0% found this document useful (0 votes)

428 views241 pages

A Short History of The Twentieth Century

Uploaded by

beryl odero

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

0% found this document useful (0 votes)

428 views241 pages

A Short History of The Twentieth Century

Uploaded by

beryl odero

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 241

Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Lukacs, John. A Short History of the Twentieth Century, Harvard University Press, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central,
http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/waldenu/detail.action?docID=3301334.
Created from waldenu on 2022-04-14 13:34:42.
A SHO R T HI S T
O RY

O F T HE T W E NT I E T H CEN TURY
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

TWENTIETH
CENTURY
o
John Lukacs
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

THE B E LKN A P P R E S S OF
HA R V A R D U N IV E R S ITY P RE SS

Cambridge, Massachusetts
London, England
2013

library of congress cataloging-i n-p ublication data

Lukacs, John, 1924–
A short history of the twentieth century / John Lukacs.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-674-72536-2 (alk. paper)
1. History, Modern—20th century. I. Title.
D421.L86 2013
909.82—dc23 2013007948
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

1 “God Writes Straight with Crooked Lines” 1

“Century”—An American century—The German potential-

ity—Hitler’s primary role—1989 or 1945?—The American
superpower presence—Sta lin and the retreat of Russian
power—The end of colonialism—Recovery and rise of
China—The end of the Modern or European Age—From
liberal democracy to the universality of popular sovereignty

2 “Now We Have Only Peoples’ Wars” 16

A European War—1914: A short war?—But entire nations
rushing at each other—Still a war between states—Medioc-
rity of most generals—Russia withdraws from the war—
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Communism: a seventy-year episode in the more than one

thousand years of Russian history—The complicated history
of America’s entry into the First World War

3 “National Self-Determination” 30

A “new Europe”? Yes and no—The end of four great em-

pires? Yes and no—Peace treaties and their grave faults—
Consequences in Asia—“Central Europe” the crux, again

4 “Cossacks! Brethren!” 45

Communists—The nature of their fears—The situation of

the Jews

5 No Nostalgia for the “World of Yesterday” 55

Uniqueness of the United States—Its in flu

ence different
from that of other great powers—Its prosperity in the 1920s
—The 1920s: the first (and perhaps the only) “modern”
decade—“Depression” in and after 1929, but also American
optimism: not much fear and not much hatred

6 South of the Border and Across the Pacific 66

The Southern Hemisphere—The Far East

7 “Middle Class” Is Not “Bourgeois” 78

The failure of liberal democracies—Authoritarian govern-

ments, dictatorships—A crisis of capitalism—The United
States and other examples of parliamentary democracy

8 “I Was a Nationalist, but I Was Not a Patriot” 90

National Socialism—Hitler

9 The Wave of the Future 99

The Hitler decade—His domination of Europe—The com-

ing of the Second World War

10 “I Hope It Is Not Too Late” 110

The Second World War—The European phase, 1939 to

1941—Germany triumphant—Five leaders

11 To Subdue and Conquer Germany and Japan 131

After Pearl Harbor, six months of Allied defeats—The naval

and military turning points of the war—German ability to
carry on—Mussolini eliminated—Turning the tide in the
east—The Allied invasion of France—Hitler’s determina-
tion—The conquest of Japan

12 The Division of Europe Almost Complete 146

Europe still the center of history—The new geography of the

continent—The movements of people—Rigidification of
the division of Europe—The “iron curtain”—First American
reactions—Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan—Europe
the center of the Cold War—Stalin and Asia

13 The Brave Harry Truman 153

The Cold War at its peak—The Korean War—Death of

Stalin—The Soviet Union begins to retreat—American mis
understandings—Russia and China—The so-called Third
World emerges—The Cuban Missile Crisis—The tensions of
the Cold War lessen
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

14 American Nationalism, American Benevolence 164

America’s century: more than that—Problems rather than

periods—Changes in the composition of the American
people—Uniqueness during and after the Second World

War—American nationalism—The emergence of American
“conservatism”—The United States toward the end of the
Cold War

15 “Europe,” and the End of the Cold War 174

“Europe”: impreciseness of its definition—The principal ob-

ject during the Second World War—After that, its division
and the consequences—Attempts toward an integration of
Europe—The decomposition of the Russian sphere in Eu-
rope—Its rapidity around 1989, while its consequences are
not foreseeable

16 “Great Leap Forward” 183

The Third World—Near and Middle East—Far East and

Australia—Africa—South America and the Western Hemi-
sphere—The movements of peoples

17 The Limitations of Human Knowledge 206

A transitional century—Inheritances of the preceding one—

Positive achievements—Technologies—Weakening enthusi-
asm for some of its applications—Cultural and civilizational
decline—Shortcomings of scientific determinism; scattered
recognitions thereof—We and our earth: again at the center
of the universe
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Index 215

O F T HE T W E NT I E T H CEN TURY
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

“GOD WRITES STRAIGHT

WITH CROOKED LINES”

“Century”—An American century—The German potential-

ity—Hitler’s primary role—1989 or 1945?—The American
superpower presence—Sta
lin and the retreat of Russian
power—The end of colonialism—Recovery and rise of
China—The end of the Modern or European Age—From
liberal democracy to the universality of popular sovereignty

There is no serious hist ory of the twentieth century that I

know of; but my purpose in this book is not quite filling that gap.
I lived through much of the twentieth century, and I was a par
ticipant in and a historian of a few of its portions. I have devoted
much of my life to asserting, teaching, and writing that “objec-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

tive” and “scientific” history are inadequate desiderata; but so,

too, is “subjective” history. Our historical knowledge, like nearly
every kind of human knowledge, is personal and participatory,
since the knower and the known, while not identical, are not
and cannot be entirely separate. We do not possess truth com-
pletely. Yet pursue truth we must. So many seemingly endless
and incomplete truths about the history of the twentieth century
are still worth pursuing, and perhaps forever.
Now, enough of this philosophic premise. Historical knowl-

edge, nay, understanding, depends on description rather than on

definition. It consists of words and sentences that are inseparable
from “facts”; they are more than the wrapping of facts. “In the
beginning was the Word,” and so it will be at the end of the world.
About the term “century”: it had none of its present meaning
until around 1650, when it appeared in English and French. Be-
fore that, it meant a regiment of one hundred soldiers—in Latin,
centuria (related to the term centurion, their commander). That
appearance of a new meaning was the mark of an emerging his-
torical consciousness. So was the appearance of words for three
historical ages, Ancient, Middle, and Modern. People in the
Middle Ages did not know that they were medieval people. They
knew that things were changing—some of them for the worse,
others for the better—but that was that. The Waning of the Mid-
dle Ages, written by the great Dutch historian Johan Huizinga,
was published in 1920. Five hundred years before, no one, or only
a very few, would have understood what that title meant. Our
historical consciousness in many ways and forms had progressed
by the twentieth century—so much so, that more and more peo-
ple are somehow aware that we are living during the waning
of the Modern Age. Even more obvious is that the twentieth
century also meant the end of the European Age: another main
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

theme, or sub-theme, of the present book. Now add to this (his-

torically, not numerically) that the twentieth century was a short
century, seventy-five years, extending from 1914 to 1989, marked
by two world wars (probably the last), of which the Communist
revolution and state in Russia were a consequence; and then that
state too collapsed, in 1989. (The historical nineteenth century
lasted longer: ninety-nine years, from the fall of Napoleon in 1815
to the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.)
One more matter. The twentieth century was—an? the?—

American century. Such a statement may not surprise many of

my readers; but it would have surprised many of those who lived
before the First, or even the Second, World War. It should not
surprise us to hear or read that 1914–1989 (and now even be-
yond that) has been an American century, while the nineteenth
was largely a British century and the eighteenth a French one.
These characterizations allude not only to military strength, na-
val power, and imperial possessions, but to many other kinds
of influences—yet military and naval power mattered above all.
The enormous events of the twentieth century, the two moun-
tain ranges that largely determined its landscape, were the two
world wars—the Second largely a consequence of the First, and
the so-called Cold War almost entirely a consequence of the Sec-
ond. Without their military alliance with the United States, Brit-
ain and Russia, even together, could not have won the Second
World War; without America’s entry into the First World War,
the British and French might not have won that either, at least
not in 1918. But there was more to these alliances than military
and sea and air power. They meant the end of the European Age.
A few Europeans had recognized this, looking at the world map
even before 1914: Europe was but a peninsula of Asia.
The British—mostly their successive governments, but also
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

much of their press—thought they had to have good relations

with the United States, accepting its supremacy in some places
and ways (though seldom admitting this before 1914). As late
as 1895, there was a minor crisis between Washington and Lon-
don regarding Venezuela. But less than three years later, in 1898,
the American decision to go to war against Spain (a war that
was provoked by the United States) was supported almost with-
out exception by the British government and the British press.
Thereafter, and throughout the twentieth century, there was no

instance in which a British government would strongly oppose

the United States. During the fifteen years before 1914, Ameri-
can influence on much of British life grew. Sir James Bryce, who
served as ambassador to the United States and knew the country
well, went so far as to write (in his book The American Common-
wealth): “America has in some respects anticipated European na-
tions. She is walking before them along paths which they may
probably follow.” Much of this went beyond (or beneath) politics.
It involved countless examples of American practices and inven-
tions, especially in the English-speaking countries, but also in
many other places throughout the world. Even more important:
in 1940, Hitler came close to winning the Second World War.
Had it not been for Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt,
he may have achieved that.
Meanwhile the British presence and influence in the United
States were decreasing. Once the British Isles had been the pri-
mary source of immigrants to America, but this stream was
diminishing in the fifteen years before 1914—a period when im-
migration from other European countries was still rapidly grow-
ing. Theodore Roosevelt, one of America’s greatest presidents,
was aware of this. His advocacy of a New Nationalism was not
nationalism as we understand it today; rather, it was stentorian
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

advice to the new arrivals—at that time coming especially from

Eastern and Southern Europe—to become Americanized as
soon as they could. This Rooseveltian advocacy was more than
successful during most of the twentieth century. Nationalism, of
course, has various forms and desiderata, one example of this be-
ing the United States of America. Going further, and forecasting
one main argument of this book, we can say that nationalism (re-
lated to but altogether different from old-fashioned patriotism)

has been and still is the most popular and populist politic al sen-
timent in the twentieth century, almost everywhere.1
“God writes straight with crooked lines”: this is a profound
and wise Portuguese proverb. Nonbelievers may find this argu-
able (I do not), but it does not mean that the course of world his
tory was inevitable. Neither was the history of the United States.
History does not consist of endless alternatives—but behind or
during or prior to every human event, the actuality is colored by
a different potentiality. For example, Germany had the potential
to become the greatest power in the twentieth century. Toward
the end of his life, Hitler once said that he was “Europe’s last
hope.” (Some hope.)2 Yet he did not really think of himself as a
European. (Neither did he quite fathom the great dependence of
Britain upon the United States.) Near the end of his life, Otto von
Bismarck was reputed to have said that the most important fac-
tor in the coming twentieth century would be that Americans
spoke English.
Still, there was a possibility that Germany could become a
dominant power in the world. There were a few, though not
many, Englishmen and Scotsmen advocating for a British alli-
ance with Germany (some of them for racial reasons). There was
considerable anti-British sentiment among the American peo-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

ple, and among some of their leaders as well, though it did not

amount to much in the long run. But when one contemplates the
history of Europe, surely before 1945, many actualities could have
been different. The impact and influence of Germany—military

1. There will be extensive reference to this in later chapters.

2. On January 1, 1944, Churchill instructed his three chiefs of staff: “I hope that all expres-
sions such as ‘Invasion of Europe’ or ‘Assault upon the fortress of Europe’ may be elimi-
nated henceforward.”

as well as political, ideological as well as cultural and intellec-

tual, industrial as well as technological—were still increasing in
1900, in 1914, and even after the First World War, which Ger-
many came close to winning (it came even closer to winning
the Second World War, at least from 1939 to 1942). But the First
World War was almost exclusively a “European War” (the offic ial
name given to it by the British government throughout that war).
The Second World War was then fought on other continents
and across other oceans; but the inclinations of many Ameri-
cans notwithstanding, the American military and politic al lead-
ers were correct in deciding early that the Allies’ defeat of Ger-
many must have priority over the American war against Japan
that would follow the collapse of Germany. Still, 80 million Ger-
mans were ranged against almost 500 million British, Ameri-
cans, French, and Russians—most decisively in Europe, where it
took nearly six years to conquer them.
People in the Far East may argue that the Second World War
began not in September 1939 in Poland but in September 1931 in
China: in that month, Japanese armies advanced from Manchu-
ria and Korea into China proper, overrunning and occupying
its main seaboard cities, penetrating the interior of the country
during the next ten years—and eventually leading to war be-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

tween Japan and the United States. Yet this perspective is insuffi
cient. Japan’s ambition to establish its empire along the Far East-
ern Asian mainland had existed before 1931. It was also part and
parcel of the movement of anticolonialism, arising here and
there before 1931. Much of this was also due to the growing evi-
dence of uneasy sentiments among the British and French and
also other European nations that were reluctant to extend or
even maintain their role in some of their overseas colonies, most
of them acquired during the nineteenth century. More important

was that in 1939 another war breaking out in Europe was wel-
comed by the Japanese.
Here I must insist on the obvious. Both world wars broke out
in Europe. The events of 1914, the origins of World War I, the
cascade of decisions leading to its outbreak, the various parts
played by statesmen and by entire governments have been de-
bated among historians for nearly one hundred years, and even
now. Yet the outbreak of World War II was due to one man,
Adolf Hitler. Had he not started a second world war in 1939,
another war in Europe may have come about years later—per-
haps. Had he conquered much of Europe, an American-Japanese
war may have come about years later—perhaps. Yet “perhaps”
and the extent of a potentiality that exists behind actuality are
not the same thing.
With the above in mind, let me ask: Was the twentieth century
even shorter than I (and presumably others) now see it? Did it
end not in 1989 but already in 1945? I wrote that the historical
landscape of the twentieth century was dominated by the enor-
mous mountain ranges of the two world wars. Yet after 1945, the
age of world wars was over. Such wars may never occur again.
There has been, after all, a change in the very structure of in
ternational history. The wars after 1945 have been smaller—but
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

their sizes do not matter much. What matters is that they have
more often been wars between nations or tribes than wars be-
tween states. The existence of nations preceded the formation of
states but the former will survive the latter, creating all kinds of
problems.
There were other landmark changes in the history of the world
after 1945. Almost all wars were now undeclared. Others were
fought mainly by air. The United States had become the only
superpower in the world. After 1945, most people (and many

Americans) came to think that the political landscape of the

world was now marked by two superpowers—one Communist,
the other not—wrestling for domination over much of the globe.
This was not so. (After General de Gaulle visited the Soviet
Union in 1966, he remarked that there was only one superpower
in the world: the United States.) But it was not American pres-
sure that led to the dissolution of the Soviet U nion. It was the
overdue breakup of the Russian Empire, including the ever more
obvious nonsense of an international Communism.
Meanwhile, the presence of the United States—perhaps even
more than its actual power—grew and grew. The many Ameri-
can military bases around the world shrank in number after 1945,
as soldiers were demobilized and sent home, but the Cold War
(and other influences) reversed this trend. By 1956 the United
States had more than 150 ground, naval, and air bases athwart the
globe. That year, the Republican Party’s platform cheered them
on, calling for an American military presence “all around the
world.” When the Cold War with the Soviet U nion came to its
end, there were (and still are) more than 900 such bases. There
is reason to think that an American president or even a secre-
tary of defense would not be able to list them all. Oddly enough,
only a minuscule portion of the American people have ever been
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

wholly aware of this—unlike substantial portions, probably the

majorities, of the British or Dutch or Portuguese or French or
Italian people, who a century before had been proud or at least in
favor of their country’s colonial possessions.
Americans were different. The presence of their bases abroad
had little or nothing to do with the natural richness of their colo-
nial possessions, as had been the case with most Europeans. At
the same time, most Americans supported the foreign wars that

their soldiers fought during the Cold War and after. This was a
reasonable choice during the Korean War in 1950–1953, but less
so with American military intrusions in the Near East or Viet-
nam or Iraq; during these involvements, American popular sup-
port of costly campaigns waned. A significant symptom of the
exceptional nature of the American character was the generous
inclination toward recent enemies: the Japanese, Germans, Viet-
namese, and so on. Consider, too, the general absence of Ameri-
can self-congratulation when the Soviet U nion collapsed, begin-
ning in the 1980s—all of Ronald Reagan’s previous bombastic
and nationalistic phrases notwithstanding.
That the Second World War did not debouch into another war
between the great powers was also due to the—uneasy—accep-
tance by the Americans, the British, and continental Europeans
of the division of Europe in 1945. (This was also due to Stalin and
then to his successors, by their calculations.)
It was also the main reason Stalin avoided a war with the
United States. He insisted on ruling most of Eastern Europe—no
more than that. Russia had an enormous appetite now, Churchill
told de Gaulle in November 1944, “but after the meal comes the
digestion period,” with its many troubles. Near the end of his life,
Stalin recognized this. In October 1952, he proposed a settlement
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

involving a reciprocal retreat of Soviet and American forces from

an eventually reunited and “neutral” Germany (an American-
German alliance was one of Stalin’s main fears). He died not long
afterward. Soon, Russia began divesting itself of its 1945 con-
quests. In 1955, it gave up its bases in Austria and Finland (and
also its bases in China); it reached a settlement with Yugoslavia.
It was stunned and dismayed by the 1956 revolution in Hungary
and by the rise of nationalism in Poland. This evolution of a

gradual though sometimes interrupted withdrawal of Russian

power from Eastern Europe continued until the demise of the
Soviet Union in 1989.
Successive American governments and most of the American
people were often unwilling to recognize this. In 1959, Nikita
Khrushchev, then leader of the Soviet U nion, visited the United
States to confer with President Dwight Eisenhower. In many
ways, he came cap in hand (among other matters, he suggested
an American-Russian collaboration against Communist China).
The American host—who fourteen years earlier had been one of
the more enthusiastic proponents of American friendship with
the Soviet Union—received his Russian guest with a sour face
and without much interest. By 1952, anti-Communism had be-
come synonymous with American nationalism. An enduring re-
sult was the rise of the American “conservative” movement—a
political adjective which previously had been unpopular among
Americans but which thirty years later many Americans would
prefer to “liberal.”
Quite different was the history of the so-called Third World (a
very imprecise term) after 1945. Opposition to colonialism was
an element in the American credo from the country’s very be-
ginning. It was a powerful though often indirect factor in the
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

rapid decline of the European Age, as Britain, France, Holland,

Belgium, Portugal, and Italy gave up their colonial possessions.
So did Japan, of course. Before 1945, almost all of Africa was
a European colony of one kind or another. Twenty years later,
there were practically no European colonies anywhere in that
enormous continent—or in Asia. In the Near East after 1920, the
Ottoman Empire gave up just about all of its adjacent posses-
sions inhabited by non-Turkish peoples. Since 1990, such a devo-

lution has been discernible even in some of the older parts of the
Soviet U
nion.
But to declare or regard anti-or noncolonialism as part of a
worldwide advance of democracy is misleading. During the Cold
War, whether affected by it or not, some places of the world, in-
cluding states and nations in Central and South America, occa-
sionally installed Communist or pro-Communist regimes. Out-
side the Russian sphere in Europe (except for Yugoslavia), this
did not happen. But Cuba—and later other minor, formerly
Spanish colonies—were prime examples of such Communist es-
tablishments. Sometimes they absurdly recapitulated the pat-
tern in which revolts against colonialism had occurred long after
the conclusion of the French revolutionary and Napoleonic
wars, mostly after 1815. Their main purpose was the assertion of
national independence, though often their motives were more
obscure than that.
In Cuba, the principal motive of Fidel Castro and his support-
ers (as with those of some other dictators in Central and South
America) was not Communism but anti-Americanism. It speaks
well of the United States that, save for a few brief, small-scale,
clandestine episodes, the American government refrained from
subduing these agitated and irresponsible governments militar-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

ily. Castro and others soon learned that the help they might ex-
pect to get from the Soviet Union was less than minimal. In 1962,
when Khrushchev agreed to Castro’s frantic requests to furnish
Cuba with medium-range rockets (limited in range, and under
complete Russian control) against a potential American inva-
sion, a stern American reaction, including a naval blockade, put
an end to this largely senseless episode. This Russian presence in
the Western Hemisphere faded almost immediately. One of its

consequences was the ouster of Khrushchev by his Politburo less

than two years later; another was an overall though fitful im-
provement in American-Soviet relations during the subsequent
twenty-five years.
Russia’s relations with China were different, as always. China
was not one of the great powers of the world in 1945, though
President Roosevelt declared that it was. But as so often be-
fore, China, despite its enormous size and population, was some
thing like a geopolitical vacuum. The Japanese now left China
for good. Within and outside China, the British were likewise
packing up. The Chinese government, under Chiang Kai-shek
(whose ultimate defeat ought not to obscure some of his merits
and political talents), depended largely on the United States. But
in and after 1945, Washington and the American military were
preoccupied with what to do and where to stand in the Western
Pacific, including the China Sea. They would not be involved, ex-
cept quite marginally, in a developing Chinese civil war between
Chiang’s nationalists and Mao Tse-tung’s Communists (a differ-
ent species of nationalists), which the latter would finally win
by 1949.
It is significant that the Russians chose not to be involved ei-
ther. The Chinese Communists got little or no help from Stalin
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

and even less from his successors. Stalin himself had not ex-
pected that the Chinese Communists would win their civil
war, until too late; he maintained normal relations with Chiang
Kai-shek until almost 1949. By 1970, there was serious sporadic
fighting between Russian and Chinese troops along their border
rivers. By that time, the American government, led by Richard
Nixon and his secretary of state, Henry Kissinger, had decided to
radically improve American relations with China. A few years
later Mao Tse-tung was gone, and his followers put an end to the

remaining Communist practices in the everyday life and eco-

nomics of their enormous country, while keeping a Communist
Party monopoly in their domestic politics. Did this matter much
in the long run? Illusions about China, including economic and
material illusions, have been an American tendency through
more than two hundred years, in various politic al circumstances.
History does not repeat itself, even though historical and ideo-
logical illusions persist l onger than they should.
Yet beneath and above such great developments involving the
daily lives and the destinies of billions of people across the globe,
there was an—an, not the—advance of democracy. What follows
is a necessary, though inadequate, summary.
The European Age was gone—and, together with it, one of
its precious and fragile achievements: liberal democracy. It was
(and here and there it still is) liberal democracy, often allied with
constitutional monarchy, that has established and secured the
liberties and property of an increasing number of citizens during
the past two or even three hundred years. One of its elements,
constitutional monarchy, has become less widespread in the
twentieth century, often because governments of this type were
not supported by the United States, even though the once tradi-
tional American opposition to monarchism has faded away.3
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

3. Consider that under a German or Austrian monarchy, Hitler would not have risen to
power; that even during the Second World War and the German occupation, most of the
constitutional monarchs of Europe opposed Hitler and the Third Reich; that the king of It-
aly deposed Benito Mussolini in 1943; that it was the Japanese emperor, Hirohito, who led
the Japanese peace party against the militarists and was able to convince his people of the
need to end the war. (A wise American exception to antimonarchism was made by Presi-
dent Harry Truman in July 1945: he dropped a requirement that the coming surrender of
Japan include the deposing of the emperor.) But after 1945, the remaining monarchs in the
East, from Egypt and Iran through Indochina and Afghanistan, were unsupported by vari-
ous American governments.

Throughout the world, many people saw the United States as

the prime example of the idea of Progress and of the Modern
Age. Yet even during the twentieth century, there were signs that
the Modern Age was passing—that the twentieth was a transi-
tional century, from the Modern (or, more precisely, European)
Age to something else. Here, we should consider Alexis de
Tocqueville’s great—but also commonsense—vision. Nearly two
hundred years ago, he, too, knew the still-current division of the
history of our ancestors into its customary categories: Antique
(mostly Greek and Roman), Medieval, and Modern (mostly Eu-
ropean and then American). But he saw further, and deeper: the
age of democracy, already coming into being, meant that rule by
minorities was being replaced by the rule of majorities: in sum,
an evolution from Aristocratic Ages to a Democratic Age. He
saw, as well, that this does not simplify but instead complicates
the structure of societies, their politics, their events, and their
historical reconstruction. Though it is possible to ascertain what
a ruler or rulers want, what “the people” want is a step removed
from reality: their political and social choices are often conse-
quent to what other people say or do in their name. A discussion
of this topic is no doubt beyond the scope of this brief history of
a past century, with its welter of achievements and problems.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

“Conservative” and “liberal” were nineteenth-century ideolo-

gies and adjectives; but their present employment has become
increasingly imprecise, and often even senseless. In any event,
the traumas and advances of the twentieth century encompass
the development of technology—or rather, the mechanization
of ever more activities and impressions of everyday life. This has
its own dangers, actual as well as potential. One example: af-
ter 1945 it became possible for large segments of humankind to
destroy themselves and their world. Yet this has not happened.

Even when the American military dropped atomic bombs on

two Japanese cities in August 1945, this act—despite its horrors—
helped to end the Second World War. Although during the First
World War there were massacres and deportations of hundreds
of thousands of people (such as Armenians in Turkey), during
the Second World War the systematic murder of many more mil-
lions, among them almost five million Jewish men, w omen, and
children, was ordered and carried out by Germans, probably the
most highly educated people in Europe. When nationalism re-
places older versions of patriotism (every patriot is also a bit of a
nationalist, but few nationalists are truly patriots), they seek en-
emies among their fellow citizens. Thus, since the 1940s, many
states and nations have seen the emigration of millions of people.
Whether the increasing admixture of different peoples will lead
to a new kind of internationalism, no one knows. Popular sov
ereignty—alas, often dependent on nationalist sentiment—is the
professed basis of most governments now.
But this book is about the history of the twentieth century, not
of the twenty-first.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

“NOW WE HAVE ONLY

PEOPLES’ WARS”

A European War—1914: A short war?—But entire nations

rushing at each other—Still a war between states—Medioc-
rity of most generals—Russia withdraws from the war—
Communism: a seventy-year episode in the more than one
thousand years of Russian history—The complicated history
of America’s entry into the First World War

The war that began in 1914 was not the first world war. If by
“world war” we mean a war between great powers fought on
more than one continent and across the seas, there were such, on
occasion, between England, Spain, and France in the four great
centuries (the sixteenth to the nineteenth) when Europe grew
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

and rose throughout large portions of the world. But the British
government was, by and large, correct when it designated the
War of 1914 the “European War.” Unlike the previous overseas
wars and also unlike the Second World War, the War of 1914 was
a very great war, fought, save for a few exceptions, on the conti-
nent of Europe. Its results were enormous, among them the de-
mise of four great European empires, an unprecedented redraw-
ing of the map of Europe, and the creation of many new states,
some of them extant even now. But along with and beneath these

transformations came the profound shock that the war dealt

to European civilization—a trauma probably even greater and
longer-lasting than the consequences of the Second World War.
On a sun-laden early afternoon, on June 28, 1914, a Sunday,
the Austrian archduke, Franz Ferdinand, eventual successor to
the emperor Franz Joseph, was gunned down together with his
wife in an open automobile in Sarajevo, then an obscure provin-
cial capital in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, by a terrorist from
Serbia. There had been such terrorist acts and assassinations in
Europe during the years and decades before 1914. But now the
Austrian government and its military chiefs decided that this
horrid deed was a sufficient opportunity for Austria to punish
Serbia, a Balkan state that had already made plenty of trouble be-
fore 1914. Such a military punishment might even lead to a chas-
tened Serbia, causing the balance of power in southeastern Eu-
rope to shift in Austria’s favor. This was a fatal miscalculation.
A month after the assassination, Austria declared war on Ser-
bia, dismissing the compromises that the Serbian government
offered to Vienna—and then came something new and ominous:
a cloud over much of Europe and Britain. Churchill, at that time
First Lord of the Admiralty, would describe it this way in his in-
comparable prose sixteen years later. In July 1914 the members of
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

the British cabinet, in counsel with the king, were still deeply in-
volved with the problem of Ireland. On July 24, “in search of an
exit from the deadlock, the Cabinet toiled around the muddy by-
ways of Fermanagh and Tyrone.” And then an offic ial brought
the text of the Austrian ultimatum to the British foreign secre-
tary, Sir Edward Grey. “The parishes of Fermanagh and Tyrone
faded back into the mists and squalls of Ireland and a strange
light began immediately, but with perceptible gradations, to fall
and grow upon the map of Europe.”

Yet even three or four days later, most people in the British
government, both the cabinet and Parliament, were loath to con-
sider that even if a European war was coming, Britain would be
drawn into it. Now came a concatenation of events. The Russians
thought they’d better stand with Serbia; they began to mobilize
their enormous far-flung armies. The Germans thought they had
no option but to do the same; they had known of France’s alli-
ance with Russia since 1894, and their entire war plan rested
on that. Russia was a more formidable power than France—so
France had to be attacked and defeated before Russia. To achieve
this swiftly, the German armies chose to march through Bel-
gium, whose neutrality they, and Britain, had accepted almost a
century before. Now they did not. By August 4, all of the Great
Powers of Europe were at war.
With nary an exception, in 1914 most people, including the
statesmen and military chiefs of the Great Powers, believed and
acted as if this would not be a long war. They were wrong. Wrong
they were, too, with their military plans, including their assess-
ments of their enemies. Even before the end of 1914, the Austri-
ans found that Serbia was a very hard nut to crack. In September,
the Germans learned at the Marne that they could not crush the
French armies, as they had in 1870. The Russians found that even
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

with half of the German armies deployed in the west, they could
not push into Germany in the east. By Christmas 1914, the First
World War (the Germans and Americans had begun to name
it thus) was dragging on and on. It did not resemble the wars of
the recent past. It was still a war between states, but it was now
a war in which entire nations were rushing at each other. Not
many people had foreseen that. One was the elder Helmuth von
Moltke, victor of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870–1871, who
said in the Reichstag twenty years later: “The age of cabinet wars

is behind us—now we have only peoples’ wars.” The armed states

of Europe might now begin wars “whose duration and conclu-
sion cannot be foreseen.”
In 1914, millions of peoples cheered the war on. Turkey and
Bulgaria came into the war, allied with the so-called Central
Powers, Germany and Austria-Hungary. In 1915, the Western
Powers succeeded in bribing Italy to enter the war on their side—
again, with the enthusiastic acclamation of Italian public opin-
ion, though with very little impact on the battlefields. That year
brought a stalemate of sorts, but only of sorts. Fields and towns
all over Europe were now strewn with ruins, gashed by vast
trenches, littered with the dead and wounded bodies of hundreds
of thousands of soldiers. In 1916, more than half a million French,
British, and German soldiers died at Verdun and the Somme.
Romania and Portugal joined the Allies, but with few effects on
the course of the war. The injection of German divisions was the
crucial contribution that the Austro-Hungarians needed to win
this campaign or that.
Then, in 1917, came a great change: the United States entered
the European War and Russia dropped out of it. The new Bol
shevik pretenders ruling Russia had to sign a humiliating peace
treaty with Germany and its allies in early 1918. Now the Ger-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

mans began a strenuous offensive, a last attempt to crush the

French and British armies and reach Paris. But the French and
British held out, and by early summer of 1918 more and more
American troops were being brought to the front lines.
By October, a new German government hoped that through
acceptance of some of the ideas of the American president,
Woodrow Wilson, they might achieve a peace that was not cata-
strophic. This was not so. Germany’s allies, including Austria-
Hungary, were breaking apart. The German armed forces sur-

rendered on November 11, 1918. What followed was not peace but

near-chaos, lasting for almost five years.
One summary conclusion: in 1918, France, Britain, and the
United States were able to defeat Germany without Russia;
twenty-five years later, in the Second World War, they could not.
One man, Winston Churchill, foresaw some of this as early as
1930. He hoped that the Germans would not try again. But
they did.
This has been a brief summary of the history of the First
World War. Yet please consider that it is not superficial. I have
agonized about my choice of almost every word of it. The reason
for this is my conviction that history consists of words, even
more than of “facts,” because “facts” are inseparable from their
statements, and these amount to more than the wrapping of
facts; that the use and the choice of every word is not only a sty-
listic but a moral decision for a historian (as it is for every human
being speaking). But of course the above summary leaves a lot of
things out. And many of the matters I have left out contain, ex-
plicitly or implicitly, the meanings of certain events. Of those,
there are a great many kinds, on a great many levels. This is not
an encyclopedic book. Within my self-imposed limitations, all I
can do is try.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Consider the startling condition that in August 1914, so many

intelligent statesmen and military and political experts thought
and said that the impending conflict was a large “thunderstorm”
(this word appears often in their statements). It had long been
expected, but the war would surely be brief. Wrong they were.
But how and why? There were at least two reasons, I think. The
first was their historical knowledge, their memories and consid-

eration of the wars in Europe during the preceding one hundred

years. Nearly all of these had lasted for less than a year, even the
Franco-Prussian War. There had been ugly little wars in the Bal-
kans in 1912 and 1913, but they had not mattered very much. The
Great Powers had not been involved. All of this had little to do
with the development of communications and transport sys-
tems—railways, for example. It had much to do with another ele-
ment: those wars had been conflicts between states, but also be-
tween peoples. In 1914, the primary and traditional frameworks
of states were s tuffed with the masses of their nations.
Twenty years later, Hitler said that the state was but a re-
stricted framework, or Zwangsform—that the existence of na-
tions preceded that of modern states, and would eventually pre-
vail over the latter. One important indication of this was the First
World War, certainly the events of 1914. The detailed and valu-
able researches of historians have dealt mainly with the relations
of states and their governments. This is understandable. Among
the mountains of books about 1914, relatively few works have
concentrated, for example, on the influence of the press, on the
way it enthusiastically supported the war in just about every na-
tion—and this in a period that has been called the Golden Age
of the Press, due to the overall increase in literacy during the
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

decades before 1914. And that was but one outcome of social
democratization, and also of the complete failure of Marxism,
with its belief in international socialism. The character, the be-
liefs (and the wishes) of a German worker had little in common
with those of an English or French one. Furthermore, within
each nation, differences in national opinions across social classes
were narrower than they had been before. Despite the existence
of pacifist and international socialist groups, their opposition to
war melted away in the bubbling cauldron of national sentiment

like pats of cold butter (consider but the murder of the princi-
pled French socialist Jean Jaurès, in Paris, before the declarations
of war). Finally, the very composition of the armies reflected the
growth of national uniformity. In 1914, as during the Franco-
Prussian War of 1870–1871, the German army was still composed
of commanders and units from Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, Würt-
temberg, and so on. After the First Battle of the Marne, in Sep-
tember 1914, many of these distinctive units lost their meaning.
Henceforth, there was an all-German army filled with German
soldiers. Even in the multinational Austro-Hungarian army, its
highly diverse national components did not become divisive or
centrifugal until almost 1918. Nor was there any significant dif-
ference between the national sentiments of the military and
those of civilians during the war—including the very large “re-
serves,” made up of civilians and retired officers.
The significance of much of this is apparent in retrospect, as
part and parcel of the advance of a democratic age. Yet it had al-
most no effect on the origins of the First World War, which was
still a war between states; likewise, it did not affect the belief of
statesmen and military leaders in 1914 that this would be a dra-
matic but short European war. Their careful calculations, includ-
ing those of their military planners, turned out to be wrong. The
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

German Schlieffen Plan, sensible and convincing, laid down the

principle that Russia was much more powerful than France, so
that in the event of a two-front war the French armies would
need to be defeated first, and soon; France would then have to
sue for peace. In 1914 (and also thereafter), the opposite oc-
curred. The French may scarcely have “won” the Battle of the
Marne, but the Germans certainly lost it. And an infinitely more
important outcome was a new, dreadful, often senseless struggle:
an enormous war fought between trenches, eventually involving

over a million Frenchmen, even more Germans, and nearly a

million Britons, soldiers who were seldom able to break forth
from their trenches and front lines.
Related to this awful kind of war were not only the shortcom-
ings of all kinds of statesmen, but also those of many of their
generals. The latter were, at best, mediocre—dependent, and for
too long, on their prewar practices and doctrines and their cal-
culations; in more than a few instances, they were not only un-
imaginative but inadequate. The most that can be said of Joseph
Joffre, the victor at the Marne, was that he was resolute. His
counterpart, Moltke—descendant of the brilliant Prussian leader
whose forces prevailed in 1870—was doubt-ridden, ineffective in
1914, and eventually broken in spirit. In 1918 Ferdinand Foch,
commander of the vast Allied army, did an adequate job but not
much more. The British generals in France were slow in 1914 and
unduly cautious in 1918. (An excellent British general was Ed-
mund Allenby, the only soldier in the history of the British army
who eventually rose from private to field marshal.) Paul von
Hindenburg, Erich von Falkenhayn, and Erich Ludendorff, the
top Germans, were firm and resolute, but also unimaginative in
their Prussian ways—altogether unlike German generals in the
Second World War. There was nothing memorable in the perfor-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

mances of most Austrian, Hungarian, and Italian commanders.

An outstanding general in 1916 was the Russian leader Aleksei
Brusilov, whom even the Bolsheviks respected and promoted af-
ter the war; but by that time, it was too late for Russia. Had they
kept on fighting a little longer, they would have been one of the
great victors of the First World War, dominant over most of the
eastern half of Europe, with consequences not unlike what was
to happen at the end of the Second World War.
So this brings us to 1917, which was not a turning point in the

military history of the First World War—but was a turning point

in the entire history of the twentieth century. The United States
entered Europe, while Russia dropped out of it. A year later came
the military turning point of the war: the halting of the last Ger-
man offensive in France by the French and British, followed by
the increasing American presence and pressure on the Germans
at the Western Front. These events were decisive—whereas the
Russian withdrawal from Europe was not. (Something of the op-
posite occurred in 1941 and even thereafter: Could the Ameri-
cans and the British have conquered Germany without Russia?
Probably not.) In any event, after 1917 the United States and Rus-
sia—the former for the first time since its founding—became a
decisive factor in the destiny of Europe. Soon, for very different
reasons, both the United States and Russia would withdraw from
the European scene, although this would not much matter for a
while. But in 1917 and for some time in 1918, Russia’s abandon-
ment of its war against Germany was a most serious matter. It let
the Germans shift a mass of troops from the Eastern Front to the
Western—though ultimately with less effect than they had hoped
and the Western allies had feared.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

In 1917, there were two revolutions in Russia (more exactly:

mostly in its then capital, St. Petersburg). The first revolution, in
late February and March, was led by liberals; among other things,
the tsar had to abdicate. The second and more famous revolution
occurred in October and November; the Communists (in Rus-
sian: Bolsheviks) took power in St. Petersburg after the liber-
als and bourgeois (a small minority) were swept away at a time
of chaos. In more than one way, the October events were not
much of a real revolution: Lenin and his followers took control of

not much more than a few abandoned government buildings in

St. Petersburg. What happened afterward was something like a
civil war throughout some parts of Russia, lasting for at least
three years. Thereafter, the Russian Empire, renamed the Soviet
Union, was ruled by the leaders of the Communist Party.
After 1917, many people, mostly in Europe, thought that the
greatest danger to themselves and their civilization was Com
munism. After the Second World War, more people, especially
Americans, believed that the entire twentieth century was
marked, indeed determined, by the enormous and historic strug-
gle between two ideologies: Communism and Democracy (or
Freedom, or Capitalism). And Communism, not just Russia, had
dangerous supporters in most places of the world. After the First
World War, it seemed that Communism would sweep at least
Central Europe; soon after the Second World War, it seemed that
China and Russia, two giant Communist empires, could rule
Eurasia together. None of this happened. We ought to see that
even within the Soviet U nion itself, Communist “rule” (my quo-
tation marks are not accidental) was something like a seventy-
year episode in the more than one-thousand-year history of the
Russian state and people. After 1989, Russia did not revert to lib-
eral democracy; it remained, and for a long time will mostly re-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

main, the Russia it has always been.

In 1917, the—relative—success of the Bolsheviks in St. Peters-
burg, and then in most of the rest of the Russian Empire, was an
outcome of the unpopularity of the war and of Russia’s alliance
with the Western Powers, very much including their ideology.
The liberal and democratic new government of Russia in 1917
was unpopular for many reasons, but one of them was its insis-
tent alliance with Britain and France, which also called for a
more energetic Russian participation in the war. (Liberal states-

men such as Pavel Milyukov had suggested that the tsar’s govern-
ment had not been suffic iently anti-German.) The circumstance
that many of the Bolsheviks had been influenced by German
thinkers—of course, by Marx—was also an element, at least for a
while. But first and foremost: in order for them to prevail and
survive within Russia (and during a civil war), they had to reach
a settlement with Germany. So in early 1918, in Brest-Litovsk,
they signed a “peace” treaty with Germany and the other Central
Powers, giving up considerable portions to Germany. This agree-
ment would not last; but the Bolsheviks believed that in the
chaos following the end of the First World War, some of the peo-
ples of Europe, foremost in Eastern and Central Europe, would
go Communist by themselves.
This—except for one or two short-lived and ridiculous at-
tempts—did not happen. After 1789, the ideas and examples of
the French Revolution had spread by themselves, all around
France and through Western and Southern Europe. Yet for more
than twenty years after 1918, until the middle of the Second
World War, the Soviet U nion (along with the state of Outer Mon-
golia) remained the only Communist regime in the world. By
1921 an “Iron Curtain” had descended, isolating the Russias from
all of Europe. A quarter of a century later, Stalin would reap the
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

consequences of Russia’s mighty triumphs against Germany in

the Second World War, imposing Communist regimes in many
of the states of Eastern Europe. This did not last long either.
Oddly, or perhaps not so oddly, anti-Communism was (and here
and there still remains) the most popular ideology in the West-
ern world. A principal beneficiary of this was to be Adolf Hitler.

But meanwhile—also during the U.S. withdrawal from Europe—

American influence throughout the world was, and would re-

main, greater, much more widespread, and at times even deeper

than Russia’s influence, whether Communist or not. Under the
rule of Stalin, Russia turned from internationalism to a national-
ist Communism (also in other superficially “Communist” state-
lets around the world). That, too, was short-lived.
The entry of the United States into the First World War is
a simple—but also a complicated—matter. Simple, in the sense
that the presence of American troops in Europe decided the war
in favor of the Western Powers. Complicated, because of the his-
torical question: How did this come about? In 1914, it never oc-
curred to the vast majority of Americans that the United States
would (or, even more, should) get involved in this new war in
Europe. Less than three years later, in 1917, the majority of the
American people cheered their war declaration against Germany
and the entry of American armies and navies into Europe for the
first time in the history of the American republic.
This was—and still is—perhaps a classic, if not the classic, ex-
ample for historians willing to ponder that the study and recon-
struction of history in the democratic age is, and will be, almost
infinitely more complicated than the history, including the inter-
national history, of earlier ages (and this in spite of the short-
sighted belief that the availability of documents is one of the
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

benefits of democracy). It involves, too, the important but always

questionable and necessarily imprecise study of “public opin-
ion,” which is often hardly separable from what we might call
“popular sentiment.” The two are not the same, but they overlap.
“Public-opinion research” (including its unavoidable impreci-
sions) was not widespread in the United States at the time of the
First World War; but here and there, public opinion was still dis-
tinguishable from popular sentiment. The former was largely an
attribute of educated people, socially recognizable figures, con
tributors to and readers of newspapers, members of the middle

and upper classes. (This very list ought to suggest the ambigui-
ties and difficulties involved in defining groups within the ever
moiling and moving formless panorama of American society.)
Many excellent books have been written about the American
move toward war in the years 1914 to 1917. Most of them are valu-
able because of their precise description of successive events.
Some of their authors have been aware of many influences, in-
cluding those of the press, the latter having been a formative
source of public opinion. Important, too, is that the upper strata
of American society (there were of course exceptions) were
largely Anglophiles, while American populists were not. Also
important were the great events in the Atlantic (including the
ways in which they were reported and represented)—for exam-
ple, the Germans’ sinking of the Lusitania in April 1915 (a British
ship, but it carried hundreds of Americans to their deaths), and
the temporary German suspension of unconditional submarine
warfare in 1916, resumed in January 1917. Altogether, British and
pro-British propaganda in the United States was much more ef-
fective than the often clumsy German propaganda efforts. Yet
the ranking of evidence and of factors that led to the American
declaration of war against Germany in April 1917 is necessarily
inadequate. For the sentiments (and also some of the opinions)
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

of the American people were not simple. Most Americans be-

lieved in the superiority of the New World to the Old. Many of
them also believed that it was the proper thing, if not America’s
duty, to send an army “over there” and teach the Old World a les-
son. Again, many of them believed that this was also, and per-
haps even foremost, a war of Democracy against German Impe-
rialism. (The abdication of the tsar in Russia in early 1917 seemed
to have eliminated the unpleasant situation in which the United
States was allied to an imperial monarchy.) And so it seemed—at
least for a while. For once, there are numbers to support the use

of the words “many” and “most.” The U.S. Congress approved

the declaration of war by a vote of 393 to 50—a ratio that seems
to reflect, not inaccurately, the division of the American people
at the time.
All of these complexities existed, too, in the mind and spirit of
the president, Woodrow Wilson. He had been elected president
in 1912 because the Republican Party was divided: their major-
ity did not want to grant Theodore Roosevelt a third term. This
was lamentable, perhaps even tragic, a fact of which many Amer-
icans are still unaware. With all of his faults, Theodore Roosevelt
was a great man. His knowledge of the world, of other nations,
and even of history was far wider and better than that of the one-
time college professor Woodrow Wilson. Had Roosevelt been
the American president in 1914, the entire history of the First
World War would have been different, and perhaps shorter.
But this is not the place for such speculations. It is sufficient to
state that the American entry into the war in 1917 had long-range
as well as short-range consequences. In the democratic age, es-
pecially, it is more difficult to conclude a war than to begin one.
Many of the great mistakes of the peacemaking in 1918 and after
were due to Wilson. More important and more enduring was the
ideology he bequeathed to the American people—an ideology of
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

global universalism (“What is good for America is good for the

world”) whose occasional benefits were not comparable to its
many and enduring shortcomings. (Subsequent American lead-
ers, Republicans as well as Democrats, who were to a consider-
able extent admirers of Wilson include Herbert Hoover, Franklin
Roosevelt, John Foster Dulles, Richard Nixon, Bill Clinton, and
George W. Bush.) In this respect, too, the ideas and choices of
this pale professor president outlasted those of his contemporary
Lenin, with consequences evident even now. Such is the irony of
history—and such are the complexities of human minds.

