Premium English Grammar:

A Self-Study Guide

Oluyemisi A. Adedokun-Oladejo
 For Mom
Bernice A. Adedokun
THE COURSE OF A SPRING UPON CRYSTAL ROCKS
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Copyright © 2021 Oluyemisi A. Adedokun-Oladejo

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Contents
CHAPTER 1
Determiners
CHAPTER 2
Nouns and Noun Phrases
CHAPTER 3
Pronouns
CHAPTER 4
Adjectives and Adjective Phrases
CHAPTER 5
Verbs and Verb Phrases
Chapter 6
Adverbs
Chapter 7
Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases
Chapter 8
Conjunctions
Chapter 9
Interjection
Chapter 10
Clauses
Chapter 11
The Sentence
Chapter 12
Tense and Aspect
Chapter 13
Concord
Chapter 14
Active Voice and Passive Voice
Chapter 15
Direct Speech and Reported Speech
Chapter 16
Formation of Questions
Chapter 17
Sample Examination Questions
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
 CHAPTER 1

Determiners

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
describe the office of determiners;
name the categories of determiners;
identify determiners in sentences;
classify each given determiner correctly; and
use determiners correctly.

1.1 What are Determiners?

Determiners are pointers to nouns; they are labels on nouns. A determiner
shows which noun is referred to, for the sake of clarity. Look at the sentence
below:
1. The new teacher asked for my textbook.

In the sentence above, the word “my” shows which book was asked for by
the new teacher. “My”, therefore, is a determiner. Because a determiner is a
label on a noun, it is directly followed by a noun. The office of a determiner
is similar to that of an adjective.

1.2 Categories of Determiners

The broad categories of determiners are articles, demonstratives, possessives
and interrogatives. We will now discuss the categories one after the other.

1.2.1 Articles

Articles behave like adjectives and have functions similar to the functions of
adjectives. Look at Sentence 2 below:
2. The beautiful woman he married has divorced him.

The word “beautiful” is an adjective telling you more about the noun
“woman”, but so is the word “the”. “The” too tells you more about “woman”;
it shows you the particular woman. Unlike an adjective which is a descriptive
word, an article is a limiting word. By the word “limiting”, I mean that an
article maps the territory of a noun. There are three types of articles: the
definite article, the indefinite article and the zero article.

1.2.1.1 The Definite Article (the)

The definite article is indicated by the word “the”. The definite article has the
ability to pinpoint a particular person/place/thing, rather than refer to
persons/places/things in general.

The Functions of the Definite Article (the)

a. “The” is used to show a specific person/thing/place.

Example:
3. The ball on the table is mine.

“The” in Sentence 3 points at a particular ball. “The” suggests that I am

talking about a particular ball, not just any ball.
b. “The” can refer to a specific category/brand/type.

Example:
 4. The vulture is a bird of prey.

In this usage, “the” refers to particular species (vulture), not all birds.
Note that “the” in this usage refers to all vultures, not one vulture.
c. “The” is used before the name of certain proper nouns, e. g. the name
of a river, the name of a desert, the name of an ocean, or the name of
a newspaper. Note, however, that we don’t use “the” with any of
these names if what it is (common noun) is already mentioned.
Hence:

The Sahara Desert - incorrect

The Sahara - correct
Sahara Desert - correct
The Punch Newspaper - incorrect
The Punch – correct
Punch Newspaper - correct
d. “The” refers to an object/a person/a place that both the speaker and
the listener already know.

Examples:

5. When you are coming to school tomorrow, remember to bring the

wristwatch I gave to you.
6. The book is on the shelf.
In Sentence 5, it is clear that there had been a previous interaction between
the listener and the speaker which involved a wristwatch; before Sentence
6 was made, the speaker and listener must have talked about a particular
book.

e. “The” is used in the subsequent references to a person or thing that

has previously been referred to with the indefinite article (a/an), as
you can see in the story below:
 7. Once upon a time, there lived a girl in a cottage. The girl was
blind and had no one to help her, and the cottage was very small…
Did you observe that the first references to “girl” and “cottage” were with
an indefinite article (a), but the subsequent mention of both “girl” and
“cottage” is with the definite article (the)?
When someone/something has been mentioned with the indefinite article
once, the subsequent mention should be with the definite article (the).

f. “The” can preface an abstract noun, as exemplified below:

8. I later found that the energy I expended on the job would not be
duly rewarded.
9. The quality of education in a school is, partly, a function of the
dedication of the teachers.
“Energy” in Sentence 8 and “quality” in Sentence 9 are abstract nouns.

g. “The” can preface and delimit an adjective when that adjective

performs the function of a noun.

Example:
10. The prosperous will always oppress the
destitute.

“Prosperous” and “destitute” are adjectives; they qualify to be delimited

by “the” in Sentence 10 because they function as nouns in that sentence.
h. “The” can replace a possessive determiner like “his/our” if it is
assumed that the listener/reader already knows who the possessor is.
Look at the examples below:

11. We found a dead woman outside; her head was no longer there
and her hands were mutilated.
12. We found a dead woman outside; the head was no longer there
and the hands were mutilated.
The possessive determiner “her” in Sentence 11 is substituted for “the” in
Sentence 12.
i. “The” can be used before a singular or a plural noun; what is
important is that it marks the noun off as specific. Consider these two
sentences:

13. I recommend the girl in my class for this scholarship.

14. I recommend the girls in my class for this scholarship.

In Sentence 13, “the” delimits a singular noun (girl) to show a specific

girl; in Sentence 15, “the” delimits a plural noun (girls) to show a specific
group of girls (girls in my class, not all girls in the school).
j. In speaking, we use “the” with dates; we often don’t use it with dates
in writing.

Examples:
15. The executives came here for supervision on the 2nd July. -
speaking
16. The executives came here for supervision on 2nd July. - writing

k. “The” is used with words that indicate order or rank, e.g. the first, the
last, the next, the previous.
l. “The” is used with adjectives and adverbs in the superlative degree,
but it is not used with adjectives and adverbs in the positive and
comparative degrees. See Sentences 17 and 18 where the
adverbs/adjectives are in bold print.

Examples:
17. Last week, we travelled farther than we did a fortnight ago; but
this week, we travelled the farthest.
18. Miss Ghana is more beautiful than Miss Senegal, but Miss
Nigeria is the most beautiful.
 Note, however, that when there are only two levels of comparison
(positive degree and comparative degree), the adverb/adjective in the
comparative degree should take “the”, as shown in Sentence 19 below:
19. China is the farther of the two counties I have travelled to.

m. “The” is used to indicate a cardinal point that comes immediately

after a preposition. Look at these examples:

20. I saw an almond towards northern part of the arena. - incorrect

21. I saw an almond towards the northern part of the arena. - correct

1.2.1.2 Indefinite Articles (a/an)

The indefinite articles show people/places/things that are not specified. The
two indefinite articles in English are “a” and “an”. These indefinite articles
are used when we refer to only singular nouns; the indefinite article is not
used with more than one person/thing/place. The indefinite article is used
when what is being referred to is not already known to the listener/reader;
when it is not specified.
The Functions of the Indefinite Article

a. Since the indefinite article refers to only singular nouns, it refers to

ONE person or ONE object. See examples below:

22. There is a ball on the floor.

23. Bianca lost a bunch of keys.

Sentence 1 suggests that it’s only ONE ball that can be found on the floor,
not two. Sentence 2 suggests that all the keys that Bianca lost are in ONE
group (bunch). So, “a/an” is used with only ONE.
b. “A/an” can actually replace the word “one” in a sentence, as shown in
Sentences 24 and 25:

24. Everybody in the community fetches water in one river.

 25. Everybody in the community fetches water in a river.

Did you notice how “one” in Sentence 24 is substituted for “a” in

Sentence 25, yet the two sentences have the same meaning? Anyone who
reads Sentence 25 knows that the whole community fetches water in only
one river.
c. “A/an” can replace “each” or “every” or “per” in a sentence.

