSB, the number will be (0100110)+1=0100111. We can
also create the logic circuit using OR, AND, and NOT gates. The logic circuit for finding
2's complement of the 5-bit binary number is as follows:

Example 1: 110100

For finding 2's complement of the given number, change all 0's to 1 and all 1's to 0. So
the 1's complement of the number 110100 is 001011. Now add 1 to the LSB of this
number, i.e., (001011)+1=001100.

Example 2: 100110

For finding 1's complement of the given number, change all 0's to 1 and all 1's to 0. So,
the 1's complement of the number 100110 is 011001. Now add one the LSB of this
number, i.e., (011001)+1=011010.

2's Complement Table

Binary Number 1's Complement 2's complement

 0000 1111 0000

0001 1110 1111

0010 1101 1110

0011 1100 1101

0100 1011 1100

0101 1010 1011

0110 1001 1010

0111 1000 1001

1000 0111 1000

1001 0110 0111

1010 0101 0110

1011 0100 0101

1100 0011 0100

1101 0010 0011

1110 0001 0010

1111 0000 0001

Use of 2's complement

2's complement is used for representing signed numbers and performing arithmetic
operations such as subtraction, addition, etc. The positive number is simply represented
as a magnitude form. So there is nothing to do for representing positive numbers. But if
we represent the negative number, then we have to choose either 1's complement or
2's complement technique. The 1's complement is an ambiguous technique, and 2's
complement is an unambiguous technique. Let's see an example to understand how we
can calculate the 2's complement in signed binary number representation.
Example 1: +6 and -6

The number +6 is represented as same as the binary number. For representing both
numbers, take the 5-bit register.

So the +6 is represented in the 5-bit register as 0 0110.

The -6 is represented in the 5-bit register in the following way:

1. +6=0 0110

2. Now, find the 1's complement of the number 0 0110, i.e. 1 1001.

3. Now, add 1 to its LSB. When we add 1 to the LSB of 11001, the newly generated
number comes out 11010. Here, the sign bit is one which means the number is
the negative number.

Example 2: +120 and -120

The number +120 is represented as same as the binary number. For representing both
numbers, take the 8-bit register.

So the +120 is represented in the 8-bit register as 0 1111000.

The -120 is represented in the 8-bit register in the following way:

1. +120=0 1111000

2. Now, find the 1's complement of the number 0 1111000, i.e. 1 0000111. Here,
the MSB denotes the number is the negative number.
3. Now, add 1 to its LSB. When we add 1 to the LSB of 1 0000111, the newly
generated number comes out 1 0001000. Here, the sign bit is one, which means
the number is the negative number.

9's and 10's Complement

If the number is binary, then we use 1's complement and 2's complement. But in
case, when the number is a decimal number, we will use the 9's and 10's
complement. The 10's complement is obtained from the 9's complement of the
number, and we can also find the 9's and 10's complement using the r's and (r-1)'s
complement formula.

9's Complement
The 9's complement is used to find the subtraction of the decimal numbers. The 9's
complement of a number is calculated by subtracting each digit of the number by 9.
For example, suppose we have a number 1423, and we want to find the 9's
complement of the number. For this, we subtract each digit of the number 1423 by
9. So, the 9's complement of the number 1423 is 9999-1423= 8576.

Subtraction using 9's complement

With the help of the 9's complement, the process of subtraction is done in a much
easier way. Generally, we subtract the subtrahend from the minuend, but in a case
when we perform subtraction using 9's complement, there is no need to do the
same.

For subtracting two numbers using 9's complement, we first have to find the 9's
complement of the subtrahend and then we will add this complement value with the
minuend. There are two possible cases when we subtract the numbers using 9's
complement.

Case 1: When the subtrahend is smaller than the minuend.

For subtracting the smaller number from the larger number using 9's complement,
we will find the 9's complement of the subtrahend, and then we will add this
complement value with the minuend. By adding both these values, the result will
come in the formation of carry. At last, we will add this carry to the result obtained
previously.

Case 2: When the subtrahend is greater than the minuend.

In this case, when we add the complement value and the minuend, the result will
not come in the formation of carry. This indicates that the number is negative, and
for finding the final result, we need to find the 9's complement of the result.

10's Complement
The 10's complement is also used to find the subtraction of the decimal numbers.
The 10's complement of a number is calculated by subtracting each digit by 9 and
then adding 1 to the result. Simply, by adding 1 to its 9's complement we can get its
10's complement value. For example, suppose we have a number 1423, and we
want to find the 10's complement of the number. For this, we find the 9's
complement of the number 1423 that is 9999-1423= 8576, and now we will add 1 to
the result. So the 10's complement of the number 1423 is 8576+1=8577.