“ N A T I O N A L S E L F -D E T E R M I N A T I O N ”

A “new Europe”? Yes and no—The end of four great em-

pires? Yes and no—Peace treaties and their grave faults—
Consequences in Asia—“Central Europe” the crux, again

“Unconditional surrender” is an imprecise phrase or

principle, since there are implicit (sometimes even explicit) com-
promises included in every surrender. If the principle is accepted
by both sides, unconditional surrender ends a war at once. This
was not always so after the First World War, in 1918. The war
ended with armistices here and there, chaotically and gradually
elsewhere. A kind of settling down did not occur until 1923—
that, too, with a sense of incompleteness, especially among the
loser states. During the war there had been some talk about a
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

“New Europe,” an idea or ideal supported by a few liberal think-

ers and international “experts” in England; it had few effects and
echoes. An entirely fresh, imaginative, and radical proposal for a
new Europe (called Pan-Europe) appeared in 1923, drafted by a
cosmopolitan Austrian nobleman; it had many echoes but no
real effects. I may return to this by and large estimable effort a
little later—but even at this point it may be worth noticing that it
came from Austria, where, as also in Germany after 1930, quite
another new and dynamic political force began to rise, eventu-

ally leading to a second world war eight or nine years later. Its
unexpected and unusual leader was an Austrian, Adolf Hitler,
who united Germany and then Austria and who alone among all
other statesmen in the world chose to begin a second world war
in 1939, which he and his German-speaking people almost won.
In Hitler’s life and mind, too, the end of the First World War
was a sudden, shocking turning point. He had been a volunteer
in that war (in the German not the Austrian army); he found
himself—“found himself ” may be the mot juste—in a military
hospital in November 1918. He would later describe this awaken-
ing in his famous autobiography, Mein Kampf, and there is no
reason to question the importance of his “finding himself.” There
had not been anything very unusual in his thoughts during his
youth and in his respectable military service during the war. In
1918 he entered the thirtieth year of his life. His chosen father-
land (Germany) and his actual motherland (Austria) had been
defeated. Sparked by these shattering events, his views of the
world crystallized. He suddenly knew great tragedy, comparable
to his loss of his beloved mother years before—the persistent
grief of a deeply attached son. Then and there (he wrote), “I de-
cided to become a politician.” One result of his decision was
nothing less than a second world war.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

No one could have imagined anything like this in 1918 or for

long years after. The end of the First World War brought a sense
of relief to the victor nations, though little else. One popular re-
action in November 1918 occurred in London, where the news of
the Armistice brought a day and night of wild public revels un-
precedented in British history. There were few such popular out-
bursts elsewhere, except perhaps in some of the newly founded
states; the map of Europe was redrawn more drastically at the
war’s end than perhaps at any time before or after, because of the

victory of the Western Allies and because of the partial dissolu-

tion of great European empires that had existed for centuries.
This was the most important change. The German Empire was
diminished; its monarchy was eliminated. Yet less than twenty
years later, a new Germany became the greatest power in Europe.
Not only did the Austro-Hungarian monarchy cease to exist, but
that old traditional state and empire was splintered into half a
dozen component states; further portions were given to other
countries, which acquired new frontiers, many of which exist
even now. The Russian Empire, as we have seen, had already ex-
tinguished its monarchy in 1917; and the price for the survival
of its new and weird Bolshevik regime was the reduction of the
old Russian state, with four or five new states and nations com-
ing into being along its former western edge. (They, too, largely
ceased to exist by 1940, though they reappeared another fifty
years later.) One minor exception to the disappearance of mon-
archies was Bulgaria, an ally of the Central Powers; its kingdom
continued to exist until the end of another world war, in 1946.
The great exception was Turkey, whose Ottoman Empire fell
apart in 1918, after which it became something like a military dic-
tatorship under the rule of a formidable general, Mustafa Kemal.
He struck down and replaced traditional Turkish customs and
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

institutions with strokes of his imperious fist, but also accepted

the ending of the former and now-fragile Ottoman rule over a
number of nations and statelets in the Near East (Egypt, Syria,
Palestine, Lebanon, Iraq, and so on)—an amputation that did
Turkey little harm but much good.
In 1919 and 1920, much of this was arranged through the peace
treaties with Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey,
drawn up and then signed in Versailles and other suburbs of
Paris by the Western and associated powers. Even though Presi-

dent Wilson, during an absence from Washington unprece-

dented for an American president, was in Paris for many weeks
in the spring of 1919, the United States chose not to be either a
signatory or a guarantor of these treaties. Peacemaking in 1919
was a sorry succession of events, many of them due to the short-
comings of the peacemakers themselves. On the map of Eu-
rope, eight new states came into existence—a diminished and
truncated Austria, Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,
Czechoslovakia, and Hungary (not independent before 1919)—
plus a conglomeration of three Slavic nations: Serbia, Croatia,
and Slovenia, called SHS, later transmogrified into something
named Yugoslavia. Twenty years after 1919, many of these entities
had ceased to exist, often because they had been broken up; the
only unbroken and surviving state was Finland (which, too, had
to give up some of its territory to the Soviet Union in 1940). Most
of them adopted parliamentary forms of government; yet within
ten years after 1919, they would abandon their liberal and bour-
geois structures, due to many circumstances, including the thin-
ness and weakness of their middle classes.
Meanwhile, however weakened in the short term, a united
Germany and a united Russia remained in existence. One reason
for this was the shortsightedness of the peacemaking powers.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Another was the inclination to vengeance and the insistence on

security by the temporary victors. Yet another reason was the in
sufficient attention that was devoted, perhaps especially by the
British (despite a large group of experts accompanying them), to
some of these treaties; the petty work preoccupied their envoys
and diplomatists for more than a year, and some of the details
were neglected. All of these treaties were discussed and signed—
with little or no participation allowed to their victims—in Ver-
sailles, St. Germain, Neuilly, Trianon, and Sèvres, with Germany,

Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Turkey, respectively. No peace

treaty is ever cheered by the defeated; but in 1919 and 1920, an
unusual amount of humiliation was imposed on the temporarily
powerless victims. The armaments and the size of a now-
remnant German army were drastically reduced; those of the
German navy even more so; along the Rhine an Allied occupa-
tion force was stationed, ostensibly to guarantee Germany’s pay-
ment of its penalties, exaggerated sums as these were; Germany
was obliged to accept prime responsibility for the war in 1914;
Germany and Austria were forbidden to attempt any kind of
union; pieces of imperial Germany, especially Alsace-Lorraine
and a portion of mostly German-inhabited lands, were given to
France and Poland. This is an incomplete list; but what was prob-
ably the most injurious was the transfer of large German, Aus-
trian, Hungarian, and Bulgarian populations to other states and
sovereignties. The most extreme redrawing of states and of their
frontiers affected Hungary, which lost two-thirds of its former
lands, including more than three million Hungarians, to Czech,
Slovak, Romanian, Serbian, Croatian, and even Austrian and
Italian rule.
Much of this was done despite the principle declared and es-
poused by President Wilson as late as 1918, about the primary
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

values and merits of “national self-determination.” Little of that

had been considered seriously by the Western Allies before. But
by 1918, they were exhausted enough to accept it, often thought-
lessly and impractically. All of this was happening at the very
time when Wilson and his administration had largely aban-
doned their support for these principles—indeed, when the
United States had chosen to withdraw from Europe, evacuating
its troops. Hence, the United States was neither a signatory nor
the guarantor of some of these treaties. The League of Nations—

another favorite cause and brainchild of Wilson—was then set

up in Geneva. The attractiveness of such a new institution in in-
ternational affairs evoked much liberal support both in Europe
and America, but that, too, was short-lived. The French prime
minister, Georges Clemenceau, hoped for a lasting, even per
manent Anglo-American-French alliance guaranteeing the fron-
tiers and the security of France—but this did not come about. He
also thought that most of these new successor states in Eastern
Europe should be allies of France—another military and politic al
guarantee for France in the unspeakable case of another German-
French war. That, too, did not last. Less than twenty years after
1919, the once-impressive alliance system of France with Czecho-
slovakia, Yugoslavia, Romania, and even Poland had become
worthless.
Many of the new Communist rulers of Russia were interna-
tionalists. They believed and planned that Communism in Rus-
sia would repeat itself in other countries, especially in Eastern
and Central Europe, including Germany. This did not happen.
There had been—perhaps—more reason to think that peoples
and nations, and their Communists, closest to Russia would fol-
low the Russian “example.” That did not happen either. One rea-
son for this was that most of these people rejected Russian rule,
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

whether they were Communist or not. During the Russian civil

war, they (unlike the British and French governments, at least
for a while) did not support the anti-Bolshevik armies and their
generals, knowing that the latter wanted to reestablish the old
Russian Empire. Nor did they have any illusions about the Bol-
sheviks, whether they were Russians or not. They fended them
off with arms. Lenin and his cohorts thought this was a tempo-
rary situation, which it was not. By 1920, the “White” (that is,
anti-Communist) armies, and their support by the Western Al-

lies, were fading away. Now Lenin and his people chose to think
that the main instrument of the advance of Communism into
Central Europe would be military power, the Red Army. They
had reasons to fight the new Poland, whose army in early 1920
penetrated well into the Ukraine. The result was the Russian-
Polish war of 1920, with its unexpected consequences. The Red
Army now pushed the Poles back and advanced to the outskirts
of Warsaw. There, in August 1920, the Poles defeated the Rus-
sians, who had to retreat several hundred miles to the east, into
Belorussia and the western Ukraine. Now Lenin and his follow-
ers realized that in order to maintain their power within Russia
itself, they needed peace—or, rather, no more wars with their en-
emies. So in 1920 and 1921, they signed a series of treaties with
their western neighbors, including Poland and Finland, along
frontiers that were mainly favorable to the latter two countries.
That also meant a diminution and the enforced isolation of the
new Soviet U nion itself. Thereafter the Soviet Union was recog-
nized, diplomatically, as yet another—though unpleasant—state
by all of the other states of the world (except for the United
States, Hungary, Switzerland, and Yugoslavia, but eventually that
would come about, too).
Sooner rather than later, the Russian Bolsheviks learned that
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

national allegiances, traditions, opinions, and sentiments were

more powerful than ideologies, especially international ones.
Also that “powerful” meant something more than popular; it had
to be demonstrated by determined men—even at the risk of in-
ternational condemnation. The sterling examples of this were
Turkey and Greece. The former was, rather thoughtlessly, pun-
ished by Britain and France (and Italy, too), who reduced the Ot-
toman Empire to a badly truncated statelet through the Treaty of
Sèvres in 1920, which robbed Turkey of large traditional prov-

inces inhabited by many Greeks. Despite Turkey’s late and not

very decisive joining with the Central Powers during the First
World War, it did not deserve such treatment. Its new leader,
Kemal, saw that four years after the First World War, France and
Britain were not willing to fight another war in the Near East.
So in 1922 he and his Turkish soldiers fought a small war with
Greece, expelling masses of Greek people from Asia Minor,
where the latter had been denizens for hundreds of years. A new
treaty, signed in Lausanne in 1923 by Turkey and Greece and gov-
erned by the Western Powers, redrew the frontiers and began a
new chapter of relations between these two ancient enemies. It
also showed to the world, especially to Europeans, that the Paris
peace treaties could be overturned by force sooner or later.
This book is a (short) history of the twentieth century; and my
readers, especially now, may question why much of it until now
has dealt with the history of Europe, rather than with that of the
rest of the world. This emphasis will change as we go along, but
there is at least one primary reason for this almost unilateral per-
spective from 1914 to 1923. We have seen that the First World
War was primarily, and almost entirely, a European war (though
there were marginal combats between some European Powers in
Africa and in the Near East). We have also seen that the deci-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

sive outcome of this greatest of wars involved the United States

and Russia; but then, for very different reasons, the Russian and
American empires both withdrew from Europe after the end of
the war.
Despite these political and strategic withdrawals, the influ
ence of America grew in the lives and thoughts of many Euro-
pean people, while those of Russia did not. Thus, from about
1919 to 1939, it seemed not only that America’s influence existed
even while its “isolation” from Europe had been declared, but the

primacy of Europe within the great panorama of world history

prevailed again. In 1939, the Second World War started as a Eu-
ropean war (which was what Hitler wanted it to be), but it did
not remain one. The colonial possessions of the French, British,
Spanish, Belgian, and Portuguese empires had remained largely
unchanged. Some of them now included pre-1914 German colo-
nies; some of them reformed the conditions of their colonial ad-
ministrations, but these did not come to an end until the Second
World War. There were signs of native nationalism and anticolo-
nialism, but with few effects—except, and this was a consider-
able effect—that by the 1920s there were signs that the minds of
the Western European peoples and of their intellectuals were no
longer deeply attached to their colonial empires. For a few years
after 1919, the Communist Russian rulers and their worldwide
supporters believed that the victory of an anti-imperialist, anti-
colonialist, and antiracist new Russia would result in new gov-
ernments and leaders in Turkey or Persia or Afghanistan, new
natural allies of the Soviet Union. That, too, did not happen.
With very few exceptions, the new nationalist and anticolonial
dictators—whether a Kemal in Turkey, or a Reza Shah in Persia,
or an Amanullah in Afghanistan, or later Chiang Kai-shek in
China—chose to have little to do with Russia and nothing at all
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

to do with their own native Communists, whom they killed off

as soon as they could.
One great (and, throughout the two world wars, durable) ex-
ception was Japan. It had begun its modernization decades be-
fore 1914; it had proceeded to establish its military and politic al
primacy in Korea and in some of China before 1914; it had de-
feated Russia in a splendid little war in 1905, with a very modern
navy. Indeed, during the First World War, the British (more than

the Americans) welcomed the presence of Japanese warships in

many seas. So Japan was one of the victors of the First World
War, expanding in many places to an extent that caused anxi-
ety in Washington and even among the American people. It was
natural and expectable that after the war there should be some
kind of disarmament, including a reduction in the enormous
American, British, and Japanese war fleets left over from the First
World War. Therefore a conference assembled in Washington in
1921–1922. It was a notable achievement of the administration of
Warren Harding, otherwise a president largely indifferent to for-
eign affairs. The main architect of this conference was Charles
Evans Hughes, Harding’s estimable and excellent secretary of
state. The participant powers agreed to a 5:5:5:3:3 ratio of battle-
ship tonnages, including Japan, which largely kept to the agree-
ment until 1934, when it chose to be no longer bound by any such
naval restrictions. Another instrument, the so- called Nine-
Power Treaty restricting all of the foreign powers from expand-
ing further in China, was a positive agreement that did not last
long either. Meanwhile, the British- Japanese Treaty of 1902,
amounting to a near-alliance, expired in 1922 and was not re-
newed. It was a sign of Britain’s primary preference for good rela-
tions with the United States over those with Japan.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

But in Europe (and also in Asia Minor) it took another year

until the revolutionary or other chaotic conditions settled down.
This was so especially in Germany, where moiling and roiling
sentiments broke out in sporadic and sometimes violent revolu-
tions, from November 1918 until they petered out as late as 1923.
After that, grave political crises were relatively rare for about
eight or nine years. This was the only semblance of peace be-
tween the two world wars, separating somehow the immediate

consequences of the First World War from the preludes of the

Second, which began to appear soon after Hitler’s assumption of
power in Germany in 1933.

This is at least one reason why, in this short history of the twenti-
eth century, I am compelled to devote a page or two to the histo-
ries of Germany and Austria after the First World War, including
the consequences of their military defeat in 1918. The Germans,
by and large, are not an excitable people, not revolutionary in
temperament, not likely to accept disorder. But the phrase “by
and large,” while explaining much, is also an imperfect general-
ization. The shock of 1918, for the Germans, cut deep and lasted
long. The French revolutionary examples and ideas in and after
1789 had had German followers, but not everywhere and not
much. Same with the bourgeois revolutionary wave that swept
Europe in 1848. But in 1918 and after, many Germans were af-
fected by a sense of “Götterdämmerung,” a sometimes Wagne-
rian emotion about the end of an entire world. Oswald Spengler’s
influential book Der Untergang des Abendlandes (literally, The
Sinking of the West), a large book, was published a few months
before the military defeat in 1918. It had a significant echo in the
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

minds and hearts of many Germans, spreading beyond Germany

too. The respect for France, and indeed for the ideology of the
Enlightenment, was gone. Spengler not only dismissed but de-
nied the worth of most bourgeois achievements. The mutinies
and working-class revolts of November 1918 did not last, though
some of them were repeated during the next five years, including
a short-lived and sometimes ludicrous Soviet-style republic in
Munich, swept away by a hostile Bavarian population together
with the German army.

The popular respect for the latter (however reduced in size

and armaments by the Versailles Treaty) remained high after the
First World War and throughout the Second. The army easily
crushed revolutionary insurgencies, including one by the ex-
treme nationalist Right in 1920 and another in November 1923 in
Munich, where, for the first time, Hitler played a considerable
role. Before and after that, the political and popular attraction
and influence of the Left, including not only Communists but
the respectable and moderate German Social Democratic Party,
declined. For a long time, more Germans read (or attempted to
read) The Sinking of the West than Mein Kampf, even after the
purchase and the reading of the latter became near-compulsory.
Bourgeois institutions and the bourgeois temperament, espe-
cially when associated with the victors of Britain and France,
had little impact in the now democratized and constitutionalized
Weimar Republic in Germany, where something new was be
ginning and growing. This was the ideology—rather than the
“philosophy”—of National Socialism. International socialism,
the economic and materialist principle declared by Karl Marx
and others—that classes meant more than states everywhere, but
particularly in Europe—was superficially logical but profoundly
wrong. Among many instances of his shortsightedness, Marx
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

overlooked the existence of nations; he failed to see that nations

and states were not the same things, and that national senti-
ments, perhaps especially in an age of mass politics, were of-
ten more powerful than state interests. This was (or should have
been) already evident in 1914 and even more afterward. Con-
sciousness of national identity was much more important than
class-consciousness. This was true in almost every nation and
class, in one way or another.
Such awareness of nationalism was more anticapitalist than

a ntisocialist—capitalism being sometimes, though not predomi-

nantly. international. Early in the twentieth century, a few small
political parties chose to declare and name themselves “national
socialists.” (One example: Czech national socialists in Bohemia,
sharply separating themselves from their German counterparts.)
After 1920, the presence and the influence of nationalist social-
ism spread, especially in Central Europe. Their emphasis on the
adjective “nationalist” was obvious. In Germany, this was almost
immediately recognized by their opponents, who hoped to ridi-
cule them by using the abbreviation “Nazi-Sozi,” for “Nationalist-
Sozialist.” Now, note that from this abbreviation the “Sozi” very
soon disappeared, while the “Nazi” remained, showing that it
was much more important than the “Sozi” half of the adjective.
Hitler understood this. Even though he got the support of
other German nationalists who were not socialists, he eventually
won the support of masses of former socialists too. Here the
example of Austria is telling. The Austrian Social Democratic
Party, like its German counterpart, was substantial and fairly re-
spectable; after the war, it had the support of most Austrian vot-
ers. But Austrians, like Germans, thought and felt that they had
been wrongly punished by the peace treaties, which shifted a few
million German-speaking Austrians to Czechoslovakia, Yugo-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

slavia, Italy. As a result, most Austrians in 1920 were for a Ger-

man Austria, meaning some kind of union with Germany on the
basis of national self-determination. The Allies prohibited this
(among other things, it would have made Germany larger than it
had been before 1914), as late as 1931, when France opposed a
German-Austrian customs u nion. More significantly, in Austria,
too, a local National Socialist Party began to attract adherents
when the two other large parties weakened. It also profited from
the presence of Austrian anti-Semites, especially among univer-

sity students. Very telling was the quite illogical designation of

an Austrian “nationalist”: an Austrian-born person who pre-
ferred to disregard his “Austrian” identity, as well as his loyalty to
the Austrian state. He was a German-Austrian, or plainly a Ger-
man, and partisan of an Austrian u nion with Germany. All of
this worked to the advantage of Hitler, even before 1933. By that
time, the Austrian Nazis were threatening to become a large
party within Austria too.
After the French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, there
came a conservative reaction in much of Europe. It did not last
long, though it was a reaction espoused not only by the restored
monarchies, but in some ways by many of the peoples them-
selves. After the First World War, there was no such reaction—
no popular or intellectual longing for anything like Victorian-
ism. There was a subdued overcast grayness over much of Europe
and in the minds of many Europeans. Optimism about the fu-
ture was far from prevalent. Meanwhile, America was a place of
bright lights and untold riches. By 1918 the American dollar had
replaced the British pound as the primary and most stable cur-
rency in the world. Still, the United States was far away.
Much of this widespread pessimism and insecurity was ap
parent in the loss of the value of money. Inflation, not deflation,
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

afflicted most European states after 1918. The Money Age was
the nineteenth century, not the twentieth—not only because of
the near-universal gold standard, but because of the confidence
in the national currencies. (In France, for example, throughout
most of the nineteenth century, including wars and three revolu-
tions, the value of the French franc remained largely stable.) For
a while, the postwar governments did little to control inflation.
The classic case was Germany, where by 1923 the gradual infla
tion after 1918 had accelerated to fantastic proportions—some

thing that the German people remembered and avoided after

their much greater catastrophe in the Second World War and
also generations later, even to the present day. Then, near the end
of 1923 or soon afterward, the governments of Europe introduced
new currencies, which were accepted with a measure of relief.
Once again, something like an exhausted peace spread over
much of Europe, without anything like nostalgia for or a wish to
return to the past—to the world before 1914.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

“COSSACKS! BRETHREN!”

Communists—The nature of their fears—The situation of

the Jews

In the hist ory of the world, the Communist revolution in

Russia in 1917 was an anomaly. Seventy years after Marx’s Com-
munist Manifesto, the majority of the working classes everywhere
were mostly indifferent to Communism. There were no success-
ful Communist revolutions anywhere except in Russia—a coun-
try that Marx (at least for a long time) categorically excluded
from his projections of Communism. All this is well known. Less
well known is the evidence of how afraid the Communist leaders
were of their nationalist opponents. A few days before (and also
during) their uprising in St. Petersburg, Lenin’s cohorts thought
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

it useful to address the Cossack regiments in St. Petersburg on

posters with the heading: “Cossacks! Brethren!”—this to the
most feared and hated military units of the tsarist regime. The
Bolsheviks were right: the Cossacks in 1917 were not inclined to
risk their skins in defense of Kerensky and Co., those loquacious
townies in their frock coats. Further evidence is protean. In the
Communists’ short-lived attempts in Europe in 1919 (in cities
such as Munich and Budapest)—including their repulsive acts of
terrorism—there was always an underlying and often very ap-

parent fear: fear of their unpopularity, fear of their enemies, not

only among the former ruling classes but also among the masses.
Of course a sense of fear, like all other primal human phe-
nomena, is not simple and is often allied and combined with ha-
tred. But it is an acceptable generalization to state that, at least in
the Western world, the ideas of Communist and pro-Communist
intellectuals in the twentieth century were inseparable from their
fears: their fears of oppressive Capitalism and its agents; fear of
“fascists,” of “reactionaries,” of nationalist crowds, of the con
spiratorial powers of their opponents—a fear compensated or,
rather, clothed by their intellectual belief that their ideology was
the only progressive one, marking their path to the future, their
future.
This does not mean that all Communists were cowards. A
sense of fear and an inclination to cowardice are not always the
same thing. Courage is the ability to overcome fear; this is some
thing that every combat soldier knows in the marrow of his
bones. But asseverations of psychoanalysis do not belong in this
short history of the twentieth century; as Samuel Johnson wisely
said, “Intentions must be gathered from acts.” Telling for our
purposes is the history of the Soviet U
nion after Lenin’s death in
1924: there were substantial changes, enacted and instituted by
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Joseph Stalin, who was not well known before that but became
the master of that vast country for the next twenty-eight years,
encompassing, among other things, the Second World War.
Stalin recognized two matters, of which the second may have
been even more important—and decisive—than the first, even
though the first led to mass misery and famine and the death of
probably more than one million people. This was collectivized
agriculture: two Latinate words that do not convey their enor-
mous impact—namely, the forcing of many millions of peasants

to move from their dwellings and land to very large state-ordered

and supervised farms, food-production factories. In this way,
Stalin aimed to increase Russian agricultural production. The
eventual results of this most radical plan were dubious; yet be-
cause of the habitual passivity of the Russian peasantry, there
were few grave political effects. Before 1930, little had changed in
the everyday life of the people who lived and worked in the Rus-
sian countryside, but it would no l onger remain thus.
One of the aims of Stalinite policy was to put an end to many
practices and tendencies in the Soviet U nion that had accompa-
nied the Bolshevik takeover in and after 1917. The elimination
and prohibition of such radical and seemingly avant-garde cul-
tural activities began in 1926. It was part and parcel of something
much more important in the long run. This was the promo-
tion of Russian nationalism at the expense of Communist inter-
nationalism (which, after all, was one of the main attractions
of Communist intellectuals scattered throughout the world). Sta
lin was not an internationalist. He had advanced upward in the
Moscow hierarchy because of his direct and often brutal ability
to get rid of his actual or potential opponents within the party
when needed. In 1924, he was elected party leader, the succes-
sor to Lenin, who had died that January. Within two years he
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

was able to eliminate his main enemy, Leon Trotsky, forcing

him to leave the Soviet Union. The Stalin-Trotsky duel was, and
remains, telling. Trotsky was an international Communist and
something of an intellectual; Stalin was not. They were natural
opponents, enemies not only in their ideologies but in their very
personalities, in their very backgrounds. (Fourteen years later,
Stalin sent an agent to murder Trotsky, then forlorn and power-
less, living somewhere in Mexico.)
More important and significant than this was the develop-

ment of Stalin’s thinking, of which we have only a few, scattered,

but telling indications in the decade before 1939, when he would
not only welcome but agree to a world-shattering pact with Hit-
ler a few days before the outbreak of the Second World War. Sta
lin was a secretive man, but here and there he made remarks to
the effect that internationalism was impractical, if not outdated,
and that he and we must now consider nationalism seriously.
“We,” because this corresponded with the very transformation of
the Soviet Union’s leadership. A considerable number of leading
commissars in Lenin’s early government were Jews—in a country
where Judeophobia was widespread and at times deep. By 1938,
there were few Jews among the top leadership of the Soviet Com-
munist Party. The exceptions were some officials in the foreign
service (including the commissar for foreign affairs, Maxim Lit-
vinov), whom Stalin kept, presumably because of their interna-
tional knowledge and connections. Other exceptions, though of
minuscule importance, were some exiled foreign Communists
put into a house or two in Moscow—a sop to the idea of interna-
tional Communism but devoid of any influence on Stalin.

Now this brings me to a sensitive and diffic ult topic that I think I
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

cannot and should not exclude even from a short history of the
twentieth century—namely, the history of the (mostly European)
Jews in this period. We know that more than five million Jews
were killed, or lost their lives, during the Second World War. The
Holocaust was not a footnote to the Second World War, as at
least one French anti-Semite (Jean-Marie Le Pen) recently de-
clared. It belonged to the center of that conflict, because it was a
principal element in the public and possibly also in the private

decisions and statements of Adolf Hitler, the architect of the war.

But even if Hitler had not existed, the presence (and to many
people, the problem) of Jews and their influence in many coun-
tries would belong to the history of the twentieth century.
Entire libraries, including scholarly works, have been devoted
to the history of the Jews; but there, too, the twentieth century is
more than a new chapter, and not only because of the enormity
of the Holocaust. To analyze or describe or even sum up the
thousands of years of the Jewish people and of their trials does
not belong in this book, except to state that the arguments for
their past segregations, discriminations, occasional persecutions,
and so on, for at least two thousand years, were religious, though
often inseparable from racial or national sentiments. But, again,
mostly around 1870, there was a change. It was then that the term
“anti-Semitism” appeared, a word and adjective still current now,
in spite of its fundamental inaccuracy (Jews are not necessarily
Semites, nor are all Semitic peoples relatives of Jews or of Juda-
ism). The term immediately connotes something not religious
but racial. Moreover, it includes people who are no longer Jew-
ish by religion but have converted to other, mostly Christian
churches, suggesting, among other things, that they are still Jew-
ish in their sentiments and beliefs, and consequently are danger-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

ous elements within the nations they inhabit. This was a popular
and powerful tendency in Spain during the sixteenth century—
but even then, the Inquisition was concerned with the authen
ticity of the religious beliefs of the conversos, not with their na-
tionality.
Around the nineteenth century, two new developments oc-
curred, which gave rise to the new “anti-Semitism.” The first was
the very great increase in Jewish populations in many countries

of Europe and in parts of the United States. In 1800, perhaps as

many as 80 or 90 percent of Jews in the world lived within the
confines of the Russian Empire and Poland, where they were of-
ten subject not only to restrictions but also occasionally to mur-
derous hostility. By 1900, their mass migration westward was
slowing to a trickle, while in countries such as Hungary, Roma-
nia, and Austria the Jewish population had grown from 1 to 5
percent, or even more, in a century. Much larger was their pres-
ence in some of the West’s capital cities: in Vienna, Jews ac-
counted for 14 percent of the population; in Budapest, 21 percent;
in New York, almost 30 percent; in Paris, more than 5 percent.
Much of this increase was due to the characteristics of that entire
century, with its governing ideas of progress and liberalism and
with its emphasis on industry and commerce. A consequence of
this was the lifting of the remaining legal restrictions of Jews
by various European governments (except for Russia and Roma-
nia). But a deeper and more populist consequence was a new
kind of hostility to Jews.
By the early twentieth century, there were politicians, public
figures, and writers who believed that their principal task was to
alert their countrymen to the extent of the presence and sinister
influence of Jews within their nations—especially in fields such
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

as finance, banking, journalism, and other professions open to

them. There were even small political parties whose leaders be-
lieved and claimed that this Jewish “problem” was the princi-
pal problem of their nation. They represented something like a
new extreme Right. Before 1914—indeed, 1918—they had been
read and listened to, but they had not gotten very far. One reason
for this was that the mass migration from the Russias westward
was diminishing. Another reason was that the reception of thou-

sands of Jews by their host nations did not mean that they were
enthusiastically embraced. Beyond their emancipation, Jews
continued to be subject to political, legal, and social restrictions,
limited though these were. With few exceptions, they were ex-
cluded from the high commands of armies, from high diplo-
matic posts, from the presidencies of important institutions,
and from the leadership of politic al parties; they were unwel-
come in certain neighborhoods and schools; and so forth. Much
of this was true even in the United States. It no doubt caused
great frustration and hurt, but did not inflict very much harm.
(One exception was the Catholic Church. Though its members
and spokesmen were often strongly anti-Semitic after 1870, the
Vatican welcomed converts, elevating some of them to impor
tant bishoprics.)
The main threat to the Jews was the new nationalism, growing
in popularity often among the young, especially in certain coun-
tries such as Germany and Austria. Jews were regarded as an
alien people; it was believed that there was and should be no
place for them—including current and former converts—within
a national community. Thus, we may see, especially in Europe,
another element in this new Judeophobia integral to the rise of
nationalisms after 1870, and then principally after 1918. Before
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

that, Jews had often been disliked by other people not only be-
cause of their seemingly outlandish religion but also because of
their outlandish habits: strange clothing, strange beards, strange
speech, and so on—a visible minority. But now, the especial
hatred toward and concern with Jews was, almost everywhere,
directed against assimilated Jews, who, outwardly, were often
hardly distinguishable from the non-Jewish people around them.
The antagonism was racial and also spiritual. To many people,

Jews represented—indeed, they incarnated—a perceived peril,

perhaps a peril to the entire nation.
In many places and for many people, this was aggravated after
1918 by the presence of many Jews among the new Bolshevik rul-
ers of Russia. “Jewish Bolshevism” became a current phrase for at
least two decades. We shall see that for Hitler, Jews and Commu-
nists were the principal enemies; in 1918, he believed they were
instrumental to his nation’s defeat. Thereafter, he would often
use the term “Jewish Bolshevism.” But a careful examination of
his public statements and private expressions may suggest that
he did not really believe the two terms were equivalent. He hated
Jews more than he hated Communists; but he also knew that the
pairing of the two, along with the equivalence attributed to them,
was useful, because it could be quite popular. So he kept up this
popular usage, especially after 1941—so much so, that he used
the phrase “Jewish Bolshevism” during his last public speech, in
April 1945, shortly before his death. Yet there are ample instances
of his admiration for Stalin, and for his recognition that the lat-
ter’s Soviet U
nion was not at all Jewish-ruled.
One of the fundamental remaining differences between ex
tremes of the Right and those of the Left is that hatred moves the
former; fear, the latter. It was not always thus. Two hundred years
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

ago, the old Right—authoritarian kingdoms and dukedoms, the

conservatives and the aristocracies and the police—were fearful
of the ideas of the French Revolution, of their attractions and
their potential representatives. The Left (comprising young peo-
ple then, but not now) hated such regimes, their rulers, and the
police; when they feared them, that fear was mixed with con-
tempt.
Then, around 1870, came a change. Nationalism was replacing
the older forms of patriotism, and it proved to be an even stron

ger and more lasting cement binding masses of people than their
sentiments about class struggle. Its extreme representations and
incarnations involved even more than a dislike of foreigners. It
included a contemptuous hatred of men and women within their
own country whom such nationalists saw as being largely, even
treasonably, non-nationalistic. This was not an aristocratic or
conservative phenomenon, but a populist one. It manifested it-
self in a great variety of nations and states; it attracted many rev-
olutionary young people; and their opponents, especially Jews,
soon learned to fear them.
Hatred is stronger than fear. Both exist among animals. But in
the human world, hatred eventually becomes self-destructive; it
does not always prevail in the long run, while fear often does.
Still, this can be no consolation to those who either experience
or comprehend the power of hatred over fear in the short run.
Besides, hatred, even more than fear, may also involve participa
tion: people hate what they hate in themselves, or they often hate
who or what is close to them. What is vengeance but the wish to
cause suffering in order to heal one’s own suffering? “In the spirit
of revolt,” Georges Bernanos wrote, “there is a principle of hatred
or contempt for mankind. I’m afraid that the rebel will never be
capable of bearing as much love for those he loves as he bears
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

hatred for those he hates.”

Toward the ends of the political-ideological spectrum, we
may, then, observe the presence of fear among people of the rad-
ical Left and the presence of hatred among people of the radical
Right. But such phenomena are not restricted to extremist be-
lievers. There exist fellow travelers on the Left but also on the
Right; the latter are people whose fears are transmuted by the
pleasant feeling that they are being admitted to the company
of nationalists. These are not categories but tendencies. Nor are

these inclinations simply attributable to the attractions of po

litical ideologies. They are human characteristics and therefore
complex ones—inclinations and potentialities that are neither
fixed nor determined. They are not explainable by such defi
nitions as “the Authoritarian Personality” or “the Totalitarian
Temptation.”
Men and w omen do not have ideas. They choose them.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

NO NOSTALGIA FOR THE

“WORLD OF YESTERDAY”

Uniqueness of the United States—Its in flu

The hist ory of the United States differs from that of other
great empires. It would be imprecise and also exaggerated to call
the eighteenth century the “French century” or the nineteenth
the “British century,” but not so to call the twentieth century the
“American century.” Of course, the influence of the French and
then the British, and the emulation of some of the institutions
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

and habits of their civilizations, went beyond the borders of these

great nations; but the impact of the United States upon the world
has been wider and perhaps even more decisive. From its very
beginning, the United States represented the progress of democ-
racy. The great Alexis de Tocqueville recognized this. His genius
saw a change that involved something more than the transition
from French and British centuries to an American century, but
a change that was coming to France (and to most of the world)
after perhaps thousands of years. This was the evolution from

aristocratic ages to a democratic one: from ages where minorities

ruled to an age where majorities rule (or at least are pretended to
rule)—a change in the very structure of history.
The United States was already something like the greatest
power in the world in 1914. Then, in 1917, it chose to enter the
war in Europe, contrary to its traditions and to the admonitions
of some of its Founders. This involved a transformation of its
public opinion and of its popular sentiments, from the complexi-
ties of American pacifism to American military enthusiasm—
and then, soon after the war, to an inclination to turn away from
Europe. But meanwhile the American entry into Europe and its
consequences were very successful. It decided the war for the
Western Allies. Casualties among American soldiers were one-
tenth of those suffered by the British and even a smaller frac-
tion of those sustained by the French, who had fought for more
than four years and were victors but badly weakened. The pros-
perity of the United States and the well-being of its people were
unequaled after the First World War (as well as after the Sec-
ond). To explain this by pointing to the natural advantages of the
United States—the fact that it is separated from other continents
by two of the world’s greatest oceans, and that it is an enormous
land mass containing enormous national resources—is super
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

ficial. Many of the same conditions existed for other Central or

South American republics, from Mexico to Argentina. But their
politic al and social histories were, and are, much less significant
than those of the United States. Whatever the shortcomings of
the latter, the very American conditions of relative liberty, free-
dom, security, prosperity, and respect for law have been the con-
sequences of what Americans had inherited and a dopted from
their English-speaking ancestors, many of those legacies prevail-
ing well into the twentieth century. By 1920, Americans of Eng

lish or Scottish or Irish origin were less than one-fifth of the

population of the United States (eighty years before, Tocqueville
had still called them “Anglo-Americans”). But the conforming
and assimilating power of American customs and institutions
was tremendous. It made the power and the prosperity and the
prestige of the United States unique. (Such a historical legacy is
also apparent in the character of America’s northern neighbor,
Canada.)
All of this contributed to a large wave of immigration, re-
sumed after the end of the First World War. (This was so of other
American republics, too, especially of Brazil and Argentina; the
population of the latter increased four- or five-fold after 1880.)
But the people and the politicians of the United States, most re-
cently after 1919, chose to shut the “golden door”—not com-
pletely, but largely. Two Immigration Acts, in 1921 and 1924,
drastically limited immigration to the United States for the first
time in the nation’s history. There had been popular sentiment
against immigration earlier, resulting in minor restrictions that
involved mostly the exclusion of actual or potential criminals;
but these 1921 and 1924 laws, reflecting American popular senti-
ment, were born of a national revulsion against Europe (or at
least against some Europeans) that began to affect American pol-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

itics soon after 1918. In a wider and larger sense, they also marked
the duality of the American people throughout the next decade.
Many Americans—and for some time a considerable majority—
believed that their country’s involvement in and association with
Europe in 1917–1919 had been a mistake. The Republican Party
profited from these sentiments and chose as its slogan “Back to
normalcy” (an odd word). They repudiated Woodrow Wilson
(who suffered a stroke in late 1919) and won a great majority in
the presidential election of 1920. The Immigration Acts came in

the election’s wake. They established a quota for each national-

ity of immigrants, strongly restricting those from Eastern and
Southern Europe and granting them but a fraction of the quo-
tas allotted to Western and Northern Europeans, including Ger-
mans. There was thus a racial element in these discriminations—
inaccurately but not altogether untruthfully named “isolation-
ism,” suggesting the overdue and salubrious isolation of the New
World from the influences and presences of the Old.
American isolationism was of course far from complete. The
Immigration Acts left a number of loopholes. Also, many “iso
lationists,” especially Republicans, were in favor of separating
America from Europe while at the same time promoting the ex-
pansion of American military and naval power in the Pacific.
What is more important, these sentiments were largely in accord
with a national tendency to approve of laws governing morality.
This “isolationism” and the legislation of Prohibition—the
attempt to restrict the alcohol consumption of the entire Amer
ican population—were often supported by the same people.
Throughout the Twenties, the distance between urban America
(especially New York) and rural America, while geographically
and demographically narrowing, remained large and deep (or,
more precisely, very large rather than very deep). At the same
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

time, the popularity of the Republicans, or of what they seemed

to represent, was decisive. The result was that Americans elected
three Republican presidents in the 1920s: Warren Harding, Cal-
vin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover—narrow and incompetent,
especially the first two.
Yet the structure of American politics was such that this did
not much matter. After the First World War, what mattered was
the influence of urban America—and not only on rural areas
of the country, but across the world. By 1920, at least three Amer-

ican cities—New York foremost among them, of course—had

grown larger than the great capital cities of Europe. More impor
tant, they attracted all kinds of Americans, especially writers,
journalists, artists, intellectuals, men and w omen with cosmo-
politan aspirations. “Americans are an urban people,” wrote the
sophisticated Harold Nicolson after his American visit in 1927.
(He may have been right then, but not very much longer: subur-
banization began to put an end to this urban character after
about 1950.) But even more significant was the almost instant
spread of American influence all over Europe and in the rest
of the world, most recently after 1920. There was no nostalgia
anywhere in Europe for the “world of yesterday,” for Victorian or
Edwardian standards of behavior, much less for their “values.”
There was a revolution in fashions, especially those of w omen’s
clothes, that was unprecedented in modern history (for the first
time in centuries, the length of skirts changed not only a few
inches up or down, but were diminished by more than one foot).
Some of these fashions (including shorter hairstyles for w omen)
originated in America, mostly in New York. All of this was
accompanied by a change in the relations between men and
women. Much of the same wish to abandon the standards of the
past was evident in the arts and literature, and especially in ar-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

chitecture—in huge, modern buildings, largely without orna-

ment, constructed in concrete. There was some reaction to all of
this, but only partial and appearing here and there, much later.
These “modern” things in flu
enced and penetrated rural
America too. One instrument of their spreading was the auto-
mobile, or at least Henry Ford’s mass production of them, in the
early 1920s. By the end of the decade, two-thirds of American
families owned an automobile. It may be argued that the 1920s,
in the United States and elsewhere, were not only the first but

perhaps the only truly Modern Decade (and that the often super-
ficial manifestations of youthful and “revolutionary” changes in
the late 1950s and 1960s were hardly anything but further exag-
gerations of the modernity of the 1920s). An illustration of this
was apparent in the American language. In the 1920s, “modern”
became an approbatory word throughout America, while “old-
fashioned” was deprecatory in almost every sense. A Modern
Girl was an all-American girl (while the phrase “modern girl” in
Britain and in the rest of Europe had a slightly racy tinge).
The movies largely contributed to this. But perhaps the most
telling and enduring evidence of the new, thoughtful, and, yes,
sophisticated American contribution to the tastes and culture
of the Twenties was American popular music. The overall de
scription of this as “jazz” is misleading. It suggests that the cre-
ators of American popular music in the Twenties were African
Americans. There had been such an element in American popu-
lar sounds and rhythms from the beginning, but the composers
of the Twenties were often second-generation Americans, the
sons of European immigrants to the United States, and included
Americans of older American stock—such as Irving Berlin,
George and Ira Gershwin, Jerome Kern, Richard Rodgers, Lo-
renz Hart, Hoagy Carmichael, Vincent Youmans, and Cole Por-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

ter. The quality of their lyrics was not always equal to the elegant
rhythms and chords of their music, but the latter were incompa-
rable, appealing to tastes all over the world right up to the pres-
ent—even though the golden era of that music faded and nearly
disappeared after about 1955. The vehicle of their success and
popularity, more than films, was the American musical comedy,
which for a while was wrongly attributed to the mostly Central
European examples of the operetta. A serious—but also neces-
sarily imprecise—exploration of this kind of music would show

that most of its best listeners and consumers came from the
American upper and urbane classes, even more than from the
lower ones (though its best artists and performers were often
African Americans). Yet sociological (even more than socio-
graphical) categorizations and distinctions among Americans
are often imprecise. We may observe that previously—notwith-
standing the Immigration Acts of 1921 and 1924, and as a result of
some of their special provisions—the 1920s had been marked by
an extraordinary arrival of many European musicians, compos-
ers, and painters of European and sometimes worldwide repute,
along with architects, philosophers, and other intellectuals—an
influx perhaps comparable only to the Greek exodus to Rome
two thousand years ago. Such crowds of refugees came again
during the Hitler age in the 1930s and 1940s (and, after that, dur-
ing Stalin’s brutal imposition of Communism on much of East-
ern Europe). But that first wave (or rather, steady trickle) arrived
in the Twenties—an important reason to recognize that despite
the temporary popularity of “isolationism,” in the 1920s the in
fluence of European culture on the American people (as well as
the reverse) was greater than it had been decades before.
Still, this brings us to a nationwide phenomenon—indeed, an
essence of America’s uniqueness in the 1920s: namely, the incho-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

ate but enormous extent of the American “middle class.” This is a

term for a social category that is beginning to lose its meaning in
some countries across the world, but—as in other matters—the
United States preceded them, particularly in the Twenties. “Mid-
dle class” traditionally meant a relatively thin layer between an
upper class (largely but not exclusively aristocratic) and the
much, much larger lower and lowest classes. But in the United
States (and to some extent in Canada, Australia, and New Zea-
land), well before the 1920s, the middle class was no longer a

“class” but an overall phenomenon. It bulged or ballooned out of

the social pyramid and indeed dominated it in many ways. Ac-
cording to one study, by 1927 more than 67 percent (later, 80 per-
cent) of Americans described themselves as “middle class.” This
was something new and unique in the history of the world, even
though such definitions and statistics are necessarily imprecise,
since “middle class” is determinable not simply by possessions
or income but also by education and by employment in certain
professions. Moreover, the European category of “bourgeoisie”
was not a very recognizable class or even segment of a class in
the United States (even though the word “citizen” in Europe had
urban origins, relating to the term “city”). A similar problem
is posed by the distinction between the “upper-middle” and
“lower-middle” classes; but this was, and is, not unique to the
United States. In any event, the United States was not a classless
society, even though the category of “class” became less distinct
and not immediately or easily recognizable. Meanwhile, many
of the habits and customs and even values of most Americans
were—somehow—middle class (even though later in the twenti-
eth century “class” and “classy” became approbatory words in the
American language).
This kind of near-universality was most apparent, and indeed
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

deeply lodged, in the thoughts and worldview of most Amer

icans. This was their sometimes conscious, or sometimes
thoughtless, overall habit of optimism and their belief in “Prog
ress.” American optimism—sometimes shallow but also very
widespread—was one great difference between most Americans
and many Europeans in the Twenties, of course for more than
one reason. But perhaps less excusable (or approvable?) was the
almost always unquestioned American trust and belief, most of
all, in Scientific Progress, going on and on, certainly limitless—a

near-universal philosophy, shallow applications of which even

appeared in some of the pronouncements of American religious
spokesmen and preachers.
In retrospect, one of the amazing features of this optimistic
belief was its persistence in America even through the Depres-
sion of 1929 and after. Americans are a practical people, and they
found it easy and proper to apply their philosophy of Progress
to their personal lives and finances. Few people recognized (and
not many do, even now) that one of the ingredients of advancing
democracy is inflation—of people, of ideas, of valuables, even of
money. There was a minor financial crisis at the beginning of the
Twenties, but this did not matter. Throughout most of that de
cade, the prices (and so the assumed values) of almost every
thing, including real estate, stocks, bonds, and so on, rose (in
places, and at times, beyond the bounds of avarice), in tandem
with the rise of the “middle class.” There was the continuing
worldwide prestige of the American dollar, which, as we have
seen, had replaced the British pound sterling by 1918 and whose
dominance continued, largely unbroken, through and after the
Depression and after America’s abandonment of the gold stan-
dard in 1933. The first sign of real trouble showed up in 1926:
the collapse of the Florida land boom—a prototypical and ex-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

treme inflation—and the fall in real estate prices there. It should

have been a signal, but it hardly caused a ripple elsewhere in the
United States. The statements and slogans of successive Republi-
can presidents in the Twenties spurred on the national obsession
with Progress. The country’s leaders did nothing to warn or ad-
monish their people. (One linguistic remark: “conservative” was
a word dismissed and even abhorred by just about all American
politicians—until about the mid-1950s.) Then, in October 1929,
came a sudden and, here and there, almost precipitous collapse

of prices on the New York stock market. There had been similar
phenomena in American financial history before, but not of such
extent. More important: by 1929, people in the United States were
placing their money in stocks to an extent greater than ever be-
fore, and greater than anywhere else in the world. The prices did
not recover for many years, often not until about a decade later.
Of course this had all kinds of consequences, of which high
unemployment was the worst. Yet it is astonishing that it did not
much diminish Americans’ trust in their country’s values. In Eu-
rope the Depression was most severe in Germany, where the un-
employment rate was comparable to and, here and there, even
worse than in the United States. But in Germany, this had grave
political consequences (though it is frequently adduced as the
main cause of Hitler’s rise to power). In America it did not. One
indication: the Communist Party of the United States won its
largest share of the vote in 1932—but that was a tiny 0.25 percent
of the entire electorate (even though a more than considerable
number of American intellectuals declared themselves “Com-
munists” in 1932). The great mandate that the American people
gave to Franklin Roosevelt in 1932 was, of course, a turning point,
even though its financial and economic effects developed rela-
tively slowly during the succeeding years. More telling for this
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

short history of the twentieth century was that the international

value of the American dollar hardly changed in the 1930s; and
that, even more important, the influence and prestige of the
United States did not at all diminish; they went on grow-
ing throughout that decade. America and Americans were solid.
Perhaps the unthinking habit of optimism and belief in Progress
had at least one benefic ial effect. The frequent politic al and so-
cial expressions of fear and hatred, evident in some European

nations, at least on their extremes, were rare among the Ameri-

can people, decent and tolerant as most of them were.