Examples:
26. You should drink eight glasses of water each day.
27. You should drink eight glasses of water every day.
28. You should drink eight glasses of water per day.
29. You should drink eight glasses of water a day.

The four sentences have the same meaning.

d. “An" is used before a word that begins with a vowel sound, e.g. an
apple, an albino, an umbrella, an iron.

e. “A” is used before a word that begins with a consonant sound, e.g. a
Bible, a man, a picture, a phone.

f. When a word begins with a consonant in writing but is pronounced

with an initial vowel sound, "an" (not "a") is used.

Examples:

30. A plural noun may end in an “s”.

31. My bother just bought an MP3 player.

If you were to read Sentence 3 aloud, you would pronounce the “s” as
“es”. So the letter “s” is a consonant, but when pronounced in the context
above, it starts with the vowel /e/. That is why it is preceded by the article
“an”, not the article “a”. “MP3” in Sentence 31 too starts with the letter
"M", but if read aloud, that "M" sounds as "em".

g. When a word starts with a vowel letter in writing but is pronounced

 like a consonant if read aloud, the article to use before the word is
“a”, not “an”, e.g. a unicorn, a university.
When you pronounce “university” and “unicorn”, you pronounce them
with the letter “y” which is a consonant; you pronounce “yuniversity” and
“yunicorn”, hence, the use of the article “a”.

Also, look at the sentence below:

32. The purchase I made was a one-off purchase.

Did you observe that I wrote “a one-off” and not “an one-off”? This is
because when you pronounce “one” you pronounce it as “won”, starting it
with the bilabial sound /w/ which is a consonant.
h. "A" or "an" can be used before a word that starts with the letter
"h", depending on whether the “h” is silent or not. That is why we
have “an honour” but “a hospital”. Both “honour” and “hospital” start
with letter "h", but while "h" is silent in "honour" it is not silent in
"hospital".

“A” with an Initial “H” “An” with an Initial “H”

hospital honour
hotel hour
heater honest man
house heir
heritage
hymn
history
i. “A” can collocate with the quantifier “few” or “little” to change its
meaning from “not many” or “not much” to “enough/adequate”, as
illustrated below:

33. There is little oil in the soup. - The oil in the soup is not much.
 34. There is a little oil in the soup. - The oil in the soup is enough.

j. Since we cannot use “a/an” with an uncountable noun, we can

measure the uncountable noun by using “a/an” with the countable
noun that is associated with that uncountable noun. For example, we
should not say “a water”, but we can say “a cup of water”; we should
not say “a sugar” but we can say, “a cube of sugar”.

1.2.1.3 Zero Article (When not to Use an Article)

a. No article should come immediately before or after another

determiner, except quantifiers like “little” (a little), “few” (a few).

Examples:
35. Has anyone removed a my photograph that I hung on the wall? –
incorrect
36. Has anyone removed my photograph that I hung on the wall? –
correct
37. She should purchase the any piece of furniture she needs. –
incorrect
38. She should purchase any piece of furniture she needs. – correct

b. We don’t use an article before the name of a country or continent,

e.g. “Asia” (not “the Asia”), “Nigeria” (not “a Nigeria”).
c. We may use “the” with the names of seasons, e.g. “winter” or “the
winter”. The former is preferable in a formal discourse.
d. In a narration, when we want to specify a day, we use “One” instead
of “a”.

Example:
39. A man was travelling one day when… (correct)
40. A man was travelling a day when… (incorrect)
 e. We don’t use “the” with chemical symbols, e.g. “carbon dioxide”, not
“the carbon dioxide”.
f. We don't use an article before the names of people. For example, we
should not say, "the Robert"; we simply say "Robert". If, however,
more than one person is bearing the name, we can preface it with
"the" to distinguish the one we are referring to. Hence, it is correct to
write, "The Robert that I know is tall and fat". Also, if "Robert" is a
surname, we can use it in the plural form, and preface it with "the".
For example, we can say, "The Roberts are hospitable."
g. Some abstract nouns are treated like uncountable nouns; they do not
take the indefinite article (a/an). Such nouns include “information”
and “advice”. So, it is incorrect to say, “an information” or “an
advice”. We can, however, preface them with the definite article
(the); it is correct to say, “the information” or “the advice”.
h. No article is used before the name of a game.

Examples:
I was playing the Ludo with my friend. – incorrect.
I was playing Ludo with my friend. correct

1.2.2 Demonstratives

Demonstrative determiners show the nearness or direction of persons/objects.

There are only four demonstrative determiners (demonstratives): this, these,
that and those. “This” shows a singular object that is near; “these” shows
plural objects that are near. “That” shows a singular object that is far; “those”
shows plural objects that are far.

1.2.3 Interrogatives

They preface the nouns that introduce questions. They include “which”,
“what” and “whose”. In each of the following questions, the noun introducing
the question is in bold print, while the interrogative determiner is shaded.
 Examples:
41. What book are you reading?
42. Whose book is she reading?

1.2.4 Possessives

They are used to indicate ownership; a possessive determiner shows the

possessor of a thing. Possessive determiners are my, our, your, his, her, its,
and their. In Sentences 43 and 44, the possessions are in bold print while the
possessives (possessive determiners) are shaded:
Examples:
43. This is their house.
44. Don’t you know my name?

1.2.5 Quantifiers

Quantifiers convey the idea of quantity, showing how many or how much. A
quantifier can be either a word or a phrase. Here are examples or quantifiers:
little, a little, few, a few, plenty of, plenty, both, majority of, a bit of, a great
deal of, an amount of, fewer, less, least, enough, each, either, neither, every,
none of, all, any, some, either, most of, too many, not many, too many, too
much, half, half of, one-third of, etc.
1.2.5.1 Notes on Some Quantifiers

Either
As a determiner, “either” can indicate one of two options; it can also indicate
each of two options. For example, in Sentence 45, it indicates one of two
options; in Sentence 46 and Sentence 47, it indicates each of two options.
45. You can burn either the top or the bottom of the candle.
46. You can burn either side of the candle.
 47. You can burn either of the sides of the candle.

Note that while using “either” to indicate each of two options, the modified
noun should be in the singular form as shown in Sentence 46; on the other
hand, if you are using “either of”, the modified noun should be in plural form
as shown in Sentence 47.
“Each” and “Every”
“Each” or “every” should be followed by a singular noun (never a plural
noun) which is in turn followed by a singular verb. Hence:
each boys have… - incorrect
every boys have… - incorrect
each boy has… - correct
every boy has… - correct
Conversely, the phrases “each of the” and "every one of" should be followed
by plural nouns; but that plural noun should, in turn, be followed by a
singular verb. Hence:
each of the boy has… - incorrect
each of the boys have… - incorrect
each of the boys has… - correct.
Also, note that we do not use a negative verb (verb + not) after "each" and
"every".
Examples:
48. Every child was not beaten. - incorrect
49. No child was beaten. – correct
50. None of the children was beaten. – correct
51. The children were not beaten. – correct

Apart from functioning as a determiner, “each” can also stand alone as a

pronoun, but “every” cannot:
Examples:
52. One thousand naira was given to each. - correct
53. One thousand naira was given to every. - incorrect

“A Part of”
We use the phrase “a part of” as a quantifier before a singular noun; we don’t
use it before a plural noun.
Examples:
54. A part of the building has collapsed. - The noun “building” is
singular; so, this sentence is grammatical.
55. A part of the buildings in the estate have collapsed. - “Buildings”
is plural. So, this sentence is ungrammatical.
56. Some of the buildings in the estate have collapsed. - This
sentence is grammatical.

“Some”
“Some” can, sometimes, mean “a fraction of”; sometimes, it can mean “all”.
Examples:
57. Please, give me some money (a fraction of the money you have).
58. I met some people at that junction when I was returning from the
market. (Here, “some” refers all of the people I met at that
junction).