Subtraction using 10's complement

For subtracting two numbers using 10's complement, we first have to find the 10's
complement of the subtrahend, and then we will add this complement value with the
minuend. There are two possible cases when we subtract the numbers using 10's
complement.

Case 1: When the subtrahend is smaller than the minuend.

For subtracting the smaller number from the larger number using 10's complement,
we will find the 10's complement of the subtrahend and then we will add this
complement value with the minuend. By adding both these values, the result will
come in the formation of carry. We ignore this carry and the remaining digits will be
the answer.

Case 2: When the subtrahend is greater than the minuend.

In this case, when we add the complement value and the minuend, the result will
not come in the formation of carry. This indicates that the number is negative and
 for finding the final result, we need to find the 10's complement of the result
obtained by adding complement value of subtrahend and minuend.

Radix and Diminished Radix complement

The mostly used complements are 1's, 2's, 9's, and 10's complement. Apart from these
complements, there are many more complements from which mostly peoples are not
familiar. For finding the subtraction of the number base system, the complements are
used. If r is the base of the number system, then there are two types of complements
that are possible, i.e., r's and (r-1)'s. We can find the r's complement, and (r-1)'s
complement of the number, here r is the radix. The r's complement is also known
as Radix complement (r-1)'s complement, is known as Diminished Radix
complement.

If the base of the number is 2, then we can find 1's and 2's complement of the number.
Similarly, if the number is the octal number, then we can find 7's and 8's complement
of the number.

There is the following formula for finding the r's and (r-1)'s complement:

r' s= complement=(rn )10-N
(r-1)' s complement={(rn)10-1}-N

In the above formulas,

o The n is the number of digits in the number.

o The N is the given number.

o The r is the radix or base of the number.

Advantages of r's complement
These are the following advantages of using r's complement:

o In r's complement, we can further use existing addition circuitry means there is
no special circuitry.
o There is no need to determine whether the minuend and subtrahend are larger
or not because the result has the right sign automatically.
o The negative zeros are eliminated by r's complement.

Let's take some examples to understand how we can calculate the r's and (r-1)'s
complement of binary, decimal, octal, and hexadecimal numbers.

Example 1: (1011000)2

This number has a base of 2, which means it is a binary number. So, for the binary
numbers, the value of r is 2, and r-1 is 2-1=1. So, we can calculate the 1's and 2's
complement of the number.

1's complement of the number 1011000 is calculated as:

={(27 )10-1}-(1011000)2
={(128)10-1}-(1011000)2
={(127)10}-(1011000)2
=11111112-10110002
=0100111

2's complement of the number 1011000 is calculated as:

=(27 )10-(1011000)2
=(128)10-(1011000)2
=100000002-10110002
=01010002

Example 2: (155)10

This number has a base of 10, which means it is a decimal number. So, for the decimal
numbers, the value of r is 10, and r-1 is 10-1=9. So, we can calculate the 10's and 9's
complement of the number.

9's complement of the number 155 is calculated as:

={(103 )10-1}-(155)10
=(1000-1)-155
=999-155
=(844)10
10's complement of the number 1011000 is calculated as:

=(103 )10-(15510
=1000-155
=(845)10

Example 3: (172)8

This number has a base of 8, which means it is an octal number. So, for the octal
numbers, the value of r is 8, and r-1 is 8-1=7. So, we can calculate the 8's and 7's
complement of the number.

7's complement of the number 172 is calculated as:

={(83 )10-1}-(172)8
=((512)10-1)-(132)8
=(511)10-(122)10
=(389)10
=(605)8

8's complement of the number 172 is calculated as:

=(83 )10-(172)8
=(512)10-1728
=51210-12210
=39010
=6068

Example 4: (F9)16

This number has a base of 16, which means it is a hexadecimal number. So, for the
hexadecimal numbers, the value of r is 16, and r-1 is 16-1=15. So, we can calculate
the 16's and 15's complement of the number.

15's complement of the number F9 is calculated as:

{(162 )10-1}-(F9)16
(256-1)10-F916
25510-24910
(6)10
(6)16

16's complement of the number F9 is calculated as:

{(162 )10 }-(F9)16
25610-24910
(7)10
(7)16
Addition and Subtraction using 1's complement
In our previous section, we learned about different complements such as 1's
complement, 2's complement, 9's complement, and 10's complement, etc.. In this
section, we will learn to perform the arithmetic operations such as addition and
subtraction using 1's complement. We can perform addition and subtraction using 1's,
2's, 9's, and 10's complement.