Two long-range global developments were under way in the

1920s. They had enduring consequences. One of them was that
white people gradually ceased migrating to and establishing
themselves on other continents. Within the United States itself
(also in Canada), the ceaseless movement of people westward
(across the “frontier”) went on, but in the existing colonies of
Britain, France, and the Netherlands, the migration of people
from their mother countries to other continents diminished; in-
deed, in some cases, whites began to return from their colonies.
Immigration to South America also tapered off. Yet another con-
sequence was the international spread of the English language,
which replaced French as the long-preferred second language of
the upper classes. It is at least arguable that one main factor in
this was the influence of American movies and American music,
part and parcel of the worldwide emulation of America.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

SOUTH OF THE BORDER

A N D A C R O S S T H E P A C I F I C

The Southern Hemisphere—The Far East

Hist ory is the reco rd and the memory of mankind. This

kind of knowledge is by necessity selective and limited. Such
limitation involves the knowledge not only of human beings, but
of the globe itself. There were no such terms as “Northern Hemi-
sphere” and “Southern Hemisphere” until men discovered the
shape and the dimensions of this earth a few hundred years ago.
The Equator, among other things, was a human invention, an ab-
stract circular line. What was not a human invention was the ex-
istence of millions of human beings to the south of it, and the
slight awareness of them by their northern neighbors. All of this
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

began to change at least six centuries ago. A large migration of

white people from the north to the south and west continued
into the first half of the twentieth century. Entire continents—in-
cluding North America, Australia and New Zealand, and parts
of South America and southern Africa—had become populated
by whites (a reverse movement did not begin until after the Sec-
ond World War). In 1914, all of Africa was a colony of one or
another European state; the only two exceptions were Liberia, at
the western edge, and Abyssinia (Ethiopia), on the east of the

continent. Sixty years later there remained no European colonial

possessions in Africa.
The histories of South and Central America were not as sim-
ple as that. In the minds of the first Spanish conquerors who,
very soon after Columbus, landed and marched inland in the
Caribbean, there was no doubt that these new lands now be-
longed to them and to Spain. Soon, they vanquished the Az-
tec and Mayan empires—crushing some of the indigenous peo-
ples or pushing them into the interior of their lands. Spanish
colonization was—amazingly—successful in imposing and then
perpetuating the rule of the Catholic Church and of the Spanish
language on conquered tribal peoples of many kinds. They were
—again, somewhat amazingly—largely unable to populate their
colonies with more Spanish immigrants. The descendants of the
Spanish conquerors found their relations with Spain becoming
ever more distant. A consequence of this was that a small ruling
class—almost everywhere in Spanish-speaking America, almost
always Spanish in race and origin, but also indigenous—wanted
to assume control, and wanted to be more and more indepen
dent of Spain and of the few Spanish viceroys.
Then, toward the end of the eighteenth century, came the
North American and the French revolutions. Their intellectual
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

effect on the overwhelmingly large non-Spanish and nonwhite

populations was almost nil—with the exception of an impressive
slave revolt led by Toussaint L’Ouverture against the French in
Haiti in 1803. But their effect on some of their rulers—especially
younger ones in what was still a feudal, not at all middle-class or
capitalist, but often militarized, small upper-class society—was
more than considerable and perhaps even unavoidable. In Mex-
ico in 1810, and soon thereafter, almost all of the Spanish viceroy-
alties as far south as Argentina staged rapid revolutions and de-

clared themselves republics. Brazil was an exception, but perhaps

only in language: instead of becoming a Spanish colony, that vast
piece of the Americas was allotted to Portugal by papal arbitra-
tion in 1494, and Brazil remained Portuguese, ruled by an em-
peror, until 1889.
But throughout the nineteenth century, Brazil’s social struc-
ture was not very different from that of the other, often small,
South and Central American states. By 1830, these republics,
“liberated” from Spanish rule by able and ambitious military of
ficers (such as Simón Bolívar, José de San Martín, and Bernardo
O’Higgins), had come into existence, transforming the map of
the Americas and indeed of the world, essentially where and how
they still are today. (The republic of Colombia changed its name
from “New Granada” as late as 1860.) Almost all of them started
to attract masses of immigrants, especially from southern Italy
and the Germanies. This changed the character of the popula-
tions of some of them, especially Argentina. Also, like the North
Americans, many South and Central Americans went westward
and southward, beyond the ever-changing “line” of their own
“frontier.” But otherwise their histories were very different from
those of North America. Almost all of them had a small, slowly
growing middle class. (One partial exception was Chile.) In spite
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

of their unequivocal dedication to liberty, freedom, and democ-

racy, they were often ruled by dictators whose tyrannies their
peoples accepted, at least for a while. During the nineteenth cen-
tury, the enormous disparities between the living standards, civi-
lizations, and cultures of the poor and those of the rich hardly
diminished. What eventually benefited their populations were
the riches of many of their lands and their natural resources.
Wheat exports from Argentina, mostly to the British Isles, made

that country among the five richest in the world from about 1860
to almost 1930. During that time, British finance, industry, and
engineering built many things in Argentina, including its rail-
roads. Yet there was little British immigration to Argentina and
little cultural or political influence. As Argentines increasingly
emulated and adapted European styles, they looked mainly to
France; by 1910, some of their impressive avenues, buildings, and
cityscapes resembled those of Paris. (Unlike Brazil, Argentina
did not join the United States and Britain during the First World
War. It did so very reluctantly at the end of the Second—at a time
when much of Argentine popular sentiment had become anti-
British.)
But during the twentieth century, there was a gradual trans-
formation in the social structures and the politics of almost all of
the Central and South American nations. The slogans, practices,
and appeals of populism became ever more important. It may be
said that although for the first century of their republican inde
pendence, the ideal of most of the Central and South American
nations, especially of their educated or middle classes, was Lib-
erty, after about 1910 (this varied from country to country) it be-
came something like Democracy. A result of this was a transi-
tional political period, including plenty of troubles. The worst
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

example was Mexico, which had been defeated by the United

States in 1848 and had lost largely uninhabited territories. Its his
tory during the nineteenth century was beset by turmoil and dic-
tatorship. For a short time (during the American Civil War),
Mexico acquired an emperor, Maximilian of Habsburg, sup-
ported by the French; but in 1867 he, too, was overthrown and
murdered, by a local hero, Benito Juárez. (Mussolini’s parents
gave the hero’s name, “Benito,” to their newborn son in 1883, a

rare example of the Old World emulating something South

American. Another was the Argentine tango, which won popu-
larity in Europe in the 1920s.)
Chaos, revolution, and dictatorship became even more fre-
quent in Mexico in the early twentieth century; but there was
now a change. The newer demagogues and dictators were popu-
list. Universal manhood suffrage had already existed there for a
while, but now an appeal to “the people,” for their votes but also
beyond, had become dominant. One of the short-lived new pres-
idents, Venustiano Carranza, formulated a fair constitution for
Mexico in 1917. He died three years later. By that time, rebel-
lious populists (such as Emiliano Zapata) were gathering enough
popular appeal to form revolutionary armies of their own. In
1924 Plutarco Calles, a dictator-president, radical and populist,
ascended to power. He saw the Catholic Church as the enemy of
Progress and the Mexican people. He fought a bloody three-year
war against the “Cristeros,” Mexican Catholics ready to defend
their faith and their church. In 1930, the conflict died down—
somewhat. A single, powerful party, the Partido Revolucionario
Institucional (PRI), was founded, and ruled Mexican politics
(with various leaders) for the next forty years. Later dictatorships
were politic al rather than military, authoritarian and not totali-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

tarian. This was also true in Brazil, which was ruled by Getúlio
Vargas from 1930 to 1945, but with relatively little harm to Bra
zilian personal and intellectual liberties; in Fulgencio Batista’s
Cuba; and in Argentina, where José Félix Uriburu was brought to
power in 1930 by a military coup, but then gave up his uneven
dictatorship two years later. Much of this was due to the growth
in the size, prosperity, and political influence of the South and
even Central American middle classes. They would increase fur-
ther during the Second World War, during which most of the

leaders of Central America chose to align their foreign and mili-

tary policies with those of the United States.
During the nineteenth century, the people of the United States
and some of their politicians were at times tempted to extend
their power southward. But except for the Mexican-American
War (1846–1848), this seldom happened. There were occasional
instances in which the United States tried to intervene in Cuba,
to “liberate” it from Spanish rule and then annex it to the United
States (or to the Confederacy of the South, early in the Civil
War), but this did not come about. In 1898 the United States
chose to declare war against Spain, mostly on the pretext of put
ting a salutary end to the latest chapter of a Cuban-Spanish civil
war. During that “splendid little war,” as some American politi-
cians called it, the United States invaded Cuba, acquired Puerto
Rico from Spain, and seized Spanish islands in the Pacific; but
the long-range effects of the war were more important than the
partial intrusion of North America into Central America. Early
in the twentieth century, the United States forced the republic of
Colombia to cede its northwestern province to American power,
where a new republic of Panama was established, including an
American zone on both sides of the impressive Panama Canal,
the construction of which began in 1903 and was completed in
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

1915. There were limited interventions by the American mili-

tary in the repeated Mexican chaos and civil wars, the last of
them, quite brief, occurring in 1916. But there was no powerful
American politic al inclination to increase American possessions
in the Southern Hemisphere. The more or less secure existence
of American material and economic possessions was suffic ient.
After 1914, the European colonies in South and Central America
(a few French, a few minuscule Dutch and Danish islands) would
soon cease to exist. More important: the occasional nineteenth-

century ambitions of the United States to invade and annex some

of Canada had vanished, probably forever.
In the Southern Hemisphere, the mostly British, Irish, and
Dutch populations of Australia and New Zealand lived their
calm, stolid, pioneer lives throughout the nineteenth and most
of the twentieth centuries. The aborigines in these lands were
largely powerless. The exception was the Boer War of 1899–1902
between the British and the independence-minded Dutch peo-
ple in South Africa—a war that the British won, but without
drastic or long-range effects. By 1910, all of these former British
colonies had autonomous governments and Commonwealth sta
tus. In 1914, they stood by the mother country enthusiastically,
offering the lives of many thousands of their husbands and sons.
The same happened in 1939. But there was a subtle change. More
and more, the lives and habits of these descendants of English
(and Scottish and Irish) people resembled those of North Ameri-
cans, rather than those of their ancestors.
Mostly north of the Equator, the stirrings of nationalism (an
imprecise term; “anticolonialism” may be a bit more precise) be-
gan to appear even before the First World War, or immediately
after it. They resulted from the end of the old Ottoman Empire.
Turkey, too, became a republic, but with an extraordinary leader
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

—again, a former military officer—Mustafa Kemal, who knew

that amputation of weak and useless portions can be as benefi c ial
for an ailing state as for an ailing body. At the same time, he bru-
tally and drastically put an end to the millennial presence of
Greek populations in Anatolia, during a brief Greek-Turkish war
in 1922–1923. Meanwhile, ancient peoples in the Near East awoke
to find themselves citizens of new states such as Syria, Lebanon,
Egypt, and Saudi Arabia. For a while, the first two were a French
“protectorate,” and Egypt was something like a British colony;

but that did not last. Meanwhile, new nationalist dictatorships

arose in the Middle East, in Persia (Iran), under Reza Pahlavi, a
former Cossack offic er and now a shah; or in Afghanistan (un-
der Amanullah Khan), a country never colonized by its powerful
neighbors, either by Russia or by Britain from India. A new ele-
ment was the State of Israel, mostly part of old Palestine, which
the British government, for many reasons, declared and estab-
lished in 1917, under a partial British occupation. Yet the very ex-
istence of such a country and its frontiers would lead to long,
bitter, and unresolved wars between the Arab and Jewish popula-
tions of Israel-Palestine. For thirty years, the British tried to limit
Jewish immigration to Israel, until in 1948 they withdrew and the
Great Powers recognized the independence of a Jewish state.
After the Second World War, colonialism as practiced by the
Western Powers came to an end. (The exception may have been
Russia’s Central Asian empire, some of it extant even now.) But
some of the stirrings of anticolonialism were already evident in
the Twenties. In India, there was Mohandas Gandhi, whose hu-
mane propaganda on behalf of passive resistance among its peo-
ple, here and there, impressed all kinds of people across the
world. There were anticolonialist speakers and potentially pop
ular leaders in many places in Africa, India, and Indonesia.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

We must, however, distinguish between nationalism and anti

colonialism. Few of the anticolonial states were ethnically homo-
geneous. They were composed (or, often, uncomposed) of vari-
ous tribes and various religions—no matter that they now had a
national flag, a national government, and established borders.
Nationalism was essentially a European (and American) phe-
nomenon and ideology, often conveyed by African and Asian in-
tellectuals to their native peoples from what they saw or learned
in Europe or in Britain. Except for a few instances, they did not

become important until during and after the Second World War.
But meanwhile, some thing more sig cant was happening,
nifi
mostly in Britain. A sympathy for anticolonialism appeared, to-
gether with a waning belief in empire. The popular success of
works such as E. M. Forster’s novel A Passage to India (1924) at
least suggested and suggests that among the British people, here
and there, the Victorian and Edwardian sense of their unique
privileges and blessings had weakened.
In the 1920s no Great Power sought further expansion. One
exception was Japan. That country had chosen a sort of isolation
from the rest of the world; but in the last decades of the nine-
teenth century, its government and governing classes embarked
on a change that was hardly avoidable. In 1868, they had brought
about the so-called Meiji reforms, including an extraordinary
program of imitating, emulating, and adopting the imperial and
technical institutions and achievements of the great world pow-
ers. The model for their new army was, by and large, Prussian;
for their navy, largely British. By the turn of the century, they
were ready for active expansion, first of all across the China Sea.
They began to intervene in Korea. In 1894–1895, they fought a
naval war against a decrepit Chinese fleet, establishing Japanese
rule on some of the islands between China and Japan. Ten years
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

later (1904–1905), they provoked a war with Russia. Their victory

was spectacular, at sea as well as on land. Japan’s ambitions now
tended to spread beyond the islands and ports of China, involv-
ing portions of the Far East. (The Treaty of Portsmouth in 1905,
mediated by no less a personage than the American president
Theodore Roosevelt, allotted to Japan, among other things, the
southern half of the Russian island of Sakhalin, close to Siberia.)
In 1910, Japan occupied and annexed the old kingdom of Korea.
Four years later came the First World War, in which Japan made

substantial gains, acquiring a few German colonies in the west-

ern Pacific, as well as islands and ports at China’s expense. By
that time, Japan had a large and very modern navy. In 1920, Japa-
nese ships and troops occupied a portion of the Russian Far East
itself, hoping to p
rofit from the chaos of the Russian civil war.
Britain and the United States had to recognize the power of Ja-
pan. In 1922 the Washington Conference attempted to halt any
further division of China. Its naval-disarmament clauses limited
the sizes of Japan’s battleships. Earlier American popular sympa-
thies for “modern” Japan—many had seen something American
in its development—had shifted. As early as 1907, the United
States, especially in California, passed regulations virtually pro-
hibiting further Japanese immigration. The older (sometimes re-
ligious, other times illusionary) American goodwill toward a de-
feated and poor Chinese people increased, perhaps in reaction to
Japan’s aggressiveness. But Japan was now a world power and a
world player. By the 1930s there were more automobiles in Japan
than in many European countries.
Then, in 1931, Japan began to push into the Chinese mainland,
with the aim of making that vast and ancient country into some
thing like Japan’s junior partner, or even a satellite. A history of
China—because of its stunning length and complexity—poses
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

great problems for historians, whether Chinese or foreign. The

history of Chinese rulers and of their power—that is, politic al
and military history, the prime interest at least for most gen-
eral historians—is diffic ult to reconstruct. Chinese trade with
Europe and with America, as well as the West’s knowledge of and
taste for Chinese goods and art, was evident for many centuries.
The relatively open approach to China, and the weakness of its
central governments, inspired some of the Great Powers, even
though oceans away, to establish their own small enclaves and

ports on the China Sea (called “capitulations,” in the interna-

tional law of those days), beginning with the British in Hong
Kong in the 1840s, and followed, in different ways, by French,
Russians, and Germans. Then the Japanese started to surround
China by occupying Korea and beginning to penetrate, in vari-
ous ways, into the rich portions of the northeastern Chinese
Empire.
This, among other important matters, contributed to the Chi-
nese Revolution in 1912. In a few days, China became a republic
and its ruling dynasty disappeared. As in many other colonial
countries, the movers of such a revolution were intellectuals who
knew something of the world, as well as ambitious military gen-
erals. One of the latter was Yuan Shih-kai, who two years later
proclaimed himself a new emperor, but soon thereafter died.
More enduring and impressive were the prestige and power of
Sun Yat-sen, American-educated and a Christian (as were other
such leaders of the 1912 revolution, to whom Christianity also
meant something “Western”). It is both remarkable and impres-
sive that Sun Yat-sen (who died in 1925) has been venerated and
idolized by both of the subsequent Chinese leaders and soon en-
emies: Mao Tse-tung, a Communist, and Chiang Kai-shek, an
anti-Communist. (Chiang, a Christian, married Sun Yat-sen’s
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

daughter.) In 1926–1927, inspired by Sun Yat-sen, Chiang at-

tempted to establish the first national, unitary, and effective Chi-
nese government by a national party, the Kuomintang. The
Communists and Mao Tse-tung challenged and revolted against
him in 1927. Chiang beat him, and Mao and his cohorts had to
flee to a remote northwestern region of China, where Mao re-
ceived minimal Russian support. Chiang became a beneficiary of
first politic al, then material, and finally military support from
the United States, a decade or so later.

By that time, some of the leaders of Japan, especially those

of the imperial navy and army, decided that the time had come
for Japan to extend its rule over China further—even at the risk
of a possible war with the United States (a war they wrongly
thought would be limited to the far western Pacific and the Far
East). In 1931 the Japanese army occupied the vast, rich, and
for centuries China-bound province of Manchuria, establishing
a Japanese satellite state, a Manchurian kingdom. Japan was con-
demned by the League of Nations in Geneva, and withdrew from
it without a thought. The next year, they were in control of the
ancient Chinese capital, Peking (Beijing). Chiang moved his
national government to Nanking. In 1937, the Japanese-Chinese
war started, full scale. In 1940, Japan chose to be an ally of Ger-
many. By then, China had become the principal problem be-
tween Japan and the United States.
Yet the Second World War broke out in Europe, as had the
First.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

“MIDDLE CLASS” IS
NOT “BOURGEOIS”

The failure of liberal democracies—Authoritarian govern-

ments, dictatorships—A crisis of capitalism—The United
States and other examples of parliamentary democracy

In November 1918 there was a widespread opinion that the

victory of the Western Allies also meant the defeat, perhaps en-
during, of imperial and nondemocratic states, such as Germany
and its allies. This perspective was dear to the American people,
and particularly to their president, Woodrow Wilson—who, in
March 1917, took great comfort from the news of the liberal revo-
lution in Russia and the abdication of the tsar, which relieved the
United States and the Western democracies of the burden of be-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

ing allied with an imperial state. We know that soon thereafter

liberalism and parliamentarism in Russia were trampled down
by the Bolshevik Communists. But what we ought to consider
now is the failure of liberal democracy in most of Europe, con-
trary to the expectations of many people in 1918 and for a brief
time thereafter.
The end of the war seemed to many people, in many nations,
the triumph of liberalism and democracy—perhaps even more
of liberalism than of democracy—as they were represented by

Britain and France. A consequence of this was that they were

emulated, as well, in countries that were not among the victors.
In 1919, nearly all of the new and old states of Europe had liberal
parliamentary governments. That did not last long. One reason
for this was the gradual, though more and more evident, decline
of the influence of Britain and France in the affairs of Europe. A
deeper though less recognized element was the growing unpop-
ularity of bourgeois values.
This may call for a short explanation. We have seen that the
First World War (unlike either the French revolutionary war or
the Napoleonic wars) inspired very little or no nostalgia for the
restoration of erstwhile standards and values. Here and there,
such a tendency went together with skepticism about the very
principles of the eighteenth-century, mainly French, Enlighten-
ment. We must at least consider that the Enlightenment and its
consequences were embraced and supported primarily by the
growing middle classes and by their upper strata, the so-called
“bourgeoisie” (not quite identical with “middle class”). Relevant
here is the disdainful meaning and employment of the adjective
“bourgeois” after about 1920, and not only by Communists or
other votaries of the Left. This was particularly so in Germany,
and also among all kinds of intellectuals.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

In much of Europe, especially in its south and east (the latter

encompassing at least six or seven new states after 1918), the so-
called middle classes and especially their bourgeois upper strata
were sparse and weak. So was the historical and popular ap-
peal of many of their institutions, such as parliaments (and lib
eralism). Most everywhere—and especially in the new states—
the composition of governments and parliaments did not reflect
the composition of their nations: the former consisted mostly of
middle-class people, universal manhood suffrage notwithstand-

ing. Sooner or later, a dislike of such a liberal system, or lack

of system—an antipathy that attributed the frequent examples of
inefficiency and corruption to the governing classes—began to
appear, not only on but also beneath the surface of politics.
The result was the rise of new dictatorships which, oddly
enough, were not unlike those in some of the states of South
America, though they neither were inspired by nor emulated the
latter. In 1922, Mussolini and his Fascist legions marched into
Rome. In 1923, the king of Spain gave a military general, Miguel
Primo de Rivera, near-dictatorial powers. In 1926, in Portugal,
António Salazar, a serious and respectable professor, became the
authoritarian head of government. In the same year, the liberal
parliamentary powers of the government of Poland were reduced
by the partial dictatorship of Marshal Józef Pilsudski, a hero of
the Polish nation in 1918 and 1920. In 1927, 1929, and 1934, the
liberal parliamentary governments of Lithuania, Latvia, and Es-
tonia were transformed, more or less like most of the other states
of Eastern and Central Europe.
In every one of these countries, the unpopularity of liberal-
ism preceded the establishment of their new regimes, for which
“dictatorships” is a necessarily imprecise term. “Authoritarian,”
and not “totalitarian,” would be more accurate (“totalitarian” is a
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

vague and often misleading adjective, even when applied to the

lives of entire nations such as those under Hitler and Stalin).
Authoritarian was less than “total” because these new regimes
chose to maintain some of their older institutions, such as parlia-
ments (though limiting their powers and establishing, in some
cases, one-party rule; in Spain, Italy, Yugoslavia, Romania, Al
bania, Bulgaria, and Greece, they respected—and in some states
even confirmed—their monarchies, the highest powers of the
state). They also, mutatis mutandis, maintained considerable in-

tellectual freedoms. Another detail: these authoritarian dictator-

ships were the result not of revolutions but of coups d’état (a term
for which, fortunately, there is no English equivalent: overnight
changes in the occupation and possession of government build-
ings). They had not much in common with Hitler and with Na-
tional Socialism. But to the abovementioned cases we may add
Austria, which by 1931–1932 had given what remained of parlia-
mentary liberalism or even democracy and had instituted au-
thoritarian rule. In Hungary, too, under the near-monarchical
rule of Admiral Miklós Horthy (the “Regent”), the parliament
remained, though suffrage was still limited. At that time, there
were serious observers and even statesmen in the democratic
countries, too, who thought and occasionally said that the exis-
tence of such regimes might be a way to the future, given the
more or less impractical rule of liberal and parliamentary gov-
ernments.
An example of this is the reputation (and the achievements) of
Mussolini. He was a Socialist who recognized the meaningless-
ness of international socialism, together with the appeal of na-
tionalism; he broke with the Socialist Party in 1915, went to war
in the trenches, and in 1919 started to form a new party or move-
ment called “Fascism,” a term derived from the Latin word fas-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

ces, meaning a bundle of reeds tied together—a symbol of au-

thority in ancient Rome. His party had something like storm
troopers, wore black shirts, were energetic proponents of order
and law, and so on. This filled a vacuum—or even more than a
vacuum—in Italy, where public order and the reputation of gov-
ernments were riven by frustration and, at times, near-chaos.
The upper and middle classes were relieved by Mussolini’s pro-
gram, which seemed to be nationalist rather than radical (the
Communists had made a few inroads among the working classes

in and before 1923). Mussolini asserted his respect for the mon-
archy and for its institutions; conversely, the king, Victor Em-
manuel III, accepted and even respected him. There were some
ugly episodes, including murders, perpetrated by a few brutal
Fascists, but they were soon forgotten. By 1926, Mussolini ruled
atop a one-party state. But compared to other authoritarian dic-
tatorships, he went further. His plan was to change the old bour-
geois parliamentary system into a unified national assembly
where the men elected would not represent different parties, but
would be chosen from the ranks of their professions and oc
cupations. This was the ideal of a corporate state, which was
subsequently emulated elsewhere, too; yet, even in Italy, it did
not really become complete. Nevertheless, it behooves us to pay
some attention to it, since it represented Mussolini’s overall
ambition—indeed, his worldview—which was that one must
strengthen the state above all. This was especially relevant to It-
aly, which was not a unified state until about 1870 and where re-
gional differences and local authority continued to exist. After
1926, there was increasing evidence showing that Mussolini’s
militarist inclinations were even more dominant than his other-
wise often successful domestic programs of reform. He began to
appear more and more frequently in military uniform. His main
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

motto, repeated over and over to university students, was “Libro

e moschetto”: “Book and rifle.” That his plan to make Italians a
military (and race-conscious) people was an almost complete
failure would become evident soon after he made Italy enter the
Second World War in 1940. But that was still a decade away.
Meanwhile his reputation grew, almost sensationally, and not
only within Italy. After all, even under his rule Italy remained
a civilized country with considerable private freedoms, artis-

tic achievements, traditional pleasures, functioning institutions,

and not a few intellectual liberties. His Lateran Treaty with the
Holy See in 1929 put an end to the long centuries of quarrels and
even occasional hostilities between the Vatican and the Italian
state. Throughout the world, most Catholics and especially their
hierarchies admired Mussolini almost unconditionally through-
out the 1930s. His reputation radiated beyond Italy, beyond reli-
gion, and even beyond politics. Italy’s former traditional enemy
Austria (and Hungary) sought his support and alliance in and
after 1927. Winston Churchill visited him and expressed his re-
spect for him a few years later. “What we need is a Mussolini,”
said not a few American congressmen and politicians. Here and
there, emulating Mussolini and Italy, Fascist parties came into
existence—surprisingly, in 1931 in England, where Fascism had a
small but not inconsiderable following in the 1930s.
None of this would last. And the same was true of most other
authoritarian dictatorships, up to and during the Second World
War, when Hitler overshadowed Mussolini (the reverse of their
relationship in the Twenties), and Mussolini and Italy became
Hitler’s satellites; by 1938, National Socialism had become more
powerful and universal than Fascism. Mussolini could have
avoided this—perhaps. But such was not his character.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

We must now, in this short history of the twentieth century, de-

part from Central, Southern, and Eastern Europe in order to
sum up something that, even to the present day, is considered
by many people as the gravest and deepest event experienced
by almost all of the world around 1930: the Great Depression,
or, as some people thought, the Crisis of Capitalism. These two

terms—as well as their consequences—overlap; but to sharpen

my argument, I ought to deal with the second before the first.
For long decades, many people thought (or were told) that the
great struggle of their times was the worldwide struggle between
Capitalism and Communism; and that later, in the twentieth
century, these great ideas and their institutions were almost in-
evitably represented and even incarnated by the United States
and the Soviet U nion. This view, though encompassing history
and much of the world, was shortsighted and wrong. (I must
postpone dealing with this until Chapter 12, which focuses on
the origins of the so-called “Cold War.”) But these considerations
of Capitalism and Communism well preceded the Second World
War and its consequences; and therefore I must, necessarily,
briefly sum up the very shortcomings of the word “Capitalism”
itself and apply it to the history of the 1920s and 1930s.
There have been rich people and poor people since the be
ginning of time, just as there were, I dare to imagine, bankers
and indigents. Yet the words “Capitalism” and “Communism”
appeared, at least in English, only around the middle of the nine-
teenth century. One problem with Capitalism was (and is) that
although there were capitalists, it was never an Ism. (The trouble
with Communism, too, is that although there were and still are
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

people and governments that call themselves Communist, in

ternational Communism, since even before 1989, has been a
Wasm.) Capitalists were often sure of themselves, but did not
think much about whether they incarnated an ideology or not.
What was true in the nineteenth century, as well as before and
after, is how much money and finance mattered. Property, es
pecially when valued in monetary terms, gave people security
even more than before; and money paid interest and gave secu-
rity. Even more remarkable—historically, that is—is the extent to

which solid money, all kinds of money, remained secure until

1914. The value of national monies, or call them currencies, re-
mained largely the same for decades, even after revolutions and
wars. But meanwhile, the democratization of much of the West-
ern world continued, bringing about, among other things, an in-
creasing consciousness especially of the working classes. A result
of this was the growing dissatisfaction with great social and eco-
nomic inequities and the belief that it was the duty of a govern-
ment and a nation to provide laws and regulations to improve, at
least somewhat, the economic and living conditions of its poorer
classes—for the sake of national unity, but also for the sake of
avoiding bitter class wars: social revolutions. The radical propo-
nents of the elimination of gross social injustices were the So
cialist parties, appearing well before 1900 and gaining popular
support, often through elections. A more radical and dogmatic
version of the Socialists became the Communists, who believed
—wrongly—that classes were more important than nations, that
what mattered were states, not nations, and that the aim of hu-
manity ought to be Communist states governing all of the means
of production. That was one, but only one, of the myopic follies
of Marx, confusing nations and states—indeed, paying hardly
any attention to the former.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

What happened in 1914 and after should have demonstrated

the shallowness and the folly of such beliefs and dogmas. Com-
munists and Socialists, and many Liberals and most Progres
sives who believed that classes were more important than gov-
ernments—that the international sympathies of working classes
across states and nations would be decisive, even to the extent
of making wars impossible—were entirely wrong. A British or
French worker felt nothing in common with his German or Aus-
trian counterpart; indeed, the patriotic convictions and enthusi-

asms of the working classes were, perhaps, even stronger than

ever. (The fact that after the war Socialist and Communist par-
ties and intellectuals survived this obvious bankruptcy of their
predictions is another story, perhaps indicative of how slowly
ideas change, even in the twentieth century.) Still, by 1930 Social
Democratic parties and their ideas were retreating almost all
over Europe. But so, too, was international Capitalism—except,
as said above, it was not an Ism. Indeed, the meaning and the use
of the term “Capitalism,” perhaps especially in the United States,
had been inflated beyond reason; to millions, it meant the sa-
credness and the preservation of personal property, endangered
by their vicious and godless opponents, the Communists.
Yet by 1930 an economic and financial crisis had developed
swiftly throughout most of the Western world. It was less de-
structive and decisive than it seemed for a long time—we may
assert this in retrospect; but even though rich men and “cap
italists” remained, as they always will remain, we may assert that
nineteenth-century “classic” Capitalism had come to an end. For
its principal pillar was solidity, enduring solidity. That solidity
required the solidity of money. It is amazing how little the value
of national currencies changed before 1914. The same was largely
true of the prices of precious metals, foremost of gold. Banknotes
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

and paper money almost entirely replaced the circulation of gold

before 1914, but their repute was due to the overall trust in the
gold standard, since anyone calling at a bank could require that a
sum be paid to him in gold, silver, or paper. (Yet even before 1914,
few people made this kind of choice—though the monetary gold
standard had become more and more abstract.)
In 1931, Great Britain suddenly announced the abandonment
of the gold standard for the purpose of supporting the pound.
The United States, under Roosevelt, did the same in early 1933.

There is a serious minority of thoughtful economists who state,

even now, that this meant the end of Capitalism, with infinitely
dangerous consequences, including persistent inflation. Perhaps
true, but not true enough. The same applies to the entire long-
range view of the 1930s Depression. It brought deplorable condi-
tions and consequences. But these did not endure. Following the
New York stock market crash in October 1929, banks went bank-
rupt and had to close in the United States and, worse, in Europe.
There was, for the last time in the twentieth century, deflation,
meaning that prices were falling; but much more dangerous was
rising unemployment, especially in the United States and in Ger-
many, reaching a peak in 1932–1933. Then, under Roosevelt and
especially Hitler, but also in most other countries, this began
to recede—rapidly in Germany, more gradually in the United
States, where most of the phenomena of the Great Depression
came to an end by the conclusion of the Thirties. By that time, all
money was issued by governments; and people have accepted
this, as well as gradual inflation, ever since. And even the quick-
est and most superficial look at most of the world since the 1930s
ought to show us how, during the rest of the twentieth century,
the possessions and the relative security and prosperity of large
numbers of people grew, often amazingly—if not “beyond the
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

dreams of avarice,” then surely beyond the speculations of all

economists and political scientists of the 1930s. It is true that
much of this has been made possible by the enormous availabil-
ity of credit to all kinds of people. (In the nineteenth century,
credit had been a prerogative of men who already possessed con-
siderable capital. What may happen to credit in the twenty-first
century, I cannot tell.)
Strangely, the obvious sufferings and pessimism fueled by the
Great Depression of the early 1930s did not lead to revolutions or

other politic al upheavals. Those who attributed Hitler’s coming

to power in 1933 to the Depression were wrong. Nor did Com-
munist and Socialist parties gain much of a following during the
Depression; the main example of this was the United States. The
parliamentary, legalistic, and still quite liberal political system of
the United States survived the Depression without much damage
or even much change. One indication of this is the American
people’s rejection of extreme political parties. Except for a few
conventicles of radicals and intellectuals, there was no sign that
Americans at large—even though so many of them had lost their
employment during the Depression—had much or any inclina-
tion to question the existence of their traditional (two-party) po
litical system. Had the Depression continued and gotten worse,
this would not have happened; but that was not to be. The elec-
tion of Franklin Roosevelt to the presidency in November 1932,
along with his inauguration the following March, was a turning
point. Instantly he instilled confidence in the American people.
His economic and social programs differed little from those of
Hoover, his predecessor and opponent. But that scarcely mat-
tered, or mattered not at all. His confidence, shining from his im-
pressive face, was radiant. First his financial, then his economic
and social reforms such as the New Deal, came, step by step; but
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

the overall impression, dear to the ears of the American people,

was the kind of confid ence of which Roosevelt had plenty. He
had his political rivals—interestingly, as in Europe, on the Right
and not on the Left—American demagogues and populists such
as Huey Long of Louisiana and Father Coughlin, the radio priest;
but by Roosevelt’s second and most impressive electoral triumph
in 1936, Long was gone and the radio priest was told to talk less
and less. In the eyes of the rest of the world, American democ-
racy was solid, like the American dollar.

Not all of this, but much of it, was the same in the remaining
parliamentary and social democracies of the world: Australia,
New Zealand, Canada, and Ireland, the stolid democracies of
Northwestern Europe, the Scandinavian kingdoms and states,
and Holland and Belgium. In almost all of them there arose “Fas-
cist” parties and movements in 1932, but these did not get very
far. Despite their shortcomings—and there were many—the
Swedish, Dutch, Danish, and other people were neither ready
nor inclined to upset or transform their accustomed institutions,
uninspiring or not very effective though they may have been. So
the Fascist parties lived on, some of them even under German
occupation, through the Second World War. This was, and re-
mains to their credit, even though their situation was not as
simple as that.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

“I WAS A NATIONALIST,
B U T I W A S N O T A P A T R I O T ”

National Socialism—Hitler

National Socialism, or call it nationalist socialism, has

been the great political phenomenon of the twentieth century—
and beyond. The end of the Second World War, the death and
disappearance of Adolf Hitler, diminished its appeal for a short
time, but did not extinguish it at all. Unlike Communism, na-
tionalist socialism is not a Wasm. In some countries, especially
in Europe, more or less openly nationalist socialist parties win
about 20 percent in national elections now, more than three-
quarters of a century after Hitler killed himself. Still, in this brief
history of the twentieth century, I must attempt to describe the
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

rise of National Socialism in its heyday, and its association with

the greatest (and most demonic) figure in the entire history of an
entire century.
But before that, most of my readers must face, or admit, a
strange and unusual problem—namely, the uneasiness, the con-
fusion, and the consequent shortcomings of the categorization
of nationalist socialism, even now. Most people (including com-
mentators) describe or refer to its parties and spokesmen as
members of the extreme Right. This will not do. Among other

things, it suggests that National Socialists and National Socialism

were and are reactionary—but this is not at all true. They had
(and have) nothing to do with the Old Right; they had nothing to
do with conservatism. As a matter of fact, their most determined
and principled opponents were often men of the Right rather
than of the Left.
Searching for a more precise category, many people, even now,
affix the adjective “Fascist” to National Socialism—another mis-
take. Mussolini’s main purpose was to strengthen the unity and
power of the Italian state. Hitler (on more than one occasion)
said that the state was a Zwangsform, a constrained framework:
what mattered was not the state but the Volk, the nation. Al-
though there were other differences between the two leaders,
they became allies, and Mussolini and Fascism adopted more of
the characteristics of National Socialism. (So would Stalin.)
“Definitions are tricks for pedants,” Samuel Johnson was sup-
posed to have said; but the histories of words and of their wide-
spread usages are not. Here we come to the fourth adjective cus-
tomarily affixed especially to German National Socialism: “Nazi”
—almost a pun, but more precise than the abovementioned
terms. The word enables us to point out the ways in which inter-
national socialists and even Social Democrats differed from the
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

German nationalist socialists and their party around 1920–1921.

The full term was “Nazi-Sozi”—that is, socialists of a national va
riety. We have seen that the “Sozi” half of this hyphenated term
disappeared, tellingly so. The designation “Nazi” meant much
more than “Sozi.” So “Nazi” remained.
From the very beginning of Socialist parties and movements,
they had members and supporters who were opponents of inter-
nationalism. (This is one problem with rigid categorization; con-
sider, for example, the British Labour Party, which shied away

from internationalism while often eschewing the adjective “So-

cialist.”) In the late 1870s in Germany, the largest Socialist party
in Europe adopted the name “Social Democrats,” meaning that
the party preferred to prosper through democratic and parlia-
mentary—not revolutionary—means. But this is not our con-
cern now. Almost from the very beginning of Socialism in Eu-
rope, there were people who were repelled by the materialism,
the class-conflict slogans, the anti-Christian rhetoric, and the
internationalist programs and components of the Socialist par-
ties and some of their leaders (“stateless bandits” some people
called Socialists). Soon, Christian Socialist parties appeared:
“Christian” nationalists and populists who insisted on their op-
position to “international” and godless Socialists and Social
Democrats. Especially in Austria and Germany, their influence
and the size of their voters increased. In some nations they were
anti-Semitic; in others, not.
Determinedly and categorically, the German National Social-
ist party was anti-Jewish. This appeared almost immediately af-
ter the First World War. It was a minor party during the Twen-
ties, especially during the relatively peaceful and democratic
interlude (1924–1930) between the two world wars. In 1928, it at-
tracted fewer than 3 percent of German voters. By September
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

1930, its membership had grown to almost 19 percent. In the two

elections in 1932, it was nearly twice that size. This had some
thing to do with the Depression, including the very high unem-
ployment rate in Germany; but that was (and remains) an insuf
ficient explanation for such a success. The German Nazi Party,
almost alone among all other parties, had no real economic pro-
gram. Its appeal to many Germans, including large segments of
the working classes, was something else. It was nationalist and
populist, anti-foreign and anti-Semitic. But its popularity was

not separate from the work of its extraordinary spokesman and

leader, Adolf Hitler.