“Many”
“Many” is used with plural countable nouns to mean "a large number of'; it is
never used with an uncountable noun. Hence:
many people – correct
many salt - incorrect
“Much”
“Much” is used with an uncountable noun to mean “a large quantity of”; it is
never used with countable nouns. Hence:
much people - incorrect
much salt – correct
“Too many/Too much”
They are used in the negative sense to indicate “excess”; “too many/too
much” means “more than desirable”. “Too many” is used with countable
nouns while “too much” is used with uncountable nouns.
Examples:
59. I think there are too many people in that hall; a stampede may
happen.
60. I cannot eat the food; there is too much salt in it.

“A lot of”
“A lot of” has the same meaning with “most”; it can be used with both
countable noun and uncountable noun. Hence:
a lot of people - correct
a lot of money - correct
“Few” and “A few”
“Few” means an insignificantly small number (not enough); “a few” means
“not many, but enough”. They are both used for countable nouns.
Examples:
61. A few Nigerians have watched the movie entitled Game of
Thrones.
62. Before independence, few Nigerians had access to western
education.

Sentence 61 suggests that an appreciable number of Nigerians have watched

the movie; Sentence 62 suggests that an insignificant number of Nigerians
had access to western education.
“Little” and “A little”
They have the same usage with “few” and “a few”, except that they are used
for uncountable nouns.
Examples:
63. I couldn’t eat the soup; there was little salt in it.
64. I have a little salt that I can use to cook the beans.

“Both”
“Both” is used with TWO people/things. Hence:
65. Both the book and the pen are mine. – correct
66. Both the book, the pen and the ruler are mine. – incorrect.

Note that either “both” or “both of” can preface a noun.

Examples:
67. Both of the girls are beautiful. – correct
68. Both girls are beautiful. – correct

When “both” prefaces a singular noun, that noun must be paired with
another singular noun with “and”.
Example:
69. Both Dad and Mom attended my convocation.

“Both” does not appear in a negative clause. A negative clause is a clause

that contains the word “not”.
Examples:
70. Both your dad and your mom are not natives of this town. –
incorrect.
71. Neither your dad nor your mom is a native of this town. – correct
 Evaluation
a. What are determiners?
b. Explain how the indefinite articles are different from the definite article.
c. Fill in the gap in each of the sentences below with the right article
(a/an/the); write “z” if no article is applicable.
1. ____ rivalry between the two communities has resulted in deaths
and losses.
2. _____ dependent clause cannot function without _____
independent clause.
3. His two siblings in ____ London are planning to return to ____
Nigeria.
4. Are the editors of ____ Punch meticulous?
5. I don’t think there is ____ hospital in that village.
6. Alex considers it ____ honour to address the audience.
7. We will leave since you are not ready to divulge ____ any piece of
information to us.
8. I once heard the story of a big town; ____ town was in the northern
part of Nigeria.
9. His family is not ____ united family.
10. Since there is no service, this phone can only be used for ___ SOS
call.

d. Below is a list of determiners. Write each of them in the correct column in

the table provided:
each, each of, my, a, half, enough, little, the, these, which, an, every,
many, her, all, either, that, their, neither, those, too much, what, too many,
less, a few, every, his, all, none of, your, some, enough, least, a bit of, her,
plenty, a part of our, little, a little, any, whose, its
ARTICLESPOSSESSIVES DEMONSTRATIVES QUANTIFIERS INTERROG
e. Underline all the determiners in the passage below:
When Lord Mansfield held in 1772 that a master could not forcibly remove
his slave from England, abolitionist propagandists portrayed the decision as
the abolition of slavery, as it indeed came to be regarded. That decision and
the influx of Africans who had been liberated because they fought with
England during the American War for Independence resulted in a sizable free
black community in London. While some of them found employment in
domestic service and on ships, the majority did not secure jobs and did not
readily assimilate. Thus, in the wake of the 1772 decision, for which they
claimed credit, abolitionists pursued the idea of resettling liberated Africans
in Africa where it was hoped that a society founded on free labour could
spread Christianity, develop a western-style economy, and contribute to the
restriction of slavery on the African continent.
(Joseph E. Harris (1987) Africans and their history. Penguin Books: the
U.S.A.)

Recap
Determiners are words that limit or pinpoint nouns.
A determiner marks a noun off as distinct from other nouns.
The five categories of determiners are articles (definite and
indefinite), demonstrative determiners, possessive determiners,
interrogative determiners and quantifiers.
 CHAPTER 2

Nouns and Noun Phrases

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
give an apt definition of a noun;
name nine types of nouns;
give examples for each type of nouns;
identify each type of noun;
identify the case in which a given noun is used;
name the feminine and masculine genders for some nouns;
give examples of nouns that belong to the neuter gender;
identify a noun phrase; and
describe the structure of a noun phrase.

2.1 What is a Noun?

A noun is the name of any person, animal, place or thing.
You must have, at one time or the other, been taught to define a noun as it is
defined above. Is this definition correct? Yes, it is. Is it accurate? No, it is not.
In the definition of a noun given above, four items are identified as nouns:
person, animal, place and thing. Now, consider the sentences below:
1. He was cheated because of his ignorance.
2. Pride goes before a fall.
In Sentence 1, “ignorance” is a noun; in Sentence 2, “pride” is a noun. Are
“pride” and “ignorance” persons? No, they are not. Are they animals? No,
they are not. Are they places? No, they are not. Are they things? Absolutely
not! “Ignorance” and ‘pride” cannot be filed in any of the four classes in the
definition of a noun given above. Can you now see that the definition of a
noun as the name of any person, animal place or thing is inaccurate?
How am I sure that “pride” and “ignorance” are nouns? I know because the
position that each of these words occupies in Sentences 1 and 2 above can be
occupied by words that are clearly nouns (person, animal, place, thing).
Okay, let’s prove that:
3. He was cheated because of his ignorance.
4. He was cheated because of his father. - person
5. He was cheated because of his dog. - animal
6. He was cheated his country. - place
7. He was cheated because of his car. - thing

Let’s do that with the second sentence:

8. Pride goes before a fall.

Sentence 8 is similar to Sentences 9, 10 and 11 below:

9. Father goes to bed before Mother. - person
10. Roosters wake up before other birds. - animal
11. We had gone to France before we went to
Canada. - place
12. The lectern stands before the pastor. - thing

In the examples above, words that are clearly nouns have fitted comfortably
in the positions of “ignorance” and “pride”. Have you now confirmed that the
definition of a noun given above is correct but inaccurate?
Let me show you another inaccuracy of that definition. Consider the
sentences below:
 13. The country’s wealth belongs to the mighty.
14. Dancing can make you feel better.

The shaded word (mighty) in Sentence 13 is an adjective; the shaded word

(dancing) in Sentence14 is a verb. But these two words are in those sentences
as nouns. Yes, they function in those two sentences as nouns, not as an
adjective and a verb. Do you want to verify? Let us attempt substituting them
for words that are clearly nouns, as we have done before:
15. The county’s wealth belongs to the mighty.
16. The country’s wealth belongs to the president.
17. Dancing can make you feel better.
18. Drugs can make you feel better.

“President (person)” and “drugs (things)” are irrefutably nouns, and we have
substituted them for a verb and an adjective respectively. Should we
confidently say “A noun is the name of any person, animal, place or thing”
when “dancing (verb)” and “mighty (adjective)” can function as nouns? No,
we shouldn’t. We will discuss adjectives and verbs as these lessons advance,
but the point I want to make here is that words from other word classes can
function as nouns.
Suffice to say at this juncture that any existent – with or without form,
tangible or intangible, visible or invisible, material or immaterial – is a noun.
Read that again. Anything that exists, created by God or man, visible or
invisible, is a noun. Any creation, living or non-living; seen or unseen, is a
noun. Hence, here is a simpler but an accurate definition of a noun:
A noun is a naming word.
You can also say, “A noun is a name”. It is not only persons, animal, places
and things that have names. Words like abundance, joy, integrity, vacancy,
darkness and annoyance are names, yet they have no physical forms.
Here is a tip to help recognise a noun when you see one. A noun is that
element that comes immediately after a determiner, e.g. a thief, a unicorn,
the fence, my friend, few books. Remember we discussed determiners in
Chapter 1.
It is also important you know that a noun answers the question
“who/whom/what/where”, as exemplified below:
19. His problem was arrogance.
20. You should please the examiners.
21. My team plans to go the America next week. –

“Arrogance” in Sentence 19 answers the question “What was his problem?”;

“examiners” in Sentence 20 answers the question “Whom should you
please?”; and “America” in Sentence 21 answers the question “Where does
your team plan to go next week?”

