Dr.

Ahmed Said Eltrass

Communication Systems

Spring 2022

Lecture 1:
Power Calculations and Channel Problems in
Wireless Communications

Office hours: Saturday 10:30 a.m. to 12:30 p.m.

 Lecture Outline

• Classification of Channel Problems

• Propagation Models

• Path loss in free space communication

• Example of free space communication: Satellite system

• Link Budget Analysis in free space Communication

• Noise Power Calculation

 Radio Propagation for Wireless communications

• The radio channel is an important controlling factor in

wireless communication systems.

• Transmission path between transmitter and receiver can

vary in complexity.

• LOS (Line Of Sight) is the simplest (Other effects

include: buildings, mountains, foliage - trees/bushes,
speed of mobile).
 Classification of Channel Problems
1- Large scale effects : variation of received power within
large distance (over a distance >> λ)
A- Path loss : Deterministic- Cause attenuation
B- Shadowing (Diffraction and scattering): Random -
Cause attenuation

2- Small scale effects : (Multi-Path fading): Random

variation of received power within short distance (over a
distance of order λ): May cause distortion
• Free Space Propagation: Transmitter and receiver
have a clear, unobstructed LOS path between them.

• Reflection: From the surface of the earth and from

buildings and walls. Usually dimensions of reflecting
object are much greater than wavelength.

• Scattering: Due to objects in the medium that are

small compared to wavelength and the number of objects
is many (e.g., foliage, street signs, lamp posts, rain,
shower).

• Diffraction: Bending of electromagnetic waves around

sharp edges such as, sharp towers or peaks.
 Propagation Models

Aim:
1- To predict the average received signal strength at
a given distance from the transmitter - Large scale
propagation models, hundreds or thousands of
meters.

2- To predict the variability of the signal strength, at

close spatial proximity to a particular location -
Small scale or fading models.
 Recall: Classification of Channel
Problems
1- Large scale effects :
A- path loss : Deterministic- Cause attenuation
B- Shadowing (Diffraction and scattering): Random -
Cause attenuation

2- Small scale effects : (Multi-Path fading):

- May cause distortion
 1. Path Loss
• Path loss describes the deterministic power dissipation of the
radiated power from the transmitter.

• There are several models for the path loss calculation:

1
I- Free space model Pr  2 Applicable when:
r
1- Transmitter/receiver have clear, unobstructed LOS path
between them.

2- No reflections from ground

Example: Satellite communications

P r02 r 
= 2 Or P = P0 − 20 log 
P0 r  r0 
II- 2-ray model Pr  1 Applicable when:
4
r

1- Transmitter/receiver have one LOS component.

2- One perfect reflection from ground

3- Distance between Tx and Rx >>> Heights of Tx and Rx

Example: Desert Road (LOS presents and no buildings, only
reflection from ground)
4
P r r 
= 0
4 Or P = P0 − 40 log 
P0 r  r0 
 1
III- General ray model Pr  
r
-In most of communication systems, there are more than 2 rays

- In order to take the resultant, it would be very difficult (ray

tracing)

- Generally

1
Pr  
P r0 r 
r =  Or P = P0 − 10 log 
P0 r  r0 

where  is the power loss exponent

IV- Empirical path loss model :
-Most mobile communication systems operate in complex
propagation environment that can not be modeled with the
previous models

- Extensive measurements are performed, and these

measurements are mapped into models.

Examples: Hata, Cost, Okumura,……

Assignment : (To be submitted to the TA)
- Prepare a report about the development of empirical path loss
model and explain two of these empirical models.

- Generate random binary sequence and send it using 16-QAM

and choose one of these empirical models and show its effect
in the BER versus SNR. Assume AWGN channel.
 dB in Communications
Dealing with large and small signal levels

Ratio

PdB = 10Log10 (P2/P1)

units - W
units - dBW units – 1 W

PdB(dBW) = 10Log10 (P(W)/1(W))

units - dBm units - mW units – 1 mW

PdB(dBm) = 10Log10 (P(mW)/1(mW))

 PdB = 10Log10 (P2/P1)

PdB(dBW) = 10Log10 (P(W)/1(W))

PdB(dBm) = 10Log10 (P(mW)/1(mW))

dBµ ------------- is an absolute value in microwatts

PdB(dBµ) = 10Log10 (P(µW)/1(µW))

Examples
 Antenna Basics
• An antenna is a circuit element that provides a transition from
a guided wave on a transmission line to a free space wave and
it provides for the collection of electromagnetic energy.