There exist entire libraries dealing with Hitler (some of them, I

hope, include my singular book The Hitler of History). He alone
caused the Second World War—a war that, unlike much of the
First, spread worldwide; a war during which more people than
in the First, including many millions of civilians, died or were
murdered; a war that lasted longer than the First; and a war with
tremendous and enduring consequences. This section will be
limited to his career well before the war, when this lonely and
entirely unknown young man suddenly decided to enter politics,
at first with dubious results. But then, fourteen years later, he
rose to become the chancellor of Germany, supported by many
kinds of people—and by the majority of all Germans.
He was not a “German.” He was born in Austria (in a town
close to the German border), but then he, like a fair number of
Austrians, was uninspired, to say the least, with citizenship in
an ancient monarchy, a multinational empire. He phrased this
clearly and succinctly in one pithy sentence in his otherwise
long-winded book, Mein Kampf (My Struggle), written mostly
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

when he was in prison in 1924: “I was a nationalist, but I was not

a patriot.” Patriotism and nationalism: how often these words are
confused and their true meanings obscured in our own times.
Yet—especially in Austria—their distinctions were more evident,
at least in the first portion of the twentieth century. A nationalist
was an Austrian whose main affection was to Germandom and
to Germany. Nationalism could be (and usually was) aggressive
and—at least potentially—revolutionary; patriotism was defen-
sive, old-fashioned, and traditionalist. No use parsing these ad-

jectives further. But this is what they meant (and still mean), in
more than one way.
Hitler did not speak much during the first thirty years of his
life. He read enough; and from the fragmentary evidence we
have, he shared the views of, or was influenced by, the pro-
German nationalists—but they had no great effect on his life
then. He moved from Austria to Munich in 1913, and in spite of
his Austrian citizenship, he volunteered for the German army
and served in a Bavarian regiment in August 1914. His military
record was more than respectable—that of a brave and even self-
effacing soldier. In the very last months of the war, he suffered a
crisis. He was injured by a cloud of poison gas and sent to a hos-
pital. There, he learned the news of Germany’s surrender. He was
stunned, and struck in his innermost heart. As he wrote in Mein
Kampf, at that moment “I decided to be a politician”—strange
choice for a man almost thirty years old, and until then tight-
lipped, largely silent about his thoughts. For once, it seems, he
said nothing but the truth.
That, too, changed before long, and how . . . It took about an-
other half-year before Hitler realized his gift for speaking, and
then for public speaking. Shortly before Winston Churchill died,
John F. Kennedy said that Churchill had “mobilized the English
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

language.” It may not be an exaggeration to say that Adolf Hit-

ler “mobilized” popular, common German language. Of course,
Churchill in 1940 called forth something old—English pride—
whereas Hitler appealed to something relatively new: a German
feeling for vengeance. As early as 1921, Hitler said: “Hate! We
are blessed with hate!” He kept saying that. Within three years,
this unknown, forlorn, undistinguished, ex-soldier became the
leader of the NSDAP (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiter-
partei), the German National Socialist Workers’ Party. This lead-

ership and his public-speaking ability went hand in hand. In

November 1923, he and his party decided they were strong and
powerful enough to lead a nationalist revolution that, radiating
from Munich, would spread across most of Germany within a
week, perhaps even days. At the head of the party militia, Hitler
marched toward the center of the city, often cheered on by jubi-
lant crowds. But the conservative authorities of Munich chose to
stop him. Police bullets struck a few of his followers. Hitler fell to
the ground with a badly wrenched arm. Eventually, he was im-
prisoned and brought to trial. There, he outshouted and outma-
neuvered some of his judges. He wrote or dictated Mein Kampf
mostly when in prison. In another year, he was free.
He also recognized—all of his “revolutionary” rhetoric not-
withstanding—that Germans did not like real revolutions; that
he and his National Socialist Party must eventually rise to power
through other means, probably even elections. In 1926, there
were no indications that this could succeed. The popularity of
the party did not increase until 1930. It is significant that through
those years, Hitler’s confidence remained largely unshaken. Even
in 1932–1933, when support for the National Socialists rose
sharply, some of his cleverest followers, such as Joseph Goebbels
and Hermann Goering, doubted whether Hitler could ever come
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

close to power. Hitler himself had no doubts at all. On Janu-

ary 30, 1933, his confid
ence was justified. Field Marshal Paul von
Hindenburg, once a war hero and now president of Germany, re-
ceived Hitler and handed him Germany’s chancellorship.
It is lamentable to record that much of this was due to Ger-
man conservatives and to their parties in 1933. In and after 1930,
the tone of Hitler’s demagogic rhetoric abated somewhat. This
was part and parcel of his realization that his appeal to the Ger-
man middle classes had risen and was rising. Before 1923, he and

the NSDAP tried their best (and worst) to recruit followers from
the working classes. In 1932–1933 their propaganda (or at least
some of it) began to influence the German middle classes. Con-
sequently, some of their parties, associations, and leaders began
to consider some kind of coalition with Hitler. The prime exam-
ple of this tendency was Franz von Papen, a clever but sinuous
and shallow potential statesman. In July 1932 he became, for a
few months, chancellor of Germany. Some of his decisions dur-
ing his chancellorship were meant to restrict and injure the Ger-
man Left but not the Right. This was in accord with his belief—
or rather, with his vision of history, which many other German
conservatives shared—that what was happening in Germany
now was the very reversal of the slogans (and ideals) of the
French Revolution of one hundred and fifty years earlier: that
1933 meant the end of the era of 1789. Papen and his kind also
thought they would be able to control, limit, and soon marginal-
ize Hitler, who, after all, was indebted to them for suggesting his
chancellorship to Hindenburg. The very opposite was soon to
happen. Hitler’s first cabinet NSDAP ministers were a minority,
but not for long.
In less than a few months, Hitler energetically and brutally as-
sumed near-total power in Germany—and through parliamen-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

tary elections, from which only one party, the Communist Party,
was excluded. Thus the so-called Third Reich was born. The sol-
itary soldier (corporal, to be more exact), who assumed the lead-
ership of what eventually became the largest politic al party in
Germany, now began to show his statesmanlike capacities. His
ability to rule may have sprung from his extraordinary (and at
times near-diabolic) insight into the weaknesses of people, in-
cluding people of utterly different classes and nations. He also
realized the overall priority of nationalism over socialism: among

other things, the titans of German industry and finance were

no more obstacles in his way than were the sometimes cowed
politicians of the Social Democratic Party in 1933. When some-
one asked him the following year whether and when he planned
to nationalize the great German industries, he responded:
“Why should I nationalize the industries? I am nationalizing the
people.”
We are not yet done with Hitler. Still to come was the Second
World War, in which he was the dominant factor, more than his
party and National Socialism. But I began this chapter with the
latter, arguing that we have not yet come to the end of it, evi-
dence of this being the still confused and confusing categoriza-
tion of National Socialism, often with wrong designations af-
fixed to it. At times, this was conscious, as in the case of Stalin.
Throughout the Great War and after, Stalin forbade the use of
the term “National Socialist”—always, he spoke of “Hitlerites” or
“Fascists.” A reason for this should not be hard to detect. It was
obvious to him that his rule and program and policy for his So-
viet Union was nationalist, more and more so; and that for all
kinds of reasons, such a term ought to be omitted. In addition, he
came to admire Hitler (this sympathy was more than reciprocal,
since Hitler also came to admire Stalin). This we know not from
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

official texts and public rhetoric, but from all kinds of evidence
in their own words. Like Mussolini, Stalin learned much from
Hitler—further evidence of the near-universality of nationalist
socialism.
More than two-thirds of a century after 1945, there are still na-
tional socialist parties (and believers) in many nations through-
out the world. The existence (mostly in Europe) of Social Demo-
cratic parties notwithstanding, the adjective “socialist” has lost
much of its meaning. The reason for this is that, in our demo-

cratic age, every government has a dopted the social practices of

the “welfare state,” including at least the protection of its rela-
tively poorest elements, together with numberless other prac-
tices beyond the daydreams of Socialists at the beginning of
the twentieth century. The now relatively small but not inconsid-
erable national socialist parties are xenophobic and even anti-
Semitic. Whether in the twenty-first century nationalism will
become ever stronger, I cannot tell.
Two oddities remain worth mentioning and considering. One
is that almost everywhere in the world (and not only in Ger-
many), the flags and colors and symbols of most things of the
National Socialist regimes and parties before 1945, such as swas-
tikas, are strictly forbidden—as if they were still toxic and dan-
gerous, three generations and two-thirds of a century after the
suicide of Hitler. Communist symbols and other Communist in-
signia are still allowed here and there. Is this perhaps another
indication that the latter is a Wasm, whereas National Socialism
is not? Another curious (or perhaps not very curious) oddity is
that while the latter is openly or indirectly praised for some of
the achievements of the National Socialist era, even the most
vocal or extreme National Socialist parties and their leaders and
spokesmen never, never mention Hitler. Have they rejected or
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

are they rejecting him? There are reasons to doubt that. Or is he

still too dangerous, too hot to handle?

THE WAVE OF THE FUTURE

The Hitler decade—His domination of Europe—The com-

ing of the Second World War

Even before the Second World War began, Hitler came to

rule much of Europe. He had thought that he could achieve even
more—that he could dominate most of Europe without a war.
The war then showed that his abilities as a determined and of-
ten brutal statesman were matched—well, often—by his capaci-
ties as a military leader. Blind he was not. All of his pronounce-
ments and extreme decisions notwithstanding, he did not want a
big war. This we know from his disappointment when the news
came on September 3, 1939, that, after all, Britain and France had
chosen to declare war against Germany. He knew that the Brit-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

ish and the French had done this reluctantly. He knew that all
through the 1930s his potential opponents, including even the
Great Powers, had not confronted him—for all kinds of reasons,
primarily because they wanted to avoid a second world war.
We must consider, too, another of his limits. Many of his op-
ponents thought and said that he wanted to rule the world. No:
he wanted to rule most of Europe (and realize all the advantages
that would accrue to his Germany as a matter of course). To rule
Europe was enough, perhaps even more than enough. But there

was yet another constraint that made him push forward—if need
be, at the cost of a great war: he believed that time was against
him. This was not so. In 1939, even his often impetuous friend
Mussolini wrote to tell him this was not so, that he need not
hurry. This was perhaps Adolf Hitler’s greatest mistake. The re-
sult was a second world war—but at what cost!
The 1930s were his decade; but 1934 was not his best year. How
he consolidated his power—and prestige and reputation—within
a twelvemonth in Germany was (and remains) amazing. But he
convinced himself that he had to get rid of most of his poten-
tial opponents. On June 30, 1934, his secret-police minions mur-
dered hundreds of men, some of them from within his own
party, the others not (including General Kurt von Schleicher,
Hitler’s predecessor as chancellor, killed together with his wife).
It did not matter. What mattered, lamentably so, is that the most
conservative and respectable elements in Germany—the army
and the churches, including even a few leaders of the Catholic
Church, after June 30 went on to respect and admire Hitler.
He had a small setback in 1934 in his foreign policy. This in-
volved Austria, where the National Socialist party and its adher-
ents were growing ever stronger. In July of that year, some of
them rose in rebellion against the Catholic-conservative regime
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

of the Austrian chancellor, Engelbert Dollfuss. Dollfuss was not

a Leftist, not a Liberal, not a Democrat; in February 1934, he
had crushed the Austrian Social Democrats, a not inconsider-
able party, with cannons and guns. A Nazi he was not. On July 25,
some of the Austrian Nazis rose up, broke into the Chancellery,
and killed Dollfuss. Yet the Austrian police and army came up
and the Nazi conspirators were defeated. Even now it is unclear
whether they had been not merely inspired but supported or
urged on by Hitler; it seems they were not. In any event, it was a

setback for him. Even Mussolini made noises and moved some
of the Italian army close to the Austrian border.
Hitler’s setback was temporary. He was beginning to disman-
tle the Versailles Treaty. Germany was to be rearmed, with shin-
ing new means and results. In 1935 the British government chose
to sign a naval rearmament treaty with Germany, not at all unfa-
vorable to the latter—but then Hitler’s navy was the least impor
tant of his armed forces. In Nuremberg he dictated new laws
excluding Jews (on a racial basis) from anything like German
citizenship. He wanted to expel them from Germany. Now he
prepared for his most daring move, which was the cancellation
of the “nonmilitarized” status of the western Rhineland. That
was a strategic change of great importance. Well after the Ver-
sailles Treaty, a democratic and pro-Western government of Ger-
many agreed with the Western Powers, first of all with France,
that there would be no German military installations on the west
bank of the Rhine, across the French frontier. (The French had
added—or thought they had added—to their security by build-
ing the so-called Maginot Line, an array of impressive fortresses
containing heavy artillery along their frontier with Germany.)
On March 6, 1936, Hitler decreed and ordered the remilitariza-
tion of the western Rhineland. Thereby, he instantly abolished
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

that most important element for the security of France (and Bel-
gium) in the event of a war with Germany.
This was his biggest gamble up to that point—and he suc-
ceeded. The reactions of the French government, the one most
directly affected, were feeble. They depended on the British, and
the British chose not to do anything. I shall have to return to
Britain in the Thirties; but before that, we must realize that the
tendency to come to terms with Hitler’s Germany now began
to influence entire governments—and peoples—throughout Eu-

rope, indeed throughout the world. What Hitler and the Third
Reich represented seemed to be something like the wave of the
future. The Olympics, staged in Berlin in 1936, were a shining
example of it. But all of this went beyond semblances, images,
reputations. Mussolini decided to join Hitler. Hence the so-
called Rome-Berlin Axis was born. In Mussolini’s case, this was
more than a politic or strategic calculation. He was convinced
that the bourgeois democracies, the remnant powers of Western
Europe, including even Britain, were at, or at least close to, the
end of their tether.
He was not the only one. This was not a rapid change of mind;
it accorded with Mussolini’s character. He wanted, among other
things, to make his Italy an empire, at least like other empires, to
make it a military and naval power of top rank. In 1935, he de-
cided to invade and conquer Abyssinia (also as revenge for that
savage country’s defeat of Italy in 1896). His army accomplished
this in less than a year. Now Italy had something like an empire
in Africa. The Western Powers did little more than approve en-
tirely useless economic sanctions against Italy. Italy renounced
its membership in the League of Nations; so, too, had Germany
and Japan. Then the Spanish Civil War started, in July 1936.
“Spain’s clocks run differently from Europe’s other clocks”: this
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

adage was often repeated, not without reason. In 1931, the Span-
ish elections put an end to the more than one-thousand-year-old
Spanish monarchy and installed a parliamentary republic, lean-
ing more and more to the Left. Mussolini said this was a retro-
grade move to a decrepit situation that had existed more than a
century before. He was not altogether wrong. In the early Thir-
ties, there were suffic ient episodes of anarchy and chaos in Spain
to spawn a reaction. A large part of the Spanish army revolted in
July 1936, but it could not topple the republic in more than half of
Spain. So—in contrast to other events in Spanish history—this

was not a coup d’état, but a civil war. It lasted until March 1939,
ending with the victory of the right-wing forces (which included
many Fascists and sympathizers) and a new state, under the dic-
tatorship of General Francisco Franco. His forces had the sup-
port of arms and even troops from Mussolini’s Italy and aviators
from Hitler’s Germany—another considerable change on the po
litical map of Europe before the Second World War.
But by the spring of 1939, there were many others, even more
important ones. Early in 1938, Hitler decided to—finally—annex
Austria to his Germany. (Before that, he achieved his domina-
tion over the leadership of the German army, dismissing conser-
vative generals in favor of unhesitatingly loyal ones.) On Febru-
ary 12, 1938, the Austrian chancellor, Kurt Schuschnigg (Dollfuss’s
successor), traveled to Berchtesgaden to meet with Hitler, where
the latter bullied and threatened him, forcing him to include a
leading Austrian National Socialist in the Vienna government.
After that, the desperate Austrian chose to set up a plebiscite, the
careful terms of which would somehow affirm the independence
of Austria. Two days before the plebiscite, Hitler ordered Ger-
man regiments to march into Austria. Schuschnigg was arrested.
Two days later, Hitler himself drove into his native country, stop-
ping at his birthplace and then in Linz, a town very dear to him.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

He was overwhelmed by the jubilation of enormous crowds.

Then and there, he decided to go further than the establishment
of a National Socialist Austria, dependent on Germany. He pro-
claimed its annexation, the u nion of Germany and Austria. Then
he went on to Vienna, where he faced—if that is the proper word
—an even larger ocean of enthusiasts (including the Catholic
cardinal of Austria, who stretched out his arm in a Nazi salute,
for which he was later chastised by the Vatican, but that did not
much matter). The British and French governments did nothing.
Immediately after Austria, Hitler turned on Czechoslovakia.

That was different. The Czechs had a military and political alli-
ance with France, and even one with Soviet Russia. There were
almost three million Germans, the so-called Sudetens, living
within the natural borders of the Czech state. Hitler’s argument
rested on the principle of national self-determination (another of
Woodrow Wilson’s disastrous doctrines). German people within
Central Europe belonged to Germany. Not all of the Sudetens
were National Socialists, but most of them now were. Unless they
were to join Germany, Hitler threatened war. The British govern-
ment attempted to mediate, but with no result. The French now
considered war, and—again reluctantly—so did their British al-
lies. (The Soviet U nion did nothing.) At the very last moment,
British premier Neville Chamberlain got a message from Hitler
inviting him and the French prime minister, Edouard Daladier,
to fly to Munich for a conference. Chamberlain—and many,
many other people—were instantly relieved. There would be no
European war. Chamberlain and Daladier (and Mussolini, who
also was invited), agreed to everything Hitler wanted. That big
mountain semicircle of Czechoslovakia and its three million
inhabitants were given to Hitler. At the end of the conference,
Chamberlain and Hitler even signed a declaration in favor of
German-British friendship. On his return to London, Chamber-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

lain waved that paper and said: “Peace with honour. I believe it is
peace in our time.”
Czecho-Slovakia (the very spelling of the name changed) was
now in the German sphere, a near-satellite of Hitler. Yet Hitler
did not believe in a lasting peace. He was worried about British
political leaders and British public opinion critical of him. He
was also beginning to turn against Poland, the reduction of
whose independence was his next object, together with a cession
of western Polish regions and Danzig, still inhabited by a fair

number of Germans. He had already started preparations against

Poland when another chance arose for him, which he took—for
once, mistakenly so. The Slovak nationalists—in cahoots with
Hitler—wanted to break up the remnant Czecho-Slovak state.
Hitler agreed; and then he decided to occupy and put an end to
the rest of Czechia (mostly Bohemia and Moravia). He and his
troops marched into Prague on March 15, 1939. One week later,
he forced Lithuania to surrender the region of Memel, another
slice of Eastern Europe, formerly part of a German empire, with
some German population.
These events brought about a revolution in British foreign
policy—indeed, in Britain’s destiny thereafter. Until then (and
here and there, even thereafter), Chamberlain and his minions
had not abandoned the hope that they could reach some kind of
agreement with Hitler. There were two main reasons for this.
One of them was obvious: it was the dread of another world war,
only twenty-one years after the end of the First, the world war in
which more than one million British and Empire soldiers had
died. The other was more complex and less reasonable. It had
much to do with the tiredness and shortsightedness of many of
the British people in the Thirties; but even more important was
Chamberlain’s preference (and he was not alone in this) for Hit-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

ler and Germany over Communism (though let me add: with-

out much sympathy for National Socialism as such). All of this
changed within a week. Hitler had now broken his promise in
Munich. There, he had declared that this was his last territorial
demand in Europe. Even more telling was that he had gone be-
yond his trumpeted wish—his claim that all he wanted was to
bring German people into his Reich. But the Czechs were not
Germans. Even Chamberlain’s government recognized that Hit-
ler was not inclined to stop. Consequently, London decided that

a way to deter Hitler was to give a guarantee, meaning an alli-

ance, to Poland: Hitler would know that military action against
Poland, unlike the events of Austria and Czechoslovakia, would
mean war with Britain and France. In all of Britain’s history, this
was its first committing alliance with an Eastern European state.
The British and the French now thought the time had come
to reach some kind of an alliance with the Soviet Union. After
all, Hitler’s entire public ideology had proclaimed, almost cease-
lessly, his hatred of Communism. Before 1939, the Western Allies
were reluctant to seek any concerted policy with Soviet Russia
(the latter had been excluded from Munich, despite its military
alliance with Czechoslovakia). But by 1939, it was Stalin who
was unwilling to commit himself to an alliance with Britain and
France. There were small signs of this early enough, the most
telling one being his ditching of his commissar for foreign af-
fairs, Litvinov (a Jew), in early May, and his replacement of him
with the frozen-faced Vyacheslav Molotov. During the summer
of 1939, British and French delegations traveled to Moscow; but
their negotiations with Stalin (and Molotov) led nowhere. On
the contrary: by late July, there were indications that Moscow
was not interested in seeking an alliance with Britain. This ac-
corded perfectly with Hitler’s view of the world. He and Stalin
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

exchanged letters. By August 20, the texts of a Soviet-German

Nonaggression Treaty were ready. The German foreign minister,
Joachim von Ribbentrop, flew to Moscow. The signing ceremony
was accompanied by unusual friendly gestures from the Soviet
side, including smiles and amiable words from Stalin.
Less than another month later, the Germans and Soviets
would divide Poland and also more of Eastern Europe among
themselves. For the first time in twenty years, Russia had re-
turned as a principal—perhaps the principal—factor in the

evolving history of Europe. Their pact in August 1939 was a

global politic al earthquake. It is to the credit of the British and
the French that they were not now inclined to change or reverse
their commitments to Poland. There were a few useless last at-
tempts to avoid a war; these did not impress Hitler. On the first
of September, declaring the pretext of Polish provocations, he
sent the German army, navy, and air force to attack Poland. On
the third of September—the delay suggested vacillation—Cham-
berlain’s government and then France declared war on Germany.

Thus the second European war, fast developing into a world war,
had begun. It had worldwide origins well before its beginning.
On the other side of the globe, Japan had begun to grow into a
vast empire; and that empire was preparing for a possible war
with the United States. In more than one way, some Japanese
leaders, especially those of the army, were now emulating the
new Germany. (In a way, so was Mussolini, who invaded and an-
nexed Albania to his new Italian empire in April 1939, partly to
show that he, too, could do something like Hitler.) By September
1939, the Japanese had occupied almost all of the Chinese ports
along the China Sea (and forced the British to give up one of
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

their enclaves). In 1936, some of the Japanese junior officers as-

sassinated government offic ials whom they saw as their enemies
(this was the Japanese version of Germany’s Night of the Long
Knives in 1934—or rather, the Nazi murder of Dollfuss in the
same year). The assassins were tried and executed, but the power
of the Japanese army leaders was hardly diminished. In early
1939, a portion of their army was moved to the largely uninhab-
ited westernmost portions of China, where they fought an un-
publicized battle with a Soviet army that succeeded in pushing

them back into China, a large frontier war involving many hun-
dreds of thousands of troops.
By that time, the division of China into three forces was taking
place. There were Chinese Nationalists under Chiang Kai-shek,
who made Chungking his capital city; there were the Chinese
Communists under Mao Tse-tung, milling about somewhere in
the northwestern portions of China; and in Nanking there was
now Wang Ching-wei, who was something of a Japanese puppet,
yet who believed that China’s present and future depended on its
close association with Japan. The Japanese navy was more con-
servative than the Japanese army; indeed, their leaders and stra-
tegic visions could on occasion conflict with each other. Ever
since the Twenties, both the Japanese and the American navies
were considering the prospect of an eventual Japanese-American
naval war in the Pacific. Japan had embarked on a very large na-
val building program. So had the Americans; but when the Sec-
ond World War broke out, the Japanese naval force in the Pacific
was slightly larger than the American one. Admiral Isoroku Ya-
mamoto became chief of the combined Japanese fleet on Sep-
tember 1, 1939 (another of those coincidences that statisticians
hate but some historians love). Yamamoto saw the army leaders,
with their vision of the world, as both stupid and repellent. He
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

was not in favor of the pending Japanese alliance with Germany

and Italy. That would come soon—but not quite yet.

And now, having reached the outbreak of the Second World War,
I am compelled to state a qualification to the main thesis with
which I began this chapter. Yes, the 1930s were Adolf Hitler’s de
cade. But then, they were also Franklin Roosevelt’s. Roosevelt
was inaugurated president in early March 1933, almost on the

same day that Hitler got his all-empowering vote in the Reich-
stag. Twelve years later, they died, eighteen days apart, just before
the end of the Second World War. They could not have been
more different—in their characters, their temperaments, their
personalities, their views of their tasks and of the world at large.
Yes, Hitler put an end to the Depression in Germany very soon;
some of America’s Depression lasted, by and large, until 1939—
but Roosevelt’s achievement proved to be more enduring. Dur-
ing that same decade, he won the support of sizable American
majorities. He was building up a large American navy. In the
eyes of almost all of the world, the reputation and prestige of the
United States in 1939 were not only uncompromised, but perhaps
higher than ever. At the same time, Roosevelt abhorred Hitler.
He was reluctant—or perhaps not ready—to commit himself and
the United States to entering another European war; but by 1939,
it was more than evident that he was willing to be a main adver-
sary of Hitler in more than one way. The Thirties were his de
cade; and much of the future would be his, as well.
But before we get there, we must move on to the first two years
of the Second World War—and consider that had it been not
Roosevelt but someone like Herbert Hoover who had been presi-
dent of the United States in 1940, Hitler would have won the war.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

“I HOPE IT IS NOT TOO LATE”

The Second World War—The European phase, 1939 to 1941

—Germany triumphant—Five leaders

The reluctance of Britain and France to go to war was

followed by a largely reluctant war (“the phony war,” in Ameri-
can parlance: a few small skirmishes along the French-German
frontier). Not reluctant was Hitler’s Germany—except that his
air force did not bomb France or Britain until May 1940. There
were no such restraints in the German war against Poland—bru-
tal, destructive, swift as that was. Before the end of September
1939, Warsaw fell and the brave and resolute Polish army had
ceased to exist (except for portions of it that struggled to reach
France and especially Britain, where their military contribution
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

to the Allies turned out to be highly remarkable throughout the

entire war). Even before the end of the Polish war, a fatal stab in
Poland’s back was administered not by Hitler, but by Stalin. On
September 17, his Soviet U nion invaded eastern Poland. That was
part and parcel of the Russian-German division of much of East-
ern Europe, signed in Moscow ten days later. The eastern half of
prewar Poland—plus the Baltic republics of Lithuania, Latvia,
and Estonia, along with Finland and a section of northern Ro-

mania—Hitler allotted to the Russian sphere of interest (what-

ever that could mean).
One result of this was more proof of the unpredictability of
history. Less than three months after the British and French de-
clared war against Germany, the only fighting in Europe was be-
tween Russia and Finland. The Russian-German treaty was not
precise about what “sphere of interest” meant. Not precise, but
rather obvious. Finland was an exception. Its government re-
fused to accept Russia’s demands, knowing what they meant. So,
by the end of November 1939, the Soviet U nion bombed and in-
vaded Finland. The Finns fought back, and very well indeed.
Soon, the world saw a war between David and Goliath. In more
than one frozen meadow or snow-laden forest of battle, a Rus-
sian army had to retreat. Soon, international repercussions arose.
Both the British and the French believed that here was a chance
for them to break out of the reluctant war and open up a front
in the north of Europe, establishing their presence in northern
Scandinavia, helping the Finns, scoring some kind of triumph
against Hitler’s new allies the Russians. Britain and France had
already made some preparations when Hitler struck against
them. He mediated a quick peace between Finland and Russia
whereby Finland lost some territory but kept most of its integ-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

rity, without becoming part of Stalin’s empire.

It was a political-diplomatic victory for Hitler, who now de-
cided that he ought to go further and chase the British, on land
and at sea, out of Scandinavia for good. There would be no
northern front against Germany. He largely succeeded. The fact
that the British fleet was stronger than the German made little
difference. On April 9, 1940, the German army invaded and oc-
cupied Denmark within a few hours. Norway was more diffic ult,

since the Norwegian army and its king fought on. But save for
the far-northern bay and port of Narvik, German sailors and sol-
diers occupied just about all of the Norwegian ports before the
British. Despite the ruggedness of that northern terrain, the Ger-
mans controlled all of Norway in hardly more than a month. The
king had to flee to Britain. Sweden remained alone (though its
government thought it best to make a few concessions to Hitler).
As a result, the premiership of Neville Chamberlain came to
an end. After a hard debate in the House of Commons (where
even a large number of his Conservatives abandoned him), he
still tried to stay in power, but on May 10, 1940, he had to resign.
It was—or at least seemed—obvious that all through the pre
vious weeks and months and years, his determined adversary
Churchill had been right. Now King George VI had to invite
Churchill to Buckingham Palace, to entrust him with forming a
new government. Late in the afternoon on May 10, Churchill left
the palace. In the car, he was alone with Inspector W. H. Thomp-
son, his customary bodyguard, who congratulated Churchill: “I
only wish the position had come your way in better times, for
you have an enormous task.” Churchill, unlike Hitler, was a man
of unrepressed feelings. Tears, on some occasions, would come
into his eyes. This was one of them. He said to Thompson, “God
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

alone knows how great it is. I hope it is not too late. I am very
much afraid it is. We can only do our best.”
It looked as if it were too late. The speed and talents of the
German army were nightmarish. In four days they conquered
Holland. In eight days they were in Brussels, and the king of Bel-
gium was contemplating his surrender. In less than four days
they had swept away the Ninth French Army, and by May 16
there was alarmingly little between them and Paris. But the strat-
egy employed by the German army (and Hitler) was different

from that used in past German invasions of France. The German

forces headed not for Paris (yet), but for the Channel coast. They
reached it four days later. There were now almost 300,000 Brit-
ish troops in France, cut off from the rest of France by the Ger-
man army (and from England by the Channel). By the twenty-
fourth of May, the Germans had taken every one of the ports of
northwestern France except for the northernmost one, Dunkirk.
Hitler ordered them to halt there for two days, a decision to
which I will return.
Now came a most serious crisis in the most secret conclave of
the government of Britain, the nearly full records of which were
not available until 1971, when the government opened them.
Churchill himself chose not to refer to it when wrote his History
of the Second World War. It involved the so-called War Cabinet of
five men: Churchill, Chamberlain (still head of the Conservative
Party), Viscount Halifax (still foreign secretary), and Clement
Attlee and Arthur Greenwood, two representatives of the minor-
ity of the Labour Party who were now part of the national gov-
ernment. By late on May 16, a Sunday, they knew, more or less,
that France would be defeated, that Britain might have to face
the prospect of fighting a world war alone. Halifax now chose to
confront Churchill. He believed, not without reason, that it was
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

not in Hitler’s interest to destroy Britain and its empire entirely;

that (with some kind of mediation through Mussolini) British
leadership should at least ascertain what kind of terms Hitler
might offer. Halifax was appalled by what he saw as Churchill’s
shortsighted impetuosity. He was not a sympathizer of Hitler or
of National Socialism. He was a cool, pragmatic Englishman and
had behind him the mass of the Conservative Party, who still dis-
trusted Churchill.
For five most crucial days, Churchill said no. If the British

now approached Hitler, Churchill believed, they would be step-

ping on a slippery slope. “Slippery slope”: that was the sum total
of his argument. On the afternoon of May 28, a Thursday, he left
the War Cabinet and spoke to twenty-five men of his Outer Cab-
inet and a few other politicians. “Of course, whatever happens at
Dunkirk, we shall fight on.” He received an encouraging acco-
lade. Within the War Cabinet, it was also to his decisive advan-
tage that Chamberlain did not oppose him by siding with Hali-
fax. One or two days later, Churchill’s debate with Halifax was
over. Churchill had won.
By that time—the thirtieth of May—the news from Dunkirk
was better, too. With the indispensable help of a motley array of
British ships, nearly all of the encircled British army, and almost
100,000 French soldiers as well, were evacuated safely to Eng
land: a brave endeavor, that was (though with relatively little in-
terference from the Germans, except for their severe bombing of
the beaches and quays). We do not know—and probably will
never know—why Hitler refrained from annihilating or captur-
ing the British army at Dunkirk. There are two possible explana-
tions—especially for his May 24 “halt order” (which was sent to
the army chiefs “in clear”—that is, uncoded—and was conse-
quently heard by the British, though we cannot be sure this was
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Hitler’s intention). There is some evidence that Hitler thought

his army, especially his armored divisions, needed some rest af-
ter fourteen days of advances, and he was not inclined to risk
outrunning his luck. There is even more evidence, from some of
his private comments, that he did not wish to destroy all of the
British; that he thought the latter were or would soon be inclined
to consider a peace proposal; and that the very existence of a na-
tion depended on not losing its army. (He repeated this for the

last time in 1945, when he spoke of his having allowed the British
a “golden bridge” in 1940, which was of course an exaggeration.)
What Hitler did not yet know was the kind of man he was up
against. Churchill’s speeches, his patriotic and historical rheto-
ric in June 1940, had a perhaps astonishing—in any event pro-
found—effect on his nation. A month later, most of the Conser-
vatives’ distrust of Churchill had begun to melt away. There was
yet another arrow in Churchill’s quiver, or call it a potential ace
to play. As early as May 15, he had written a most serious letter
to Roosevelt—suggesting, among other things, that without the
support of the United States, Britain might not be able to hold
out alone. He knew that the American president would respond
to this, though he did not yet know how; but he also knew that in
Roosevelt’s view, Hitler and his power were a deadly danger to
Western civilization. It took some time for Hitler to recognize
what the United States would do. Meanwhile, he was the ruler of
most of Europe—of an even larger area than Napoleon had con-
quered.
On June 14, the German army was in Paris. Two days later,
Churchill offered a complete British-French U nion, including
joint citizenship. There was no French response. Indeed, the
wartime French government had fallen. A new French regime,
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

under the aged Marshal Philippe Pétain, assumed power. Pétain

not only disliked the British; he believed that combat against
Germany must end and that a new France must accommodate
itself to Hitler’s Germany, in more than one way. A few days
later, he signed an armistice with Germany. Hitler’s terms were
harsh but not impossible. He did not occupy all of France; he left
a more or less sovereign state, an unoccupied zone under Pétain,
amounting to about 40 percent of prewar France (of course,

none of its coast opposite England); he did not demand that

France hand over its colonies, or its impressive navy, though its
ships were forced to stay under German supervision. Many of
the superb French battleships went to be anchored in the French
North African port of Mers-el-Kébir, or Oran, where on July 2
the British gave them an ultimatum: sail to a British port or to
American ports in the Caribbean, or they would be attacked.
The French admiral rejected this. Immediately, the British navy
attacked and sank some of them. Churchill, forever Francophile,
ordered this with a heavy heart. Still, it did him nothing but
good. Roosevelt and the Americans were much impressed. So
was the British Conservative party. Now Hitler ordered the first
preparations for an eventual invasion of England.
On June 10, Mussolini’s Italy declared war on France and Brit-
ain. A few days later, Stalin decided to incorporate the unfortu-
nate Baltic states into the Soviet Union, plus the slice of Romania
that had been allotted to him. The Japanese army, too, chose to
take advantage of the collapse of the French and Dutch Southeast
Asian empires: it moved into northeast French Indochina and
began preparing for the control of Dutch Indonesia. This was
not all. Throughout the states that his Germany occupied, Hitler
found enough people to do his bidding. (The only exception was
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Poland.) He formally recognized pro-German regimes in each of

them. Some of them now had the support of much of their popu-
lations, at least in 1940.
Two exceptions were the remaining great powers, America
and Russia. From Washington, Franklin Roosevelt was about to
organize U.S. support on behalf of Britain, materially and mili-
tarily. He knew he had to move against considerable congres
sional opposition, especially in 1940, when he was preparing to
be elected president for the third time, contrary to the Ameri-

can political tradition. He planned for a national cabinet, and he

invited two prominent Republicans, Henry Stimson and Frank
Knox, to become his secretaries of defense and of the navy. In
early August, he decided that it was within his power to transfer
fifty old American destroyers to Britain. They arrived there three
months later, and had no effect on naval warfare in the Atlantic.
Never mind: they represented a symbolic American move of im-
portance. By that time, the correspondence between Churchill
and Roosevelt had become voluminous and substantial.
But Hitler was still undecided about his next step—somewhat.
Crossing the Channel was not like the crossing of a river, he said.
As in the case of Dunkirk, he used air power (which Goering had
advised); the sustained bombing of Britain and its cities began in
early September. The British people and their government were
resolute. Two weeks later, Hitler canceled Operation Sea Lion,
the invasion of England. But there was another reason for this
change of plans, beyond his growing recognition that you cannot
subdue a nation by air power alone: turning his attention east-
ward, he had ordered initial plans for an eventual invasion of the
Soviet U nion.
There was method in this kind of madness—if madness it was.
Against America, Hitler could do nothing. But if Russia were
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

eliminated, what could Churchill (and Roosevelt) do? Here

we must correct a still-popular belief that Hitler was obsessed
with Communism. From the outset, he was a committed anti-
Communist. Crushing Russia meant the crushing of Commu-
nism, and that was potentially agreeable to many anti-
Communists throughout the world. This was one element in his
calculation, but there was a more important one. It was Britain.
As long as Russia existed, Britain had hope. Stalin knew some
thing of that too. Once, after the collapse of France, Churchill

had written Stalin a letter, which Stalin had refused to answer or

even acknowledge. By then, he was very impressed with Hitler.
He wanted to avoid giving Hitler the slightest reason to distrust
him; he wished to impress his fellow dictator with his enduring
friendship.

But there was still a full year from the capitulation of France to
Hitler’s invasion of the Soviet U nion (June 22, 1940, to June 22,
1941). It was a mixed bag—but, on balance, not a bad year for
Hitler. In April 1941, he conquered Yugoslavia and Greece. The
latter had been brutally and inexcusably attacked by Mussolini in
October 1940. The small Greek army defeated the Italians; one
result of this was an expectable alliance of Greece with Britain.
Yugoslavia, inspiringly, refused to accept German pressure to join
the German alliance system. Two weeks later, Hitler attacked Yu-
goslavia and broke it up. Another month later, he defeated and
expelled the British from Greece and later from Crete, despite
the presence of British naval forces around that large island. He
now planned to intrude into the Near East, but without much en-
thusiasm; his great campaign against Russia was soon to begin.
Meanwhile, even before the end of 1940, the British defeated
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

the Italian armies near Egypt (and later in Abyssinia); they also
scored impressive victories against the Italian navy. But then, a
superb German general, Erwin Rommel, was sent to succor the
Axis Powers in north Africa—and so he did, sweeping the Brit-
ish back into Egypt in March and April. Churchill had decided to
withdraw a fair number of British troops from Libya in order
to sustain the Greeks; but that did not help. Whenever British
forces fought Italians, they won; whenever they faced Germans,
they almost never did. In early May, another serious bombing of

London began; but soon that diminished because so much of the

German air force was to be needed in Russia.
There was one great help for the British throughout these
dreary months. It was the increasing support they got from the
United States, which was also girding for war, even as Roosevelt
thought it best not to proclaim it just yet. A fair number of isola-
tionist laws, passed by Congress before 1939, were eliminated or
reduced. The United States moved ahead in the Atlantic, occupy-
ing Greenland and Iceland. Elsewhere in the great Atlantic
Ocean, American warships made their presence more and more
obvious. Hitler ordered the German navy to avoid any response
to American provocations, when and where possible. His closest
associate, Goebbels, even declared something like a German
Monroe Doctrine. It did not resound. On May 10, 1941, Hitler’s
deputy and very close friend, Rudolf Hess, took it upon himself
to fly to England without Hitler’s knowledge, in a desperate at-
tempt to make the war between Germany and England cease.
Churchill put him in the Tower of London, probably the last fa-
mous prisoner there in England’s long history. A fortnight later,
there was a moment of bright news for the British: their fleet
sank the greatest and strongest battleship in the Atlantic, Ger-
many’s Bismarck.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

But soon Churchill was no longer the protagonist in the Sec-

ond World War. Now there were Hitler and Stalin. The former
was determined to attack Russia, and soon. The latter was deter-
mined to dissuade him in every possible way. To list Stalin’s vari-
ous, almost endless attempts does not belong in this short his
tory of a century, even though they are revealing. Among other
things, they show how and why a crafty, cunning, brutal, capable,
realistic, and powerful man can—and will—deceive himself. Sta
lin did not, perhaps he could not, imagine that Hitler, who was

still in the middle of a great Atlantic war with Britain and almost
with the United States, would start a second war with Russia. The
steps he took to impress Hitler are astonishing in retrospect; in
more than one instance, they were less crafty than piteous. Stalin
ordered his army not to respond to any German provocation
or intrusion along Russia’s borders, nor to attack any German
aircraft making reconnaissance flights over the western Soviet
Union. His minion Molotov said to the German ambassador,
hours after the German invasion had begun: “Surely we did not
deserve this.” (The Soviet ambassador in Berlin: “Are you sure
this is not a mistake?”)
In April 1941, Stalin made one statesmanlike move from which
he would benefit. He offered Japan a nonaggression treaty, which
the Japanese government eagerly accepted. Thus, even in the
event of a war with Germany, Russia would not have to fight
a two-front war. That was a great advantage for Russia, though
not for the United States. The Japanese were preparing for an
eventual war with America and Britain, but not with the Soviet
Union. After the German invasion of the latter, there were some
Japanese leaders who proposed to discard their treaty with
Russia and attack it instantly in eastern Siberia; but that did not
happen.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

On June 22, the day of the German invasion, Stalin was pro-

foundly depressed. He could not face speaking to the Soviet peo-
ple. He told Molotov to do that. In a few days, it appeared that
the German armies were cutting through the western Soviet
Union with their accustomed ease. On the twenty-eighth, Stalin
collapsed. He mumbled a few words suggesting everything was
lost. He took refuge in his cottage outside Moscow. Two days
later, a Politburo delegation arrived to see him. He thought, at
first, that they had come to arrest him. Instead, they told him

that he had to lead the Soviet Union; there was no one else. They
were probably right. He then pulled himself together and drove
back to Moscow. On July 2, he addressed the peoples of the
Soviet U nion in patriotic tones (which had nothing to do with
Communism).
By that time, Italy, Romania, Hungary, Finland, and volunteer
forces from other European nations had declared war on the So-
viet Union. The German armies surged ahead in Belorussia, the
Ukraine, and Russia, at a pace even beyond their accustomed
impressive speed. By the end of summer, they had gathered al-
most two million Soviet prisoners (most of them were put into
prison camps in Germany, treated with definite neglect and cru-
elty, and given very little food, some of the Nazi leaders hoping
that this would at least decimate them). There were only a few
instances where the resistance of Russian garrisons was consid-
erable.
As early as September 3, Stalin sent a message to Churchill:
“The Soviet U nion is in mortal peril.” The British ought to in-
vade France or the Balkans, and send to Russia “a minimum
monthly aid of 400 airplanes and 500 tanks.” Ten days later, Sta
lin asked Churchill to send twenty-five or thirty British divisions
to Russia through Archangel or Persia. (Much of the latter, Brit-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

ish and Russian forces had occupied without trouble the month
before.) Churchill told him that this was impossible. The Ger-
mans had conquered Kiev; they surrounded Leningrad (St. Pe-
tersburg), where they thought it better to starve out the popu
lation and its garrison instead of fighting them from concrete
building to concrete building. By the middle of November, the
outer group of the German army was getting close to Moscow.
There, they halted for a while. The customary Russian winter,
full of mud and snow, contributed much to this; yet in 1941, the

weather was somewhat milder than usual. Then, the last push for
Moscow (Operation Typhoon) was halted by the Soviet army,
now fortified by divisions hauled from the Far East (and also by
the first trickle of American and British arms arriving in Russia).
Here and there, the Russians began to force the Germans back
somewhat; they recaptured the south Russian city of Rostov—a
German retreat that was something like a first in the military his
tory of the Second World War.
Hitler was aware of what this meant. Throughout the summer,
he kept telling his generals: “When Russia is defeated, this will
force England to make peace.” Or: “The ultimate objective of the
Reich is the defeat of Great Britain.” And: “The fall of Moscow
might even force England to make peace at once.” Significant,
too, is what he said on November 19 to General Franz Halder in
his headquarters: “The recognition, by both of the opposing co-
alitions, that they cannot annihilate each other will lead to a ne-
gotiated peace.” And four days later, Halder recorded another of
Hitler’s remarks in his war diary: “We must face the possibility
that neither of the principal opponents (Germany and Britain)
will succeed in annihilating or decisively defeating the other.”
Note that Hitler spoke thus when the German central front was
still inching forward to Moscow—more than two weeks before
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

the Russian counteroffensive at Moscow would begin.

And now Hitler’s entire strategy changed. He knew that he
could no longer win his war—his war of short wars. But he also
knew that he still had not lost it—that he could eventually force
one or another of his enemies to negotiate an armistice or peace
with him.
Before that, he made another decision that affected not the
Second World War, but his historical reputation more than sev-
enty years later and probably for a very long time. There was

a lways some difference between his Judeophobia and his early

recognition that anti-Semitism could be, and indeed was, a pow-
erful populist and popular asset. But that was not the issue now.
Until August or September 1941, his principal purpose regarding
the Jews was to eliminate their presence from Germanic Europe
through expulsion, forcing and allowing their emigration. Since
the beginning of the war in 1939, this had become less and less
possible, though some Jewish emigration from Europe, mostly to
the Americas, went on. But now he had in his possession large
portions of eastern Poland and the Soviet Union, where a great
many Jews still lived—more than two million of them. There was
no place to expel them. Worse: if Germany were to lose the war,
these masses of Jews would be the principal enemies of the Ger-
man people. So his and his regime’s policy changed from expul-
sion to extermination. Soon, the first gas chambers would be
built in Poland. Soon, that policy would be extended to almost
every European nation controlled by Germany. The end result,
by 1945, was the mass killing of at least five million Jews, as well
as political dissidents, ethnic Poles, prisoners of war, mentally
impaired individuals, and others.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Meanwhile, Japan and the United States were edging closer to

war. In 1940, a new Japanese government that was supported by
the army joined a Tripartite Pact—an alliance with Germany and
Italy. The commander-in-chief of the Japanese navy, Admiral Ya-
mamoto, who was opposed to the alliance, now had to prepare
for a war against the United States. Nor was the Japanese em-
peror, Hirohito, altogether in favor of such a war. More than a
year passed before the attack on Pearl Harbor. Well before that,
President Roosevelt and his military leaders made a decision that

may have been a most decisive one in the Second World War.
The original draftsman of that decision, an unsung hero, was an
otherwise quiet and self-effacing admiral, Harold Stark, chief of
naval operations at the time. As early as November 1940 he wrote
a crucial memorandum, according to which the American navy
was not yet strong enough to fight a war in both the Atlantic
and the Pacific; and stating that—most important—a war in the
Atlantic sustaining Britain and against Germany should be the
priority of the United States. This was not yet quite in accord
either with popular American sentiment or with the supreme
command of the navy; but President Roosevelt agreed instantly,
and so did the leaders of the navy and the army. At first called
Stark’s “Plan D,” by early January 1941 it became “Plan ABC” and,
later, “Rainbow 5.” It involved a drastic revision of the long-
standing American war plan (“Orange”) that had been in effect
for twenty years, contemplating war in the Pacific against Japan.
It meant a new two-war strategy, with a redistribution of much of
the navy and with Germany (and Europe) being the ultimate
concern. And so this became the main purpose and strategy of
the United States for the Second World War—indeed, its chosen
destiny for the rest of the twentieth century.
Enemies of Roosevelt would call these preliminaries to Pearl
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Harbor Roosevelt’s “Back Door to War.” That was a half-truth.

What is true is that throughout 1941, Roosevelt tried everything
—well, almost everything—to provoke a serious German attack
on American warships in the Atlantic, an attack that could serve
as a plausible reason (or pretext) for an American declaration of
war against Germany. This did not come about. Churchill sailed
across the Atlantic in August, his first personal meeting with
Roosevelt since 1918, when the latter had been assistant secretary
of the American navy (Churchill hardly remembered that en-

counter, though Roosevelt did). They agreed on many things, in-

cluding their joint aims, set out in the “Atlantic Charter.” Theirs
was now a virtual alliance. Still Roosevelt was not yet ready to
declare war. More important, for him, was increasing the Ameri-
can military pressure on Japan. During American and Japanese
negotiations (which included discussions with Japanese envoys
sent to Washington), it appeared, at the latest by November 26,
that the newest American demands were for Japan to abandon
most, perhaps all, of its recent imperial conquests of China. This
the Japanese could not accept. A big task force of the Japanese
navy weighed anchor and started eastward for its coming attack
on Pearl Harbor. For such a daring surprise attack, the entire
American navy in the Pacific and its command in Hawaii were
unprepared. As were, of course, the American people.
So the Second World War began, almost in toto, on Decem-
ber 7, 1941. It was the end of the still largely European war. It was
also a turning point of the entire war. The Russians were stop-
ping the Germans, beginning to push them back somewhat, at
the very same time that the United States declared war on Japan,
and Germany on the United States, a few days later. I am inclined
to draw on Churchill’s own account of his evening of Decem-
ber 7, a Sunday. He was tired and in a glum mood. He knew that
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

the Japanese were about to enter the war. But what if, among
other things, they attacked and invaded Britain’s possessions in
the Far East, instead of attacking the Americans? He spoke little;
his head was down. Then his butler came in with a piece of news:
the Japanese had attacked the United States. Churchill rose in-
stantly and ordered that a phone call be put through to Roose
velt, who confirmed the news.
“No American will think it wrong of me if I proclaim that to
have the United States at our side was to me the greatest joy. . . .