2.2 Classification of Nouns

2.2.1 Common Nouns

You should recall that I said a noun is a name. A common noun is a general
name, a name no person can claim as a personal possession. “Common” is
another word for “general”. A common noun is a name that any person/thing
in that category can answer to. For example, every male adult is a man, every
young human being is a child, every female adult is a woman, every big
settlement with social amenities is a town, every animal that barks and is kept
as a domestic animal is a dog, every device used for making calls or sending
text messages is a phone. So, “man”, “child”, “woman”, “town”, “dog” and
“phone” are common nouns; these names do not belong to individuals.
If, for instance, I say “This is an intelligent student”, I might not be referring
to you, because you are not the only student reading this. “Student” is not
your personal name. It is a general name; “student” is a common noun.
Common nouns can also refer to the things around us. There are thirty-five
common nouns in the list below:
people, person, car, television, thermometer, cloth, dress, mountain, hill,
valley, road, house, elephant, door, engineer, doctor, parent, school,
hospital, church, table, pen, cap, day, month, year, week, town, village, city,
country, continent, hall, floor, bottle.
Did you notice that the words in the list refer not only to the things that are
around us but also to names that do not belong to only one person/thing?

2.2.2 Proper Nouns

A proper noun is the opposite of a common noun. While a common noun is a

general name, a proper noun is a specific name. It is a name peculiar to the
bearer, a name that the bearer can claim as a personal possession. For
example, I am the only Oluyemisi among the teachers in my school. If
someone calls “teacher”, I may decide not to answer, since I am not the only
teacher in that school. So, “teacher” is a common noun. But if someone calls
“Oluyemisi”, I am the only one to answer, because that name is peculiar to
me. “Oluyemisi” is a proper noun, because it is a personal name.
The table below marks general names as common nouns and specific names
as proper nouns:

COMMON NOUNS PROPER

NOUNS
boy David
girl Janet
man Mr. Scotts
woman Mrs. Lawal
country Nigeria
continent Africa
city Ibadan
phone Tecno
dog Bingo
day Friday
month April
 celebration Christmas
festival Halloween
church Catholic
mountain Everest
desert Sahara
ocean Atlantic
river Thames
lake Lake Vitoria

You must have observed that all the names in the left column are general
names (common noun), while all the names in the right column are specific
names (proper nouns).
A proper noun must always be written in an initial capital letter. Hence:
sahara - incorrect
Sahara - correct
africa- incorrect
Africa - correct
nelson - incorrect
Nelson - correct

2.2.3 Collective Noun

A collective noun is a name given to a group (of people, animals, or things)

rather than a member of the group. It is not a name that a member of the
group can answer to. For example, a group of footballers is a team. An
individual footballer cannot be called “a team”. A collective noun is the name
of a group when all the members of the group are talked about as one.
Now, here is the difference between a common noun and a collective noun. A
common noun is a name that anyone in that category can answer to, though
he cannot claim it as his/her personal name. I mentioned that when someone
calls “teacher”, I may decide to answer. It is because “teacher” is a common
noun. On the other hand, when someone calls “congress” or “union”, I can
never answer because “congress” and “union” are collective nouns.
A group of angry people is called "a mob", a group of soldiers is called "an
army", a group of singers is called "a choir", and a group of spectators is
called “an audience”. “Mob”, “army”, “choir” and “audience” are collective
nouns.
Below is a comprehensive list of collective nouns:
A cluster of spiders
A caravan of camels
A band of gorillas
A troop of kangaroos
A pride of lions
A colony of cats
An ambush of tigers
A knot of toads
A pack of wolves
A parliament of owls
A quarrel of sparrows
A cloud of grasshoppers
A herd of pigs
A flight of birds
A zeal of zebras
A pack of dogs
A convocation of eagles
A quiver of cobras
A rafter of turkeys
A school of fish
A drove of donkeys
A murder of crows
A parade of elephants
A gaggle of geese
A swarm of bees
A class of pupils
A crowd of people
An army of soldiers
A band of musicians
A board of directors
A staff of employees
A forest of trees
A bed of lowers
A library of books
A bunch of keys
A fleet of ships
A harem of wives
A pack of cards
A flight of stairs
A gang of thieves
A team of players
Some collective nouns are treated as either singular nouns or plural nouns,
depending on whether they are viewed as a whole or as comprising
constituents. Hence, they can take either singular verbs or plural verbs.
Examples:
22. The audience was/were unsatisfied with the performance of the
artiste.
23. The family has/have decided to sell the last parcel of land.

Other examples of collective nouns that can take either singular or plural
verbs are the jury, government, committee, company, family, majority and
public.
There are a few collective nouns that always take plural verbs; they NEVER
take singular verbs. They include, “police”, “people” and “cattle”.
24. The police have rounded up the criminals. – correct
25. The police has rounded up the criminals. – incorrect

2.2.4 Concrete Nouns

Concrete nouns are things (and people) that can be seen and touched. They
are also called material nouns. Note that some common nouns are also
concrete nouns. Examples are “chair”, “computer”, ‘house” and “car”; it is
not all common nouns that are concrete nouns, though. For example “day” is
a common noun but not a concrete noun; it cannot be seen or touched.
There are two types of concrete nouns: those that can be seen, touched and
counted are called countable nouns or count nouns; those that can be seen,
touched, but not counted are called uncountable nouns or non-count nouns.
2.2.4.1 Countable Nouns

Countable nouns, as I mentioned early on, can not only be seen and touched
(are not only concrete) but can also be counted. When you have only one
countable noun, it is in the singular form; but when you have two or more
countable nouns, they are in plural form. There are different methods by
which countable nouns take the plural form.
a) There are countable nouns that become plural by the addition of “s” to
their singular form. Some of them are listed in the table below:

SINGULAR PLURAL
boy boys
spoon spoons
school schools
car cars
teacher teachers
tree trees
bottle bottles
dog dogs
bed beds
basket baskets

b) There are countable nouns that become plural by the addition of “es” to
their singular form. Some of them are listed in the table below:

SINGULAR PLURAL
mango mangoes
tomato tomatoes
potato potatoes
hero heroes
 box boxes
zero zeroes
buffalo buffalo
cross crosses
ditch ditches
dish dishes
glass glasses
house houses
prize prizes
watch watches
cargo cargoes
dress dresses
branch branches
church churches

Please, note that “zero”, “buffalo” and “mango” can also take their plural
form by taking only the suffix “s”. So, both “zeroes” and “zeros” are
correct:
c) Few countable nouns become plural by the addition of “en” to their
singular form, as shown below:

SINGULAR PLURAL
child children
ox oxen
d) Some countable nouns become plural with the change of the vowels in
their singular form:

SINGULAR PLURAL
goose geese
tooth teeth
mouse mice
man men
foot feet
louse lice
woman women

e) Some countable nouns that end in “y” take their plural form by changing
the “y” to “i” and adding “es”:

SINGULAR PLURAL
baby babies
lady ladies
ally allies
family families
fly flies
library libraries
dictionary dictionaries
puppy puppies
 strawberry strawberries

diary diaries

f) Some countable nouns end in "y" but they do not change the “y” to “i”
before they add “s” to take their plural form:

SINGULAR PLURAL
valley valleys
donkey donkeys
jersey jerseys
kidney kidneys
monkey monkeys
chimney chimneys
boy boys
toy toys
trolley trolleys

g) Some countable nouns that end in “f” or “fe” change the “f/fe” to “v” and
add “es” to take their plural form:

SINGULAR PLURAL
knife knives
wife wives
calf calves
 half halves
shelf shelves
life lives
loaf loaves
leaf leaves
wolf wolves

h) Some countable nouns end in “f” but do not change the “f” to “v” before
they add “s” to take their plural form:

SINGULAR PLURAL
cliff cliffs
roof roofs
chief chiefs
handkerchief handkerchiefs

chef chefs
sheriff sheriffs
dwarf dwarfs
hoof hoofs
scarf scarfs

Note that “dwarf”, “hoof” and “scarf” can also take their plural form by
changing “f” to “v” and adding “es”. So, “dwarfs” and “dwarves” are
 correct.
i) The singular and plural forms of some nouns are spelt the same way, as
shown in the table below:

SINGULAR PLURAL
sheep sheep
fish fish
deer deer
bison bison
reindeer reindeer
offspring offspring
aircraft aircraft

Note that the plural form of “fish” can also be “fishes”, if you are talking
about different species.
j) Some nouns are always plural in form. To use them in the singular form,
they must be preceded by the phrase “a pair of”:
 NOUNS THAT ARE ALWAYS IN PLURAL
FORM

scissors

trousers

binoculars

snickers

pants

shorts

goggles

sandals

nail clippers

stockings

pliers
Note that these nouns are always in plural form because they always appear
in pairs. It is, therefore, incorrect to write a sentence like, “The scissors is on
the table” or “My pants is torn”. Rather one should write, “The scissors are
on the table” or “My pants are torn". Each of these nouns can only be in the
singular form if it is preceded by the phrase “a pair of”.
Other nouns that are always in the plural form are:
surroundings
premises (of a building)
waters (of a particular river)
progeny
grassroots
Note that the plural nouns in this second set are never to be treated as
singular, with or without the phrase “a pair of”. Hence, it is wrong to write,
“This premises is under surveillance” but correct to write, “The premises are
under surveillance.”
k) Some nouns have two plural forms, each with a different meaning:
SINGULAR PLURAL PLURAL
brother brothers brethren (male and
(male siblings) female comrades in a
church or community)
shot shots (collective balls) shots (the number of
times that something is
fired)
die dies (stamp for coins) dice (for playing games
e.g. Ludo)
fish fish (same species) fishes (different
species)
genius geniuses (people who genii (spirits)
have outstanding
talents)
index indexes (of books) Indices (signs in
algebra)
cloth cloths (different kinds) clothes (garments)

k) Each of the countable nouns in the table below has one plural form with
two meanings:

SINGULAR PLURAL PLURAL

 letter letters (of the letters (epistles)
alphabet)
number numbers (figures) numbers (poetic lines)
custom customs (ways of life) customs (government
officials at the border
of a country)
pain pains (suffering) pains (cares)
part parts (divisions) parts (faculties)

l) Pluralising nouns of foreign origin: Some nouns in English have foreign

origins, including Latin, French and Greek:

SINGULAR PLURAL
basis bases
analysis analyses
ellipsis ellipses
bacterium bacteria
thesis theses
axis axes
medium media/mediums
appendix appendixes/appendices
focus focuses/foci
formula formulae/formulas
tempo tempi
phenomenon phenomena
crisis crises
 parenthesis parentheses
stratum strata
antithesis antitheses
larva larvae
datum data
vertex vertexes/vertices
curriculum curricula
bureau bureaux
terminus termini/terminuses
criterion criteria
codex codices
addendum addenda
nucleus nuclei
octopus octopi
oasis oasis
alumnus alumni
diagnosis diagnoses

2.2.4.2 Uncountable Nouns

These are nouns that can be seen and touched (concrete nouns) but cannot be
counted. Examples are “sand”, “soup”, “sugar”, “salt”, “oil”, “water” and
“tea”. Since uncountable nouns cannot be counted, they cannot be classed as
singular and plural. You should recall I mentioned that singular means “one”,
while plural means “more than one”. The only way to quantify an
uncountable noun is to quantify the countable noun that associates with
that uncountable noun. See the examples in the table below:

SINGULAR PLURAL
a bag of rice three bags of rice
a cube of sugar ten cubes of sugar
a bowl of soup six plates of soup
a heap of sand three heaps of
sand
a litre of oil four litters of oil
a gallon of oil ten gallons of oil
a bag of cement five bags of
cement

Here is a list of other nouns that are regarded as uncountable nouns:

evidence machinery
heyday inaction
protocol rubble
potential chit-chat
slang accommodation
yesteryear feedback
footage (work) experience
wear content (of a speech or writing)
frustration (feeling) hair
weather soap
meat luggage
 flu scenery
jewelry advice
news rubbish
traffic toast (bread)
progress furniture
homework thunder
Please, note that uncountable nouns take neither the plural marker “s” nor the
indefinite article “a/an”. Hence, it is incorrect to write “wears”, “footages” or
“a traffic”.
2.2.4.3. Nouns that are Either Countable or Uncountable

Some nouns are either countable or uncountable, depending on their context

of usage. Such nouns include war, breakfast, value, breath, use, brick,
trouble, business, tin, cake, time, carpet, thread, cloth, tea, coffee, success,
colour, string, company, stone danger, speed, dinner, doubt, sound, exercise,
seed, fear, rubber, fire, rope, rest, forest, hair, profit, height, pity, history,
paper, honour, pain, hope, noise, interest, metal, iron, medicine, language,
lunch, law, liquid, light and wire.

2.2.5 Abstract Nouns

Abstract nouns are the names of existents that do not have physical form.
Abstract nouns are the opposite of concrete nouns. Abstract nouns can neither
be seen nor be touched. Abstract nouns are the names of condition, ideas,
concepts, etc.

2.2.5.1 Formation of Abstract Nouns

a. Some abstract nouns end in “ion”, e.g. education, information,

execution, violation and consideration.
b. Some abstract nouns end in “ity”, e.g. identity, integrity, responsibility,
dependability and stability.
c. Some abstract nouns end in “sm”, e.g. capitalism, vandalism, feminism,
idealism and communism.
d. Some abstract nouns end in “ance”, e.g. arrogance, guidance,
repentance, attendance and endurance.
e. Some abstract nouns end in “ence”, e.g. intelligence, obedience,
independence, convenience and violence.
f. Some abstract nouns end in “ness”, e.g. stubbornness, barrenness,
fullness, awareness and cleanliness.
g. Some abstract nouns end in “ment”, e.g. refreshment, embarrassment,
accomplishment, engagement and enjoyment.
h. Some abstract nouns end in “hood”: motherhood, childhood, adulthood,
neighbourhood and fatherhood.
i. Some abstract nouns end in “age”, e.g. marriage, postage, pilgrimage,
patronage and shortage.
j. Some abstract nouns end in “ics”, e.g. economics, mathematics,
phonetics and genetics.
k. Some abstract nouns end in “dom”, e.g. wisdom, freedom, stardom and
boredom.
l. Some abstract nouns have random spellings different from the
patterns above. Such nouns include energy, love, method, prayer and
pride.
2.2.6 Compound Nouns

A compound noun is a name that is formed from the amalgamation of two or

more words, sometimes separated by hyphens, e.g. mother-in-law, step-
brother, editor-in-chief and secretary-general.
2.2.6.1 Pluralising Compound Nouns

a. Some compound nouns take their plural marker on the first part:
SINGULAR PLURAL
listener-in listeners-in
 passer-by passers-by
right of way rights of way
heir apparent heirs apparent
commander-in-chief commanders-in-chief
sister-in-law sisters-in-law
court martial courts martial
b. Some compound nouns take their plural marker on the last part.