Addition using 1's complement

There are three different cases possible when we add two binary numbers which are as
follows:

Case 1: Addition of the positive number with a negative number when the
positive number has a greater magnitude.

Initially, calculate the 1's complement of the given negative number. Sum up with the
given positive number. If we get the end-around carry 1, it gets added to the LSB.

Example: 1101 and -1001

1. First, find the 1's complement of the negative number 1001. So, for finding 1's
complement, change all 0 to 1 and all 1 to 0. The 1's complement of the number
1001 is 0110.

2. Now, add both the numbers, i.e., 1101 and 0110;

1101+0110=1 0011

3. By adding both numbers, we get the end-around carry 1. We add this end
around carry to the LSB of 0011.
0011+1=0100

Case 2: Adding a positive value with a negative value in case the negative
number has a higher magnitude.

Initially, calculate the 1's complement of the negative value. Sum it with a positive
number. In this case, we did not get the end-around carry. So, take the 1's
complement of the result to get the final result.

Note: The resultant is a negative value.

Example: 1101 and -1110

 1. First find the 1's complement of the negative number 1110. So, for finding 1's
complement, we change all 0 to 1, and all 1 to 0. 1's complement of the number
1110 is 0001.

2. Now, add both the numbers, i.e., 1101 and 0001;

1101+0001= 1110

3. Now, find the 1's complement of the result 1110 that is the final result. So, the
1's complement of the result 1110 is 0001, and we add a negative sign before
the number so that we can identify that it is a negative number.

Case 3: Addition of two negative numbers

In this case, first find the 1's complement of both the negative numbers, and then we
add both these complement numbers. In this case, we always get the end-around
carry, which get added to the LSB, and for getting the final result, we take the 1's
complement of the result.

Note: The resultant is a negative value.

Example: -1101 and -1110 in five-bit register

1. Firstly find the 1's complement of the negative numbers 01101 and 01110. So,
for finding 1's complement, we change all 0 to 1, and all 1 to 0. 1's complement
of the number 01110 is 10001, and 01101 is 10010.

2. Now, we add both the complement numbers, i.e., 10001 and 10010;
10001+10010= 1 00011

3. By adding both numbers, we get the end-around carry 1. We add this end-
around carry to the LSB of 00011.
00011+1=00100

4. Now, find the 1's complement of the result 00100 that is the final answer. So,
the 1's complement of the result 00100 is 110111, and add a negative sign
before the number so that we can identify that it is a negative number.

Subtraction using 1's complement

These are the following steps to subtract two binary numbers using 1's complement

o In the first step, find the 1's complement of the subtrahend.

 o Next, add the complement number with the minuend.

o If got a carry, add the carry to its LSB. Else take 1's complement of the result
which will be negative

Note: The subtrahend value always get subtracted from minuend.

Example 1: 10101 - 00111

We take 1's complement of subtrahend 00111, which comes out 11000. Now, sum
them. So,

10101+11000 =1 01101.

In the above result, we get the carry bit 1, so add this to the LSB of a given result, i.e.,
01101+1=01110, which is the answer.

Example 2: 10101 - 10111

We take 1's complement of subtrahend 10111, which comes out 01000. Now, add both
of the numbers. So,

10101+01000 =11101.

In the above result, we didn't get the carry bit. So calculate the 1's complement of the
result, i.e., 00010, which is the negative number and the final answer.

Addition and Subtraction using 2's complement

In our previous section, we learned how we could perform arithmetic operations such as
addition and subtraction using 1's complement. In this section, we will learn to perform
these operations using 2's complement.

Addition using 2's complement

There are three different cases possible when we add two binary numbers using 2's
complement, which is as follows:

Case 1: Addition of the positive number with a negative number when the
positive number has a greater magnitude.

Initially find the 2's complement of the given negative number. Sum up with the given
positive number. If we get the end-around carry 1 then the number will be a positive
number and the carry bit will be discarded and remaining bits are the final result.

Example: 1101 and -1001

 1. First, find the 2's complement of the negative number 1001. So, for finding 2's
complement, change all 0 to 1 and all 1 to 0 or find the 1's complement of the
number 1001. The 1's complement of the number 1001 is 0110, and add 1 to
the LSB of the result 0110. So the 2's complement of number 1001 is
0110+1=0111

2. Add both the numbers, i.e., 1101 and 0111;

1101+0111=1  0100

3. By adding both numbers, we get the end-around carry 1. We discard the end-
around carry. So, the addition of both numbers is 0100.