• In transmit systems the RF signal is generated, amplified,

modulated and applied to the antenna

• In receive systems the antenna collects electromagnetic waves

that are “cutting” through the antenna and induce alternating
currents that are used by the receiver

• In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used

for transmission and reception
 S = P / (4r2)
r W/m2

Isotropic
Source
P watts
Sphere with
surface area 4r2
square meters
16
 Isotropic Antenna
• An isotropic antenna radiating a power P (watts)
creates a power density at a far distance r according
to
S = P / ( 4  r2 ) W/m2

• Note that this antenna is not directive at all!

• The isotropic antenna is not physically possible, but

real antennas are compared to it
 Antenna Gain
• Definition of Antenna Gain:
“The increase in power density at a given point in space when the
test antenna is used in place of an isotropic antenna”
• Hence Antenna Gain = G = Stest / Sisotropic where
Stest = Pt G / ( 4  r2 ) and Sisotropic = Pt / ( 4  r2 )
• The antenna gain is a ratio, without dimensions
• Gain is expressed in decibel units,
G(dB) = 10 log10 G
• The gain of an isotropic antenna is 1 in linear units and 0 in dB
units
• The gain of a directive antenna is often explicitly compared to that
of an isotropic antenna with the addition of the letter i , e.g., G =
20 dBi
 Antenna Pattern
• Directional antennas are designed to transmit and receive EM
waves over a small angular region
• The variation of antenna gain with angle is known as the
Antenna Pattern
• Antenna patterns have a main lobe and sidelobes
• Usually presented as gain vs angle in a plane
 Antenna Beamwidth
• Beamwidth is defined as the angular extent between the 3
dB points of the main lobe
• Gain and beamwidth are related: The more we concentrate
radiated power in direction (increase gain), the more we
narrow the angular extent of the radiation (decrease
beamwidth)

• The narrower the beamwidth(s), the higher the antenna gain

 Notes
1- An approximate expression for relating gain and θ is
26,000 26,000
G = where θ is in deg and G is in linear units
 AZ EL  2
B

• This expression is useful for estimating G from θ or vice versa

Example: Suppose an antenna with a circular beam has

a beamwidth of 1°. What is the gain of the antenna?
Solution

Since the beam is circular we have

26,000 26,000
G= = = 26,000 = 44 dB
 B2 12

• Note: Do not quote more than 1 decimal place in dB figures!

 Gain and Effective Area of Antenna
• The gain is directly proportional to the effective area of the
antenna, Ae : 𝐺 ∝ 𝐴𝑒

• A precise expression for gain relates to Ae :

4 Ae
G=
2
• Ae is related to the physical area of the antenna, Ap , by the antenna
efficiency, ηA :

Ae =  A Ap
• Typical values of ηA are 50-80%; assume 60% if no value is given
 Free space model Pr  12
r

Pt

Gt
Pr

Gr

Transmitted power Pt watts

Transmitter Antenna gain Gt a ratio
Receiver Antenna gain Gr a ratio
Distance between Tx and Rx R meters
Received power Pr watts
For Isotropic Transmitting antenna, the power density S (W/m2)
is given by S = P / (4r2)

S = P / (4r2)
r W/m2

Isotropic
Source
P watts
Sphere with
surface area 4r2
square meters
• For a directive transmitting antenna with gain Gt, the power
density is given by:
S = Pt Gt / ( 4  r2 ) W/m2
• For a distance R between the earth station (Tx) and the
Satellite (Rx), the received power Pr is given by
Pr = S (W/m2 ) Ae Watt
Pr = Pt Gt Ae / ( 4  R2 )
Where Ae is the effective area of the receiving antenna