SINGULAR PLURAL
gin-and-tonic gin-and-tonics
close-up close-ups
five-year-old five-year-olds
stand-in stand-ins
lay-by lay-bys
c. The two parts of some compound nouns have become so immersed
that they are no longer hyphenated, and naturally take the plural
marker on the last part:

SINGULAR PLURAL
gunfight gunfights
mouthful mouthfuls

2.2.7 Nominalised Words

I mentioned in the early part of this chapter that some words from other parts
of speech are sometimes made to perform the functions of nouns. Such words
are called nominalised words. There are three types: gerunds, to-infinitives
and nominalized adjectives.
 2.2.7.1 Gerunds

A gerund is the present participial conjugation of a lexical verb in the office

of a noun; it is a verb ending in “ing” and performing the function of a noun.
(Verbs are discussed in detail in Chapter 5.) Consider the sentences below:
26. Parents should make children realise that laziness is unprofitable.
27. Parents should make children realise that lying is unprofitable.

"Laziness" in Sentence 27 is an abstract noun, while “lying” in Sentence 28 is

a gerund (a verb in the office of a noun), not a verb. Why am I sure that
“playing” is a gerund and not a verb Sentence 28? I know because “playing”
substitutes for “laziness”; it occupies the same position, and performs the
same function as “laziness”.
So, in Sentence 28, “playing” is not a verb; rather, it is a noun. This does not
mean that “playing” is always a noun and never a verb. The context of usage
of the word “playing”, or any other word ending in “ing”, determines whether
it is a noun (a gerund) or a verb. In the sentence below, for example,
“playing” is a verb, not a noun (gerund):
28. The children were playing with their toys when their mother
came back.
Functions of Gerunds

a. A gerund can function as the subject of a sentence: The subject is one

of the elements of a sentence. The subject of a sentence is that word
that refers to the performer of the action in the sentence. The subject
may also refer to the person or the thing that the sentence is about. In
a declarative sentence or statement, the subject is usually the first
word/phrase. A gerund can occupy the position of a subject, as
exemplified in the two sentences below:

29. Reading makes you a better version of yourself.

30. Jumping is an exercise.

Both “reading” and “jumping” are gerunds. “Reading” is the performer of

the action in Sentence 29, as it is characteristic of subjects; while
“jumping” is the word that Sentence 30 is all about, also as it is
characteristic of subjects.
b. A gerund can function as the complement of the subject: I have said
that the subject is either the performer of the action or the word that
the whole sentence is about. The complement of the subject, also
called subject complement, is that element in the sentence that
completes the information about the subject. A gerund can function in
this capacity, as exemplified below:

31. The problem of many students is studying.

32. One of my hobbies is singing.

“The problem of many students” is the subject in Sentence 31 where

“studying” makes the information given in the subject complete. Look at it
this way:
Question: What is the problem of many students?
Answer: studying
Question: What is “studying”?
Answer: The problem of many students
You can see that the shaded word complements the subject in Sentence 31,
and the same can be said of the shaded word in Sentence 32.
c. When a verb comes immediately after a preposition, that verb is
usually a gerund: The English language is structured in a way that if a
verb must come after a preposition, the verb must end in “ing”, and
function as a noun. In other words, a verb following a preposition
must be a gerund. See the examples below where the prepositions
are underlined and the gerunds are shaded:

33. Every woman takes pleasure in caring for her baby.

34. We become better by learning from others.
35. The CEO fired an employee for neglecting his duty.
 2.2.7.2 To-Infinitives

To-infinitive is the arrangement of words in such a way that the preposition

“to” is followed by a verb, and together, they perform the function of a noun.
Consider the sentences below:
36. The teacher is human.
37. To-err is human.
38. I expect you any moment now.
39. I expect to start any moment now.

You would notice that the word “teacher” in Sentence 36 is a noun, but “to
err” which is a to-infinitive substitutes for it in Sentence 37. Hence, “to err” is
a noun. The same is true of the substitution of “you (a pronoun)” in Sentence
38 for “to sleep” in Sentence 39.
Uses of to-Infinitives

a. To-infinitive can function as the subject of a sentence, as exemplified

below:

40. To help strangers is a good Samaritan gesture.

41. To have hope when all is lost is to trust God.
b. To-infinitive can function as the complement of a verb,
as in the sentences below where the verbs are in bold print
and the to-infinitives are shaded:
42. The children decided to help their mother.
43. It will be nice if you choose to come.
c. To-infinitive can come immediately after some
adjectives including, surprised, reluctant, sad, sorry, ready,
hesitant, glad, fortunate, careful, ashamed, delighted,
eager, fortunate, lucky, hesitant, and reluctant. It
complements these adjectives. See examples:
44. I am sorry to tell you that there is no shortcut to success.
 45. The man was hesitant to accept his wife’s offer.

d. To-infinitive can come immediately after some nouns like way,

appeal, decision, appeal, suggestion, requirement, refusal,
recommendation, order, opportunity, permission, plan, motivation,
desire, goal, dream, decision and chance. Examples are shown in the
sentences below:

46. If you were given the opportunity to choose, you would have
forgiven them.
47. When he made the decision to return to school, he had no
sponsor.

e. To-infinitive can be used to express the purpose of an action. See

these examples:

48. We go to the library to study.

49. I studied medicine, just to please my mother.

Some verbs can be followed by to-infinitives but cannot be followed by

gerunds, while some verbs can be followed by gerunds but not by to-
infinitives.
Consider the sentences below:
50. The man regretted beating his wife. - correct
51. The man regretted to beat his wife - incorrect

It is correct to follow the verb “regretted” with a gerund (beating), but it is

not correct to follow it with a to-infinitive. By the way, why am I sure that
“beating” in Sentence 51 is a gerund, not a verb? As you must have guessed,
I know because a noun/pronoun can occupy the position occupied by
"beating" in that sentence. I could reword that sentence as "The man regretted
it”.
A gerund can be negative if it is followed by “not”:
52. The man regretted beating his wife. - affirmative
 53. The man regretted not beating his wife. - Negative

Gerunds can also be modified by possessive determiners like “your”, “our”,

“his”, “her” and “their” as shown in Examples 54 and 55.
54. His clapping is funny.
55. I would have gone, if not for your pleading.

2.2.7.3 Nominalised Adjectives

This is the deployment of an adjective to perform the function of a noun

instead of modifying that noun. Adjectives, by nature, modify nouns by
giving information about the nouns. Consider this sentence:
56. Weak men need the help of mighty men.

In Sentence 56, “mighty” is an adjective modifying the noun “men”;

“mighty” tells us more about “men”.
Now, consider the sentence below:
57. How are the mighty fallen!

In Sentence 57, “mighty” no longer functions as an adjective; it functions as a

noun.

2.3 Nouns and Gender

The gender mode is the classification of nouns according to sex. There are
three gender modes, namely the masculine gender, the feminine gender and
the neuter gender. The masculine gender refers to creatures (human being
and animals) that are male; the feminine gender refers to creatures (human
beings and animals) that are female; the neuter gender does not distinguish
the sex of human beings and animals. The neuter gender also refers to non-
living things.
The gender mode is indicated in two ways:
a. By the Use of Suffixes: Suffixes are bound morphemes; they are
morphemes that cannot stand alone but need to be attached to words
(free morphemes) to alter the meaning of the words. The feminine
gender is sometimes created from the attachment of the suffix “ess”
to the masculine gender. Below are nouns of the feminine gender
created with the suffix “ess”:

lion – lioness
prince – princess
actor – actress
master –mistress
heir –heiress
host- hostess
baron – baroness
b. By the Use of Completely Different Words for Each Gender: The
gender modes distinguished by different words for each gender are
listed below:

man – woman
bull - cow
brother- sister
father- mother
bachelor – spinster (maid)
boy-girl
drake – duck
nephew – cousin
ram – ewe
 lord – lady
husband- wife
wizard - witch
horse – mare
son -daughter
Below is a table showing the masculine gender, the feminine gender and the
neuter gender:
MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER GENDER
GENDER GENDER
gentleman lady house
uncle aunt table
grandmother grandfather box
bull cow professor
son daughter engineer
waiter waitress computer
rooster hen sponsor
lion lioness newscaster
king queen letter
bridegroom bride banker
tiger tigress nurse
emperor empress doctor
duke duchess editor
prophet prophetess novelist
god goddess teacher
 2.4 Nouns and Cases
The case is the use of a noun (or a pronoun) to indicate the relationship of
that noun with other words in the sentence. There are three cases of nouns:
the nominative case (also called the subjective case), the objective case and
the possessive case.
2.4.1 The Nominative (Subjective Case)