So we had won after all! After seventeen months of lonely fight

ing . . . we had won the war. England would live; Britain would
live; the Commonwealth of Nations and the Empire would live.
How long the war would last or in what fashion it would end, no
man could tell, nor did I, at this moment, care. . . . Hitler’s fate
was sealed. Mussolini’s fate was sealed. As for the Japanese, they
would be ground to powder.” So it would happen—though it
would still take a long time.

This short history of the twentieth century is not a philosophical

treatise. But at this point I am compelled to add two brief digres-
sions. The first is a summary of my view of history, which goes
contrary to the still very widely accepted categorical beliefs of
why and how history happened and happens, of course includ-
ing that of the Second World War. The current, often deemed
“scientific” belief is that history, perhaps especially in the demo-
cratic age, is the result of great material and economic factors, of
which the lives, acts, and thoughts of people are largely the con-
sequences. That is less than a half-truth. In 1933, Hitler came to
power in Germany not just because of the economic crisis of
1930–1933, but because of the political mood of many Germans
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

at that time. It was not the state of the British economy that made
the British government reluctant to resist Hitler in the Thirties.
It was not inferiority of materials or armaments that led to the
collapse of France in 1940. There was no economic reason for
the Japanese to plan and then make war on the United States.
Of course, it is true that the tremendous material power of the
United States (and the enormous size of the armies of the So-
viet Union) made the war winnable against Germany and Japan.
But there, too, what mattered was the resolution and the near-

unanimity of the American people, and the unwillingness of

the Russian people to oppose Stalin. What people thought (and
think), what they believe, what they choose to think, what they
prefer to believe—that is the main essence of their lives, of which
their material conditions and economic desires are most often
the outcomes, and not the other way around.
This brings me to the second, though not unrelated matter,
which is the historical importance of national leaders—espe-
cially during the Second World War. Entire libraries have been
written and published about most of them. Yet their importance
was such that I am compelled to record or describe, necessarily
briefly, some matters about them that are not usually thought of.
Yes, the main participants in the Second World War were states
(and nations): Germany, Britain, France, Italy, the Soviet U nion,
Japan, the United States, and so on. But a Germany without Hit-
ler? A Britain without Churchill? A United States without Roose
velt? Again, we must at least question the still widely prevalent
belief according to which men are, at best, instruments of his
tory; they do not make it. Adolf Hitler was a towering figure in
the entire history of the twentieth century. We assess men in his
tory by their consequences. No Hitler: no Second World War. No
Hitler—no Soviet occupation of the eastern half of Europe, in-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

cluding eastern Germany. No Hitler—no mass murder of five or

six million people. And almost three-quarters of a century after
his death, there is a significant minority of people, in many na-
tions, who are still partisans of National Socialism, including
anti-Semitism, and who avoid mentioning Hitler for politic rea-
sons, but not because they do not admire him. In plain English:
Have we yet to come to terms with Hitler?
We must at the same time consider that Hitler and his mind
were complex—not just marked by the fearful simplicity that was

also there. To detail the complexity remains the task of present

and future historians; it does not fit within the limitations of this
book. But because it includes the history of the Second World
War, I must list some of these complexities. Hitler did not really
want a Second World War, especially not with Britain. His fearful
simplicity and eventually his undoing was his inclination to hate,
and his discovery that propagating hate may be a useful popular
asset. There are many proofs of this in his early political speeches.
It may even involve a certain duality in his thoughts about Jews:
the crystallization of his own Judeophobia in 1919, together with
his even more important recognition that anti-Semitism could
be, and indeed was, a potentially popular asset. During the Sec-
ond World War, there was evidence of this. Yes, Hitler changed
the German policy from expelling Jews to exterminating them;
but he showed no interest when he was presented with records
about how this was proceeding. His last public speech, on
April 16, 1945, is telling. He emphasized and excoriated “Jewish
Bolshevism,” when he certainly knew that Stalin was neither pro-
Jewish nor a dogmatic Communist; indeed, he had come to ad-
mire Stalin. And we have also seen that, as early as November
1941, he knew he could no longer win the war on his terms; after
that, he hoped that he might split his opponents, one of whom
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

would then consider making some kind of deal with him. He was
a national and military leader who, alas, also had some abilities
as a statesman. He sometimes underestimated his opponents,
but he did not underestimate himself; and we must not underes-
timate him, scourge of history and humanity as he was.
Churchill. Surely we assess him by his consequences. He did
not win the Second World War in 1945. But he was the one who,
in 1940, did not lose it. Whence his historical grandeur. To this
we ought to add that his historical insight and foresight were

stunning. He foresaw, perhaps before anyone else, what Hitler

meant. Later, he understood Hitler better than Hitler understood
him. He understood Stalin and Russia better than Roosevelt did.
(Well after the war, he also understood that Stalin would not risk
a war with the United States.) Unlike Russia in 1941, England
in 1940 could have received an offer of peace from Hitler, who
wanted Britain to accept his domination of Europe and end its
resistance to Germany. Churchill would not consider that for a
moment. He knew this would mean that England would become
a partner of Germany, if not a “slave state.” In 1940, he was alone,
the single obstacle to Hitler’s winning the Second World War. In
1941, Stalin was not alone. He was about to become Churchill’s
and Roosevelt’s partner. Yet if Hitler had only halted his armies
in 1941, Stalin might have been willing to become his junior part-
ner—indeed, to turn over to Hitler portions of his empire, if
need be, while the rest of Europe went to hell. Hitler knew this.
But he thought that his armies could conquer Russia. In 1940, he
was not sure that he could conquer England. Churchill, not Sta
lin, was the obstacle to his complete triumph. Because of this, he
hated Churchill and then turned to hate the English people with
a fury, till the end. He did not hate Stalin; once his invasion of
Russia bogged down, he respected him. He even liked him. Such
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

is the irony of history—or rather, the alchemy of human minds.

One thing we may say in favor of Stalin: his ambitions—con-
trary to the belief that was widely accepted for decades after the
Second World War—had their limits, not because of his m odesty,
of course, but probably because of his peasant-like realism. In
mid-December 1941, Anthony Eden, Churchill’s foreign secre-
tary, flew to Moscow. At times, some of the windows of the
Kremlin rattled with the echoes of German gunfire, hardly more
than fifteen miles away. Among more important matters, they

talked about Hitler. “His problem,” Stalin said, “is that he does
not know when to stop.” “Does anyone?” Eden said. “I do,” said
Stalin.
Franklin Roosevelt’s greatest asset was his self-confid ence.
That impressed his people domestically and, often, his conver-
sants abroad. Added to this was his anti-isolationist belief, which
accorded with Churchill’s: Hitler’s Germany was the primary
danger. But his perspective on world history was not the same as
Churchill’s. This we will see later in the Second World War.
I am inclined to add here another great leader, though one
whose power was not comparable to that of the four others
sketched above. This was Charles de Gaulle, the leader of Free
France and a major contributor to France’s military and spiritual
liberation. I mention only two instances relevant to 1940. One
was that Churchill noticed early the extraordinary character of
this man during his rapid and inconclusive air journeys to Paris,
before the French collapse: one man among the dozens of deeply
agitated and vexed French politicians and generals, a two-star
general in the background who spoke little. “The Constable of
France,” Churchill was supposed to have muttered on one oc
casion. The other matter is that we ought not to exaggerate
de Gaulle’s numberless conflicts and arguments with Churchill
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

during the war—indeed, exasperating the latter more than once

—without keeping in mind de Gaulle’s purpose: to demonstrate
to the world that he was more than a satellite of the British. Let
us note one crucial short sentence in de Gaulle’s Memoirs. Bereft,
he had decided to fly to Britain alone during the collapse of
France. He hoped to do something for his country—but what?
Then Churchill gave him the chance to broadcast to (and for)
France. So, many years later, de Gaulle wrote: “Without him, I
could have done nothing.”

TO SUBDUE AND CONQUER

GERMANY AND JAPAN

After Pearl Harbor, six months of Allied defeats—The naval

and military turning points of the war—German ability to
carry on—Mussolini eliminated—Turning the tide in the
east—The Allied invasion of France—Hitler’s determination
—The conquest of Japan

It took Britain, Russia, and the United States three and a

half years to subdue and conquer Germany and Japan. In the
case of Germany, one of them—and possibly even any two of
them together—could not have accomplished that. In the war
against Japan, the enormous power of the United States, together
with the resolution of its people, could and did accomplish it.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Immediately after Pearl Harbor, the Western Allies suffered

defeat after defeat. Churchill had sent two of the top British bat-
tleships to Malaya to impress the Japanese, whose airplanes sank
both of them two days after Pearl Harbor. Thereafter, the Japa-
nese army moved swiftly to conquer one British possession in
the Far East after another. Most depressing was their occupation
of Singapore in February 1942, where they met with a lamenta-
bly feeble British defense. By that time, Japan was victorious ev
erywhere. Its navy ventured as far as the Indian Ocean, shelling

Ceylon. It now dominated much of the Pacific. The United States

had to surrender some of its mid-Pacific islands to Japan. For a
while, it seemed as if the Japanese were moving south toward
Australia. They tried to set foot in New Guinea. In May came the
first great battle between the Japanese and American navies, the
battle of the Coral Sea, which was something of a draw.
Meanwhile the British, after a temporary advance in Decem-
ber, were once again driven back westward by Rommel. In Rus-
sia, the Germans were pushed back here and there during the
winter. That meant no decisive victory for the Soviet armies. The
Germans, so Hitler exulted in April, mastered a winter and a
fate that had destroyed Napoleon 130 years before. In June, they
started another chapter in their war: an offensive not toward
Moscow but toward the south, in the direction of the Caucasus,
and after that, presumably, toward the Near East.
Yet even before that came the greatest military (more exactly,
naval) turning point of the war. This was the American victory at
Midway on June 4–5, 1942. After the Coral Sea, it was the first
great sea battle between aircraft carriers, not between battleships.
The Japanese air force at Pearl Harbor had sunk or damaged six
American battleships, a spectacular achievement, but one with-
out grave consequences in the course of modern naval warfare,
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

since battleships were no longer primary. It was now aircraft car-

riers that mattered, since the bombers they carried could damage
and sink other ships (including the carriers of their enemies)
more accurately and effectively than battleships could. The Japa-
nese knew that. Midway was, of course, in the very middle of the
Pacific. The Americans had one crucial advantage. This was the
ability of their superb code-breakers to decipher and read Japan’s
secret instructions to its naval force and thereby reveal the loca-
tions and movements of the Japanese war fleet approaching Mid-

way. This was crucial, but not necessarily decisive. Decisive was
the dauntless bravery, here and there amounting to heroism, of
most of the American fliers (together with the steadfast leader-
ship of their admiral, Raymond Spruance). At first, there were
painful failures on both sides (for example, the American torpe-
does fired by those intrepid fliers did not work). But sometime
around noon on June 4, the tide turned: the Americans began to
damage and sink three or four Japanese carriers, while losing
only one of their own. The great Japanese central navy force
moved away. It would never threaten American islands again;
and the American rule of much of the Pacific began to expand
westward, toward Japan. Still, it took more than two years to sub-
due Japanese-held islands, one after the other, and also to recon-
quer the Philippines, which the Japanese had captured earlier in
the war.
Had the Japanese won at Midway (and that was very close),
Admiral Yamamoto’s plan was to end the war against the United
States with a treaty advantageous for Japan, as was the case after
the Russo-Japanese war in 1904–1905. But would the American
government—and the American people—have agreed to that?
Yamamoto did not underestimate either the power or the resolu-
tion of the American people. It is regrettable that a year after
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Midway, President Roosevelt—again informed by a decoded

Japanese message identifying a single plane carrying Yamamoto
over an island in the western Pacific—ordered the American na-
val air corps to destroy him. The gallant admiral did not deserve
his fate; but that was of no consequence for the further develop-
ment of the war.
There were more disasters coming to the British. Less than
two weeks after Midway, on the other side of the world, General
Rommel beat 30,000 British and Commonwealth troops into

Tobruk, in northern Libya, and forced them to surrender an-

other ten days later. He now advanced to the western border
of Egypt, where the British blocked him, not without diffi
culties. There was another, greater problem that weighed upon
Churchill. This was that of the “Second Front”—and: What to do
with Russia? How to deal with Stalin’s distrust? The enormous
mass of the German army was deep into Russia, but there was yet
no British or American plan to open a front in Western Europe
to force Hitler to fight a real two-front war. Navies were one
thing; the air war against Germany was another. The supplies
and armaments sent to Russia by the British and the Americans
were yet another. But what did they amount to, compared to the
frightful weight of the war bearing down on the Russian armies?
Stalin’s obsession with a Second Front was more than propa
ganda. At the same time, an incessant drumbeat on behalf of a
Second Front was carried on by Communist and other Leftist
sympathizers in Britain and in the United States.
The American Joint Chiefs of Staff were actually planning for
a Second Front: an invasion of Western France in November
1942. Churchill was convinced that this would be a disaster. So he
flew across the Atlantic again to talk to Roosevelt. For almost the
last time in the Second World War, he was about to persuade
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

the Americans. They were—reluctantly—accepting the British

view that an invasion of France in late 1942 should be post-
poned to 1943 (eventually it took place, a year and a half later).
Then, Roosevelt, who was convinced that in 1942, somewhere
and somehow, an American army should confront the Germans,
agreed that an American invasion of French North Africa should
be mounted, by November of that year. Upon his return to Lon-
don, Churchill had to face an unprecedented effort to censure his
leadership in the House of Commons. It was rejected by a large
majority.

But now before him loomed another difficult task. He had to

appease Stalin. “I am carrying a lump of ice to the North Pole,”
Churchill said to his wife. He flew to Moscow in early August. At
the beginning—indeed, for a few days and nights—he had to en-
dure and confront Stalin’s rude complaints (“Why are the British
afraid to fight the Germans?”). On the last night, a few hours be-
fore Churchill was to fly back to London from Moscow, there
was a change in atmosphere, as well as in substance. There was
a personal rapport which suggested that Stalin was as loath to
abandon his alliance with the British as the British were to break
with him. Churchill told Stalin of the American-British inva-
sion of French North Africa that was to take place within a few
months. Stalin instantly comprehended and welcomed the stra-
tegic import of that.
Thereafter came multiple turning points in the military his
tory of the Second World War. A new British commander, Ber-
nard Montgomery, decided that his Eighth Army was now strong
enough to attack the Germans and drive them out of Egypt into
Libya and beyond. That led to his victory at El Alamein in late
October. Two weeks later, the Americans landed in French North
Africa. Another ten days later, the Sixth German Army, part of
the large army group now beginning to move back from the
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

northern Caucasus, was encircled by the Russians and forced to

fall back to the city of Stalingrad on the Volga. The Americans
had diffic ulties dislodging the remnant German troops in Tuni-
sia; but meanwhile, Montgomery moved ahead and joined up
with the Americans. At the end of January 1943, the Sixth Ger-
man Army surrendered in Stalingrad. At the end of April, the
remnant German (and some Italian) units surrendered in Tunis,
whereby the Axis presence in Africa came to an end.
Hitler’s Germany fought on, not always without success, for
the next two years and more. He himself accepted his responsi-

bility for Stalingrad, so he said. At the same time, Stalingrad was

a very large and bloody battle—but considering the human loss,
not larger than Verdun in 1916. There was a difference: Verdun
was not a turning point of the First World War, but after Sta
lingrad the Germans had to retreat almost everywhere. Their re-
treat westward across Russia, and then beyond it, was impres-
sively careful and able. In 1941 and 1942, the Germans took
fifteen months to reach Stalingrad from Berlin (and five months
to reach the outskirts of Moscow). From 1942 to 1945, the Rus-
sians took twice as long to advance from Stalingrad to Berlin
(and more than a year to drive the Germans out of Russia alto-
gether). There was even something like a lull over most of the
long Russian-German front until the early summer of 1943. It
was followed by a last great German offensive at Kursk, with in-
decisive results. Meanwhile, the Anglo-American aerial bomb-
ing of Germany went on incessantly. But it did not decide the
war, and there was no invasion of Western Europe in 1943.

It was now evident that the next object of the Anglo-American

armies would be Sicily. They invaded it on July 10. The effect on
Italy was obvious; it came soon. A fortnight later, the majority of
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

the Grand Council of Fascist Italy voted against Mussolini. Next

day, King Victor Emmanuel III called Mussolini to the royal pal-
ace and told him to resign. When Mussolini left the palace, an
automobile took him to a place of sequestration. That was the
sudden end of the Fascist era. Most Italians were jubilant. Gen-
eral Pietro Badoglio was named prime minister. The war contin-
ued—but of course, Italy’s abandonment of the war was already
being discussed by secret Italian and Allied envoys. On Septem-
ber 3, Allied troops crossed from Sicily to Italy. Five days later,

the armistice—that is, the surrender of Italy to the Allies—was

declared. Hitler and the Germans were ready for this. Instantly,
German and SS troops occupied most of Italy’s cities, includ-
ing Rome. The king and the government fled to the south. Most
of the Italian navy and much of the army were loyal to the king;
soon, much of the navy sailed over to the Allies. Hitler sent a
daring glider troop to rescue Mussolini from the mountain
house where he had been interned. There were now two Italies—
one in the south, the other a shadow government set up in the
north, eventually presided over by Mussolini. Italy and its people
were ravaged, suffering until almost the very end of the war.
The Allied campaign in Italy was not impressive. By the end of
September, the Allied armies had gotten as far as Naples, but
hardly beyond. It took them more than eight months to reach
Rome, which they did on June 4, 1944, two days before D-Day in
France. In some ways, Churchill was responsible for this. Partly
because of his knowledge of the British historical tradition, in
which naval power often decided a war, and partly because of his
no less historical memory of how a war in northern France might
be a repetition of the horrible bloodshed there during the First
World War, he was anxious about the prospects of an Anglo-
American invasion of Western Europe, though he kept this anxi-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

ety to himself. Yes, the Mediterranean was the “soft underbelly”

of Europe; and the Mediterranean, by the end of 1943, was now
an inland sea, largely ruled by the Allied navies—but that did not
decide the war. (One statistic: in 1943, Germany produced almost
as many airplanes as did the United States—despite the wide-
spread bombing of German factories and cities.)
By the end of 1943, the Russian armies had reached the prewar
borders of the Soviet U nion in most places. The Allied, especially
American, armaments and vehicles sent to Russia had become

a flood. Yet the absence of a serious Second Front, and the limi
tations of British convoys sailing for Russia north of Norway,
whence they were often attacked by German airplanes, vexed
Stalin. He made that obvious. As late as 1943, Roosevelt and espe-
cially Churchill still had to worry about the possibility that Stalin
might make a deal with Hitler. That danger faded, especially be-
cause Stalin saw that Hitler would be beaten and that eventually
his Soviet Union could get more from the Western Allies than he
now could from Hitler. Consequently, the table was set for the
first Three-Power Summit—for his meeting with Roosevelt and
Churchill in Teheran at the end of November 1943. It is telling
that, in order to accommodate Stalin, these world leaders were
willing to travel across the globe to meet him in or close to Rus-
sia (Teheran was then in the Russian occupation zone of Persia—
today, Iran).
The Teheran Summit remains significant for more than one
reason. Stalin still thought that Churchill did not have his heart
set on the coming invasion of France. But his suspicion faded as
their meetings went on. At the same time, a considerable topic
was that of Turkey. Turkey was a British ally that Stalin disliked.
Churchill was still eager to get Turkey into the war and open a
Balkan front against the Germans. This did not happen; but it is
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

telling how much of the conference dealt with Europe. Stalin had
already broken relations with the legitimate Polish government-
in-exile; it was evident that a problem was not so much the fu-
ture borders of Poland but the character of its postwar regime. A
very important feature of the conference was that it provided ev-
idence of the inclinations of Roosevelt. He was less interested in
postwar Europe than was Churchill. More important: he moved
closer to Stalin (“Uncle Joe”) and away from Churchill. He dem-
onstrated this several times in Teheran. He believed that good

American-Russian relations were now more important than his

earlier ones with Britain. (One reason for this was his wish to
make Stalin join the war against Japan, which Stalin promised to
do.) There was a deeper reason—namely, his historical perspec-
tive, which was not Churchill’s. Roosevelt saw (and this went be-
yond his view of the war) that the United States was in the mid-
dle between Britain and Russia—historically, that is. Britain, as
represented by Churchill, was venerable and old. Soviet Russia,
as represented by Stalin, was a rough, advancing nation that em-
bodied something crude but new. The United States, democratic
and progressive, was historically in the middle between them—
so Roosevelt thought. He was wrong. Russia was not ahead of the
United States (or of Britain), but well behind.
Hitler was not entirely uninformed of what happened in Tehe-
ran, but he could take no solace from that. His army had to face
more or less serious guerrilla attacks in Yugoslavia and Greece.
The governments of his allies started to have some contacts with
the Western Allies. In March 1944 he occupied Hungary, install-
ing an extreme pro-German regime there. The day after Rome
fell, British and American armies, transported and supported by
a huge armada, landed in Normandy. On July 20, a group of pa
triotic German offic ers, together with some high officers includ-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

ing Rommel, attempted to get rid of Hitler and save what they
still could for their Germany. That coup d’état was ill-prepared.
Hitler himself survived the detonation of a bomb that had been
placed in his headquarters. The plotters were executed; later,
Rommel was offered a choice between a trial and suicide. On
August 21, de Gaulle’s Free French soldiers and American troops
entered Paris. Before that, another American invasion landed
along the Mediterranean shores of France, which were largely
undefended by the Germans. Churchill had been against that: he

had wanted such an invasion to occur in the Italian Adriatic,

where an Allied army could advance into northern Yugoslavia
and south-central Europe. He no longer had his way. After D-
Day, many more American troops than British were in combat
against the Germans. Romania changed its regime and surren-
dered to Russia in less than twenty-four hours. The Russians had
Bulgaria surrender to them; by late September, they had entered
Hungary.
Before that ended, one of the most regrettable episodes of the
Second World War occurred. By the end of July, the Russian
army was close to Warsaw—indeed, some of it stood across that
capital city, on the eastern bank of the River Vistula. The Home
Army of Poland, civilians and former soldiers, an admirable pa
triotic force, rose up against the German occupiers of Warsaw.
The Home Army kept the latter at bay for almost two months.
Of course, the Home Army had a political reason: to liberate
Warsaw themselves, to impress the world and the Russians, who
would then find it difficult to ignore these brave Poles. But the
Russians did. Capable of cynical calculation as they were, they
gave the Poles little help or none at all. Stalin himself accused the
Poles of “adventurism.” He had already installed his own satellite
Polish “government” in eastern Poland.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

A division of postwar Europe was already taking shape. Churchill

was deeply concerned with this. (Roosevelt was not.) So he flew
suddenly to Moscow in October. In the very first hour of his
meeting with Stalin, he proposed that there should be no conflict
between Russia and Britain, or between their spheres of interest
in Eastern Europe. He put a paper before Stalin, his “Percentages

Agreement.” Russia would have 90 percent influence in Roma-

nia and Bulgaria; Britain, 90 percent in Greece; in Yugoslavia
and Hungary, the split would be 50–50 (the latter ratio then was
amended by Molotov to 80–20 in Russia’s favor). Stalin looked
at the paper and marked his agreement in an instant. Churchill
knew that he had to save Greece, where, after its liberation, a
crude civil war was going on between Greek Communists and
royalists. In December, he sent a British division to Greece. Then
he had to leave his English home at Christmas, and flew to Ath-
ens to help construct a proper Greek government. Five weeks
later, the Greek Communists were defeated. All through these
months, Stalin kept his word. His troops stood on the northern
border of Greece, but he gave no help and not a single word of
support for the Greek Communists. Across the Atlantic, the Brit-
ish were excoriated as imperialists by much of the American
press, and even by some in Britain.
Churchill had saved Greece, but perhaps that was all. At the
same time, we must credit him for his foresight. When he vis-
ited Paris in November, de Gaulle was critical of the Americans,
among other things. De Gaulle said: They are letting the eastern
half of Europe go to the Russians. Churchill said that he knew
this, but that he could do little or nothing. Russia was now “a
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

hungry wolf in the midst of sheep; but after the meal will come
the digestion period.” Russia would not be able to digest most of
its conquests.
And the war was not yet over. The Allies had freed France and
most of Belgium; but they had not penetrated western Germany,
nor had they yet crossed the Rhine. Already a fortnight after the
fall of Paris, Hitler gave orders to plan for a German counterof-
fensive in the west. So it came. In December, a German army at-

tacked an American army in eastern Belgium. The Germans ad-

vanced nearly fifty miles but they were not able to go farther
toward Antwerp, which had been Hitler’s aim.
There was a moment of panic, but the Americans recovered
fast. This “Battle of the Bulge” may have retarded the Allied ad-
vance into Germany proper, but not by much.
In early February, Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill met again,
at Yalta. There, the American president was something like the
principal figure; in spite of his increasing physical weakness, he
got two promises from Stalin. Russia would go to war against
Japan three months after the surrender of Germany (a prom-
ise that Stalin kept, to the day). The other was a goal dear to
Roosevelt: the Soviet U nion would join the United Nations. The
latter was part of the American president’s ideal of a postwar in-
ternational order in which the Soviet U nion would actively par
ticipate. There were discussions about Poland, without results.
There was no serious consideration about the already forming
division of Europe that soon became the prime theater of the
coming Cold War between America and Russia, beginning less
than two years after Yalta.
By March 1945, the American and Russian (and British)
armies began to move forward across Germany. The end of the
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

war was in sight, though there was little optimism or even relief.
Much of Europe, especially in the center of the continent, was
in ruins. Millions of people either had been forced out of their
homelands or had chosen, in desperation, to flee. The march of
the Russians toward and into Germany was one long sweep of
barbarism, replete with rape, robbery, and destruction unprece-
dented in the history of Europe for many centuries. Here and
there, when the fighting ended in early summer, a wan sunshine
played over many lunar cityscapes even at noon.

Roosevelt died suddenly, on April 12. Mussolini was murdered

by some of his own people seventeen days later. Hitler killed
himself on April 30. Till the end, he nurtured some hopes that
his enemies would split apart; among other things, he did not
discourage the negotiations that happened between Germans
(including SS leaders) and Americans in Italy over several
months. Among his hierarchs, General Heinrich Himmler began
to negotiate with Americans and even with Jews; Goering left
Berlin. Goebbels remained there, killing himself and his en-
tire family two days after the Führer, whose last testament to
the German people had not much new to say, except that he
was aware of the differences between East and West. He ap-
pointed Admiral Karl Doenitz (Western-inclined) and Goebbels
(Russian-inclined) as his successors.
The American army halted about sixty miles west of Berlin
around April 12, allowing the Russians to conquer the capital of
Germany. Their last offensive began five days later. The remnant
German troops in Berlin surrendered to the Russians on May 2,
and the chiefs of the German army, navy, and air force capitu-
lated six days later in Rheims. In Europe, the Second World War
was over. It ended with neither a bang nor a whimper.
In the Pacific, the Americans made straight for Japan. In 1943
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

and 1944, they landed on and then conquered several of the

Marianas and Gilbert Island. In October 1944, General Douglas
MacArthur landed in the Philippines. A large naval battle oc-
curred in Leyte Gulf, where much of what was left of the Japa-
nese navy was destroyed or damaged. The British began to ad-
vance against the Japanese in Burma. In early 1945, a massive
American aerial bombing burned down large parts of Tokyo;
perhaps as many as 100,000 inhabitants perished there.
The Japanese now depended on two kinds of desperate at-

tempts to slow the American advance. One was the incredible

struggle of a few thousands or even fewer of their soldiers, with
hardly more than rifles, fighting the Americans moving into
their islands. Examples of these were Tarawa, Iwo Jima, Okinawa
—the last in April 1945, already close to Japan. The losses on both
sides were astonishingly great, though the numbers of the Japa-
nese dead were often eight times those of the Americans. The
other strategy was to employ suicide planes (the so-called kami-
kaze), which hurled themselves onto the decks of American war-
ships with their pilots and crew aboard. Considerable their dam-
ages were overall; decisive, not. Still, the American leadership,
including the new president, Harry Truman, had to plan for the
invasion of Japan in 1946, with the prospect of numerous Ameri-
can casualties.
That dreadful invasion proved unnecessary. Even before the
atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Emperor Hirohito
and other devoted Japanese leaders wanted to end the war, no
matter how. Already the Japanese government was transformed,
now led by conservatives and moderates. They kept asking Mos-
cow to mediate between Tokyo and Washington, but in vain. In
July 1945, the Potsdam Summit (the last in the war, with Stalin,
Churchill, and Truman) had still insisted on the doctrine of un-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

conditional surrender; but prudently, the president and his ad-

visers no longer mentioned the condition that the Japanese em-
peror must be removed. In early August, there were many signals
suggesting a Japanese wish to surrender, now through the diplo-
matic intermediary of Switzerland. On August 10, the Japanese
government’s decision was made; it was communicated to the
world.
A few days before, two tremendous disasters had befallen Ja-
pan. One was the Americans’ dropping of two atomic bombs on

Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Another was Stalin’s declaration of war

against Japan on August 9. (That may have had an even greater
effect on the Japanese than the bombs.) On August 15, the em-
peror addressed his people in an unprecedented radio broadcast,
announcing surrender. There had been one attempt by fanatical
Japanese army men to destroy the recording of the emperor’s
speech, but they had failed. Obedience and relief was the over-
whelming response of the Japanese population. Constitutional
monarchy saved the Japanese people from a great deal of further
suffering (as it had saved much of the Italian people, and then
the Greeks, in 1943 and 1944). Its absence had not saved the Ger-
mans. For them, 1945 was “Jahr Null,” Year Zero.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

THE DIVISION OF EUROPE

ALMOST COMPLETE

Europe still the center of history—The new geography of the

Some of my readers may question—justifiably—why until

now this “short history of the twentieth century” has dealt prin-
cipally with the history of Europe (and of the United States and
the Soviet U nion), with not much attention to the histories of
other continents and peoples. After the twentieth century, not
only the old predominance but also the preeminence of Europe
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

may no longer exist. But the two world wars and then the Cold
War, 1914–1989, were still mainly fought and decided in Europe.
So it may be argued that even in view of the enormous politic al
and geographic consequences of these world wars on other con-
tinents, Europe still remained the center of world history—due
to the Cold War with its protagonists, the United States and the
Soviet Union, until 1989.
By the end of the Second World War, in 1945, the political ge
ography of Europe had already changed—though less so than af-

ter the First World War. Most of these changes were codified by a
few treaties signed in 1947. The only substantial change was the
reduction and division of Germany, the moving of Poland west-
ward, and a few accretions on the borders of the Soviet Union.
But far more important than these alterations of frontiers was
the actual division of Europe—the way in which some of the cen-
tral and much of the eastern portions of the continent fell under
Russian rule.
The geographic limits of that rule, the essence of the division
of Europe, were largely set even before the actual end of the war.
By and large, with a few exceptions, Europe—and within it, Ger-
many, and within Germany, Berlin—were divided along the lines
where, near or at the end of the war, the Austrian and American
and British armies had met. Even before that, in July 1944, Soviet
and American and British delegations had agreed on the occupa-
tion zones allotted to each (a French occupation zone, carved out
of the American one, was added a few months later); a similar
zone agreement concerning Austria was made in January 1945.
All of this was regarded as necessary in order to avoid conflicts—
and also as temporary, which it was not. At the end of the war,
in some parts of central Germany, American troops had met
their Russian allies within the latter’s zones. On July 1, 1945, the
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Americans retired behind their zonal boundaries; and American

and British regiments were allowed to enter the city districts
allotted to them in Berlin and Vienna. Less than a month later,
the Second World War was over. There were still many influen
tial American public officials and leaders of American opinion
who were loath to think that a great and grave potential politic al
conflict was looming between the Soviet Union and the United
States. Harry Truman was not among them. It took a year until it
became more and more obvious that such a conflict was actual.

Meanwhile, across Central and Eastern Europe, vast move-

ments of peoples were occurring, transforming the ethnic geog
raphy of Europe. At least three million Germans fled westward
before the Russian conquest of their homelands. Another three
or four million were expelled from Czechoslovakia and Poland.
Other hundreds of thousands left their lands and dwellings in
Yugoslavia and Romania. This flood of migration went on for at
least two years. It was probably one of the most enduring results
of the Second World War. For the first time in centuries—in
some places, after almost one thousand years—there were now
practically no Germans left in Eastern Europe, beyond the new
borders of what became the East German state. And after about
1947, for the first time in a millennium there were more Jews in
the Western Hemisphere than in Europe and Russia.
The question, or problem, was not the existence of a Russian
sphere of interest in Eastern Europe, but its conditions. What
would Stalin do with it? What would it mean? A contrast, replete
with sinister meanings, was already real in August 1944. Com-
pare the Russian and American decisions when it came to the
respective liberations of Warsaw and Paris. The Russians were
not displeased to witness, across Warsaw, the German extirpa-
tion of the Polish Home Army, since the latter were not Commu-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

nists; the Americans, out of goodwill, allowed de Gaulle’s Free

French to play a large part in the liberation of Paris, even though
de Gaulle was not unquestionably pro-American. Soon after the
end of the war, there was more evidence that Stalin wanted to
seal off his portion of Europe from the West almost entirely.
Churchill, long before others, was anxious and troubled about
what that would mean. His powers were very limited; in August
1945, he and his party lost the British elections in a landslide vic-
tory for Labour. Still, he took it upon himself to speak up. In

March 1946 he traveled to Fulton, Missouri, to make his Iron

Curtain speech. He warned America and the West that an “iron
curtain” was descending from the Baltic to the Adriatic, a rigid
barrier separating the continent of Europe in two. President Tru-
man accompanied Churchill to Fulton with much sympathy and
goodwill, though Washington was not yet ready to take steps to
oppose the Russians.

But these would come, and soon. By the end of 1946, Moscow
began to threaten Turkey, trying to detach a province of Iran;
meanwhile, the Greek Communists renewed their civil war
against the elected Greek regime. Truman sent two impressive
warships through the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, to the en-
trance of the Black Sea; and in February 1947, he announced
what would be called the Truman Doctrine: an American com-
mitment to defend the independence of Turkey and Greece.
There followed the Marshall Plan, named after George Marshall,
the highly respected general and then secretary of state: Ameri-
ca’s generous offer of funds and goods to repair the ravaged ma-
terial conditions of European states. (The offer was extended
even to states in the Russian sphere, but their governments re-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

fused.) The purpose of the Marshall Plan was, of course, to con-

tain a further advance of Communism. In part, because of the
wartime prestige of the Soviet U nion, Communist parties were
strong in some Western European countries such as France and
Italy, but never strong enough to acquire power. Indeed, through-
out the entire Cold War—forty years or more—there was not
a single European country west of the Iron Curtain that went
Communist. But by 1947, the so-called Cold War, the confronta-
tion of the United States and the Soviet Union, had begun (even

though the term “Cold War” was not invented by some Ameri-
can public thinkers until a year later).
It is remarkable that at the same time, the establishment of
Stalin’s “totalitarian” empire in Eastern Europe had its troubles
even at that early stage of the Cold War. In some of the countries
under his sway, elections in 1945 and 1946 did not bring Com-
munist majorities. But the hope that Stalin would be content
with unquestionably pro-Russian but not necessarily Commu-
nist regimes in Eastern Europe did not come about. Perhaps be-
cause of his own sense of insecurity, he thought it safest to force
Communist rulers on Eastern Europe—governments run by
people who were his toadies, without any doubt. By 1947 and
1948, such regimes were installed everywhere in that portion of
Europe; Czechoslovakia was the last, in February 1948. This went
together with the erection of an actual Iron Curtain: electrified
wire fences, with watchtowers and minefields close to the fences,
all along the frontiers separating Eastern from Western Europe.
Stalin saw this as necessary, even with the executions and incar-
cerations of national Communists whom his and his satellites’
secret police deemed at least potentially unreliable. Yet as early as
1948 came the first break in the Soviet Union’s monopoly rule in
Eastern Europe. In Yugoslavia, the Communist Josip Broz Tito
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

had won something like a civil war, resulting in his brutal rule
throughout that fissiparous country in 1945, with little Russian
help. By 1948, Russian agents were denouncing him to Stalin for
constructing a state without consulting the Soviet Union. Stalin
immediately declared Tito a heretic and had him read out of the
fraternity of Communist states. In part because of his somewhat
favorable geographic situation, Tito did not give in.
In Germany, still at the center of Europe and thus at the center
of the Cold War, the last indifferent attempts to seek some agree-

ment between East and West, between the Soviet U nion and the
United States—attempts that were aimed at a peace treaty with
Germany—ceased in 1947. After that, it became evident that
there would be two German states, a Western (non-Communist)
one and an Eastern (Communist) one, with the capital of the lat-
ter in East Berlin, which was likewise divided into halves (though
without entirely impassable barriers between them). The two
separate states were now recognized by their respective allies;
and for a time, that was it. By 1949, the division of Europe was
almost complete. That year, the permanent military presence of
the United States in Europe was made offic ial by the formation of
the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. A dangerous peak pe-
riod of the Cold War was to follow.
Europe (especially Germany) was still at the center of what
was then contemporary history. Stalin knew this. His interest in
the Far East, indeed in the Western Hemisphere, was limited. In
1945, he had agreed that the United Nations should be estab-
lished in New York. After his entry into the war against Japan,
and the latter’s surrender, he requested that the Soviet Union oc-
cupy one of Japan’s four main islands—a demand that Truman
rejected, and that was the end of it. As late as 1947, Stalin did not
object to the American accretion of former Japanese islands in
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

the western Pacific—that is, the American domination of the Pa

cific. In 1948, he instantly recognized the establishment of the
new State of Israel. The same year, a division of Korea rigidified
into two countries, the north a Russian satellite, the south sup-
ported by the United States.
Stalin did not think much of China as a Great Power, though
during the war he accepted Roosevelt’s proposition that it was.
Meanwhile, a Chinese civil war between Chiang Kai-shek’s na-
tionalists and Mao Tse-tung’s Communists was developing. The

United States gave much support to the former; the Russians lit-
tle to the latter. In 1945, they occupied parts of Manchuria, but
then left it. From Japan, the Soviets got the southern half of the
island of Sakhalin; and from China, a naval base on the China
Sea. In 1947, General Marshall, then the American secretary of
state, went to China to try for a mediated settlement between the
Chinese nationalists and Communists, but in vain. By 1950, the
Chinese Communists had won the struggle for China. Chiang
and his remaining supporters fled to the island of Formosa, now
Taiwan.
All of this (and the news that by 1949 Russia had exploded its
first atomic bomb) had a profound effect on American politics,
strategy, and popular sentiment. Communism now seemed the
greatest power on the globe; next door to Russia, China and a
large portion of Eurasia could be, and were, colored red. Then
the first war between Communist and non-Communist states in
the Far East began.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

THE BRAVE HARRY TRUMAN

The Cold War at its peak—The Korean War—Death of

Sta
lin—The Soviet Union begins to retreat—American
misunderstandings—Russia and China—The so-called
Third World emerges—The Cuban Missile Crisis—The ten-
sions of the Cold War lessen

“International relations” is an inaccurate and often

false term, in spite of its widespread employment in the twenti-
eth century, the creation of institutions devoted to its study, and
the high positions and prestigious academic degrees awarded by
its representatives. It is a misnomer, because what almost all of
them are talking about are not relations between nations but re-
lations between states. This is so about many things (including
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

the United Nations—which is not an organization but an inade-

quate assembly, and not of nations but of states). It is true that,
especially in the democratic age (but also throughout all history),
relations between nations can be very important, at times filling
up the more or less traditional and actual framework of the rela-
tions between states. But the essence even of the Cold War, that
peculiarly twentieth-century phenomenon, was that of the rela-
tions between two giant states, between the Soviet Union and the
United States—not between Communism and Capitalism, or be-

tween Totalitarianism and Democracy, or between Atheism and

Godliness, and so on, even though public opinion and popular
sentiment played roles in that global conflict, to the extent of in
fluencing and forming the relations among states. Their influ
ences—indeed, factors—were more important in the conduct of
American world policy during the Cold War than in that of the
Soviet Union. To this I will return in Chapter 14; but here I must
sum up, briefly, the state of Soviet-American relations during
and after the peak of the Cold War.

It is true that during this period, the practices of the relations

among states worsened to levels unknown and unprecedented in
the Modern Age. This was the result of a choice made by the
leadership of the Soviet Union and of its recent satellite states.
Travel between them and non-Communist states and countries
was cut to a minimum. So was what remained of international
trade. Within these countries, the embassies and legations of
non-Communist states were isolated by secret-police personnel,
and the routine movements of their staffs were restricted to lim-
its hitherto unseen. The anti-Western and especially the anti-
American propaganda of these officially Communist and inter-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

nationalist states was abysmal, and to a large extent unbelievable.