4 Ae  Gr 2
Gr =  Ae =
 2
4
• Substituting, the received power Pr (Watt) can be expressed as

Pt Gt Gr 2
Pr =
(4 ) 2 R 2

• The received power Pr (dB) is expressed as

 Pt Gt Gr 2 
Pr (dB) = 10 log 2 2 

 (4 ) R 
Pr (dB) = Pt (dB) + Gt (dB) + Gr (dB) + 20 log( ) − 20 log(R ) − 20 log(4 )

Pr (dB) = Pt (dB) + Gt (dB) + Gr (dB) + 20 log( ) − 20 log(R ) − 21.98 dB

 Free Space Path Loss
• Free space path loss is defined as the ratio of the
transmitted power to the power received excluding antenna
gains or assuming isotropic antennas:

L=
Pt
=
(4R )2
= =
(4R )2 (4R )2
Pr Gt Gr 2
(1)(1)2
 2

Pt = signal power at transmitting antenna

Pr = signal power at receiving antenna
 = carrier wavelength
R = propagation distance between antennas
c = speed of light (3* 108 m/s)
where R and  are in the same units (e.g., meters)
 Free Space Path Loss in dB

• Free space loss equation can be recast (decibel

version):
Pt  (4R )
2

LdB = 10 log = 10 log 

Pr  2


LdB = 20 log(R ) + 21.98 dB − 20 log( )

Path Loss represents signal attenuation (measured on dB)

between the effective transmitted power and the receive power
(excluding antenna gains or assuming isotropic antennas)
Notes

1- The free space path loss is proportional to R2

Lp =
(4R ) 2

2

2- The received power is inversely proportional to R2

Pt Gt Gr 2
Pr =
(4 ) 2 R 2
1 P R02  R 
Pr  2
R
= 2 Or P = P0 − 20 log 
P0 R  R0 
 Example
Assume that both transmitting and receiving antennas are isotropic.
Given that Pt = 50 W and f = 900 MHz, calculate the received power
(in dBm) at free space distance of 100 m from the transmitting
antenna. What is PR at 10Km?
Solution
For R =100 m
Pr (dB ) = Pt + Gt + Gr + 20 log( ) − 20 log(R ) − 21.98 dB
 3 108 
Pr (dB ) = 10log(50) + 0 + 0 + 20log  − 20 log(100 ) − 21.98 = −54.5 dB
6 
 900 10 
Pr (dBm) = Pr (dB ) + 30 = - 54.5 + 30 = -24.5 dBm
Note: P(dBW) = P(dBm) - 30 and P(dBm) = P(dBµ) - 30

For R =10 Km

Pr (dBm) = -64.5 dBm

Link Budget Analysis for
Communication Systems
 What Is a Link Budget
• It is a theoretical calculation of end-to-end performance for a
communications path under a specific set of conditions.
• Sometimes the conditions are stated; most often at least some
of them are implied or assumed.
• Every link budget implies everything not included is irrelevant.
– Sometimes this is true

Why is a Link Budget Important

• A link budget is used to predict performance before the
link is established.
– Show in advance if it will be acceptable
– Show if one option is better than another
– Provide a criterion to evaluate actual performance
‣Link budget is a way of quantifying the link performance.

‣If the received power, minus all losses, is greater than the
minimum received signal level of the receiving radio, then
a link is possible.

‣The difference between the minimum received signal

level and the actual received power is called the link
margin.

‣The link margin must be positive, and should be

maximized (should be at least 8 to 10 dB or more for
reliable links).
 Link-Power Budget Formula
• Link-power budget calculations take into account all the gains
and losses from the transmitter, through the medium to the
receiver in a satellite communication system. Also taken into
the account are the attenuation of the transmitted signal due
to propagation and the loss or gain due to the antenna.