A noun is in the nominative case:

a. when it acts as the subject of a sentence: The subject is the word
that performs the action indicated by the verb, or the word that the
verb points to, as reflected in the sentences below:

58. The chairman refused to address the audience.

59. Mother was worried because I didn’t return early.

In Sentence 58, “The chairman” is the performer of the action indicated by

the verb phrase “refused to address”. So, “chairman” is the subject of the
verb “addressed”. In Sentence 60, the verb “was” points to “mother”. So,
“mother” is the subject of the verb “was”. Both “chairman” and “mother”
are nouns in the nominative case.
b. when it complements the subject (functions as a subject
complement): When a noun completes the information we have
about the subject, such a noun functions in the nominative case. Look
at these sentences:

60. My father became a king when he was only twenty.

61. The first day of the week is Sunday.

In Sentence 60, “my father” is the subject of the verb “became”; the verb
“became” points to “my father”. Now, the word “king” complements “my
father”; it makes the information about “my father” complete. So, “king”
is a noun in the nominative (subjective) case. The same can be said of
“Sunday” which complements the subject “the first day of the week” in
Sentence 61.
 c. when it is in apposition to the subject: A noun is in apposition to a
subject if it stands side by side (though separated by a comma) with
another noun which is the subject, and refers to the same person/thing
as the subject.

Examples:
62. My uncle, a lawyer, sent me some money.
63. Ade, a teacher, is very pleasant.

“Uncle” is the subject of the verb “sent” in Sentence 62, the word
“lawyer” refers to the same person (uncle). So, “lawyer” is a noun in
apposition. “Lawyer” is in the nominative case in Sentence 62, and
“teacher” is in the nominative case in Sentence 63.
d. when it is addressed directly, as in the sentences below:

64. God! Please help me.

65. Nigeria, you are the giant of Africa.

“God” and “Nigeria” are used in the nominative case.

2.4.2 The Objective Case

A noun is deployed in the objective case:

a. when it is the direct recipient (direct object) of the action
indicated by the verb: The direct object is the person/thing that
receives the action performed by the subject.

Examples:
66. The priest can interpret your dream.
67. The girl hurriedly slammed the door.

“Your dream” is the direct receiver of the action performed by “the priest”
in Sentence 66, as “the door” is the direct receiver of the action performed
by “the girl” in Sentence 67. Both “your dream” and “the door” are direct
objects; both are nouns in the objective case.
c. when it is the indirect recipient of the action performed by the
subject: In some sentences, there are two objects. The action
performed by the subject is received by an object before it is
transferred to another object. The first receiver of the action is the
direct object while the second receiver of the action is the indirect
object.

Examples:
68. The new manager gives the employees a lot of trouble.
69. The angry man threw a knife at his wife.

In the two sentences, the direct objects are in bold print while the indirect
objects are shaded. In Sentence 68, the action is first received by “a lot of
trouble” before it is received by “the employees”. Thus, “a lot of trouble”
is the direct object while “the employees” is the indirect object. In
Sentence 69, the action of throwing is first received by “a knife” before it
is received by “his wife”. So “a knife” is the direct object while “his wife”
is the indirect object. Both “employees” in Sentence 68 and “wife” in
Sentence 69 are nouns in the objective case.
In some sentences, the indirect object is seen before the direct object, as
seen in Sentence 68.
d. when it is the object of a preposition: The object of a preposition is
usually the noun to which the preposition points, it is also the next
noun to that preposition.

Example:
70. Isn't it fun to bask in the sun?

"The sun" is the object of the preposition "in". While "fun" is in the
nominative (subjective) case, “the sun” is in the objective case.
e. when it is in apposition to the object: Consider these sentences:
 71. The woman is in love with her husband, a policeman.
72. Chief gave his new car to his son, the dentist.

In Sentence 71, “husband” is the receiver of the act of loving performed

by the subject (the woman). So, “husband” is an object; “a policeman”
refers to the same object (husband); “a policeman” functions in apposition;
“a policeman” is in the objective case.
In Sentence 72, “his son” is the indirect object of the verb “gave”, and
“dentist” refers to the same person (his son). “Dentist” is a noun in
apposition; “dentist” is a noun in the objective case.

2.4.3 The Possessive Case

When a noun is deployed in the possessive case, it indicates ownership; it

shows the possessor of something. Below are the ways by which a noun can
indicate possession:
a) The ’s Ending: Many nouns referring to human beings and animals have
the apostrophe (’) followed by an “s” at the end, to indicate possession,
e.g.
the baby’s toy (the toy that belongs to the baby)
the teacher’s pen (the pen that belongs to the teacher)
The ‘s ending may also be used to indicate the possession of a unit of time,
as in:
73. We rested after the day’s work.

b) The Apostrophe (’) Ending: Only the apostrophe (’) without an “s” is
attached to the end of most plural nouns that already end in "s", e.g.
babies' food (the type of food eaten by babies), teachers’ salary (the salary
paid to teachers). Consider the following sentences:
74. There is a pen inside the lady’s bag.
75. My aunt sells ladies’ bag.
 In Sentence 74, only one lady is the owner of the bag in which there is a
pen. Sentence 75 suggests that the type of bags that my aunt sells can be
used by all ladies. Because "ladies" (the plural form of “lady”) already
ends in an “s”, I added only the apostrophe (’), to indicate possession.
c. The Use of the Preposition “of”: For many non-living things, the
preposition “of” is placed immediately after the possession to show the
possessor; the possessor is mentioned immediately after the preposition
“of”, e.g. the top of the table, the front of the house and the pages of the
book.
d. The Collocation of the Possessor and the Possession: To indicate
possession in some cases, the noun showing the possessor is followed
immediately by the noun showing the possession, e.g. clock battery (the
battery used in a clock) and home video (video watched at home).

2.5 Noun Phrase

A noun phrase, also called “nominal group”, is a group of words that
performs the function of a noun; just like a noun, a noun phrase can name a
person, thing, object, place or idea. A noun phrase can also stand in place of a
noun, as exemplified below:

76. Ronald does not know the value of education.

77. A lot of people in the village do not know the value of
education.

You would observe that the position that Ronald (a noun) occupies in
Sentence 76 is the same position that “a lot of people in the village” occupies
in Sentence 77.

2.5.1. The Structure of a Noun Phrase

A noun phrase comprises the headword and modifiers. The headword is

usually a noun or a pronoun, while the other words in the phrase are called
“modifiers”. The words that come before the headword are premodifiers; the
words that come after the headword are postmodifiers (also called
“qualifiers”).
The headword of the noun phrase in Sentence 77 above is “people”. The
headword is the obligatory word in a noun phrase; other words are optional.
The headword alone can stand in place of a noun phrase. Compare Sentence
78 below with Sentence 77 above:
78. People do not know the value of education.

You would observe that “people” which is the headword of the noun phrase
in Sentence 77 now stands in place of that noun phrase in Sentence 78.

Now, let us break down the components of a noun phrase.

2.5.1.1 Premodifiers
We have said that premodifiers are the words that come before the headword.
The words that usually occupy this position are determiners, adjectives and
nouns. Consider the noun phrases below:

the blue cap

a child
a congratulatory message
an opinion poll.