Case 2: Adding of the positive value with a negative value when the negative
number has a higher magnitude.

Initially, add a positive value with the 2's complement value of the negative number.
Here, no end-around carry is found. So, we take the 2's complement of the result to get
the final result.

Note: The resultant is a negative value.

Example: 1101 and -1110

1. First, find the 2's complement of the negative number 1110. So, for finding 2's
complement, add 1 to the LSB of its 1's complement value 0001.
0001+1=0010

2. Add both the numbers, i.e., 1101 and 0010;

1101+0010= 1111

3. Find the 2's complement of the result 1110 that is the final result. So, the 2's
complement of the result 1110 is 0001, and add a negative sign before the
number so that we can identify that it is a negative number.

Case 3: Addition of two negative numbers

In this case, first, find the 2's complement of both the negative numbers, and then we
will add both these complement numbers. In this case, we will always get the end-
around carry, which will be added to the LSB, and forgetting the final result, we will
take the2's complement of the result.

Note: The resultant is a negative value.

Example: -1101 and -1110 in five-bit register

 1. Firstly find the 2's complement of the negative numbers 01101 and 01110. So,
for finding 2's complement, we add 1 to the LSB of the 1's complement of these
numbers. 2's complement of the number 01110 is 10010, and 01101 is 10011.

2. We add both the complement numbers, i.e., 10001 and 10010;

10010+10011= 1 00101

3. By adding both numbers, we get the end-around carry 1. This carry is discarded
and the final result is the 2.s complement of the result 00101. So, the 2's
complement of the result 00101 is 11011, and we add a negative sign before the
number so that we can identify that it is a negative number.

Subtraction using 2's complement

These are the following steps to subtract two binary numbers using 2's complement

o In the first step, find the 2's complement of the subtrahend.

o Add the complement number with the minuend.

o If we get the carry by adding both the numbers, then we discard this carry and
the result is positive else take 2's complement of the result which will be
negative.

Example 1: 10101 - 00111

We take 2's complement of subtrahend 00111, which is 11001. Now, sum them. So,

10101+11001 =1 01110.

In the above result, we get the carry bit 1. So we discard this carry bit and remaining is
the final result and a positive number.

Example 2: 10101 - 10111

We take 2's complement of subtrahend 10111, which comes out 01001. Now, we add
both of the numbers. So,

10101+01001 =11110.

In the above result, we didn't get the carry bit. So calculate the 2's complement of the
result, i.e., 00010. It is the negative number and the final answer.
Fixed Point and Floating Point Number
Representations
Data Structure and AlgorithmsMathematicsDigital Electronics

Digital Computers use Binary number system to represent all types of information inside
the computers. Alphanumeric characters are represented using binary bits (i.e., 0 and
1). Digital representations are easier to design, storage is easy, accuracy and precision
are greater.
There are various types of number representation techniques for digital number
representation, for example: Binary number system, octal number system, decimal
number system, and hexadecimal number system etc. But Binary number system is
most relevant and popular for representing numbers in digital computer system.

Storing Real Number

These are structures as following below −

There are two major approaches to store real numbers (i.e., numbers with fractional
component) in modern computing. These are (i) Fixed Point Notation and (ii) Floating
Point Notation. In fixed point notation, there are a fixed number of digits after the
decimal point, whereas floating point number allows for a varying number of digits after
the decimal point.
 Fixed-Point Representation −
This representation has fixed number of bits for integer part and for fractional part. For
example, if given fixed-point representation is IIII.FFFF, then you can store minimum
value is 0000.0001 and maximum value is 9999.9999. There are three parts of a fixed-
point number representation: the sign field, integer field, and fractional field.

We can represent these numbers using:

 Signed representation: range from -(2(k-1)-1) to (2(k-1)-1), for k bits.