Foreign citizens who remained in these states were at times im-
prisoned without cause. These states were kept closed from most
of the rest of the world, in international as well as interstate re
lations.
Offensive behavior and defensive behavior may be opposites,
yet they often overlap. Occasionally, their motives include suspi-
cion and fear. So it is neither one-sided nor exaggerated to sug-
gest that suspicion and fear may have been prime inclinations in

the behavior of the Soviet Union during the Cold War, especially
during its peak. And here we must pay necessarily brief attention
to Stalin—in almost every way the very opposite of Karl Marx,
who had been contemptuous of states, proclaiming that sooner
or later they would entirely disappear. Stalin was a statesman of
sorts, not a revolutionary. He had no interest in the Communist
parties of, say, France or Italy or even Greece. His main interest
at the end of the Second World War and during the Cold War
was to retain, by every possible means, the sphere of Eastern Eu-
ropean states allotted to him. But he must have understood, too,
the (to him) unpleasant truth spoken by Churchill to de Gaulle
in November 1944: the Russian wolf had a big appetite, but after
the meal would come the digestion problem. Stalin, the realist
statesman, was aware of that before others. For something like
a Soviet retreat from parts of his Eastern European sphere had
already begun before Stalin’s death in March 1953, during and
even before the peak of the Cold War. In 1948 he chose to break
with Tito, but stopped short of a military move against Yugosla-
via. In the same year (this, in my view, is more significant), he
concluded a treaty with Finland—whose military virtues he re-
spected—that allowed the latter, alone among the Eastern Euro-
pean states, to maintain a fair amount of independence. (The
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Finns, wisely, advised their neighbor Sweden not to become a

member of NATO.) Later in 1948, the Soviets tried to restrict or
force out the Western presence in West Berlin through a kind of
blockade, closing most of the latter’s land communications with
West Germany. The Western Powers, foremost among them the
United States, responded by feeding and supplying their half of
Berlin through an airlift—very successfully. In 1949, the Soviets
ended their blockade of Berlin.
Then on June 25, 1950, a real war broke out in Korea. The

armies of North Korea invaded the South. We still do not know

whether this was a decision approved primarily by Stalin or by
Mao Tse-tung, who had just won his civil war in China. In any
event, they misread the Americans. There was only a small
American military presence in South Korea, which was not offi
cially part of the American defense system in the Far East, as
were Formosa (Taiwan) and Japan. So either Mao or Stalin, or
both, believed that their satellite North Korea could invade the
South without an American military response. They were wrong.
Much credit is due to the brave President Harry Truman, who
immediately ordered American troops—and, more important,
naval forces—to sustain the South Koreans. For a while the
North Koreans streamed ahead, but soon an American amphibi-
ous invasion, planned and sustained by General MacArthur, re-
versed all that. Soon, Americans were well within North Korea,
approaching the borders of China. The rulers of the latter re-
sponded by sending masses of Chinese soldiery against them.
Eventually something like an armistice line formed largely along
the previous border, the thirty-eighth parallel. A final armistice
was made two years later, when Stalin was already dead. He had
no intention of giving the North Koreans substantial help; con-
versely, the Americans kept well away from the Russian-Korean
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

border. As a result of the war, North Korea, originally a Russian

satellite state, became a Chinese satellite. Another long-range re-
sult: during the Cold War, the Korean War was the first Ameri-
can military involvement on the Asian continent. Other such
American involvements would follow elsewhere, with dubious
results; but in this instance, Harry Truman’s decision in June
1950 had been the right one.
In March 1952, Stalin proposed a stunning change in the divi-
sion of Europe—concerning primarily Germany—that did not

receive the attention it deserved. He proposed a unification of

the two Germanies, the removal of all foreign (Russian and
American) troops and military installations from the Germanies,
the abolition of all German military alliances, an essentially all-
German army, and free German elections. It is possible that this
was a shrewd move, with no other purpose than to sow confu-
sion among the German people and prevent a German alliance
with the United States. Such an alliance was Stalin’s principal
fear; but he may have intended his proposal seriously, as a ba-
sis for important negotiations. We cannot be sure. In any case,
the Western Powers—foremost the United States, and West Ger-
many under the chancellorship of Konrad Adenauer—rejected
Stalin’s note instantly, without any hesitation. Even bereft of any
result, this had been a significant move by Stalin, who was ailing
and probably unsteady. In less than a year he was dead.
He was succeeded first by Georgy Malenkov, then by Leonid
Brezhnev and Nikita Khrushchev, with increasing power and au-
thority going to the latter. The changes that were taking place in
the Soviet Union’s foreign relations were perhaps even more sig
nificant than its domestic changes, which included an astonish-
ing speech by Khrushchev in 1956 in which he chastised Sta
lin for some of his dictatorial brutalities. Even before that, the
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Soviet Union had begun to retreat. It recognized the existence of,

and established more or less normal relations with, the govern-
ment of West Germany, without requiring that the Western Pow-
ers, including the United States, offer such recognition to the
East German Communist state. It returned a Russian naval base
to Finland, and two other Russian possessions in China to the
Chinese government. It gave up the Russian occupation zone in
Austria in exchange for the removal of all foreign troops there,
thus establishing Austria’s neutrality and independence. Khrush-

chev established normal relations with Yugoslavia and other

European countries. He tried to improve relations with the

United States (whose government, under President Dwight
Eisenhower, was largely indifferent to the meaning of such
changes, at least for some time). Meanwhile, a workers’ revolt in
East Germany, soon after Stalin’s death in 1953, made that regime
tremble in its boots; the revolt had to be suppressed with Soviet
military help. In October 1956 (after Khrushchev’s abovemen-
tioned speech), a near-revolt broke out in Poland, which quieted
down after concessions were made by the Polish Communist
Party and the government, with Wladislaw Gomulka, a popular
and patriotic member, becoming its leader.
Less than a week later Hungary underwent a full-scale revolu-
tion during which Imre Nagy, another patriotic and well-liked
party figure, became the nation’s leader. In the end, he went so
far as to declare Hungary’s withdrawal from the alliance of Com-
munist states in Eastern Europe. For several days and nights, the
Soviet leaders in Moscow were in a state of near-panic. They an-
nounced and began the removal of Soviet troops from Hungary
(perhaps even hoping for a reciprocal withdrawal of American
forces from a Western or Southern European state). But this did
not happen, and they had to change their minds. On Novem-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

ber 4, the Soviet military reoccupied Budapest and the rest of

Hungary. Nagy and most of his government were arrested and
tried, and executed two years later. Almost 200,000 Hungarians
fled to the West (whose governments thought it best to do noth-
ing, save for issuing self-righteous condemnations of the Rus-
sians). Another—though minor—factor in their passivity was a
contemporaneous crisis in the Middle East, involving Britain
and France, Egypt and Israel, and the Suez Canal. The Soviets
declared their support of Egypt, but in reality did little or noth-

ing. (They even sided with the Americans in this instance,

against Britain and France.) The Suez Crisis, like the Hungar-
ian Revolution, blew over in a few weeks, though the Cold War
did not.
The American public saw Russia’s problems and reactions in
Eastern Europe as yet further confirmation of the inherent and
inevitable characteristics of that monstrous Communist state.
The power of the latter seemed to be confirmed by the first suc-
cessful Russian foray into space (the so-called Sputnik) in 1957.
Worrisome, too, was Khrushchev’s reopening of the Berlin prob
lem in 1958. In contrast to their reaction ten years earlier, the
Russians now attempted to reach some kind of settlement with
the Western Powers through four-power negotiations, but in
vain. A crisis involving East Berlin suddenly reached its zenith
in August 1961, when the East German government (with the
uneasy agreement of a reluctant Khrushchev) closed the small
but still open gap between West and East Berlin, through which
many thousands of East Germans had been fleeing to the West
each year. A huge and monstrous wall was quickly built, separat-
ing the two halves of the city—additional evidence of Commu-
nist brutality. Yet this ugly decision by the East German govern-
ment was, again, defensive rather than offensive: if that last gap
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

within Berlin were to remain open, a large and unstoppable drain

of the East German population would have gone on and on.
More telling is the date of that wall construction: August 1961.
For by that time, relations between West and East, and especially
between the United States and the Soviet U nion, had improved.
A few months earlier, the new American president, John Ken-
nedy, had met Khrushchev in Vienna. Their meeting was incon-
clusive (as President Eisenhower’s 1959 meeting with Khrush-
chev in Washington had been), but the atmosphere of this second

summit was better. Even more important: at the very time when
the wall closing up East Berlin was built, there was increasing
evidence that elsewhere in Eastern Europe the “iron curtain” had
begun to rust, with more and more small holes appearing in it.
Commercial, travel, intellectual, and even a few political contacts
between some of the states of Eastern Europe and the West were
becoming more frequent.
But even more significant than the sporadic rusting of the
“iron curtain” was the beginning of the end of the Two-Power
World, where everything, or almost everything, depended on the
relations between the two superpowers, the United States and
the Soviet U nion. I write “beginning” because in 1961 it was still
too early to speak of a Third World—though two decades later
that would become something more than a rhetorical reality,
and within another decade the predominance of the Two-Power
World would weaken, along with the Cold War. The spread and
the popularity of anticolonialism, together with the propagation
of nonalignment—meaning, in essence, the importance of Asia
and Africa, comprising at least one-half of the population of the
entire globe—had their national and intellectual origins earlier.
They moved toward something like a reality in the 1950s, with
the Bandung Conference of “nonaligned states” in 1955 and with
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

other such conferences that followed. The development of all of

this, including the notion of the Third World, was, of course, a
consequence not so much of the vague and imprecise rhetoric of
anticolonialist and “anti-alignment” conferences, as of the end-
ing of an entire era—during which the European powers aban-
doned their colonies, mostly in the early 1960s. I will return to
this soon; but before I do, let us note the crucial centrality of Eu-
rope as late as 1961, when, for instance, a slight shift of the bound-
aries of West Berlin to the east or a slight shift of the boundaries

of East Berlin to the west, involving perhaps hardly more than

a few dozen square miles, would have had world-political con
sequences far more important than events occurring in entire
other continents at that time.
Yet the political preeminence of Europe—and, with it, that of
the Two-Power World and even the Cold War—would not last
very long. Indeed, it could be argued that as early as the 1950s a
Third-Power World had come into existence, the Third Power
being China. The leaders and shapers of the Bandung Confer-
ence in 1955 invited, cajoled, and welcomed Communist China
as a “nonaligned” state, which was as inaccurate as many of the
other formulations and declarations of that assembly. But their
calculations were not without substance, since soon it appeared
that there were plenty of troubles between the two Communist
powers, China and Russia. When Khrushchev visited Washing-
ton in 1959, one of the discreet but important matters on his
agenda was to impress upon President Eisenhower the possi
bility of American-Russian collaboration against China. Eisen-
hower, who took no pleasure and little interest in Khrushchev’s
visit, did not respond (just as he declined to respond to other
Khrushchovian ballons d’essai). Less than eleven years later, it
was President Richard Nixon who embarked on a definite course
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

to improve American- Chinese relations, culminating in his

pomp-laden journey to China, where he embraced Mao Tse-tung.
By that time, the Cold War between America and Russia was
fading. But there were still episodes when it flared perilously
high again, only to subside as rapidly as it had risen. One was the
unexpected crisis involving Cuba in 1962. Four years before that,
a brief revolution in Cuba had ended the rule of the pseudo-
dictator, Fulgencio Batista. A young radical, Fidel Castro, now
got into power. His political ideas and ideals were confused and

weird. One fundamental feature of his inclinations was his dis-

like of the United States. (For a while he established and main-
tained very good relations with Franco’s Spain.) In 1959 he
wished to visit Eisenhower in Washington, an invitation that the
American president refused to consider. Castro looked for other
opponents of the United States to support his regime. The obvi-
ous choice (for him) was Communism and the Soviet Union.
The latter was cautious. Castro’s repeated urgings for a Cuban
alliance with Russia were ignored. Meanwhile, his declarations
in favor of Communism and the establishing of his local dicta-
torship went on and on (in a state less than one hundred miles
from the United States—indeed, one whose very existence had
been made possible by the latter hardly more than sixty years be-
fore). By 1962, it was obvious that the Kennedy administration in
Washington was inclined to get rid of Castro. An American ef-
fort to support a guerrilla invasion in Cuba’s Bay of Pigs in 1961
had failed. There were more and more signs that, for all kinds of
reasons, President Kennedy was considering drastic moves, in-
cluding a possible large-scale invasion of Cuba.
Castro, panic-stricken, implored Moscow for help. Khrush-
chev, after some serious soul-searching, thought he had to do
something. Though he was still unwilling to declare a Russian
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

alliance with Cuba, he chose to give Castro some weapons. Rus-

sia would ship missiles to Cuba, but under certain conditions:
they would be medium-range rockets, capable of reaching only
the southern parts of the United States; they would be equipped,
manned, and controlled not by Cubans, but exclusively by Rus-
sian military technicians; and they would be shipped in Rus-
sian vessels starting from ports 5,000 miles away from Cuba,
stacked on open decks, visible to American ships and aircraft. In
mid-October 1962—when an American expeditionary force was

also being assembled in southern Florida—the United States re-

sponded. President Kennedy declared a quarantine of Cuba. By
October 24, American naval vessels and airplanes were ap-
proaching the first missile-bearing ships, whose cargo was clearly
visible on board. The Russian vessels turned around. Two days
later, the Russians proposed the sort of quid pro quo agreement
that was customary for them: they would withdraw their missiles
and bases (and their few airplanes) from Cuba, if the Americans
would withdraw some of their missile bases from northern Tur-
key, near the southwestern Soviet Union. The American govern-
ment agreed, though it refused to admit this reciprocal deal to
the American people; but this did not matter. Soon, the quaran-
tine against Cuba was lifted. The Russian missiles and personnel
left the island soon after.
This was the last dangerous confrontation of the Cold War be-
tween the two superpowers. During the next twenty-five years,
there were conflicts of lesser importance between them, but the
Cold War largely faded. One consequence of the Cuban Missile
Crisis was the removal of Khrushchev from the leadership of the
Soviet Union in 1964. There were American presidents and poli-
ticians who, on occasion, were still inclined to see such conflicts
as evidence of the historical struggle between Democracy and
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Communism, or even between good and evil. Yet that would

matter less and less—especially when both the United States and
the Soviet Union had to face all kinds of developments in the so-
called Third World.

AMERICAN NATIONALISM,
AMERICAN BENEVOLENCE

America’s century: more than that—Problems rather than

The United States was on its way to becoming the great-

est power in the world even before 1914; but afterward it grew
into that position and remained there. The period 1914–1989 was
both the historical twentieth century and an American cen-
tury—not only because the United States won both world wars
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

and the so-called Cold War, but because its influence throughout
the world in war and peace grew to affect the lives and habits
of more and more countries and their peoples. This presents a
problem almost beyond the competence of any serious historian,
since the theme of America’s relations with the rest of the world
is enormous—especially in the twentieth century.
In 1914 most Americans, indeed the vast majority, took an in-
terest in the spectacle of the war developing in Europe but had
no inclination to wish the United States involved in it. Hardly

more than two years later, this was no longer so. There had been
a tectonic shift in American public opinion and popular senti-
ment, to a degree almost unprecedented in American history. In
1914, most Americans took pride in comparing their progressive
and democratic country to Old Europe, which was once again in
the throes of a great war. By 1917, most of them had convinced
themselves that it was America’s duty to set the Old World aright.
By 1915, there were 100 million Americans. A historical coinci-
dence: Americans had just completed the building of the Pan-
ama Canal, another gigantic engineering feat associated with the
United States in the minds of more and more people around the
world.
Because of an unusual split within the Republican Party in
1912 between William Taft and Theodore Roosevelt, the presi-
dent of the United States was no longer the impressive Theodore
Roosevelt, but Woodrow Wilson, whose view of the world was
less realistic than that of his predecessor. Yet toward the end of
the First World War, some of Wilson’s ideas changed the map of
Europe; moreover, they had a lasting influence within the United
States as well. The propagation of national self-determination,
and the first establishment of something like a world govern-
ment—the League of Nations—was due to Wilson. No matter
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

what their shortcomings, they remained instruments of Ameri-

can world policy long after Wilson.
Still, regardless of who was president, the American entry into
the great European War in 1917—a reversal of America’s chosen
path after more than one hundred years—contributed in many
ways to the predominance of the United States as the greatest
world power. Meanwhile, America’s losses in the war were a
small fraction of the casualties that the European warring states
had suffered.

Thereafter Wilson’s influence in Europe waned, along with his

popularity among the American people. Beginning in 1920,
the Republicans won election after election. Nevertheless—de-
spite mediocre Republican presidents, despite the repudiation of
American interventions in Europe—in the 1920s America was
on top of the world. So many of today’s practices and ideas—
ranging from the tolerance of sexual freedom to innovations in
architecture, the arts, literature, music, and decoration—are ad-
aptations of “new” things which appeared in the 1920s (whence,
for instance, the designation “postmodern” is almost devoid of
meaning). Many of these innovations originated in the United
States.
The theme of this chapter is America and its relation to the
world—the reciprocal effects they had on each other. Politic ally,
the influence was still very slight; but in many other fields of life,
America’s effects on Europe were broad and often deep, perme-
ating all levels of society, including widespread tastes for Ameri-
can music and movies. The influence of American popular cul-
ture grew, especially in Europe, far beyond the Twenties.

By the end of the Thirties, when the grave clouds of another Eu-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

ropean War began to gather, many people were openly express-

ing interest (and in some quarters hope) in America’s reaction
to the impending crisis. Thus, in the history of the world, 1939
differed significantly from 1914: what the United States would do
now was very important.
Franklin Roosevelt’s great contribution to the American peo-
ple, in 1933 and after, was the radiation of his confid ence. To a
large extent, the same can be said about his image abroad. No

American president since Lincoln had such an image, not in Eu-

rope or in Asia. By 1939, millions of Europeans (and Chinese)
knew that Roosevelt’s America leaned toward and indeed stood
by the adversaries of Hitler. In the Far East, Roosevelt supported
the Chinese Nationalists, while he and his navy were acutely
aware of the aggressive designs of the Japanese. (He was a navy
man from the very beginning of his career—a condition that
worked well for him and for American strategy, at least during
the first years of the Second World War.) In 1940, he made two
decisions that were crucial for the history of the war—indeed,
for the entire world. First, by June, he had made it evident that
no matter what happened in Western Europe, his United States
would support Churchill’s Britain. The other decision—less well-
known but equally important—he arrived at in November 1940
(together with Admiral Stark). If the United States were to face
a two-front war, in the Atlantic as well as in the Pacific, against
Germany and against Japan, the first must have priority. The de-
feat of Germany had to come before the defeat of Japan. And so
it was.
As the war went on, Roosevelt was fully aware (and so, proba-
bly, were most of the American people) that the United States
was now the supreme power in the world. By 1942 or early 1943,
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

he had concluded that the Soviet Union was the second-greatest

power, and that consequently his relations with Stalin were even
more important than his relations with the British government.
There was some reason for such an assessment during the war,
but not in the longer run. Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945, eigh
teen days before Hitler. The next day, Stalin ordered the Soviet
newspapers to report Roosevelt’s death on their front pages,
which were to be printed with black borders to signify mourn-

ing. This did not mean a great deal, since the Cold War had al-
ready begun to form in the eastern half of Europe (to which Roo-
sevelt had refused to pay much, if any, attention).
In 1945, the U.S. Navy was probably larger than all of the other
navies in the world together. At that time, the gold reserves of the
United States amounted to two-thirds of the gold reserves of the
entire world. Americans and their country were generous after
the war, as they had often been before. They gave large amounts
of aid to their recent enemies—the Germans, the Italians, the
Japanese—and even more to other European countries, their al-
lies during the war. The so-called Marshall Plan, in 1947, was part
and parcel of that. Stunning, too, is that the United States was
still hardly dependent on profits from the exports of its tremen-
dous industrial and agricultural production: more than 80 per-
cent of what America produced was consumed by its own people.
This kind of national prosperity, despite gradual inflation, was
changing American society. Class differences were melting away.
(Americans of English or Scottish origin already accounted for
less than 17 percent of the population, though until about 1950
they were still leaders of many traditional American institu-
tions.) “Upper class,” “middle class,” and “working class” were
terms still in general use, but they made less and less sense. The
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

lower classes were gradually seeping into the upper. This social
mobility was geographic as well as social; many Americans were
moving west and south. That was not unusual in American his
tory, but something else was also happening. During the twenti-
eth century, not only the rural, agricultural period but also the
“bourgeois,” urban period of American history was ending. Af-
ter about 1880, the great cities of America grew very fast. Young,
eager, and socially and intellectually ambitious people aspired
to live in these great cities, discarding what seemed to be con-

strained, parochial, provincial habits of living and thinking. That

was not universally true; but “urban” and “urbane” then had
largely the same approbatory meaning. Soon after 1945, this ten-
dency weakened. It became possible for many, indeed most,
Americans to acquire small, detached properties, comprising a
house and garden, outside the cities, though not too distant from
them. Suburbs, once bridges between city and country, now be-
gan to devour both. By the mid-1950s, an average American was
no longer urban, but suburban. This had many consequences,
such as the later tendency of many American wives to seek em-
ployment outside their homes.

What did not cease or weaken was American nationalism, but it

found new outlets during the initial years of the Cold War. From
1945 to 1947, the wartime and occasionally excessive appreciation
of Americans for their Soviet allies changed to an anxious hostil-
ity. The reason for this was simple: it was the behavior of the Rus-
sians themselves. But it had a few, perhaps typical, American
consequences: to see the world, especially America’s adversaries,
ideologically more than geographically or politically. The over-
whelming popular—and often public—belief was that the great
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

danger to America and to the world was Communism. There

was a brief precedent for this in 1920–1922, after the First World
War and the Bolshevik Revolution (then called the Red Scare),
but after 1947 the fear was much more powerful, pervasive, and
long-lasting. It had some regrettable consequences. On occasion,
it influenced and impeded America’s foreign policy and some of
its presidents. It also led to a popular preoccupation with domes-
tic Communist sympathizers and their fellow travelers, whose
influences had existed, though they were minimal, especially af-

ter 1947. The harm that their ambitious prosecutors, such as Sen-
ator Joseph McCarthy, did to American constitutional liberties
was worse than regrettable, but it did not last long. What per-
sisted longer was the ideological element, which lasted through-
out much of the rest of the Cold War. Americans who viewed the
world through an ideological lens were unable or unwilling to
consider the problem of the Soviet Empire as different from that
of international Communism.
This included the emergence and rise of the American “con-
servative” movement, beginning very soon after 1950. Ameri-
can public figures, including just about all American politicians,
eschewed that adjective for a very long time. But now came a
change. “Conservative” now meant to be fixedly and rigidly anti-
Communist. But it also meant a reaction against American liber-
alism and progressivism, which dominated much of American
intellectual life and its institutions, surely in the 1930s and 1940s.
There were reputable American thinkers, scholars, writers, even
historians who, as late as the early 1950s, wrote serious books
stating that there was only one American intellectual tradition:
a liberal one. This was not so. A few intelligent, independent-
minded writers and thinkers discovered and rediscovered Amer-
ican conservatives of the past, whether these had called them-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

selves conservatives or not. But more effective for the rise of the
conservative movement in the United States in the 1950s was
the growing disaffection for the designation “liberal” (at least
partly because of the excesses of American liberalism). Many of
the now self-proclaimed American conservatives were really not
very conservative at all. It is at least significant that as late as 1952,
a rigid Republican conservative and nationalist such as Sena-
tor Robert Taft would still call himself an “old-fashioned liberal.”
Another ten years later, President Eisenhower, who continued

many of the New Deal policies and expanded Social Security, on

one occasion called himself a “conservative.” Another ten years
later, the majority of Americans voted for Richard Nixon, an out-
spoken “conservative.” Ten more years later, they voted for Ron-
ald Reagan, some of whose statements were those of a radical
conservative; among other things, he declared the Soviet U nion
an “evil empire.”
Some of this mattered, but not very much. When the habits,
lifestyles, and thinking of Americans changed, they did so in dif-
ferent ways. The so-called Youth Revolution of the 1960s, for
example, produced rapid changes in behavior, clothing, music,
entertainment, even social and sexual manners (or rather, their
absence). There was commendable civil-rights legislation, pro-
moted by President Lyndon Johnson in the mid-1960s, which
benefited black Americans. Yet this same president, confident in
the supremacy of American military power, kept extending its
presence in Indochina; the result of that was the Vietnam War,
which became less popular as it went on, and ended with a with-
drawal. Other and more enduring problems for the United States
had begun to appear. Gold had been trickling out from the
American treasury, until in 1971 President Nixon forbade its
availability to foreign borrowers. More important: domestic in
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

flation in the United States was rising, and the international

value of the dollar began to decline—while within the country,
credit-card financing and its transactions grew to be nearly uni-
versal. Even more important: the composition of the American
population was changing, mostly because of the increasing (and
often uncontrollable) immigration of many people from coun-
tries to the south of the United States—a Hispanization of con-
siderable portions of the republic, with many cultural and even
po lit
ical consequences. Yet none of these changing circum-

stances and conditions led to grave popular reactions—except,

perhaps, that the once-accustomed categories of “liberal” and
“conservative” had grown more and more inaccurate, losing their
former meanings.
In 1980, it seemed—but only seemed—that the Cold War was
reviving. Some of President Reagan’s words and deeds seemed to
indicate that. A “conservative” and an anti-Communist, he was
also a former movie actor and a sentimental nationalist. This in-
clination could have been dangerous, had the great crisis of the
Soviet U nion not occurred at the same time. The “evil empire”
had begun to break up about the time Reagan became president.
During his second presidency (he was overwhelmingly reelected
in 1984), even he recognized that the new Russian leader, Mikhail
Gorbachev, was attempting to change not only the Soviet gov-
ernment, but its relations with its neighboring states—indeed,
with the world. Eventually the two leaders had an amicable meet-
ing. By the time Reagan boarded his presidential airplane to fly
back to his beloved southern California, the Cold War was over.
After all, Reagan was an American. Despite his public pro-
nouncements, despite all of the superficial and emotional es-
sence of his American nationalism, he was not devoid of a cer-
tain benevolent tolerance. Nor, to a greater extent, were the
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

American people. They had been willing to support and to cheer

on what many foreigners saw as American “imperialism,” but
that was not the right word either. After all, America had lived
through decades without attempting to turn the Cold War into
the enormity of a real war with the Soviet U
nion. Americans did
think that their country was the greatest and the best and the
most powerful in the world—but that was that. There was an en-
during element of American benevolence beneath or within the
expanses of American self-confidence. “Beneath,” or “within”? It

did not matter. What mattered was yet another instance of this,
when the entire Cold War, and with it the history of the en-
tire twentieth century, came to an end. In general, the American
people welcomed the transformations and the military and polit
ical withdrawals of the Soviet U
nion, without evidence of self-
congratulation, with hardly any sense of victory.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

“EUROPE,” AND THE END

OF THE COLD WAR

“Europe”: impreciseness of its definition—The principal ob-

For the last time in this book, I must devote a chapter to

Europe—in, and at the end of, the Cold War. My readers and
critics may object to this Europe-centeredness, with good rea-
son. This book bears the title A Short History of the Twentieth
Century. But until now, I have said little or nothing about Africa,
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

South America, Asia, and other parts of the world. In the twenti-
eth century, their portion of the world’s population grew enor-
mously. After 1950, the population of Europe, including Russia,
hardly rose at all—while the numbers of people in the rest of the
world more than doubled. (The entire population of the globe
was about 2.5 billion in 1950; in 1990, it was about 5.3 billion.)
Why, then, this lopsided emphasis, this concentration on Europe
in the twentieth century? My reasons are simple. The two world
wars and then the Cold War involved mostly Europe; they were

mostly fought in Europe; they were decided in Europe—proba-

bly the last time in history that a great war would be decided
there. During the twentieth century, the primary importance of
Europe still prevailed, though it had begun to fade. The twen
tieth century was an interim century—the end of an entire age,
and most probably the beginning of a new age. But speculations
about the latter are not within the province of this small book.
The very definition of “Europe” is more recent than we are ac-
customed to think. For long centuries the term was not widely
used, save on certain occasions. Geographically, Europe is a large
peninsula on the west of Asia. It was not until 1833 that a German
geographer defined its eastern limits along a boundary that sepa-
rated the “European” from the Asian portions of the Russian
Empire. Regarding the Turkish Ottoman Empire, its possessions
in southeastern Europe kept changing over the life of the empire.
In 1914, within geographic Europe only a very small portion of
Turkey remained, around Constantinople. Four years later, the
Russian and German empires retreated from some of their East-
ern European possessions, while close to the middle of Europe
the Austro- Hungarian Empire broke into pieces, a result of
which was the establishment of new Eastern European states.
There was now a new and unstable eastern half of Europe. In
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

1914 the spark that was to ignite the First World War had risen
from there; in 1939, Eastern Europe was in many ways the cause
of the Second World War. Hitler wanted to dominate it; he knew
that if he succeeded, the importance of the Western European
powers would very much diminish. That was why in 1939 an
anxious government in Britain, for the first time in its history,
gave a British guarantee to an Eastern European state, Poland,
hoping to convey to Hitler that he could go this far but no far-
ther, and thus avoid a second European, indeed world, war. It did

not succeed. Hitler turned to Stalin; they then divided Poland

and other parts of Eastern Europe between themselves.
We know what resulted in 1945—or rather, until 1989. Before
1945, Britain and the United States depended on Russia in or-
der to conquer Germany. Either Hitler would rule just about all
of the continent; or Stalin, about half of it. The western half of
Europe was better than none—but it was Stalin’s practices and
methods that brought the Cold War about. Worse: no one could
be sure that Stalin would stop at the “iron curtain.” The result
was the American military and politic al commitment to protect
Western Europe. Another result was the tendency of thought-
ful Western Europeans to proceed to an integration, or possibly
even a u nion, of Western Europe. Such a movement or desidera-
tum existed faintly in the 1920s, but then was washed away by
Hitler’s conquests. Soon after 1946, it revived again, more wide-
spread and important than the “pan-European” advocacies be-
fore the war. (One of their outspoken supporters was Churchill.)
For fifty years after 1948, the establishment of a European institu-
tion advanced in successive steps. No need to list them in this
little book, since they are well known: the European Coal and
Steel Community, the European Common Market, the European
Defense Community, the Schengen Plan (providing for unhin-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

dered travel within most of Europe), a common European cur-

rency, the euro.
Yet the plan for a united Europe had grave shortcomings,
some of them from its very beginning. There was, at the outset,
an emphasis on economic and financial matters, rather than on
states and politics. In the late 1940s, there was a genuine desire,
especially among the youth of some Western European states,
for something like a political union. (The very first flag of the
united-Europe movement showed a green “E” on a white field.

The later, still-existing flag of the Council of Europe is a rather

uninspiring adaptation of the American stars, without stripes: a
dozen stars in a circle in a dark-blue field.) There was a belief
that economics must precede statecraft. Well, it did and it didn’t.
Forty or fifty years after 1948, there was no European govern-
ment, no European executive power, no European army. Forty
or fifty years after 1948, the enthusiasm and the attraction that
young Europeans felt for a united Europe—indeed, for a par
ticular identity in being European—had faded. Except here and
there, most Europeans were unready to face the problems and
challenges of a new situation: the end of the Cold War, the
breakup of the Soviet Union—indeed, the end of the division of
Europe. When, a mere two years after 1989, Yugoslavia broke up
in a series of civil and tribal wars, “Europe” did nothing; shame-
facedly, it allowed the United States to intervene in the Yugoslav
problem by aerial bombing.
Near the end of and after the Second World War, consider-
able demographic changes occurred in Europe, the first phase of
which affected mostly Germany. From 1945 to 1948, more than
five million Germans fled or were expelled from Poland and
Czechoslovakia (other, smaller groups followed them from por-
tions of Yugoslavia, Romania, and other countries). These Ger-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

man refugees were absorbed into the prosperous society of West

Germany with surprisingly little trouble, and soon without many
political consequences. But after that, came another, more mo-
mentous and portentous change, now from the South rather
than from the East. Beginning even before the end of the Euro-
pean overseas colonial empires, many hundreds of thousands of
people started to move—some of them legally, others not—from
the global South and East into Western Europe. They were pre-
ceded by other, sometimes temporary migrants (often Turks)

seeking work in the great industrial plants, especially in Ger-

many. After 1961, this movement of hundreds of thousands, even
millions of people, mostly from North Africa and the Middle
East, grew very large, with all kinds of social and politic al conse-
quences whose end is unforeseeable.
After 1950, the United States, too, had to face a constantly in-
creasing and mostly illegal immigration from the global South.
The effects of this on the composition of American society and
on American politics were, and continue to be, considerable.
There are two main elements that distinguish the immigration
experiences of America from those of Europe. First, the land
mass of North America is much greater than Europe’s, and able
to accommodate new arrivals more easily. Second, the children
of immigrants to North America assimilate more readily than
the children of migrants to Europe’s nations. Yet the great his-
torical movement of the past five hundred years is now reversing.
For five hundred years, people, most of them born in Western
Europe, moved across oceans, spreading throughout and settling
in other continents. Now many of their descendants have been
returning from those places, while some people from Africa and
Asia are pressing toward Europe.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Meanwhile, an event of very great importance was unfolding in

Europe: the retreat of the Soviet Union. As early as 1961, the “iron
curtain” began to show holes here and there (even though the
Berlin Wall was then being built). Trade and travel restrictions
and intellectual constraints were eased somewhat. These partial
reforms were not ordained by Moscow; they almost always re-
sulted from decisions by rulers of its satellite states. One-party
states and rulers still existed, but there was palpable evidence of a

desire for greater freedom among their peoples. One example of

this was Czechoslovakia in 1968, where Alexander Dubček, a de-
cent man and something of an idealist, was about to move the
regime in the direction of a European democracy, without pro-
claiming so. The rulers in Moscow were worried. They chose to
invoke the Warsaw Pact, a so-called alliance system of the satel-
lite states of Eastern Europe, and invaded Czechoslovakia with
tanks and troops. There were few casualties, and even Dubček
was allowed to retire and live out his life. But that was not the
end. Worker revolts erupted in Poznan, Poland, two years later,
and recurred in 1976. In 1978, the Polish cardinal Karol Wojtyla
was elected pope—he took the name John Paul II—an unprece-
dented elevation of very great importance, because of the excep-
tional qualities of this hierarch, but also because of its effects in
Poland, where he went in 1979. (Would the Soviet U nion have
permitted his visit thirty years earlier? It would have been incon-
ceivable.) About the same time, a new Polish workers’ organiza
tion called “Solidarity” arose, a drastic break with the monopoly
of the Communist Party and the state. Its popular success was
such that in late 1981, the Polish minister of defense proclaimed
martial law and arrested Lech Walesa, the leader of Solidarity—
but without prosecuting him. Soon Solidarity (and Walesa) reap-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

peared. The Soviet leadership had hesitated, choosing not to in-

tervene.
But the Cold War was not yet over—mostly due to a new
American president, Reagan, elected in 1980. During the Seven-
ties it was possible and even current to speak of “détente” in
Russian-American relations, one result of which was a general
agreement signed in Helsinki in 1975, including cumbrous and
indeterminate details. Even before 1980, the American govern-
ment had been shocked by the Soviet decision to invade Afghan-

istan, whose new ruler had displeased Moscow. Within two

years, the Russian-Afghan War was a failure and the Russians
withdrew from that unpredictable and ungovernable country.
But Reagan, comfortably convinced of the supreme doctrine of
anti-Communism, was uninterested in improving American-
Russian relations; indeed, he intervened militarily in the Carib
bean Nicaragua, El Salvador, and the tiny island of Grenada
against irresponsible governments and guerrilla movements
which, though anti-American, were not and could not be con-
sidered springboards of the Soviet U nion south of the United
States. In 1983, Reagan also announced a New Defense Initiative
(dubbed “Star Wars” by its critics) that, at least for a while, made
American-Soviet disarmament agreements impossible.
But Reagan’s “evil empire” was tottering, no matter what he
believed or wished to believe. There were so many indications of
this, that soon he had to change his mind. In March 1985, Mikhail
Gorbachev became general secretary of the Communist Party
and the leader of the Soviet U nion (he was a protégé of Yuri
Andropov, who, as Soviet ambassador to Hungary, had been an
exceptionally shrewd observer of the Hungarian Revolution).
Gorbachev proclaimed and then pursued “perestroika” and
“glasnost,” the former term meaning the (for him) unavoidable
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

reforms of the Russian economy—indeed, of Russian society; the

latter meaning the necessary opening of public opinion. Perhaps
even more important was his conviction that the eventual suc-
cess of these reforms depended on essential changes in Russian
foreign policy, first of all in Russian-American relations. Soon
after Gorbachev’s assumption of power, the accumulated evi-
dence and proof of these inclinations trickled down to Reagan,
who now began to consider and even appreciate them. A result
of this was the two leaders’ first summit meeting, in Geneva in

November 1985. Three other summits followed, over the subse-

quent three years. In the end, Reagan and Gorbachev got along
quite well.
All of this marked the end of the Cold War between the United
States and the Soviet Union. But even more important than this
significant improvement in Russian-American relations was the
drastic change in Russia’s relations with its neighbor states—in-
deed, the end of the “iron curtain” dividing Europe. Very soon
after his assumption to power in 1985, Gorbachev advised the
rulers of the Warsaw Pact states that they would have to control
their own affairs, without intervention from the Soviet U nion.
This became more and more obvious. Less than three years later,
one-party rule in Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia began to
end. The year 1989 was, then, an annus mirabilis. In these coun-
tries, monopoly rule truly ended; there were free elections. Else-
where in Eastern Europe, too: before the end of the year, the Ber-
lin Wall was pulled down, and West and East Germany were
reunited. All of this took place without any bloodshed (the only
small exception was Romania).
Gorbachev himself declared that the Cold War was over. His
problems were not. He was unpopular among Russia’s politicians
and with the Russian people at large, who felt or saw, rightly or
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

wrongly, that he was responsible for the sudden decline of Russia

as a great power. For what was happening now was something
more than the end of Russia’s domination of its European neigh-
bors; it was the breakup of the Soviet U nion itself. By early 1991,
the former Baltic republics Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania (since
1940 forcibly incorporated within the Soviet Union) had de-
clared their independence. So did Ukraine, Belorussia, Moldova,
and Azerbaijan. An attempt to overthrow Gorbachev failed. He
resigned at Christmas. The new president was Boris Yeltsin, who

declared the end of the Soviet Union and the birth of a new Rus-
sia, represented no longer by its red flag but by its ancient tri-
color banner.
What would happen with Russia in the future is beyond the
scope of this book. The consequences of the Soviet Union’s
breakup were, and may still be, enormous. Within Russia itself,
the historic and ancient division between easterners and west-
erners, “Slavophiles” and “Westernizers,” was temporarily disap-
pearing. Still, one matter belonging to the twentieth century, in-
cluding the Cold War, may be worth mentioning: after nearly a
half-century of occupation by Russia, the effects of Russian cul-
ture, language, religion, and habits on the peoples of Eastern Eu-
rope were virtually nonexistent.
At the same time, many of the differences between Western
and Eastern Europe continued and continue to exist.
The Cold War was over. The century of great European wars
was over. The division of Europe was over. But so was the Euro-
pean Age, the primacy of Europe over the rest of the world.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

“GREAT LEAP FORWARD”

The Third World—Near and Middle East—Far East and

Australia—Africa—South America and the Western Hemi-
sphere—The movements of peoples

The term “Third World” has two meanings, one tempo-

rary and the other long-range. Its temporary—though still cur-
rent—usage emerged around 1955, connected with the Bandung
Conference of that year, when leaders and spokesmen for Asian
and other countries declared that they represented a large por-
tion of the world unaligned with and independent of the United
States and the Soviet U nion, the two superpowers. The term
expressed something largely obvious but also inaccurate, since
neither a unified entity nor a political conglomeration called a
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

“Third World” came about. But the end of the Cold War neither
affected nor diminished its meaning. For many centuries, no one
spoke of a “Third World.” Moreover, Europe and Russia ex-
panded, establishing colonies on other continents and especially
in Africa. In some portions of the world, such as Australia and
New Zealand, British and Irish people conquered largely empty
continents and groups of islands. There, and in some of the states
of South America, that “whitening” of parts of the globe is still
apparent. Elsewhere, by and large, it is not.

During the twentieth century, the rule of European powers on

other continents ceased to exist. Many kinds of new states filled
the void after their departure. In South and Central America,
this had already happened in the nineteenth century. In Africa, it
occurred mostly in the twentieth. In the so-called Middle East,
such a development was more complicated. There, and on the
vast continent of Asia, ancient empires such as Iran (Persia), In-
dia, Japan, and China went on to exist in newer, centralized,
transformed ways. One result of all of this was an enormous
multiplicity of states within the United Nations—a Roosevelt
ian idea put into practice in 1945, with its headquarters a glass-
covered pimple on the brute flank of New York, and by the end
of the twentieth century one with little power or even meaning.
What will happen with the history of “states” in the future, no
one can tell. Recall only that in the so-called Modern Age, now
passing, for at least five centuries the main instruments of poli-
tics and history were those of states and of their wars with one
another. Whether this will form the structure of the history of
peoples in the future is unanswerable.
A related question, answerable only with great uncertainty, is
the origin of most of these states. It is at least possible to trace the
origins—well, at least some of the origins—of “modern” France,
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

“modern” Italy, “modern” Germany, and so on, if by “modern”

we mean the existence of a largely unified French or Italian or
German state that came into being sometimes at least five, in
other cases less than two, centuries ago. Before and after that,
a sense of nationhood began to fill up the framework of their
states. The word “nationalism” hardly existed before the nine-
teenth century; but at least in Europe, the ideal of a national state
(or, later, of “national self-determination”) became dominant.
But that ideal of a national state—indeed, the very consciousness

of nationality, as something different from other habits of reli-

gious or racial or tribal identification, including self-identifica
tion—did not emerge in Asia or in Africa until sometime in the
twentieth century. Before that, there were a handful of thinkers,
writers, and ambitious politicians espousing something like it—
but without much, or any, effect. It was the end of colonial rule
by the “white” powers that—with notable exceptions, such as Ja-
pan—brought about Asian and African nationalism.
During and after the First World War, there were stirrings
of nationalism and anticolonialism in the Near East, India, and
China. The movement’s prophet and leader, Mohandas Gandhi,
had appeared in India. More and more Chinese were shocked
and hurt to see how portions of their former empire had been
surrendered to European powers and especially to Japan. In 1917,
the British began to support Arab nationalism against the declin-
ing and receding Turkish Ottoman Empire. The status of Africa
did not much change. There were only two more or less indepen
dent states throughout that enormous continent: Liberia in the
west and Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in the east. In 1935, between the
wars, Mussolini chose to invade and conquer the latter, whereby
a large Italian empire came to exist in East Africa, comprising
Abyssinia, Italian Eritrea, and Somalia. Five years later, British
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

and Commonwealth troops put an end to that. Elsewhere, and

especially in Far Eastern Asia, the Second World War led to the
end of colonialism. The Japanese attempted to profit from this,
and in many ways they did—in some countries and among some
people, even with enduring results.
“Asia for Asians” was a Japanese slogan. In Indonesia, Burma,
and even the Philippines, pro-Japanese nationalist and anticolo-
nialist “independent” regimes came into existence; the Japanese
also promoted an Indian nationalist movement, and in Southeast

Asia a small Indian National Army—but this army never got as

far as India. During the Second World War, there were three
competing regimes in China: that of Chiang Kai-shek in Chung
king, closely allied with the Americans and the British; that
of Mao Tse-tung’s Communists, mostly in northwestern China;
and that of Wang Ching-wei, promoted and supported by the
Japanese in Nanking. It is telling that, with few exceptions (Wang
among them), the pro-Japanese collaborationists after the war
did not undergo anything like the punishment of the pro-Nazi
collaborationists in Europe. One example: the pro- Japanese
Sukarno in Indonesia went on to become its national leader im-
mediately after the war. In sum, anticolonialism and nationalism
have now become much the same thing—and throughout much
of the Third World.

The most complicated and long-lasting consequences of the two

world wars—further complicated by matters during the Cold
War—were those in the “Middle East.” This geographic term,
too, requires some explanation. Before, say, 1945, there were the
Near East and the Middle East, the first encompassing the states
and the lands west of India; the latter, India and some of South-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

east Asia west of the Far East. The term “Near East” has now
disappeared, which may be geographically regrettable (though
politic ally perhaps not), since the development and history of In-
dia during the past sixty years have differed from those of most
states west of it—from what we imprecisely, but perhaps tellingly,
call the Middle East.
The most important and enduring development in the Middle
East began as early as the First World War. It was the breakup of
the Turkish Ottoman Empire. Even before 1914, Turkish rule and

sovereignty over much of it was feeble. By 1917, the British had

pushed the Turks out of Palestine and other places; and they an-
nounced the so-called Balfour Declaration, which granted the
Jews a homeland in Palestine after nearly 2,000 years. Six weeks
before Germany, Turkey surrendered to the Allies. Its empire
dissolved. But there arose a national hero and savior, Mustafa
Kemal, capable of repairing at least the most senseless and injuri-
ous mutilations that had been imposed on Turkey in 1920 by the
Allies, including Greece. The Treaty of Sèvres was revised in 1923
by the Treaty of Lausanne. By that time, Kemal had defeated and
expelled the Greeks from their considerable enclaves in Turkey,
which became a solid, stable, and almost homogeneous state,
while conceding the cession of much of its erstwhile empire. This
was one of the few historical examples in which the amputation
of large, nonnational provinces turned out to be an unquestion-
able benefit for the mother country.
The British now held Palestine, where they had to be careful
not to alienate the large Arab population. They tried to limit
the immigration of large quantities of Jews into Palestine. The
French established a protectorate over Syria and Lebanon. All of
this would come to an end soon after the Second World War.
During the war, in 1941, the British had to contend with a nation-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

alist uprising in Iraq, which they defeated. Later that year, they
and the Soviet Union together deposed the shah of Iran, elevat-
ing his son to the throne. Both of them now occupied northern
and southern zones of that country. These became an important
passageway for American armaments and supplies shipped to
Russia. Soon after 1945, Iran was the site of a brief episode that
foreshadowed the coming Cold War. In January 1946, the Rus-
sians tried to detach two of the northwestern provinces of Iran,
keeping Soviet troops there. A year later, Stalin thought it better

to give that up. By that time, the influence of the Americans in

the Middle East had grown well beyond that of the British. One
of the prime elements of this was the increasing importance of
Middle Eastern oil, especially in Iran, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia.
From 1940 to 1950, Middle East production of oil increased about
sixfold; another ten years later, it amounted to more than half of
the world’s oil production.
In 1951, after the leader of Iran was assassinated, a weird po
litical personality, Mohammad Mosaddegh, forced the shah to
make him the prime minister of Iran. Mosaddegh immediately
nationalized the Iranian oil industry, expelling the British com-
panies and their experts, who had been running it. In 1953, Presi-
dent Eisenhower and the CIA helped to organize Mosaddegh’s
overthrow and the restoration of the shah’s authority. The United
States thus replaced Britain’s traditional primacy in supporting
Iran’s independence, besides being that country’s principal West-
ern economic ally. This did not matter much, at least not for a
while. In the 1950s, the main contentions and troubles and even
wars occurred in what was once called the Near East, involving
many Arab states and nations (including Egypt), as well as Israel.
Many of the Arabs in the Middle East had a common language
and a common religion, Islam. Their populations were increas-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

ing rapidly. Yet they were not united, and attempts at even partial
unions failed. They were united against Israel because there was
a large Arab population within Palestine. Soon after 1945, the
British realized that their presence in Palestine/Israel had be-
come useless. They, the United States, and even the Soviet Union
agreed in 1947 to turn to the United Nations, which proposed
that Palestine be partitioned into two states—one Jewish and the
other Arab. The Arab states would not accept the existence of a
Jewish state. In May 1948, the British left. Immediately, the Israe-

lis declared the founding of a Jewish state. Immediately, the Arab

states of Egypt, Syria, Transjordan, Lebanon, and Iraq attacked
Israel. This war the Israelis won, even though they were outnum-
bered. They fought better than their enemies, whose armies were
not unified. Eventually, something like a cease-fire came into be-
ing, though it was a very frail, incomplete thing.
In 1948, both the United States and the Soviet Union sup-
ported Israel. This did not last long, mostly because of the ris-
ing power of Arab nationalism and populism. In 1952, Egyptian
military officers overthrew the monarchy of King Farouk; soon a
former colonel, Gamal Abdel Nasser, was at the head of Egypt.
He began to accept some armaments from the Soviet Union.
In 1956, he declared the nationalization of the Suez Canal Com-
pany, which had been built and managed by France and Britain.
The governments of these ancient powers, already buffeted and
shorn by Arab nationalists here and there, concluded—after
some hesitation, and against the American secretary of state,
John Foster Dulles—that they had to make a stand. They in-
cluded Israel in their plans. The latter would advance across the
Sinai Peninsula toward the canal, stopping before it, while French
and British naval and air forces would descend on the canal and
seal it off from Egypt. It was a short, brilliant war. The Soviet
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Union threatened to intervene, without much effect. President

Eisenhower did intervene, with considerable effect. After less
than a week, the Israelis, the British, and the French withdrew.
Less than two years later, a revolution put an end to the once pro-
British monarchy in Iraq. Step by step, American troops were
dispatched to various Middle Eastern countries, here and there.
No Arab country would accept the existence of Israel. There
were no agreed-upon frontiers, only cease-fire lines between Is-
rael and its neighbors. Israel was a viable state, and fairly pros-

perous; still, it had a population of fewer than three million,

while its surrounding Arab countries had a combined popula-
tion at least ten times that size. They formed a Palestine Libera-
tion Organization; but in other ways, they were not united. In
May 1967, Nasser threatened to close the southern mouth of the
Sinai, choking off Israeli shipping, though perhaps not much
more. The Israelis decided that this was a propitious time for a
preemptive war. On June 5, they attacked Egypt, then followed
this up with attacks on Jordan and then Syria. In less than six
days, they defeated the armies of each. There was another cease-
fire. Neither the Soviet Union nor the United States had inter-
vened. The State of Israel now acquired considerable territories
—but also a large Arab population in the West Bank, source of
immediate and future troubles.
In October 1973, there was another short war between Egypt
and Israel that ended in a draw. But meanwhile, the leaders of the
Arab states, as well as those of Iran, realized that they had an-
other important instrument not only for increasing their reve-
nues, but also for influencing the Great Powers, including the
United States. This instrument was their ability to control oil
prices. They started by raising the price of their oil by about 70
percent. Soon, they tripled the price. But here is yet another ex-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

ample of how the effects of even the most radical and extreme
economic and financial matters are much less severe than peo-
ple usually think. These new and startling financial revenues
changed little in the lives, or indeed the minds, of most people in
these oil-producing states. Their politic al revolutions, with their
populist and nationalist slogans and chiefs, mattered much more.
The monarchies in Libya and Iraq were gone. More important
was the case of Iran. Its shah was overthrown in 1979 by a revolu-
tionary Islamic movement and its ayatollah (Khomeini). This, in

a state whose revenues had recently doubled or even tripled—

and where millions of people now drove automobiles.
One commendable development was a peace treaty signed by
Egypt and Israel in 1979, arranged by the American president,
Jimmy Carter. To this day, it has been the first and only such
treaty between Israel and one of its Arab neighbors, and was pro-
moted by the president of Egypt, Anwar Sadat, who had suc-
ceeded Nasser. Sadat was assassinated two years later. The year
1989, when the Cold War ended, was not marked by any substan-
tial change in the Middle East. Populist nationalism was still the
order (or the disorder) of the day, including the senseless radical
hostility of Iran against the United States.
The state and country of Afghanistan (not really part of the
“Middle” East) was attacked and invaded by Russia because of
the elimination of one supposedly pro-Communist ruler by an-
other tribal chief; but the Russians, not for the first time in Af-
ghan history, were defeated and then withdrew. The United
States chose to send a portion of its army to Afghanistan later—
another senseless move. But by that time, not only the Cold War
but the historical twentieth century was over. In the Near East,
too, it had begun in 1914, but it did not all end in 1989. Populist
nationalism in the Middle East is still going on.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

During the entire twentieth century, there was no real collision

between Russia and the United States across much of the vast
continent of Asia. During the chaos of the Bolshevik Revolution
and its ensuing civil war, Japan attempted to gain an important
foothold in the Russian Far East in 1920, but then it pulled back,
partly because of American pressure. We have seen that in 1945
the United States and Russia were, briefly, allies against Japan.