• The decibel equation for the received power is:

[PR] = [Pt]+ [Gt] + [GR] - [LOSSES]
Or
[PR] = [EIRP] + [GR] - [LOSSES]
Where:
• [PR] = Received power in dBW
• [EIRP] = Pt+ Gt = Equivalent isotropic radiated power in dBW
• [GR] = Receiver antenna gain in dB
• [LOSSES] = Total link loss in dB
 Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)
• Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) is the equivalent
power that would be transmitted through an ideal isotropic
antenna to produce the same amount of power at the receiver as
the actual transmitter

• Note that EIRP may vary as a function of direction because of

changes in the antenna gain vs. angle

• EIRP = Pt Gt watts In dBs: [EIRP] = [Pt] + [Gt]

1- Recall: the received power Pr (Watt) is expressed as

Pt Gt Gr 2
Pr =
(4 ) 2 R 2

2- Recall: Free Space Path Loss represents signal attenuation

between the transmitted power and the receive power (excluding
antenna gains or assuming isotropic antennas: Gt=Gr =1)

Lp =
Pt
=
(4R )
2

Pr 2
• Now, the received power Pr (Watt) can be expressed as

Pt Gt Gr EIRP Gr
Pr = Or Pr =
Lp Lp
• Other effects need to be accounted for in the transmission equation:
La = Losses due to attenuation in atmosphere
Lta = Losses associated with transmitting antenna
Lra = Losses associates with receiving antenna
Lpol = Losses due to polarization mismatch
Lbeam = Edge of beam shape loss
Lother = (any other known loss - as much detail as available)
Called miscellaneous losses (fading margin, body loss, other
losses...)
Lr = additional Losses at receiver (after receiving antenna)

Pt Gt Gr
Pr =
L p La Lta Lra L pol Lbeam Lother Lr
 Translating to dBs
• The transmission formula can be written in dB as:

Pr = EIRP + Gr − Lta − L p − La − L pol − Lbeam − Lra − Lother − Lr

• This form of the equation is easily handled as a spreadsheet
(additions and subtractions!!)

• The calculation of received signal based on transmitted

power and all losses and gains involved until the receiver is
called “Link Power Budget”, or “Link Budget”.

• The received power Pr is commonly referred to as “Carrier

Power”, C.
 Link Power Budget

EIRP Now all factors are accounted for

Tx
as additions and subtractions
Transmission:
+ HPA Power
- Transmission Losses
(cables & connectors) - Antenna Pointing Loss Reception:
+ Antenna Gain - Free Space Loss
+ Antenna gain
- Atmospheric Loss
- Reception Losses
(gaseous, clouds, rain)
(cables & connectors)
- Rx Antenna Pointing
Loss

Rx Pr
Simple Satellite Link Power Budget
Parameter Value Totals Units Parameter Value Totals Units
Frequency 11.75 GHz
Transmitter Receive Antenna
Transmitter Power 40.00 dBm Random Loss 0.50 dB
Modulation Loss 3.00 dB Diameter 1.5 m
Transmission Line 0.75 dB Aperture Efficiency 0.6 none
Loss
Transmitted Power 36.25 dBm Gain 43.10 dBi
Polarization Loss 0.20 dB
Transmit Antenna Effective RX Ant. 42.40 dBi
Gain
Diameter 0.5 m
Aperture Efficiency 0.55 none Received Power -98.54 dBm
Transmit Antenna 33.18 dBi
Gain

Slant Path Summary

Satellite Altitude 35,786 km Transmitted Power 36.25 dBm
Elevation Angle 14.5 degrees Transmit Anntenna 33.18 dBi
Gain
Slant Range 41,602 km EIRP 69.43 dBmi
Free-space Path Loss 206.22 dB Total Path Loss 210.37 dB
Gaseous Loss 0.65 dB Effective RX 42.4 dBi
Antenna Gain
Rain Loss (allocated) 3.50 dB Received Power -98.54 dBm
Total Path Losses 210.37 dB
 Noise Power
• System noise is caused by thermal noise sources:
– External to RX system
• Transmitted noise on link
• Scene noise observed by antenna
– Internal to RX system

• The power available from thermal noise is:

N = kTs B (Watt) Ts = Treceiver + Tantenna

Where k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38x10-23 J/K(-228.6 dBW/HzK)

Ts is the effective system noise temperature (Kelvins :K)
B is the effective system bandwidth

 
Ts K  = Ts 0C + 273
Noise Spectral Density
N = KTsB➔ N/B = N0 is the noise spectral density (density of
noise power per hertz): N kTs B
N0 = = = kTs (Watt/Hz)
B B
Example:
An antenna has a noise temperature of 35 K and is matched into
a receiver which has a noise temperature of 100 K. Calculate (a) the
noise power density and (b) the noise power for a bandwidth of 36
MHz.