 1’s complement representation: range from -(2 (k-1)-1) to (2(k-1)-1), for k bits.
 2’s complementation representation: range from -(2 (k-1)) to (2(k-1)-1), for k bits.
2’s complementation representation is preferred in computer system because of
unambiguous property and easier for arithmetic operations.
Example −Assume number is using 32-bit format which reserve 1 bit for the sign, 15
bits for the integer part and 16 bits for the fractional part.
Then, -43.625 is represented as following:

Where, 0 is used to represent + and 1 is used to represent. 000000000101011 is 15 bit

binary value for decimal 43 and 1010000000000000 is 16 bit binary value for fractional
0.625.
The advantage of using a fixed-point representation is performance and disadvantage is
relatively limited range of values that they can represent. So, it is usually inadequate for
numerical analysis as it does not allow enough numbers and accuracy. A number
whose representation exceeds 32 bits would have to be stored inexactly.
These are above smallest positive number and largest positive number which can be
store in 32-bit representation as given above format. Therefore, the smallest positive
number is 2-16 ≈  0.000015 approximate and the largest positive number is (2 15-1)+(1-2-
16
)=215(1-2-16) =32768, and gap between these numbers is 2 -16.
We can move the radix point either left or right with the help of only integer field is 1.
Floating-Point Representation −
This representation does not reserve a specific number of bits for the integer part or the
fractional part. Instead it reserves a certain number of bits for the number (called the
mantissa or significand) and a certain number of bits to say where within that number
the decimal place sits (called the exponent).
The floating number representation of a number has two part: the first part represents a
signed fixed point number called mantissa. The second part of designates the position
of the decimal (or binary) point and is called the exponent. The fixed point mantissa may
be fraction or an integer. Floating -point is always interpreted to represent a number in
the following form: Mxre.
Only the mantissa m and the exponent e are physically represented in the register
(including their sign). A floating-point binary number is represented in a similar manner
except that is uses base 2 for the exponent. A floating-point number is said to be
normalized if the most significant digit of the mantissa is 1.

So, actual number is (-1)s(1+m)x2(e-Bias), where s is the sign bit, m is the mantissa, e is the
exponent value, and Bias is the bias number.
Note that signed integers and exponent are represented by either sign representation,
or one’s complement representation, or two’s complement representation.
The floating point representation is more flexible. Any non-zero number can be
represented in the normalized form of  ±(1.b1b2b3 ...)2x2n This is normalized form of a
number x.
Example −Suppose number is using 32-bit format: the 1 bit sign bit, 8 bits for signed
exponent, and 23 bits for the fractional part. The leading bit 1 is not stored (as it is
always 1 for a normalized number) and is referred to as a “hidden bit”.
Then −53.5 is normalized as  -53.5=(-110101.1)2=(-1.101011)x25 , which is represented
as following below,
Where 00000101 is the 8-bit binary value of exponent value +5.
Note that 8-bit exponent field is used to store integer exponents -126 ≤  n ≤ 127.
The smallest normalized positive number that fits into 32 bits is
(1.00000000000000000000000)2x2-126=2-126≈1.18x10-38 , and  largest normalized positive
number that fits into 32 bits is (1.11111111111111111111111) 2x2127=(224-1)x2104 ≈
3.40x1038 . These numbers are represented as following below,

The precision of a floating-point format is the number of positions reserved for binary
digits plus one (for the hidden bit). In the examples considered here the precision is
23+1=24.
The gap between 1 and the next normalized floating-point number is known as machine
epsilon. the gap is (1+2-23)-1=2-23for above example, but this is same as the smallest
positive floating-point number because of non-uniform spacing unlike in the fixed-point
scenario.
Note that non-terminating binary numbers can be represented in floating point
representation, e.g., 1/3 = (0.010101 ...) 2 cannot be a floating-point number as its binary
representation is non-terminating.
IEEE Floating point Number Representation −
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) has standardized Floating-Point
Representation as following diagram.

So, actual number is (-1)s(1+m)x2(e-Bias), where s is the sign bit, m is the mantissa, e is the
exponent value, and Bias is the bias number. The sign bit is 0 for positive number and 1
for negative number. Exponents are represented by or two’s complement
representation.
According to IEEE 754 standard, the floating-point number is represented in following
ways:

 Half Precision (16 bit): 1 sign bit, 5 bit exponent, and 10 bit mantissa
 Single Precision (32 bit): 1 sign bit, 8 bit exponent, and 23 bit mantissa
 Double Precision (64 bit): 1 sign bit, 11 bit exponent, and 52 bit mantissa
 Quadruple Precision (128 bit): 1 sign bit, 15 bit exponent, and 112 bit mantissa
Special Value Representation −
There are some special values depended upon different values of the exponent and
mantissa in the IEEE 754 standard.

 All the exponent bits 0 with all mantissa bits 0 represents 0. If sign bit is 0, then
+0, else -0.
 All the exponent bits 1 with all mantissa bits 0 represents infinity. If sign bit is 0,
then +∞, else -∞.
 All the exponent bits 0 and mantissa bits non-zero represents denormalized
number.
 All the exponent bits 1 and mantissa bits non-zero represents error.