During the Korean War, both were careful to keep clear of each
other. What seemed to becloud everything was the issue of Com-
munism and China. Yet by 1989, China had become—sort of—a
friend and a supplier of the United States, more and more cap
italist, though officially Communist. Except for North Korea,
rigidly Communist regimes all over Far E astern and Southeast-
ern Asia ceased to exist. There were now four great or consider-
able powers in Asia: China, India, a resurrected Japan, and Rus-
sia, with its imperial possessions in the north—a quadripartite
geographic order quite unlike the situation in the Middle East or
Africa, and not entirely different from the one that had existed in
the past.
What had seemed (but only seemed) to change everything at
the beginning of the Cold War was the triumph of the Commu-
nists in the civil war in China. Suddenly it looked as if more than
half of the world had turned red. Yet Russia was still Russia, and
China was China. There were conflicts between them from the
beginning of the Cold War. Stalin preferred two Chinas, instead
of one. Mao Tse-tung, the leader-dictator of the new Commu-
nist China, was not favorably disposed toward Stalin and Russia.
Meanwhile, for more than twenty years, Mao’s ideas and his rule
did China no good at all. His collectivization and nationalization
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

of Chinese agriculture and industry were bad enough; his doctri-

nal declarations “Let a hundred flowers bloom” (citizens were
encouraged to express their views) and the “Great Leap Forward”
(Mao’s campaign for rapidly modernizing China’s economy)
were disasters, resulting in millions of deaths. The Soviet U
nion
made a few geographic concessions to China in 1954–1955, but
these did not really improve their relations. By the end of that
decade, their mutual distrust was evident. Khrushchev de-
nounced Russia’s military agreements with China; during a bor-

der conflict between China and India, he declared that both

countries were friends of the Soviet Union. Ten years later, Chi-
nese and Russian armies fought for at least a month along the
Ussuri River. Then President Nixon declared his friendship for
China, visited Peking, and hugged the wizened and tottering
Mao with both arms. Nixon thought that he was a great states-
man playing the Chinese card. In reality, it was the Chinese who
were playing the American card. Soon Mao died, and his succes-
sor’s prime attempt was to make China (now inhabited by more
than 700 million people) into a first-rate industrial and even fi
nancial power. Now they would tolerate this or that, but not po
litical opposition. In 1989, a large throng of students demon-
strated against the government in a big square in Peking, but
they were broken up by a brutal police.
Neither India nor Japan turned Communist. In both of these
great countries, the attractions of Communism and consequently
the influence of a Communist Party were very small. In India,
memories of the relative benevolence of erstwhile British rule
and its benefits were a great, if often unacknowledged, asset. The
British, too (unlike the French or even the Dutch), decided to ac-
cept Indian independence very early after the Second World
War. They left in early 1947. The intelligent and opportunist In-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

dian political leader, Jawaharlal Nehru, assisted in the transi-

tion. Amazingly, the more than 500 different Indian principali-
ties and their maharajah rulers went along. But large portions of
the northeastern and far eastern portions of the Indian Penin-
sula were inhabited not by Hindus, but by Muslims. Fortunately,
both Nehru and the Muslim leader, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, saw
that their coexistence within an Indian state was not possible.
Hence, the partial partition of the great peninsula of India: on
one side, Pakistan, a Muslim state in the northeast; on the other

side, Bangladesh, a smaller Muslim enclave in the southeast, one

thousand miles away. The partition led to the migration and dis-
placement of millions of people and to the death of tens of thou-
sands. But a solution it was, though imperfect. For decades, India
and Pakistan quarreled and even fought along their borders, es-
pecially in Kashmir, with its mixed (and largely Muslim) popula-
tion. In 1962, India faced a mini-war with China, whose troops
penetrated beyond India’s state borders.
India and Pakistan engaged in more than one mini-war in the
1960s. Later, Bangladesh proclaimed its independence—a great
loss for Pakistan. India’s own internal troubles were serious. In
most cases, they involved language, since there are considerable
portions of India where the languages spoken, though not en-
tirely dissimilar, are different from Hindi. From time to time,
mutinies, provincial revolts, murderous riots and movements
on behalf of separation or autonomy shook the subcontinent,
compromising its unity. Yet the democratic and increasingly
populist practice of elections kept it from breaking up. The grad-
ual improvement in the living standards of its ever-increasing
population helped. In 1966, Indira Gandhi (Nehru’s daughter)
was elected prime minister. She reigned for ten years and was
elected again in 1980; four years later, she was assassinated. She
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

had remarkable ruling talents, but demonstrated an increasing

tendency to govern by decree. Her son, Rajiv, assumed the pre-
miership from 1984 to 1990. The Cold War and the historical
twentieth century had ended, while electoral democracy in India
kept on. “Pourvu que cela dure!”—“Let’s hope it lasts!” (as Letitia
Bonaparte said whenever she heard of her son Napoleon’s suc-
cesses).
The greatest and most enduring benefit the United States pro-
vided the Japanese in 1945 was to allow them to keep their em-

peror and his advisers and, by and large, their politic al order. Ja-
pan had been very successful well before the Second World War.
During the First World War, it had extended its influence and
power (one example: in 1917, there was a fleet of Japanese de-
stroyers even in the Mediterranean). After the war, Japan ex-
tended its possessions and influence in the western Pacific and
in China. The British thought they had to choose: between the
United States and Japan. Of course, they preferred the United
States. Both the American and the Japanese navies had to con-
template an eventual war in the Pacific. The Japanese thought
they ought to choose: expand against Russia in Siberia; expand,
at least indirectly, against America in the western Pacific; or ex-
pand in eastern and northern China. Two strong powers, and a
very weak one. The Japanese opted to move against China.
The Japanese had had a firm foothold on the Asian continent
since 1910—namely, their rule over Korea. In 1931, aware of the
financial and other limitations of British and American power,
they transformed Chinese Manchuria (Manchukuo) into a Japa-
nese satellite state. The next year, they advanced farther south.
By 1937, a full-scale Chinese-Japanese war was going on. By 1939,
China had been driven from the entire China Sea, which had es-
sentially become a Japanese sea. A year after the Second World
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

War began in Europe, Japan joined a tripartite alliance with Ger-

many and Italy. Britain and the United States supported China.
By 1940, Japan had a formidable army and navy, singular
throughout the Far East and Asia. It had built the largest battle-
ship in the world. Japan’s modern armaments were astonishing,
in a country whose steel production was a fraction of that of the
United States. (Among other things, Japan built a superb fighter
plane, the Zero.) Throughout 1941, Japan and the United States
edged closer and closer to war. The course of the war we know:

the end of their negotiations; Pearl Harbor; six months of unbro-

ken Japanese triumphs; then America’s piecemeal grinding down
of Japan.
Much of Tokyo had been bombed into smithereens; Hiro-
shima and Nagasaki were destroyed by American atomic bombs;
Russia declared war on Japan near the end; Japan gave up all of
her conquests in the Far East, including Korea. Yet the country
and its people recovered very fast. (This included their memo-
ries. They accepted, easily, America’s victory and its occupation
of Japan; but they did not apologize for their aggressive record
before the war.) The Korean War, 1950–1953, was a boon to Ja-
pan because of America’s strategic and other dependence on its
enemy-turned-ally. What followed was the persistence of politi
cal stability, together with a spectacular growth of material pros-
perity, unbroken except for a few years in the 1970s. By 1989, the
end of the historical century, average income per person in Japan
was slightly higher than that in the United States. The Japanese
began to increase their armed forces (the minimal expenditure
on these had been one element in their successful budgets); and
there were some signs of conflict with China, though not many.
Still, the relations between Japan and China may be one of the
open questions—if not the main question—of the twenty-first
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

century. On the Asian mainland, a strange remnant of the recent

past was the Communist dictatorship of North Korea—that, too,
a problem for China as well as for Japan.
South of China and southwest of Japan, Indochina was not
spared by the Cold War. It had been a fairly prosperous colony of
France since the late nineteenth century; it was then occupied by
the Japanese during the Second World War, at the end of which
they turned over part of it (Vietnam) to the nationalist Commu-
nist chieftain Ho Chi Minh. The French attempted to reestablish

their authority in the years after the war, with partial success in
the Laotian and Cambodian parts of Indochina, but they met
their match with Ho Chi Minh and his guerrilla generals, who
defeated them at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. Believing in the “dom-
ino” theory—according to which the fall of any country to Com-
munists would inevitably lead to the fall of its neighbors—the
United States began to send troops to South Vietnam. By 1964,
an entire American army was stationed there. President Lyndon
Johnson, remembering American isolationism, wanted to win
that war. But he failed. The North Vietnamese were not beaten;
an armistice followed. By 1975, all of former Indochina, North
and South Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos were under Commu-
nist rule, though not entirely united. Next to and south of them,
the dominos did not fall. Thailand and Malaysia were not Com-
munist. In the latter, the British, perhaps for the last time, won a
difficult military victory over Communists and guerrillas; then
they left the country. The result was an independent Malaysia
and, south of it, another city-state, Singapore. By the end of the
Cold War, American and Vietnamese relations were approach-
ing normal.
The southernmost continents of the world, Australia and New
Zealand, were brave and resolute members of the British Empire
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

in both world wars. Their soldiers and seamen (and, on occa-

sion, their generals) gave great and, at times, decisive help to
their mother country. They were not directly threatened by an
enemy power until 1942, when the Japanese approached north-
western Australia; but that danger faded quickly, mostly because
of the presence of American naval power. After the war, and dur-
ing the rest of the century, Australia’s main concern was immi-
gration to a continent still largely empty. The prospect that large
numbers of Asians and other nonwhites would move to Austra-

lia or New Zealand did not materialize. The democratic stability

and prosperity of the Antipodes continued throughout the Cold
War, in which—unlike their involvement in the two world wars
—their particip
ation was small.

During the twentieth century (more precisely: after the Second

World War), the most radical and ominous changes in the politi
cal, social, and racial geography of the globe happened in Africa.
This enormous continent lay beyond the range of the two world
wars, except in the north, where, during the Second World War,
British, German, and Italian armies fought in Libya and western-
most Egypt, and for a short time Americans fought in Algeria
and Tunisia. As late as 1940, almost all of Africa was still colo-
nized by European powers: France, Britain, Belgium, Portugal,
Italy, Spain (the Union of South Africa was a self-governing part
of the British Commonwealth). Egypt was something of a British
protectorate. The colonization of Africa had been relatively re-
cent; most of it had occurred during the latter half of the nine-
teenth century. We have seen that at the beginning of the twen
tieth century, there were only two independent or noncolonial
states in Africa: Liberia in the west (founded by former African-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

American slaves) and Abyssinia in the east. At the end of the

Second World War, the political geography of Africa had not
yet changed. But soon, the white powers’ colonies would vanish.
They were succeeded, almost everywhere, by murderous chaos.
The French colonies in North Africa differed from the rest.
France had occupied and settled Algiers as early as 1830; and Tu-
nisia, fifty years later. By the twentieth century, there were about
one million Frenchmen (as well as Italians and Spaniards) liv-
ing in Algeria, the only substantial presence of white people in

Africa, except for those of Dutch and British origin in the far
south of the continent. The French, after the Second World War,
were determined to keep these lands and their people as part of
France. After fifteen years of struggle, they gave up. The one mil-
lion Frenchmen abandoned what to many of them were ances-
tral lands, withdrawing to France with bitterness in their hearts.
Even General de Gaulle, who in 1958 resumed his French presi-
dency and attempted to keep a French presence in Algeria, saw
that this was no longer possible. He recognized the indepen
dence of Algeria in 1962. Tunisia and French Morocco had
achieved that six years earlier. In the long Algerian War, at least
half a million people died. There was a bloody civil war in Alge-
ria in the early 1990s. But what was once French North Africa
was often spared the barbarism and chaos that afflicted most of
Africa, partly because of the French-educated leaders of their
early independence.
In 1960, Belgium and Britain (and France south and west of
the Sahara) gave up their colonies; Portugal followed about four-
teen years later. Immediately, about thirty “states” in Africa de-
clared their independence, their sovereignty, and their new bor-
ders. Many of these entities were set up along artific ial geographic
lines. By 1990, there were about fifty such states, including some
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

islands close to Africa in the Indian Ocean, soon members of the

United Nations. Some of these “states” fought short wars with
one another. Almost all of them became involved in civil wars
that, in most cases, were tribal conflicts during and after which
hundreds of thousands of people were killed. Much of this began
immediately after “independence”—for example, in the former
Belgian Congo, ravaged by a barbaric civil (more precisely: non-
civil) war between successive tribal leaders. To sum up or even to
list these wars and mass murders in Africa would call for perhaps

dozens of pages. To state that after 1960 most of Africa descended

into or was marked by chaos is not an exaggeration. Most of the
new African “states” were now ruled by dictators and tyrants, all
of them having gained power through crude military murders
for which the classic term “coups d’état” is inadequate. The title
and the theme of Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, written in
the nineteenth century, was applicable to much of Africa a cen-
tury later.
Here and there in the 1970s, the Soviet Union supported such
tyrannies, taking advantage of the declarations by some of these
dictators (in Abyssinia, for example) that they were “Marxists.”
This did not last long. More regrettable was the American policy
under Reagan to sustain and support any African regime that
declared itself anti-Communist. (By way of example: in 1981 or
1982, this president received the tyrant Samuel Doe, ruler of Li-
beria, in the White House—the same man who had been seen to
preside over a spectacle in which his soldiers, having defeated
and captured one of the regime’s opponents, ate portions of his
body, still warm. Two years later, in another ceremony, the next
ruler, Charles Taylor, cut off and ate an ear of his rival.)
The only areas of Africa where considerable portions of white
people still remained were Rhodesia and South Africa. In the
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

former, whites put up strong resistance against black majority

rule, but that lasted only for a few years; after a while, Rhodesia
became Zimbabwe. In the former Union of South Africa, whites
and “coloreds” (men and w omen of mixed race) represented
about 30 percent of the population; the original Dutch and Brit-
ish people kept up their “apartheid” (separation of the races),
which was enforced by legislation that had been passed after the
Second World War—but the system of segregation was ulti-
mately dissolved without civil war. A remarkable man, without

whom a compromise was hardly possible, was Nelson Mandela—

a black leader who, after a quarter-century in prison, joined the
South African president, F. W. de Klerk, in an agreement to abol-
ish apartheid and accept majority rule in South Africa. This hap-
pened in and after 1989, when the historical twentieth century
was over.
What Mandela’s successors did, and would do, does not be-
long within the province of this book. But perhaps what fits here
are two sentences of historical speculation. At the end of the
twentieth century in Africa, as well as in the Middle East, only
two places remained with a considerable white population: South
Africa, at the southern tip of that vast continent; and the State of
Israel, thousands of miles away, on the western shores of Asia.
Will they remain so another hundred years from now?

Last but not least, I must turn to Latin America in the twentieth
century. “South and Central America” would be a more proper
designation; or “Latino America”—less precise, but telling. It is
another vast continent, of almost seven million square miles.
Spanish and Portuguese explorers had mapped it and begun set-
tling there even before they did so in North America. Unlike the
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

latter, Latin America did not see very large numbers of set-
tlers coming from the Old World. It is astonishing that, by and
large, through five somnolent and raw centuries, the growing
and considerably mixed populations of South and Central Amer-
ica maintained their predominantly Roman Catholic religion, as
well as their Spanish and Portuguese languages. The examples of
the French and American revolutions affected, somewhat belat-
edly, a few men of their small ruling classes after 1815. The result
was a series of wars of independence against a weak Spain—in

dependence that was achieved in a few years. In 1867, Mexico

revolted against the brief rule of a European emperor. Brazil,
also independent, kept its Portuguese-born emperor until 1889.
Cuba revolted against Spain a few years later, and achieved semi-
independence in 1898 with American armed support.
During the First World War, Brazil sent a small army to fight
with the Americans and the British in Europe. Between the wars,
the British presence and influence in South America gave way to
those of the Americans. In the Second World War, Argentina
was neutral; in October 1945 (again, oddly, after Germany had
been defeated), General Juan Perón, who evinced considerable
pro-German sympathy, assumed power there for a dozen years.
But dependence on the United States was still a primary fac-
tor, especially in South America. In Central America, sentiments
and politics tended to be different. In Mexico, a radically anti-
Catholic and anti-American political party ruled during the late
1920s and 1930s, attempting to expropriate, among other things,
American oil properties there; fortunately, there was no armed
conflict between Mexico and the United States (except for a few
marginal incursions along their border during the First World
War). Mexico’s frequent political chaos settled down before 1939.
The cities of Latin America grew enormously. By the end of the
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

twentieth century, Mexico City had 19 million people, Rio de Ja-

neiro had 10 million, Buenos Aires had 11 million—while large
numbers of indigenous rural folk (as well as many people in the
urban conglomerations) were still very poor.
The nineteenth and twentieth centuries saw few wars among
the states of Latin America. There were none in South America,
and only two ridiculous mini-wars between Central American
states (Honduras versus Nicaragua, and Honduras versus El Sal-

vador, the latter because of a football match). But the Cold War
did involve a few Latin American states—or rather, their am
bitious leaders. No matter what they proclaimed, an essential
sentiment involved was not so much antagonism between Cap
italism and Communism as it was anti-Americanism. The Amer-
ican government and the Central Intelligence Agency were in-
clined to think otherwise: they worried about the danger of
Communism and Soviet support for these states and leaders.
There was some evidence for the latter, but not much. Thus, the
CIA, with some other help from Central American states, over-
threw Guatemala’s ruler in 1954, and helped to depose and kill
the freely elected Chilean prime minister, Salvador Allende, in
1973. More serious, of course, was the problem of Cuba. Its dicta-
tor, Batista, was conquered by the former guerrilla leader Fidel
Castro in 1959. Castro now sought support from the Soviet
Union, more than half a world away. We have seen how all of this
developed into a dangerous crisis in Soviet-American relations:
partial and indecisive American attempts to overthrow Castro
with American help; frantic efforts by Castro to obtain support
from the Russians; the decision of the latter to ship Russian de-
fensive missiles to Cuba in 1962; the sudden withdrawal of the
Russians. Castro lived on, physically and mentally ailing. The
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

United States prudently chose not to invade Cuba. (It sent troops
to Cuba’s neighbor, the Dominican Republic, in 1965; to the tiny
Caribbean island of Grenada in 1983; and to Panama in 1989.)
A strange, episodic war occurred in 1982. The president of Ar-
gentina, Leopoldo Galtieri, a military man, decided—probably
to enhance his nationalist and populist support—to invade and
occupy the Falkland Islands, a lone British property in the South
Atlantic, occasionally claimed by Argentina. The British re-

sponded; one or two warships were sunk; they reoccupied the

Falklands in a month. Galtieri was gone. Argentine populism
and nationalism were not.
Throughout the second half of the twentieth century, many or
even most of the Latin American states were ruled by military
dictatorships. In 1989, Panama’s dictator, Manuel Noriega, was a
ludicrous example of the worst of them. He was a drug dealer on
a large scale. In late December 1989, he declared war against the
United States. American Marines entered Panama, overthrowing
him in ten days. At first, he took refuge in the Vatican Legation;
the American forces played ear-shattering rock music nearby to
unhinge him, which was not diffic ult. Noriega gave up in three
days, whereupon he was taken to Florida for trial and sentenced
to forty years in prison. All of this took place in the last few days
of 1989, the end of the Cold War, and the end of the historical
twentieth century.

Some—if not most—readers of the foregoing pages may have

been either impressed or startled by my ironic or even sarcas-
tic dismissal of the deplorable, dwarfish dictatorships in the so-
called Third World. Their rulers did matter, and they will con-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

tinue to matter. But that word “dismissal” is not quite correct.

What concerns me, and what ought to concern me, are the sub-
jects of those rulers. We in Western Europe or North America
should not claim that our traditions are naturally and perhaps
irrevocably superior to those of the peoples of Africa, the Middle
East, or Central and South America. “Democracy,” more than
“rule”—the equality of human beings—is advancing, whether we
are conscious of it or not. I believe that this is God’s design. I do
not expect all of my readers to see it so. Still, I expect most of

them to recognize that the democratization of the world has

been taking place and that it is some kind of advance rather than
a retreat. Populism and nationalism are the very worst (and, alas,
powerful) components of democracy. Whether they will over-
whelm it forever I cannot tell. What I am compelled to say is that
even the most miserable and corrupted peoples of the Third
World are our brothers and sisters.
Democracy inspires many people to move. The movement of
poorer people to more prosperous parts of the world has been
increasing, especially since the 1960s. This has affected many
Western and Southern European countries, but especially the
United States, where immigrants, mostly from Mexico, by 1990
became 25 or even 30 percent of the population of California
and Texas. Much of this immigration has been illegal. Because of
the geographic conditions, to halt or even control it has been
very difficult. Until recently, the assimilation and integration of
children of all kinds of immigrants in the United States have
been successful. Whether this will prevail or not, no one can tell.
Whatever may happen with the borders of states—that is, with
the politic al map of the globe—its demographic map is changing
and will continue to change. Everything suggests that this move-
ment of peoples will continue in the twenty-first century.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

THE LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN

KNOWLEDGE

A transitional century—Inheritances of the preceding one—

The twentieth century was a very transitional one. Of

course, so is every century, between two others—but the twen
tieth century was transitional, too, between two great ages: be-
tween the so-called Modern Age and what is coming after it.
Something similar had happened in the sixteenth and seven-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

teenth centuries: the transition from the Middle Ages to the

Modern Age—even though as late as 1700 these designations
(especially the latter one) did not exist. Again, it will take a long
time before an adjective, a name, will be affixed to the age now
current. To speculate about this is senseless.
Whether in the life of a single human being or in the lives
of entire countries, let alone continents, history is never of one
piece. Still, we may essay some generalizations about the great
changes that took place during the century now past, since

(in various ways) they have affected great varieties of peoples

throughout the globe. To begin with, the average life span of hu-
man beings increased. Some age-old diseases were radically con-
tained or even eliminated. More children attended school than
at any earlier time in history. One amazing global development
has been the increasing universality of English as a second lan-
guage. A previously unimaginable burgeoning of communica-
tions and then an even less imagin
able mass of information have
become available to billions of people. Famines, recorded or
unrecorded, were rarer than at almost any time in the past. Some
of the twentieth century’s famines were manmade, a result of
dictatorships or social turmoil. Likewise human-caused were the
millions of deaths due to wars, civil wars, revolutions, persecu-
tions, and liquidations between 1914 and 1989. Much of all of this
was made possible by advanced technologies. Some of the tech-
nological feats of the twentieth century surpassed just about all
projec
tions made as recently as a century ago—including
achievements such as sending humans into space and enabling
them to walk on the surface of the moon. Of course, there has
also been skepticism about the technologizing of the world—a
topic to which we shall return.
Billions of people, probably at least half of the population of
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

the globe, were materially better off in 1989 than their forebears
had been in 1914. Whether they were happier than their ances-
tors, no one can tell; indeed, no one should be allowed even to
speculate about this—not historians, not sociologists, not psy-
choanalysts, not nutrition or hormone experts, not even the
most sensitive thinkers and writers of our (or their) times.
A century does not start (or end) suddenly. In many ways, life
in the nineteenth century—its material circumstances and, per-
haps even more, its habits of mind—seeped into the twentieth

century and stayed with it for a long time. One of the most im
portant of these ongoing movements was the democratization of
the world. Social differences became liquefied—indeed, almost
to the point of vanishing. Almost everywhere, the influence and
even the presence of the more or less traditional aristocracies
disappeared. Of course, extremes of wealth and poverty existed
even in the most advanced democracies, but social “classes” were
relevant to the lives of ever fewer people. What became more and
more acceptable—and unquestionable—was the idea of democ-
racy or, more precisely, of popular sovereignty. To most people,
the latter meant the attractions of populism and nationalism.
Few people understood that populism was not liberalism and
that nationalism was different from patriotism.
The parallel ideas of democracy and liberalism belonged to
the nineteenth century, and continued into the twentieth. But
the ideas and the practices of Western European, British, and
even American liberal democracy became unpopular in most
European (not to speak of Latin American) states soon after the
First World War. One shattering example of this was the rise of
Hitler—and, before him, Mussolini—with their widespread pop-
ularity in Europe; it took a Second World War to bring an end
to them and their rule. But the victory of Churchillian Britain,
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Rooseveltian America, and of course of Stalinist Russia did not

mean a resurrection of the nineteenth-century ideals and prac-
tices of liberal democracy. Well before the end of the twentieth
century, “liberal” often became an unpopular adjective, in the
United States and in other, now-traditional democracies (and af-
ter 1989, in most states in Eastern Europe). Well before the end
of the twentieth century, the classic political adjectives “liberal”
and “conservative” lost much of their meaning, even though
these words—especially the latter—began to be used inaccu-

rately among most “antiliberal” people. (By that time, Marxism

and Communism were dead.)
There is profound wisdom in what Wendell Berry wrote: “In-
stead of ‘liberal’ and ‘conservative,’ or Leftist and Rightist divi-
sions among people, a new division is taking place: between peo-
ple who think of themselves as machines and people who think
of themselves as creatures.”1
Consider, too, what Tocqueville wrote 180 years ago in the
second—and infrequently read—volume of his Democracy in
America (here translated by Henry Reeve):

Because the civilization of ancient Rome perished in con-

sequence of the invasion of Barbarians, we are perhaps
too apt to think that civilization cannot perish in any
other manner. If the light by which we are guided is ever
extinguished, it will dwindle by degrees and expire of it-
self. By dint of close adherence to mere applications, prin-
ciples would be lost sight of; and when the principles were
wholly forgotten, the methods derived from them would
be ill pursued. New methods could no l onger be invented,
and men would continue, without intelligence and with-
out art, to apply scientific processes no l onger understood.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Or the stunning prophecy that the great Jacob Burckhardt made

150 years ago: “The sudden change from democracy will no
longer result in the rule of an individual, but in the rule of a mili-

1. Compare this with the words of Goebbels printed in the journal Deutsche Technik in Feb-
ruary 1939: “The bourgeois were alien and hostile to technology; skeptics believed that the
roots of the collapse of European culture lay in it. National Socialism has understood how
to take the soulless framework of technology and fill it with the rhythm and hot impulses of
our time.”

tary corporation. And by it, methods will perhaps be used for

which even the most terrible despot would not have the heart.”
Technical methods, unknown by the democratic peoples in
whose name these increasingly impersonal means of warfare are
employed. After the end of the American Century, a major prob-
lem is not so much the existence of American omnipotence as it
is the way millions of Americans and many of their politicians
unthinkingly believe in it.

Still, history is never of one piece. I will end this short book
by mentioning the first signs that people are beginning to have
doubts about technology—doubts that are often hardly con-
scious in their minds as yet, but that certainly exist. At the very
beginning of this book I suggested that, perhaps especially in
ages of democracy, the most decisive matters involve not mate-
rial but mental conditions: what and how people think. During
the twentieth century, many signs about this were not encourag-
ing. “Culture” and “civilization” are difficult—nay, impossible—
to define or even to separate from each other. Yet the standards
(and fashions) of culture and civilization have declined to such
levels that we may eventually see some kind of reaction to that.
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

All this is speculation; but what may be culled from the extant
record of a now-past century is not. One bit of evidence is found
in the arts. Artists, it is often said, are the antennae of the race,
but even the most sensitive antenna is not an entirely indepen
dent instrument, divorced from context and atmosphere. Com-
pared to the works of earlier centuries, new styles of architec-
ture, painting, literature, and music have been ephemeral, most
of them leading nowhere. Of course, there were exceptions, a few
faint lights in a manmade universe of glassy darkness.
Yet we may also detect the first signs of waning enthusiasm

where there was once boundless respect for technology. At the

end of the nineteenth century, there were countless books, arti-
cles, and other manifestations of unbounded optimism about the
technological future, breathlessly prophesying many of its bene
fits. At the end of the twentieth century, we can detect almost
nothing like that.
I am a historian, not a prophet. So I will close this book by
mentioning, briefly, that during the twentieth century (and here
and there even earlier) the first signs of a new tendency of think-
ing were beginning to appear. Significant evidence of this is the
fact that more and more people are aware of the catastrophes
that can result from technology, ranging from nuclear explosions
to genetic manipulations. Another, less widely recognized ele-
ment is that people are acknowledging the shortcomings of sci
entific determinism—its dependence on mechanical causality
(which, as Aristotle noted, is but one of the multiple types of hu-
man causality); its adherence to the unwarranted belief that the
same causes necessarily result in the same effects; its unwilling-
ness to understand and actually see that the human mind inter-
feres with and alters these very causalities.
Initial evidence of such awareness has been apparent in
spheres ranging from fine arts to physics—in the recognition
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

that humans participate through the very act of seeing; in the

chastened realization that our very knowledge of matter is but
the result of our participation in the material universe by our ob-
servations. An early example of this is the work of the Impres-
sionist painters, whose art depended on participation. “Reality”
may be external, but it depends entirely on what the painter sees.
An Impressionist painting suggests this; the painter must illus-
trate (“lustrate”), in the original sense of that verb, how and what
we see. So Impressionism was a symptom not of decadence, but
of a rise of consciousness. Of course, these painters did not know

the historical meaning of this, but their Impressionist approach

preceded quantum physics by about a half-century. (After that,
in the twentieth century, came movements such as cubism and
other abstract forms in art, and string theory in physics. The de-
generation was awful, but it will not last.)
Then, in the 1920s (“the only modern decade,” as I said ear-
lier), came profound advances in the study of matter itself. In re-
search on atomic fission and the nature of the subatomic world,
great physicists such as Werner Heisenberg and Niels Bohr for-
mulated what has become known as the Uncertainty Principle,
meaning that what we can know and see about atomic particles
is inseparable from, and altered by, our interference in their “ob-
servation”—the knower cannot be separated from the known.
And within this is a greater and deeper meaning: that we, on our
little, warm planet, are (again? anew?) at the very center of the
universe. The universe was, and is, not our creation. But we hu-
man beings on this earth have invented it, and go on inventing it
from time to time.
That this recognition came about during the 1900s ought to
be listed as one of that century’s most important achievements—
even though few people, including most physicists, are aware
of its significance. No matter: it will bring forth all kinds of re-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

sults. It would be wrong to name it a new humanism, since the

old humanism arose from the belief that the limits of human
knowledge and of its applications were potentially boundless.
Our twentieth-century recognitions, no matter how scattered
and still hardly conscious, must, and will, issue not from human
arrogance but from human humility. Perhaps just as important
as our recognition of our central situation in the universe is our
recognition that the limitations of our human knowledge do not
restrict but enrich us.

Abyssinia (Ethiopia), 66–67, 102, 118, Anti-Americanism, 11, 203

185, 198, 200 Anticolonialism, 6, 38, 72, 73, 160
Adenauer, Konrad, 157 Anti-Communism, 10, 76, 170, 172; as
Afghanistan, 13n3, 38, 179–180, 191 popular ideology in Western world,
Africa, 37, 73, 174; anticolonialism in, 26; Reagan and doctrine of, 180,
160; chaos following decoloniza- 200
tion, 199–200; East Africa in Sec- Anti-Semitism, 42–43, 49–53, 92, 98,
ond World War, 185; European colo- 123, 127. See also Judeophobia
nialism in, 10, 66–67, 183; migrants Apartheid, 200–201
to Europe, 178; new states after de- Arabs and Arab states, 188–190
colonization, 184; North Africa in Argentina, 56, 57, 67; Falkland Islands
Second World War, 116, 118, 132, war, 203–204; wealth from wheat
133–134, 198 exports, 68–69; world wars and, 69,
African Americans, 60, 171, 198 202
Albania, 80, 107 Aristocracies, disappearance of, 208
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Algeria, 198–199 Aristotle, 211

Allenby, Gen. Edmund, 23 Armenian massacre, in Turkey, 15
Allende, Salvador, 203 Asia, 174, 178, 184, 185
Amanullah Khan, 38, 73 Atlantic Charter, 125
American century, 3, 55, 164, 210 Australia, 61, 66, 89, 197–198; aborigi-
American Commonwealth, The nes in, 72; white colonization of,
(Bryce), 4 183; in world wars, 197
Americanization, of immigrants, 4 Austria, 9, 32, 34, 83, 92; anti-Semitism
Andropov, Yuri, 180 in, 42–43, 51; authoritarian rule in,

Austria (continued) Empire and, 32. See also Commu-

81; National Socialism in, 100, 103; nism
neutrality after Second World War, Bonaparte, Letitia, 194
157; Social Democratic Party, 42, Bourgeoisie, European, 62, 79, 82,
100; as truncated state after First 209n1
World War, 33; u nion with Ger- Brazil, 57, 68, 69, 70, 202
many, 42–43, 103; u nion with Ger- Brest-Litovsk treaty (1918), 26
many under Hitler, 30–31 Brezhnev, Leonid, 157
Austro-Hungarian Empire, 17–19, 22, Britain, 60, 68–69, 74; anti-Bolshevik
32, 93, 175 armies in Russia supported by, 35;
Authoritarianism, 70, 80–81, 83 Falkland Islands war, 203–204; Fas-
Automobiles, 59, 75 cist movement in, 83; gold standard
Azerbaijan, 181 abandoned by, 86; Hitler regime be-
Aztec empire, 67 fore the war and, 101, 103–105, 126,
175; liberalism and democracy in,
Badoglio, Pietro, 136 78–79; occupation zone in Ger-
Balfour Declaration, 187 many, 147; in Suez Crisis, 158–159,
Bandung Conference, 160, 161, 183 189; U.S. relations with, 3–4, 39. See
Bangladesh, 194 also Commonwealth, British
Batista, Fulgencio, 70, 161, 203 Britain, colonies of, 6, 8, 10, 38, 65, 198;
Belgium, 18, 101, 141; colonies of, 10, Commonwealth status of former
38, 198, 199; democracy in, 89; Ger- colonies, 72, 198; Indian indepen
man conquest of, 112 dence, 193
Belorussia, 121, 181 Britain, in First World War, 3, 16, 20,
Berlin, Irving, 60 24; Arab nationalism used against
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Berlin Wall, 159–160, 178, 181 Ottoman Empire, 185; British gener-
Bernanos, Georges, 53 als in France, 23; casualties, 105; cel-
Berry, Wendell, 209 ebrations at end of war, 31; Russian
Bismarck, Otto von, 5 alliance with, 24; as victor of war,
Bohr, Niels, 212 41, 56
Bolívar, Simón, 68 Britain, in Second World War, 99, 110;
Bolsheviks, 19, 23, 24, 25; “Jewish Bol- Asian and Pacific war against Japan,
shevism” as term used by Hitler, 52, 131, 143; Dunkirk evacuation, 113;
128; liberalism trampled down by, German air campaign against, 118–
78; national allegiances and, 36; Red 119; North African battles, 133–134
Scare in America and, 169; Russian British-Japanese Treaty (1902), 39

Brusilov, Gen. Aleksei, 23 192; Communism in, 10, 12–13, 25,

Bryce, Sir James, 4 192; European colonialism in, 75–
Bulgaria, 19, 32, 34, 80, 140 76; Great Leap Forward, 192; Japa-
“Bulge, Battle of the,” 141–142 nese colonial ambitions in, 74–77,
Burckhardt, Jacob, 209–210 107; Japan’s relations with, 196; re-
Burma, 143 publican revolution (1912), 76; in
Bush, George W., 29 Second World War, 6, 186; as Third
Power, 161; U.S. relations with, 192
Calles, Plutarco, 70 Christian Socialism, 92
Cambodia, 197 Churchill, Winston, 4, 5n2, 20, 83, 116,
Canada, 57, 61, 65, 72, 89 155; Cold War and, 147–148;
Capitalism, 42, 46, 84–86, 203; Cold Dunkirk evacuation and, 113–114;
War and, 153; Great Depression and, English language and, 94; on Ire-
83, 87 land and the First World War, 17; on
Carmichael, Hoagy, 60 Mediterranean as “soft underbelly”
Carranza, Venustiano, 70 of Europe, 137, 139–140; “pan-
Carter, Jimmy, 191 European” idea supported by, 176;
Castro, Fidel, 11, 161–162, 203 patriotic effect of speeches, 115;
Catholic Church, 51, 67, 201; Hitler qualities as national leader, 128–129;
and, 100, 103; Italian Fascism and, reaction to Pearl Harbor, 125–126;
83; in Mexico, 70 Roosevelt’s alliance with, 115, 124–
Central America, 11, 56, 184, 201; de 125; “Second Front” problem and,
pendence on United States, 202; Eu- 134; in Second World War, 112; Sta
ropean colonies in, 71; history of, 67, lin and, 117–118, 121, 135, 138, 140–
68; Second World War and, 70–71 141; Three-Power Summits and, 138,
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 142, 144; War Cabinet of, 113, 114
188, 203 Civilization, 210
Central Powers, 19, 26, 32 Civil War, American, 69, 71
“Century,” meaning of, 2 Class, social, 61–62, 168. See also Mid-
Chamberlain, Neville, 104, 105, 107, dle class; Working classes
112, 113 Class consciousness and class struggle,
Chiang Kai-shek, 12, 38, 76, 77; Chi- 41, 53
nese civil war and, 151, 152; in Sec- Clemenceau, Georges, 35
ond World War, 108, 186 Clinton, Bill, 29
Chile, 68, 203 Cold War, 3, 8, 9, 160–161, 168; Ameri-
China, 9, 39, 185; civil war in, 151–152, can nationalism and, 169; American

Cold War (continued) 64; working-class indifference to,

victory in, 164; Australia and New 45. See also Bolsheviks; Soviet
Zealand in, 198; Berlin blockade, Union
155; Communist victory in China Communist Manifesto (Marx and En-
and, 192; Cuban Missile Crisis and, gels), 45
163; end of, 172, 174, 177, 181–183, 191, Congo, Belgian, 199
194, 204; Europe as main theater of, Conservatism, 10, 63, 170–171, 208;
146; Latin America and, 203; Mid- anti-Communism and, 170, 172; as
dle East and, 186; origins of, 142, nineteenth-century ideology, 14
187–188; Soviet retreat and, 179–181; Conservative Party, British, 113, 115,
Stalin and, 176; West European 116
Communist parties and, 149. See Coolidge, Calvin, 58
also “Iron curtain” Coral Sea, battle of the, 132
Colombia, 68, 71 Cossacks, 45, 73
Colonialism, 10, 73, 177. See also Anti- Coughlin, Father Charles, 88
colonialism Credit, economic role of, 87
Columbus, Christopher, 67 Croatia, 33
Commonwealth, British, 72, 133, 185, Cuba, 11, 70, 71; Castro’s revolution,
198 161–162, 203; independence from
Communism, 2, 8, 90, 96, 98, 203; an- Spain, 202; missile crisis, 161–163
ticolonialism and, 38; attempted Czechoslovakia, 33, 148, 177; Commu-
spread of, after First World War, 35– nist regime installed in, 150; Czech
36; Capitalism in worldwide strug- national socialists, 42; end of Com-
gle with, 84; Castro’s embrace of, munist rule in, 181; French alliance
162; Cold War and, 11; death of, 209; with, 35; German-speaking Austri-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

fellow travelers of, 169–170; in Ger- ans in, 42; Hitler’s conquest of, 103–
many after First World War, 41, 79; 104; Warsaw Pact invasion of, 179
Great Depression and, 88; in
Greece, 141, 149; imposed on East- Daladier, Edouard, 104
ern Europe, 61; in Indochina, 196– Deflation, 87
197; from internationalism to na- De Gaulle, Charles, 8, 141, 155; Alge-
tionalism, 27, 47; in Italy, 81; as more rian War and, 199; as leader of Free
radical version of Socialism, 85; in France, 130, 139, 148
Poland, 179; revolution in Russia De Klerk, F. W., 201
(1917), 2, 24–26; in United States, Democracy, 11, 55, 56, 179; advance

across the world, 204–205, 208; Eisenhower, Dwight, 10, 158, 159, 162,
availability of historical documents 170–171, 188
and, 27; Cold War and, 154, 163; Eu- El Salvador, 180, 202–203
ropean Age and, 13; failure in Eu- English language, 5, 65, 94, 207
rope after First World War, 78; Enlightenment, 40, 79
Great Depression and, 88; in India, Estonia, 33, 80, 110, 181
194; retreat before authoritarian Eurasia, 25, 152
rule, 81; struggle against Commu- Euro currency, 176
nism and, 25. See also Liberalism; Europe, 37, 57, 146; bourgeoisie in, 62;
Parliaments Cold War division of, 9, 11, 147; con-
Democracy in America (Tocqueville), servative reaction to French Revo-
209 lution, 43; definition of, 175–176;
Democratic Party, U.S., 29 Jewish populations in, 48, 49–50;
Denmark, 71, 111 population of, 174; unific ation ef-
Depression (from 1929), 63–64, 83, 92, forts, 176–177; United States and
109 Russia in destiny of, 24; U.S. with-
Dictatorships, 70, 80, 204, 207 drawal after First World War, 26;
Diseases, containment of, 207 waning preeminence of, 161, 174–175
Doe, Samuel, 200 Europe, Central, 60, 80, 83; Commu-
Doenitz, Adm. Karl, 143 nism in, 25, 26, 35, 36; National So-
Dollar, American, 43, 63, 64, 88, 171 cialism in, 42
Dollfuss, Engelbert, 100, 103, 107 Europe, Eastern, 83, 106; Communist
Dominican Republic, 203 regimes imposed in, 26, 61; democ-
“Domino” theory, 197 racy in, 208; end of Communist
Dubček, Alexander, 179 rule in, 181; origins of world wars in,
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Dulles, John Foster, 29, 189 175; Russian withdrawal from, 9–10,
182; spheres of interest in, 140–141,
Eden, Anthony, 129–130 147; Stalin’s empire in, 150, 155; wan-
Egypt, 13n3, 32; British colonialism ing of Cold War and, 160
and, 72; peace treaty with Israel, 191; Europe, Western, 26, 38, 175, 204;
in Second World War, 118, 134, 198; Communist parties in, 149; outmi-
Suez Crisis, 158–159, 189; wars with gration from, 178; united-Europe
Israel, 189, 190 movement, 176–177
Eighteenth century, as French century, European Age, 2, 10, 13, 14, 182. See
3, 55 also Modern Age

Facts, in history, 2, 20 Allied invasion of, 134, 137, 139–140;

Falkenhaym, Gen. Erich von, 23 de Gaulle as leader, 130; Free French
Falkland Islands war, 203–204 forces, 139, 148; German defeat and
Famines, 207 occupation of, 112–113, 115–116, 126
Far East, 151, 167, 196 Franco, Francisco, 103, 162
Farouk, King, 189 Franco-Prussian War, 18, 21, 22
Fascism, 80, 81–82, 89 Franz Ferdinand, Archduke, 17
Fashions, 59 Franz Joseph, Emperor, 17
Finland, 9, 33, 36, 155; as German ally French language, 65
in Second World War, 121; Hitler- French Revolution, 26, 52, 67; French
Stalin pact and, 110; Soviet wars revolutionary wars, 11, 43, 79; Na-
with, 111 tional Socialism as reversal of, 96
Florida land boom (1920s), 63 Frontier: in North America, 65; in
Foch, Gen. Ferdinand, 23 South America, 68
Ford, Henry, 59
Forster, E. M., 74 Galtieri, Leopoldo, 203–204
France, 16, 69; alliances with Eastern Gandhi, Indira, 194
European states, 35; anti-Bolshevik Gandhi, Mohandas, 73
armies supported by, 35; Commu- Gandhi, Rajiv, 194
nist Party of, 149, 155; Enlighten- George VI, King, 112
ment associated with, 40, 79; Hitler German language, 94
regime before the war and, 103–104, Germany: anti-Semitism in, 51; Cold
106; liberalism and democracy in, War and, 9, 150–151, 156–157; colo-
78–79; national currency stability nies of (before 1914), 38, 75; Depres-
in, 43; occupation zone in Germany, sion and unemployment in, 64, 109;
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