Solution

(a) N0 = N/B = K Ts , Ts = Treceiver +Tantenna

N0 = 1.38x10-23 (35 +100) = 1.86 x 10-21 W/HZ

(b) N = K Ts B = 1.86 x 10-21 x 36 x 106 = 67 x 10-15 W

For received signal : Tsys = Tant+Treceiver
where Tant is the total noise temperature of the antenna
Treceiver is the total noise temperature of the receiver
Antenna Noise Temperature (Tant)
Tant = Tsky+Tgnd depends mainly on the following factors:
1- Sky Noise (Tsky) : Natural Sources
• The sky noise consists of two main components, atmospheric and the
background radiation.
• Sky noise increases with increasing the path through the atmosphere
2- Ground Noise (Tgnd): Man-made sources
• The dominant contribution is ground noise pick up through side lobes
• Noise temperature increases as the elevation angle decreases since lower
elevation settings, will pick up more ground noise due to side lobes intercepting
the ground
- Examples of ground noise: Vehicles, industrial machinery, other systems
operating at the same frequency of interest
Since antenna noise temperature has so many variable factors, an
estimate is perhaps the best we can hope for
Useful approximation for Earth Station antenna
temperature on clear sky (no rain):
Earth Station Antenna - Noise Temperature

50

45

40

35
Ta (K)

30

25

20

15
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Elevation Angle (degrees)
 System Noise Temperature (Tsys) and System Noise Power
The aim now is to determine the amount of noise power that a system such as a satellite
transponder generates knowing the different components of the transponder, their gains, and
their noise temperatures. Consider the following system with different noise temperature as
shown below:

Now, we can represent the thermal noise of each block as a signal at the input of each
block as:
The block diagram above can be reduced into a single block as shown below by
bringing the different noises forward (remember that a signal after a block with gain
G is equivalent to the signal divided by G before that block), and then collecting all
gains of different blocks into a single gain (remember that several cascaded gains
are combined by multiplying the gains by each other):
 Tsys = Tant+Ttrans

Where

Noise System Power = PN = K Tsys BN

 Reducing Noise Power

N = kTs B (Watt)
1- Make B as small as possible – just enough bandwidth to
accept all of the signal power (C)

2- Make TS as small as possible

 System Performance
• Performance of system is determined by Signal to Noise
(S/N) or Carrier to Noise (C/N) ratio

C Pr Pr
= =
N Pn KTs B

• Most systems require C - N > 10 dB

• Hence usually: C > N + 10 dB

 So many trade-offs !!!
4 Ae
Gr =
2
Pt Gt Gr
Pr =
C Pr L p La Lta Lra L pol Lbeam Lother Lr
=
N KTs B  4R 
2

Lp =  
  
Example
Satellite at 40,000 km (range)
Transmits 2W
Antenna gain Gt = 17 dB and operating frequency = 11GHz
Calculate: a. Power density on earth’s surface
b. Power received by antenna with effective aperture of 10m2
c. Gain of receiving antenna.
d. Received C/N assuming Ts =152 K, and BW =500 MHz

Solution
a. (Gt = 17 dB = 50)
EIRP Pt Gt 2  50
Power Density S = = =
4R 2 4R 2 4  (4 107 ) 2
= 4.97  10-15 W/m 2 = −143 dBW/m 2

(Solving in dB…)

EIRP = ( Pt + Gt ) = 3 + 17 = 20 dBW
S = Pt + Gt − 10 log 4 − 20 log 4 107 = −143 dBW/m 2
 b. Received Power
Pr = S  A e = (4.97  10 -15 )  10
Pr = 4.97  10 -14 W = −133dBW

c. Gain of Rx: given Ae = 10 m2 and Frequency = 11GHz

4Ae
Gr = = 4π 10 = 52.3dB
2 0.0273

d. Received C/N assuming Ts =152 K, and BW =500 MHz

N = Pn = KTS B = 1.38  10 −23  152  500  106
or = K dB + TdB + BdB = −228.6 + 21.82 + 86.99
= −119.79 dBW
C = Pr = 4.97  10-14 W = −133dBW
C / N = C − N = −133 − (−119.79)
C / N = −13.2dB