147; protectorate over Syria and hyperinflation after First World

Lebanon, 187; in Suez Crisis, 158– War, 43–44; occupation zones after
159, 189 Second World War, 147; as possible
France, colonies of, 6, 8, 10, 38, 65, 193; dominant power, 5–6; revolutions
Algerian War, 198–199; Indochinese following First World War, 39–41;
colonial war, 196–197; Japanese Social Democratic Party, 41, 92, 97;
takeover of, 116 Weimar Republic, 41
France, in First World War, 3, 18, 20, Germany, East, 148, 151, 157; Berlin
24; Russian alliance with, 24; as vic- Wall, 159–160; reunited with West
tor of war, 41, 56 Germany, 181; workers’ revolt in, 158
France, in Second World War, 99, 110; Germany, in First World War, 6, 18–

20; American entry into war and, Hess, Rudolf, 119

28; German army, 22, 40–41; last of- Himmler, Heinrich, 143
fensive in France, 24; Russian with- Hindenburg, Paul von, 23, 95, 96
drawal from war and, 26; Versailles Hirohito, Emperor, 13n3, 144
Treaty and, 33–34 Hiroshima, atomic bombing of, 144,
Germany, in Second World War. See 196
Hitler, Adolf; National Socialism; History, 66, 126–127; ideological illu-
World War, Second sions and, 13; importance of na-
Germany, West, 151, 155, 157; German tional leaders in, 127–130; “objec-
refugees from Eastern Europe ab- tive” and “scientific,” 1; potentialities
sorbed into, 177; immigration to, in, 5, 7; words and, 20
177–178; reunited with East Ger- History of Hitler, The (Lukacs), 93
many, 181 History of the Second World War
Gershwin, George, 60 (Churchill), 113
Gershwin, Ira, 60 Hitler, Adolf, 4, 7, 38, 129; ambitions
Glasnost, 180 of, 99; anti-Communism and, 26,
Goebbels, Joseph, 95, 119, 143, 209n1 106; appeal to former socialists, 42;
Goering, Hermann, 95, 117, 143 assassination attempt against, 139;
Gold standard, 63, 86 Austrian roots of, 43, 93; authoritar-
Gomulka, Wladyslaw, 158 ian dictatorships in Europe and, 81;
Gorbachev, Mikhail, 172, 180–181 British Dunkirk evacuation and,
Greece, 19, 36–37, 118, 145; authoritar- 114, 117; death of, 90, 98, 143, 167;
ian rule in, 80; civil war in, 141; in desire to dominate Eastern Europe,
Second World War, 139 175–176; as “Europe’s last hope,” 5; in
Greenland, 119 First World War, 31, 94; Great De-
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Greenwood, Arthur, 113 pression and, 87, 109; Holocaust as

Grenada, 180, 203 responsibility of, 49, 122–123, 128;
Grey, Sir Edward, 17 invasion of the Soviet U nion, 117,
Guatemala, 203 118, 122, 129; on “Jewish Bolshe-
vism,” 52, 128; legacy of, 127–128;
Haiti, 67 limits and mistakes of, 99–100; as
Halder, Gen. Franz, 122 military leader, 99; Munich adven-
Halifax, Viscount, 113, 114 ture of, 41, 95; as nationalist, 93–94;
Harding, Warren, 39, 58 public speaking ability, 94–95;
Hart, Lorenz, 60 remilitarization of Germany, 101;
Heisenberg, Werner, 212 rise to power, 13n3, 40, 64, 88, 208;

Hitler, Adolf (continued) Iraq, 9, 32, 187, 189

Stalin admired by, 97, 128; Stalin’s Ireland, 17, 89
pact with, 48, 106–107; on state as “Iron curtain,” 26, 149, 150, 160, 176;
Zwangsform, 21, 91; “totalitarianism” end of, 181; holes in, 178. See also
and, 80 Cold War
Ho Chi Minh, 196–197 Islam, 188
Holland (Netherlands), 8, 10, 65; colo- Isolationism, 58, 61, 119
nies of, 71, 116, 193; democracy in, Israel, State of, 73, 151, 201; peace treaty
89; German conquest of, 112 with Egypt, 191; Suez Crisis and, 158;
Holocaust, 15, 48–49, 123 wars with Arab states, 188–190
Honduras, 202–203 Italy, 36, 68; colonies of, 10; Commu-
Hoover, Herbert, 29, 58, 109 nist Party of, 149, 155; German-
Horthy, Adm. Miklós, 81 speaking Austrians in, 42
Hughes, Charles Evans, 39 Italy, Fascist, 80, 81–83, 91, 102; Alba-
Huizinga, Johan, 2 nia conquered by, 107; Allied inva-
Hungary, 9, 32, 33, 34, 36, 83; authori- sion of, 136–137; German invasion
tarian rule in, 81; end of Commu- of Soviet U nion and, 121; Grand
nist rule in, 181; as German ally in Council of Fascists, 136
Second World War, 121, 139, 140; re-
volt against Communist rule, 158, Japan, 10, 12, 192, 193; British treaty
159, 180; Soviet influence over, 141 with (1902), 39; China’s relations
with, 196; colonial expansionism of,
Iceland, 119 74–77, 195; in First World War, 38–
Ideologies, political, 54, 84 39, 74–75; intervention in Russian
Impressionist art, 211–212 civil war, 191; Meiji reforms, 74;
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

India, 73, 185–186, 192; independence modernization of, 38; post–Second

from Britain, 193; partition of, 193– World War, 194–195
194 Japan, in Second World War, 6–7, 77,
Indochina, 13n3, 116, 171, 196–197 143–144, 167, 195–196; “Asia for
Indonesia, 73, 116, 186 Asians” slogan, 185–186; atomic
Inflation, 43–44, 63, 87, 171 bombings of Japan, 15, 144–145, 196;
Intellectuals, 64, 79, 86 Axis alliance (Tripartite Pact), 108,
Internationalism, 15, 27, 35, 47, 91–92 123, 195; early victories of, 131–132;
International relations, 153 nonaggression treaty with Soviet
Iran, 13n3, 73, 187–188, 190–191. See Union, 120; Pearl Harbor attack,
also Persia 125, 131, 132, 196; Soviet U
nion and,

107–108, 139, 142, 145, 191; Western Labour Party, British, 91–92, 113, 148
colonies in Asia taken over by, 116 Laos, 197
Jaurès, Jean, 22 Lateran Treaty, 83
Jazz, 60 Latin America, 201–204, 208
Jews, 47–53, 143, 148; immigration to Latvia, 33, 80, 110, 181
Palestine, 187; Nazi persecution and Lausanne, Treaty of, 37, 187
murder of, 101, 123; in Soviet U
nion, League of Nations, 34–35, 77, 102, 165
48, 106 Lebanon, 32, 72, 187
Jinnah, Muhammad Ali, 193 Left, extreme, 52, 53
Joffre, Gen. Joseph, 23 Lenin, Vladimir, 24–25, 29, 35–36, 45,
John Paul II, Pope, 179 46, 48
Johnson, Lyndon, 171, 197 Le Pen, Jean-Marie, 48
Johnson, Samuel, 46, 91 Liberalism, 10, 78–79, 85, 208–209;
Jordan, 190 Jews and, 50; as nineteenth-century
Juárez, Benito, 69–70 ideology, 14, 208; reaction against,
Judeophobia, 48, 51, 123, 128. See also 170; retreat before authoritarian
Anti-Semitism rule, 81; in Russia, 24, 25–26, 78. See
also Democracy
Kamikaze planes, 144 Liberia, 66, 198, 200
Kemal, Mustafa, 32, 37, 38, 72, 187 Libya, 134, 190, 198
Kennedy, John F., 94, 159, 162, 163 Life span, human, 207
Kern, Jerome, 60 Literacy, 21
Khomeini, Ayatollah, 190 Lithuania, 33, 80, 105, 110, 181
Khrushchev, Nikita, 10, 157–158, 159, Litvinov, Maxim, 48, 106
161; China and, 192–193; Cuban Long, Huey, 88
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Missile Crisis and, 11, 162, 163; Ludendorff, Gen. Erich, 23

ousted by Politburo, 12
Kissinger, Henry, 12 MacArthur, Gen. Douglas, 143, 156
Knox, Frank, 117 Maginot Line, 101
Korea, 6, 74, 76, 151, 196 Malaysia (Malaya), 131, 197
Korea, North, 156, 192, 196 Malenkov, Georgy, 157
Korea, South, 156 Manchuria, 6, 77, 152, 195
Korean War, 9, 155–156, 192, 196 Mandela, Nelson, 201
Kuomintang, 76 Mao Tse-tung, 12, 76, 192; Chinese
Kursk, battle of, 136 civil war and, 152, 156; death of, 193;
Kuwait, 188 Korean War and, 156; Nixon’s meet-

Mao Tse-tung (continued) and, 82; role in Second World War,

ing with, 161, 193; in Second World 145
War, 108, 186 Mongolia, 26
Marne, First Battle of the (1914), 22, 23 Montgomery, Gen. Bernard, 135
Marshall, Gen. George C., 152 Morocco, 199
Marshall Plan, 149 Mossaddegh, Mohammad, 188
Marx, Karl, 26, 41, 45, 155 Movies, American, 65
Marxism, 21, 209 Munich Soviet republic, 40, 45
Maximilian, Emperor, 69 Music, popular, 60–61, 65
Mayan empire, 67 Mussolini, Benito, 13n3, 69–70, 80,
McCarthy, Sen. Joseph, 170 101, 113; Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in-
Mein Kampf (Hitler), 31, 41, 93, 94, 95 vaded by, 185; alliance with Hitler,
Mexican-American War, 69, 71 102; death of, 143; entry into Second
Mexico, 56, 67, 69, 70, 202, 205 World War, 116; fall from power,
Middle Ages, 2, 206 136; Fascism and, 81–83; German
Middle class: American, 61–62, 63; rescue of, 137; Greece attacked by,
bourgeoisie and, 79; Fascist regime 118; intervention in Spanish Civil
in Italy and, 81; Hitler’s appeal to, War, 102, 103; Munich conference
95, 96; in South America, 68, 69, 70 and, 104; National Socialism and,
Middle East, 158, 178, 192, 201; ancient 91, 97; rise to power, 208
empires in, 184; nationalist dictator-
ships in, 73; oil production in, 188; Nagasaki, atomic bombing of, 144, 196
populist nationalism in, 191 Nagy, Imre, 158
Midway, battle of, 132–133 Napoleon I, 2, 115, 132, 194
Milyukov, Pavel, 26 Napoleonic wars, 11, 43, 79
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Modern Age, 2, 14, 154, 184, 206. See Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 189, 190
also European Age Nationalism, 4, 9, 191, 208; American,
Modernity, 60 169, 172; anticolonialism and, 38, 73;
Moldova, 181 anti-Communism and, 10; anti-
Molotov, Vyacheslav, 106, 120, 141 Semitism and, 51; Arab, 185, 189;
Moltke, Helmut von, the elder, 18–19 patriotism in relation to, 15, 52, 93;
Moltke, Helmut von, the younger, 23 in Poland, 9; Stalin’s turn toward,
Monarchies, 43, 80, 93; constitutional, 47, 48
13; elimination of monarchies in Nationalists, Chinese, 108, 152, 167
First World War, 32; Italian Fascism National Socialism, 41–42, 81, 113,

209n1; anti-Semitism of, 92; con- Noriega, Manuel, 204

tinuing appeal of, 90; difficulties of North America, 66, 72, 178, 201
categorizing, 90–91; as “Fascism,” North Atlantic Treaty Organization
91, 97; Hitler as head of NSDAP, 94– (NATO), 151, 155
95; Italian Fascism overshadowed Norway, 111–112
by, 83; pro-Nazi collaborators in Eu- Nuremberg laws, 101
rope, 186
Navy, U.S., 167, 168, 195 O’Higgins, Bernardo, 68
“Nazi-Sozi” (Nationalist-Sozialist), 42, Okinawa, battle of, 144
91 Ottoman Empire, 10, 32, 36, 72;
Near East, 10, 37; American military breakup of, 186–187; definition of
intrusions into, 9; anticolonialism Europe and, 175. See also Turkey
in, 185; Hitler’s plans for, 118, 132;
new states after First World War, 72; Pakistan, 193–194
Ottoman Empire in, 32 Palestine, 32, 73, 187
Nehru, Jawaharlal, 193 Palestine Liberation Organization,
Netherlands. See Holland 190
Neuilly, Treaty of, 33–34 Panama and Panama Canal, 71, 165,
New Deal, 88, 171 203, 204
New Defense Initiative (“Star Wars”), Pan-Europe, 30, 176
180 Papen, Franz von, 96
“New Europe,” 30 Paris, city of, 22, 32, 69, 112–113; fall to
New York, city of, 58, 59; Jewish popu- Hitler, 115, 141; in First World War,
lation of, 50; stock market, 64, 87; 19; Jewish population of, 50; libera-
United Nations headquarters in, tion from Nazis, 139, 148
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

184 Parliaments, 33, 79; authoritarian rule

New Zealand, 61, 66, 72, 89, 183, 197 and, 80, 81; Italian Fascism and, 82;
Nicaragua, 180, 202 National Socialism and, 96; in Rus-
Nicolson, Harold, 59 sia, 78; socialism and, 92. See also
Nine-Power Treaty, 39 Democracy; Liberalism
Nineteenth century, 2, 68, 207; as Brit- Partido Revolucionario Institucional
ish century, 3, 55; European colo- (PRI), 70
nialism in, 6; nationalism in, 184 Passage to India, A (Forster), 74
Nixon, Richard, 12, 29, 161, 171 Patriotism, 4, 15, 52, 93
“Nonaligned states,” 160 Perestroika, 180

Perón, Juan, 202 Railways, 21

Persia, 38, 73, 138. See also Iran Reagan, Ronald, 9, 171, 172, 179–181,
Pétain, Marshal Philippe, 115 200
Philippines, 133, 143, 185 Red Scare, 169
Physics, 211–212 Reeve, Henry, 209
Pilsudski, Marshal Józef, 80 Republican Party, U.S., 8, 58, 63, 165,
Poland, 9, 33, 34, 104–105, 142; absence 166; “Back to normalcy” slogan, 57;
of Nazi collaborators in, 116; au- conservative movement and, 170;
thoritarian rule in, 80; border entry into First World War and, 29;
changes after Second World War, Second World War and, 117
147; British alliance with, 175; Com- Reza Shah, 38
munist rule in, 158; end of Commu- Rhodesia, 200
nist rule in, 181; French alliance Ribbentrop, Joachim von, 106
with, 35; Germans expelled from, Right, extreme, 50, 52, 53, 90–91
148, 177; German-Soviet division of, Rodgers, Richard, 60
106, 110, 176; government in Lon- Romania, 19, 50; authoritarian rule in,
don exile, 138; Hitler’s designs on, 80; end of Communist rule in, 181;
104–105, 107, 110; Jewish popula- flight of Germans from, 148, 177;
tions in, 50; Nazi extermination French alliance with, 35; as German
policies carried out in, 123; Soviet ally in Second World War, 121, 140;
war with (1920), 36; uprisings Soviet annexation of part of, 110–
against Communist rule, 179; War- 111, 116
saw uprising (1944), 140, 148 Rommel, Gen. Erwin, 118, 133, 139
Popular sovereignty, 15 Roosevelt, Franklin, 4, 12, 29, 127, 133,
Populism, 69, 70, 190–191 151; aid to Britain, 116–117;
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Porter, Cole, 60 Churchill’s alliance with, 115, 117,

Portsmouth, Treaty of, 74 124–125; Cold War in formation
Portugal: colonies of, 8, 10, 38, 68, 198; and, 168; death of, 143, 167; election
in First World War, 19; Salazar dic- of, 108–109; gold standard aban-
tatorship, 80 doned by, 86; Great Depression and,
Potsdam Summit, 144 87, 88; mandate given to, 64; priori-
Primo de Rivera, Miguel, 80 ties in war plans, 124–125; qualities
Progress, idea of, 50, 62–63, 70 as national leader, 130, 166–167; Sta
Prohibition, 58 lin and, 137–138, 167; Three-Power
Public opinion, 27–28, 165, 180 Summits and, 138, 142

Roosevelt, Theodore, 4, 29, 165 Social Democratic parties, 86, 97; in

Russia, 3, 37; after fall of Communism, Austria, 42; in Germany, 41, 91, 92,
25; Chinese civil war and, 12; civil 97
war in, 25, 35, 75, 191; Communist Socialism, 41, 81; First World War and,
revolution in, 2, 24–26, 45; in First 21–22; Great Depression and, 88;
World War, 18, 22, 25–26; Japan at loss of meaning as term, 97–98; So-
war with (1905), 38; revolutions of cialist parties, 85
1917 in, 24, 28, 78; withdrawal from Solidarity (Polish workers’ organiza
First World War, 19, 20, 24. See also tion), 179
Soviet Union South Africa, 72, 198, 200–201
Russian Empire, 32, 35; breakup of, 8; South America, 11, 56, 174, 184, 201;
in Central Asia, 73; definition of Eu- dependence on United States, 202;
rope and, 175; Jewish populations European colonies in, 71; history of,
in, 50 67–70; immigration to, 65, 68
Soviet Union, 25, 33, 170; Afghanistan
Sadat, Anwar, 191 war of, 179–180, 191; African re-
St. Germain, Treaty of, 33–34 gimes supported by, 200; Arab-
Sakhalin Island, 74, 152 Israeli conflict and, 90, 188–189;
Salazar, António, 80 Baltic states incorporated into, 116;
San Martín, José de, 68 China’s relations with, 12, 192–193;
Saudi Arabia, 72, 188 Cold War and, 84, 146, 149, 153–154;
Scandinavia, 111 collectivized agriculture in, 46–47;
Schengen Plan, 176 Cuba and, 11, 203; Czechoslovakia
Schleicher, Gen. Kurt von, 100 and, 104; diplomatic recognition of,
Schlieffen Plan, 22 36; dissolution of, 8, 9, 10, 177, 182;
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

Schuschnigg, Kurt, 103 as “evil empire,” 171, 172, 180; Jewish

Self-determination, national, 34, 42, commissars purged in, 48; occupa-
104, 184 tion zone in Germany, 147; retreat
Serbia, 17, 18, 33 of, 155, 157, 173, 178–181; as super-
Sèvres, Treaty of, 33–34, 36–37, 187 power, 160; Third World and, 183.
SHS nations (Serbia, Croatia, Slove- See also Russia
nia), 33 Soviet Union, in Second World War,
Singapore, 131, 197 120, 126; Anglo-American aid to,
Slovak nationalists, 105 137–138; German invasion, 117, 118,
Slovenia, 33 119–123, 135–136; march into Ger-

Soviet Union (continued) 144; “totalitarianism” and, 80;

many, 142, 143; Nazi extermination Trotsky murdered by agent of, 47
policies carried out in, 123; at war Stalingrad, battle of, 135–136
with Japan, 107–108, 139, 142, 145, Stark, Adm. Harold, 124, 167
191, 196; Western alliance with, 106 States: Hitler’s view of the state, 21, 91;
Spain, 16, 49; colonies of, 11, 38, 198; Marx’s contempt for, 155; nations in
conquest of America, 67; Latin relation to, 7, 21, 85, 184
American wars of independence Stimson, Henry, 117
from, 201–202; Primo de Rivera Suburbs, 169
dictatorship, 80; Spanish Civil War, Suez Crisis, 158–159, 189
102–103; U.S. war with, 3 Sukarno, 186
Spanish language, 67, 201 Sun Yat-sen, 76
Spengler, Oswald, 40 Superpowers, 7–8, 160
Spruance, Adm. Raymond, 133 Sweden, 112, 155
Sputnik satellite, 159 Switzerland, 36, 144
Stalin, Joseph, 9, 26, 52, 187–188; aban- Syria, 32, 72, 187, 189, 190
donment of internationalism, 27;
agriculture collectivized by, 46–47; Taft, Sen. Robert, 170
Chinese civil war and, 12, 192; Taft, William, 165
Churchill’s relationship with, 117– Taiwan, 152, 156
118, 121, 134, 135; Cold War and, 151, Tango (dance), 70
155; death of, 155, 157, 158; declara- Taylor, Charles, 200
tion of war on Japan, 145; Eastern Technology, 207, 209n1, 210
Europe and, 148; German unifica Teheran Summit, 138, 139
tion proposal of, 156–157; Hitler ad- Thailand, 197
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

mired by, 97, 118, 119–120; Hitler’s Third Reich, 13n3, 96

pact with, 48, 106–107, 110–111, 176; Third World, 10, 160, 163, 186, 204;
imposition of Communism in East- China as Third Power, 161; mean-
ern Europe, 61; Korean War and, ings of, 183
156; National Socialism and, 91, 97; Thompson, W. H., 112
nervous breakdown at news of Ger- Tito, Josip Broz, 150
man invasion, 120–121; Poland and, Tocqueville, Alexis de, 14, 55, 57, 209
138, 140, 176; realism of, 129–130; “Totalitarianism,” 70, 80–81, 150, 154
“Second Front” problem and, 134; Toussaint L’Ouverture, François-
Three-Power Summits and, 138, 142, Dominique, 67

Trianon, Treaty of, 33–34 ican war, 69, 71; military bases
Trotsky, Leon, 47 abroad, 8; occupation zone in Ger-
Truman, Harry, 147, 149, 151; atomic many, 147; politic al refugees from
bombings of Japan and, 144; Japa- Europe in, 61; Spanish-American
nese surrender and, 13n3; Korean War, 3, 71; as superpower, 7–8, 160;
War and, 156 Third World and, 183; traditional
Truman Doctrine, 149 opposition to monarchism, 13;
Truth, incompleteness of, 1 uniqueness of, 61; urban-rural di-
Tunisia, 198, 199 vide in, 58; withdrawal from Europe
Turkey, 15, 32, 34, 38, 163; in First after First World War, 34; as world’s
World War, 19; Greece at war with greatest power, 164, 165
(1922–1923), 37, 72; Greek popula- United States, in Second World War,
tion in Anatolia, 72, 187; in Second 6, 126; alliance with Britain, 115,
World War, 138; Soviet threat to, 116–117, 119; atomic bombings of Ja-
149; treaty of Sèvres and, 36–37. See pan, 15, 144–145; Pacific War, 143–
also Ottoman Empire 144; priorities in war plans, 123–125,
167
Ukraine, 36, 121, 181 Untergang des Abendlandes, Der [The
Unemployment, 64, 87 Sinking of the West] (Spengler), 40,
United Nations, 142, 151, 153, 184, 188, 41
199 Urbanization, 168–169
United States, 10, 107; alliance with Uriburu, José Félix, 70
Britain, 125–126; Arab-Israeli con
flict and, 188–191; British relations Vargas, Getúlio, 70
with, 3–4, 39; Cold War and, 84, Verdun, battle of, 19, 136
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

146, 149, 153–154; diplomatic recog- Versailles Treaty, 32, 33–34, 41, 101
nition of Soviet U nion, 36; English Victor Emmanuel III, King, 82, 136
language and, 5; entry into First Vietnam, 196–197
World War, 3, 19–20, 24, 27–29, 56, Vietnam War, 9, 171
165; ethnic composition of, 56–58,
168; gold standard abandoned by, Walesa, Lech, 179
86; immigration to, 4, 57–58, 60, 75, Wang Ching-wei, 108, 186
171, 178, 205; influence following Waning of the Middle Ages, The (Huiz-
First World War, 26–27, 37, 43, 59, inga), 2
166; Jewish populations in, 50; Mex- Warsaw Pact, 179, 181

Washington Conference (1922), 75 147; German counteroffensive in

Welfare state, 98 Belgium, 141–142; German generals
White people: outmigration from Eu- in, 23; Germany’s chance of win-
rope, 65, 66, 183; presence in Africa, ning, 4, 6, 109; Hitler as dominant
198–199, 200 cause of, 93, 97; Hitler’s invasion of
Wilson, Woodrow, 19, 29, 32–33, 57; Soviet Union, 117, 118, 119–123, 135–
League of Nations and, 34–35, 165; 136; Hitler-Stalin pact and, 48; Ho-
national self-determination prin- locaust and, 15, 48–49, 123; Italy’s
ciple and, 104, 165; Russian revolu- entry into, 82; national leaders in,
tions of 1917 and, 78; waning popu- 127–130; North African campaigns,
larity of, 166 116, 118, 132–134, 135; origins in East-
Wojtyla, Karol, 179 ern Europe, 175; outbreak of, 107–
Working classes, 45, 85–86, 92, 96 108; Pacific War, 131–133; “phony
World War, First, 15, 20–21, 72, 79, 136; war,” 110; results and legacies of,
America’s entry into, 3, 19–20, 24, 148; South American countries and,
27–29, 56, 165; anticolonialism and, 69; Western alliance with Soviet
185; armistices at end of, 30; end of Russia, 20, 24; Western desire to
nineteenth century at outbreak of, avoid, 99
2; as “European War,” 6, 16–17, 37,
165; generals in, 23; German defeat, Yalta Summit, 142
19–20; Japanese gains from, 38–39, Yamamoto, Adm. Isoroku, 108, 123,
74–75; origins of, 7, 17–19, 175; peace 133
treaties at conclusion of, 32–34; re- Yeltsin, Boris, 181–182
drawn borders at end of, 31–32, 34; Youmans, Vincent, 60
South American countries and, 69, Youth Revolution (1960s), 171
Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

202; trenches in, 22–23; as war for Yuan Shih-kai, 76

democracy, 28 Yugoslavia, 9, 11, 33, 36, 141, 158; au-
World War, Second, 6, 9, 17, 20, 44, thoritarian rule in, 80; breakup of,
167; Anglo-American aerial bomb- 177; Communism in, 150; flight of
ing of Germany, 136, 137; atomic Germans from, 148, 177; French al-
bombings of Japan, 15, 144–145, 196; liance with, 35; German-speaking
beginning as European war, 38, 107; Austrians in, 42; in Second World
border changes following, 147; colo- War, 118, 139, 140; Stalin and, 155
nialism undermined by, 185; early
German and Japanese victories, 111– Zapata, Emiliano, 70
118, 131–132; final stages of, 142–145, Zimbabwe, 200

(Barbara Cruikshank) The Will To Empower (B-Ok - Xyz) PDF
100% (1)
(Barbara Cruikshank) The Will To Empower (B-Ok - Xyz) PDF
157 pages
Gareth Stedman Jones - Languages of Class - Studies in English Working Class History 1832-1982 (1984)
100% (1)
Gareth Stedman Jones - Languages of Class - Studies in English Working Class History 1832-1982 (1984)
268 pages
Cyberpunk 2020 - CP3171 Protect & Serve PDF
No ratings yet
Cyberpunk 2020 - CP3171 Protect & Serve PDF
98 pages
Keith Reader, Intellectuals and The Left in France Since 1968
100% (1)
Keith Reader, Intellectuals and The Left in France Since 1968
166 pages
Michael - Cox, - G. - John - Ikenberry, - Takashi - Inoguchi - American Democracy Promotion
No ratings yet
Michael - Cox, - G. - John - Ikenberry, - Takashi - Inoguchi - American Democracy Promotion
366 pages
Peter Viereck - Conservatism - From John Adams To Churchill PDF
No ratings yet
Peter Viereck - Conservatism - From John Adams To Churchill PDF
192 pages
State in Society - Studying How States and Societies Transform and Constitute One Another PDF
100% (1)
State in Society - Studying How States and Societies Transform and Constitute One Another PDF
306 pages
Censorship in Fascist Italy, 1922-43 Policies, Procedures and Protagonists
No ratings yet
Censorship in Fascist Italy, 1922-43 Policies, Procedures and Protagonists
261 pages
A Case For Conservatism - John Kekes (2001) PDF
100% (2)
A Case For Conservatism - John Kekes (2001) PDF
260 pages
9076 17 Kerslake Review of The Treasury Final v2
100% (1)
9076 17 Kerslake Review of The Treasury Final v2
44 pages
GellnerErnest CultureIdentityAndPolitics (1987) MQ
100% (1)
GellnerErnest CultureIdentityAndPolitics (1987) MQ
196 pages
E. H. Carr - Studies in Revolution
No ratings yet
E. H. Carr - Studies in Revolution
232 pages
Dr. Larry Diamond, Dr. Marc F. Plattner-The Global Divergence of Democracies (A Journal of Democracy Book) (2001) PDF
100% (3)
Dr. Larry Diamond, Dr. Marc F. Plattner-The Global Divergence of Democracies (A Journal of Democracy Book) (2001) PDF
390 pages
Peter Vallentyne, Hillel Steiner Left-Libertarianism and Its Critics The Contemporary Debate 2001
100% (2)
Peter Vallentyne, Hillel Steiner Left-Libertarianism and Its Critics The Contemporary Debate 2001
203 pages
Pierre Manent The Greatness and Misery of Liberalism
100% (1)
Pierre Manent The Greatness and Misery of Liberalism
8 pages
(New Studies in Sociology) Victor M. Perez-Diaz (Auth.) - State, Bureaucracy and Civil Society - A Critical Discussion of The Political Theory of Karl Marx (1978, Macmillan Education UK)
No ratings yet
(New Studies in Sociology) Victor M. Perez-Diaz (Auth.) - State, Bureaucracy and Civil Society - A Critical Discussion of The Political Theory of Karl Marx (1978, Macmillan Education UK)
126 pages
For Love of Contry
100% (1)
For Love of Contry
84 pages
Hall, Stuart. (2011) The Neo-Liberal Revolution. Cultural Studies 25-6, 705-728
100% (1)
Hall, Stuart. (2011) The Neo-Liberal Revolution. Cultural Studies 25-6, 705-728
25 pages
Apologetic Modernity Devji
No ratings yet
Apologetic Modernity Devji
17 pages
Group Experiment: and Other Writings
No ratings yet
Group Experiment: and Other Writings
267 pages
G William Domhoff - Studying The Power Elite - Fifty Years of Who Rules America - (2017, Routledge) - Libgen - Li
100% (1)
G William Domhoff - Studying The Power Elite - Fifty Years of Who Rules America - (2017, Routledge) - Libgen - Li
223 pages
William H Sewell Jr. A Rhetoric of Bourgeois Revolution The Abbé Sieyes and What Is The Third Estate
100% (2)
William H Sewell Jr. A Rhetoric of Bourgeois Revolution The Abbé Sieyes and What Is The Third Estate
249 pages
John Keane Civil Society and The State
No ratings yet
John Keane Civil Society and The State
63 pages
C.B Macpherson - The - PoliticalTheory of Possesive Individualism PDF
No ratings yet
C.B Macpherson - The - PoliticalTheory of Possesive Individualism PDF
186 pages
Varouxakis - Liberty Abroad J.S. Mill On International Relations
No ratings yet
Varouxakis - Liberty Abroad J.S. Mill On International Relations
278 pages
Mearsheimer - EH Carr vs. Idealism
No ratings yet
Mearsheimer - EH Carr vs. Idealism
14 pages
The Political Theory of Liberal Socialism (MATTHEW. MCMANUS) (Z-Library)
No ratings yet
The Political Theory of Liberal Socialism (MATTHEW. MCMANUS) (Z-Library)
269 pages
Readings in Public Choice and Constitutional Political Economy
100% (2)
Readings in Public Choice and Constitutional Political Economy
616 pages
Keane Global Civil Society
100% (1)
Keane Global Civil Society
236 pages
Amin Samir Spectres of Capitalism A Critique
No ratings yet
Amin Samir Spectres of Capitalism A Critique
158 pages
Bourdieu Principles of A Sociology of Cultural Works PDF
0% (1)
Bourdieu Principles of A Sociology of Cultural Works PDF
10 pages
Blackbourn D.-Eley G. (1984) - The Peculiarities of German History. Bourgeois Society and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Germany
100% (2)
Blackbourn D.-Eley G. (1984) - The Peculiarities of German History. Bourgeois Society and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Germany
302 pages
Revolutionary Thought After The Paris Commune, 1871-1885 (Julia Nicholls)
100% (1)
Revolutionary Thought After The Paris Commune, 1871-1885 (Julia Nicholls)
332 pages
Peter Beilharz - Socialism and Democracy
100% (1)
Peter Beilharz - Socialism and Democracy
249 pages
Bismarck Reading List (Version2)
100% (1)
Bismarck Reading List (Version2)
3 pages
Judith N Shklar - Samantha Ashenden - Andreas Hess - On Political Obligation (2019, Yale University Press)
50% (2)
Judith N Shklar - Samantha Ashenden - Andreas Hess - On Political Obligation (2019, Yale University Press)
265 pages
(The Sciences Po Series in International Relations and Political Economy) Béatrice Hibou (Auth.) - The Political Anatomy of Domination (2017, Palgrave Macmillan)
100% (2)
(The Sciences Po Series in International Relations and Political Economy) Béatrice Hibou (Auth.) - The Political Anatomy of Domination (2017, Palgrave Macmillan)
378 pages
Conservatism As An Ideology
100% (2)
Conservatism As An Ideology
21 pages
Garry Potter - The Philosophy of Social Science New Perspectives-Routledge (2016)
No ratings yet
Garry Potter - The Philosophy of Social Science New Perspectives-Routledge (2016)
298 pages
Political Culture in Post Communist Russia
No ratings yet
Political Culture in Post Communist Russia
280 pages
Lin Chun - The Transformation of Chinese Socialism (2006) PDF
No ratings yet
Lin Chun - The Transformation of Chinese Socialism (2006) PDF
377 pages
French: Conservative Thought
No ratings yet
French: Conservative Thought
16 pages
(Themes in Comparative History) Pamela M. Pilbeam (Auth.) - The Middle Classes in Europe, 1789-1914 - France, Germmany, Italy and Russia-Macmillan Education UK (1990)
100% (1)
(Themes in Comparative History) Pamela M. Pilbeam (Auth.) - The Middle Classes in Europe, 1789-1914 - France, Germmany, Italy and Russia-Macmillan Education UK (1990)
336 pages
(António Costa Pinto, Aristotle Kallis (Eds.) ) Re PDF
100% (2)
(António Costa Pinto, Aristotle Kallis (Eds.) ) Re PDF
315 pages
Richard Bellamy-Rethinking Liberalism-Continuum (2005) PDF
100% (2)
Richard Bellamy-Rethinking Liberalism-Continuum (2005) PDF
264 pages
After Neoliberalism Complete 0 PDF
100% (1)
After Neoliberalism Complete 0 PDF
225 pages
David Drake - Intellectuals and Politics in Post-War France, 2002 PDF
No ratings yet
David Drake - Intellectuals and Politics in Post-War France, 2002 PDF
265 pages
America Right or Wrong An Anatomy of American Nationalism 2005
100% (3)
America Right or Wrong An Anatomy of American Nationalism 2005
289 pages
KIRK, Russel - Objections To Conservatism
100% (1)
KIRK, Russel - Objections To Conservatism
96 pages
Jealousy of Trade Kapossy, Bela - Markets, Morals, Politics - Jealousy of Trade and The History of Political Thought-Harvard University Press (2018)
No ratings yet
Jealousy of Trade Kapossy, Bela - Markets, Morals, Politics - Jealousy of Trade and The History of Political Thought-Harvard University Press (2018)
337 pages
Nationalism As A Claim To A State The GR
No ratings yet
Nationalism As A Claim To A State The GR
272 pages
Democracy and Dictatorship in Europe From The Ancien Régime To The Present Day-Berman, Sheri (2019)
100% (1)
Democracy and Dictatorship in Europe From The Ancien Régime To The Present Day-Berman, Sheri (2019)
561 pages
Hazlitt Foundations of Morality PDF
No ratings yet
Hazlitt Foundations of Morality PDF
414 pages
A Short History of The Twentieth Century - John Lukacs
No ratings yet
A Short History of The Twentieth Century - John Lukacs
239 pages
John Lukacs-A Short History of The Twentieth Century-Belknap Press (2013) PDF
100% (2)
John Lukacs-A Short History of The Twentieth Century-Belknap Press (2013) PDF
241 pages
20 Thcentury
No ratings yet
20 Thcentury
1 page
Early 20th Century
No ratings yet
Early 20th Century
2 pages
Slouching Towards Utopia: An Economic History of The Twentieth Century 1st Edition Delong Instant Download
100% (1)
Slouching Towards Utopia: An Economic History of The Twentieth Century 1st Edition Delong Instant Download
50 pages
GP HomeTask Book Review
No ratings yet
GP HomeTask Book Review
2 pages
AP World History - Modern Exam - Period 4 Notes (1900-Present)
No ratings yet
AP World History - Modern Exam - Period 4 Notes (1900-Present)
5 pages
The Cold War and The New Imperialism - A Global History, - Henry Heller - 2006 - Monthly Review Press - 9781583671399 - Anna's Archive
No ratings yet
The Cold War and The New Imperialism - A Global History, - Henry Heller - 2006 - Monthly Review Press - 9781583671399 - Anna's Archive
368 pages
Multi-Media Assignment
No ratings yet
Multi-Media Assignment
30 pages
VR17 17ME1204: Siddhartha Engineering College
No ratings yet
VR17 17ME1204: Siddhartha Engineering College
2 pages
Accomplishment Report - SBM - March 2023
No ratings yet
Accomplishment Report - SBM - March 2023
5 pages
Rotary Control Valve: K-Max
No ratings yet
Rotary Control Valve: K-Max
12 pages
How To Organize A Personal Library Tim Challies
No ratings yet
How To Organize A Personal Library Tim Challies
4 pages
M100754 Fanuc 16 18 Memory Reference Chart (Loc)
No ratings yet
M100754 Fanuc 16 18 Memory Reference Chart (Loc)
3 pages
List of Phrasal Verbs With Definition and Examples
100% (1)
List of Phrasal Verbs With Definition and Examples
17 pages
(ENG) 2014 Extended User Manual EBee RTK v1 1
No ratings yet
(ENG) 2014 Extended User Manual EBee RTK v1 1
186 pages
Circles, Areas Related To Circles, Surfacea Areas and Volumes
No ratings yet
Circles, Areas Related To Circles, Surfacea Areas and Volumes
7 pages
Mutual Fund Project
No ratings yet
Mutual Fund Project
73 pages
Disa Trachealator Brochure
No ratings yet
Disa Trachealator Brochure
2 pages
Introduction To Logistic Management
No ratings yet
Introduction To Logistic Management
28 pages
Op. Instructions
No ratings yet
Op. Instructions
2 pages
BLDG Line Relaxation Ekurheleni New
No ratings yet
BLDG Line Relaxation Ekurheleni New
11 pages
AIAA2019HybridBimetallicMCC FINAL
No ratings yet
AIAA2019HybridBimetallicMCC FINAL
13 pages
Excel Quick 3rd Edition Gaylord N. Smith Instant Download
No ratings yet
Excel Quick 3rd Edition Gaylord N. Smith Instant Download
44 pages
NANDO Important
No ratings yet
NANDO Important
31 pages
Economic Problems and Challenges Poverty and Unemployment
No ratings yet
Economic Problems and Challenges Poverty and Unemployment
29 pages
Eaint Eaindra Khin
No ratings yet
Eaint Eaindra Khin
3 pages
Marvell 88Q5072 Secure Multi-Gig Automotive Switch With Integrated 100BASE-T1 PHY
No ratings yet
Marvell 88Q5072 Secure Multi-Gig Automotive Switch With Integrated 100BASE-T1 PHY
2 pages
TBM Tunnelling in Jointed and Faulted Rock
No ratings yet
TBM Tunnelling in Jointed and Faulted Rock
9 pages
NAT Reviewer Science
100% (3)
NAT Reviewer Science
3 pages
خريطه المنهج اولى ثانوي
No ratings yet
خريطه المنهج اولى ثانوي
3 pages
Drainage SDVXX
No ratings yet
Drainage SDVXX
1 page
Streptococcus Pneumoniae: Pathogenesis and Disease
No ratings yet
Streptococcus Pneumoniae: Pathogenesis and Disease
10 pages
Whateverth
100% (1)
Whateverth
13 pages
Chapter 9 - Modules in Python
No ratings yet
Chapter 9 - Modules in Python
26 pages
Tesla Coil Wireless Power Transmission
0% (1)
Tesla Coil Wireless Power Transmission
2 pages
Al Financial Management-1
No ratings yet
Al Financial Management-1
4 pages

A Short History of The Twentieth Century

Uploaded by

A Short History of The Twentieth Century

Uploaded by

Copyright © 2013. Harvard University Press. All rights reserved.

library of congress cataloging-­i n-­p ublication data

1 “God Writes Straight with Crooked Lines” 1

“Century”—An American century—The German potential-

2 “Now We Have Only Peoples’ Wars” 16

Communism: a seventy-­year episode in the more than one

A “new Europe”? Yes and no—The end of four great em-

Communists—The nature of their fears—The situation of

5 No Nostalgia for the “World of Yesterday” 55

Uniqueness of the United States—Its in­ flu­

6 South of the Border and Across the Pa­cific 66

The Southern Hemisphere—The Far East

7 “Middle Class” Is Not “Bourgeois” 78

The failure of liberal democracies—Authoritarian govern-

8 “I Was a Nationalist, but I Was Not a Pa­tri­ot” 90

9 The Wave of the Future 99

The Hitler de­cade—His domination of Europe—The com-

10 “I Hope It Is Not Too Late” 110

The Second World War—The European phase, 1939 to

11 To Subdue and Conquer Germany and Japan 131

After Pearl Harbor, six months of Allied defeats—The naval

12 The Division of Europe Almost Complete 146

Europe still the center of his­tory—The new ge­og­ra­phy of the

13 The Brave Harry Truman 153

The Cold War at its peak—The Korean War—Death of

14 American Nationalism, American Benevolence 164

America’s century: more than that—Prob­lems rather than

15 “Europe,” and the End of the Cold War 174

“Europe”: impreciseness of its defi­ni­tion—The principal ob-

16 “Great Leap Forward” 183

The Third World—Near and Middle East—Far East and

17 The Limitations of Human Knowledge 206

A transitional century—Inheritances of the preceding one—

“GOD WRITES STRAIGHT

“Century”—An American century—The German potential-

There is no serious his­t ory of the twentieth century that I

tive” and “sci­en­tific” his­tory are inadequate desiderata; but so,

edge, nay, un­der­stand­ing, depends on de­scrip­tion rather than on

theme, or sub-­theme, of the present book. Now add to this (his-

American century. Such a statement may not surprise many of

much of their press—thought they had to have good relations

instance in which a British government would strongly oppose

­advice to the new arrivals—at that time coming especially from

ple, and among some of their leaders as well, though it did not

1. There will be extensive reference to this in later chapters.

as well as po­lit­i­cal, ideological as well as cultural and intellec-

Americans) came to think that the po­lit­i­cal landscape of the

wholly aware of this—unlike substantial portions, probably the

involving a reciprocal retreat of Soviet and American forces from

gradual though sometimes interrupted withdrawal of Russian

rapid decline of the European Age, as Britain, France, Holland,

consequences was the ouster of Khrushchev by his Politburo less

remaining Communist practices in the ev­eryday life and eco-

Throughout the world, many people saw the United States as

“Conservative” and “liberal” were nineteenth-­century ideolo-

Even when the American military dropped atomic bombs on

“NOW WE HAVE ONLY

A European War—1914: A short war?—But entire nations

transformations came the profound shock that the war dealt

is behind us—now we have only peoples’ wars.” The armed states

mans began a strenuous offensive, a last attempt to crush the

rendered on November 11, 1918. What followed was not peace but

Consider the startling condition that in August 1914, so many

eration of the wars in Europe during the preceding one hundred

German Schlieffen Plan, sensible and convincing, laid down the

over a million Frenchmen, even more Germans, and nearly a

mances of most Austrian, Hungarian, and Ital­ian commanders.

military his­tory of the First World War—but was a turning point

In 1917, there were two revolutions in Russia (more exactly:

not much more than a few abandoned government buildings in

main, the Russia it has always been.

consequences of Russia’s mighty triumphs against Germany in

But meanwhile—also during the U.S. withdrawal from Europe—

main, greater, much more widespread, and at times even deeper

bene­fits of democracy). It involves, too, the im­por­tant but always

of the American people were not simple. Most Americans be-

library of congress cataloging-i n-p ublication data

Communism: a seventy-year episode in the more than one

Uniqueness of the United States—Its in flu

6 South of the Border and Across the Pacific 66

8 “I Was a Nationalist, but I Was Not a Patriot” 90

The Hitler decade—His domination of Europe—The com-

Europe still the center of history—The new geography of the

America’s century: more than that—Problems rather than

“Europe”: impreciseness of its definition—The principal ob-

There is no serious hist ory of the twentieth century that I

tive” and “scientific” history are inadequate desiderata; but so,

edge, nay, understanding, depends on description rather than on

theme, or sub-theme, of the present book. Now add to this (his-

advice to the new arrivals—at that time coming especially from

as well as political, ideological as well as cultural and intellec-

Americans) came to think that the political landscape of the

remaining Communist practices in the everyday life and eco-

“Conservative” and “liberal” were nineteenth-century ideolo-

mances of most Austrian, Hungarian, and Italian commanders.

military history of the First World War—but was a turning point

benefits of democracy). It involves, too, the important but always

values and merits of “national self-determination.” Little of that

primacy of Europe within the great panorama of world history

a ntisocialist—capitalism being sometimes, though not predomi-

In the hist ory of the world, the Communist revolution in

to move from their dwellings and land to very large state-ordered

ment of Stalin’s thinking, of which we have only a few, scattered,

as finance, banking, journalism, and other professions open to

these inclinations simply attributable to the attractions of po

Uniqueness of the United States—Its in flu

lish or Scottish or Irish origin were less than one-fifth of the

deeply lodged, in the thoughts and worldview of most Amer

near-universal philosophy, shallow applications of which even

treme inflation—and the fall in real estate prices there. It should

short history of the twentieth century was that the international

nations, at least on their extremes, were rare among the Ameri-

Two long-range global developments were under way in the

Hist ory is the reco rd and the memory of mankind. This

effect on the overwhelmingly large non-Spanish and nonwhite