The first noun phrase has two premodifiers: the (article) and blue (adjective);
the second noun phrase has one premodifier: a (article); the third noun phrase
has two premodifiers: a (article) and congratulatory (adjective); the last noun
phrase has two premodifiers: an (article) and opinion (noun).

2.5.1.2 Headword
The headword is usually a noun. It may, however, not be the only noun in the
noun phrase. For example, the noun phrase “opinion poll” contains two
nouns: “opinion” and “poll”. But “opinion” is only there to describe “poll”;
“opinion” is merely a modifier, while “poll” is the headword. Remember that
I mentioned that the headword is the most important word in a noun phrase.

2.5.1.3 Postmodifiers
Postmodifiers are the words that come after the headword in a noun phrase.
There could be one or more words after the headword. In the noun phrases
below, the premodifiers are in italics, the headwords are in bold print, and the
postmodifiers are underlined:

a. many students in secondary school

b. the people there
c. that geography book shown to you
d. the image above
e. the lady you saw with me
f. the topic to discuss
g. the Black girls staying in this place

The postmodifier can be a prepositional phrase as in Example A; it can be an

adverb as in Example B; it can be a participial phrase as in Example C; it can
be a preposition as in Example D; it can be a clause as in example E; it can be
a to-infinitive as in Example F; it can be a gerund as in Example G.

Please note that no matter how many words a noun phrase contains, it cannot
be a sentence. A noun phrase is never a sentence because no matter how
lengthy it is, it cannot express a complete thought. A noun phrase can only
be a fragment of a sentence. See how the noun phrases labelled C, F and G
above have become parts of the sentences below:

79. The geography textbook shown to you belongs

to my father.
80. A noun phrase is the topic to discuss
81. I want to see the Black girls staying in this place.

2.5.2 The Functions of the Noun Phrase

a. It can function as the subject of a sentence, e.g. “The geography
textbook shown to you belongs to my father”.
b. It can function as a direct object of the verb, e.g. “Do you love
Nigerian men”?
c. It can function as an indirect object, e.g. “She gave me a book that was
torn”.
d. It can be a subject complement, e.g. “This is the man I talked about”.
e. It can be an object complement, e.g. “You should consider him a
complete moron for talking like that”.
f. It can be a complement of a preposition, e.g. “I have never done this in
my ten years of teaching.
g. It can function as an adverbial, expressing time, place, etc. e.g. “This
evening, they will go to the cinema”.
h. It can function as a premodifier of an adjective, e.g. “My sister is five
years old”.
i. It can function as a premodifier of a preposition, e.g. “The man is
ten feet under the water”.
j. It can function as a premodifier of an adverb or an adverb phrase, e.g.
“My sister went a step too far”.
k. A noun phrase can be in another noun phrase, e.g. “The blind man
who lived in that hut is dead”.

2.6. Rules about the Use of Some Nouns

a The possession of a noun phrase should be indicated on the last word of
the noun phrase.
Examples:

82. The laboratory’s attendant purse is missing. –

incorrect
83. The laboratory attendant’s purse is missing. –
correct

Note: The missing purse belongs to the laboratory attendant.

b. When there is a joint possession of something by two nouns, the

possession is indicated ONLY on the second noun.
Examples:

84. This is Vivian’s and Gabriel’s house. – incorrect

85. This is Vivian’s and Gabriel house. – incorrect
86. This is Vivian and Gabriel’s house. – correct

Note: Both Vivian and Gabriel live in the house.

c. When there are two possessions separately owned by two nouns, the
possessions are indicated separately on each of the two nouns.
Examples:

87. We are not prepared for Jack and Jill’s visit. –

incorrect
88. We are not prepared for Jack’s and Jill visit. –
incorrect
89. We are not prepared for Jack’s and Jill’s visit.–
correct

Note: We do not expect Jack and Jill to visit us at the same time; each
of them will come separately.

d. When a subject/object has a noun in apposition, the possession is

not indicated on the subject/object, rather it is indicated on the
noun in apposition.

Examples:
90. Will you call at David’s the mathematics teacher
house? – incorrect
91. Will you call at David the mathematics teacher’s
house? – correct

e. The apostrophe and “s” marker (’s) is not used to indicate possession
in non-living things.

Examples:
92. Put it on the table’s top. – nonstandard
93. Put it on the top of the table. - standard

Evaluation
1. The definition of a noun as the name of any person, animal place or
 thing is correct but not accurate. Explain.
2. Give five examples for each of these types of nouns: common nouns,
proper nouns, abstract nouns, concrete nouns, compound nouns,
collective nouns, gerunds, to-infinitives and nominalized adjectives.
3. Underline all the nouns in this passage and file each in the
appropriate column in the table provided below the passage:

THE COMMON DENOMINATOR OF SUCCESS

The more I studied success and successful people, the more obvious it
became to me that they all had one thing in common. They all placed a
high value on their time, they continually worked at becoming better
organized and more efficient.
I eventually came to the conclusion that no success is possible without
excellent time management skills. You cannot even imagine a happy,
fulfilled person whose life is in a state of disorganization and disarray.
The best discovery I made was that, when you develop the disciplines of
time management, you simultaneously develop many of the other habits
that lead to high achievement, wealth and success in every part of your
life.
The starting point of developing good time management skills is for you to
realize that time management is really life management. It is the way you
take care of your most precious gifts. As Benjamin Franklin once said,
“Do you love life? Then do not squander time, for that’s the stuff that life
is made of.”
As you learn to master your time, you simultaneously master your life and
take complete control over your future.

4. i) Write the feminine gender for each masculine gender in the

table

below:

MASCULINE FEMININE

Host
 Bull
Priest
Male
Daughter
Deer

ii) Write the masculine gender for each feminine gender in the table below:
MASCULINE FEMININE
ewe
niece
mare
duck
lady

iii) Write ten nouns in the neuter gender.

5. Underline the nouns in each of these sentences and classify each noun
according to the case in which it is used in the table provided:
i. The preparation for the wedding spanned several months.
ii. The king of the town was exiled.
iii. People mulled over recent events.
iv. His prison experience made him stronger than he was
before.
v. The princess’ crown looks so feminine.
vi. Our king’s crown was made of gold.
 vii. Solomon’s porch is a beautiful sight to behold.

NOMINATIVE CASE OBJECTIVE POSSESSIVE

CASE CASE

6. Underline the noun phrases in these sentences, and attempt an

analysis of each underlined noun phrase:

i) Many people will encounter no difficulty in fixing their cars.

ii) You needed to do everything that could be done.
iii) On the table was a small book.
iv) Have you ever seen a dancing queen?
v) Give me a call when you get to the exam venue.

Recap
A noun is a naming word.
The nine types of noun identified in this lesson are proper noun,
common noun, abstract noun, concrete noun, compound noun,
collective noun, gerund, to-infinitive and nominalised adjectives.
A noun can be of the masculine gender, the feminine gender or the
neuter in gender.
A noun can be in the objective case, the subjective case or the
possessive case.
A noun phrase is a group of words that can name a
person/place/thing like a noun and can occupy the same position
as a noun.
No matter how lengthy a noun phrase is, it is never a sentence
because it cannot express a complete thought; it can only be a
fragment of a sentence.
 CHAPTER 3

Pronouns

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to use and classify pronouns
correctly.

3.1 What is a Pronoun?

The office of a pronoun is to substitute for a noun or a noun phrase.
Pronouns, like nouns, refer to persons, places, things and abstract existents;
but while a noun refers to and names an existent, a pronoun only refers to
an existent without naming it; a pronoun replaces the name of an existent.
Consider these sentences:
1. They passed the document to John for endorsement.
2. They passed the document to him for endorsement.
3. Bridgette and Bianca are not far from here.
4. They are not far from here.

“Him” in Sentence 2 substitutes for “John” in Sentence in 1; “they” in

Sentence 4 substitutes for “Bridgette and Bianca” in Sentence 3. “Him” and
“they” are pronouns.
Since a pronoun is a replacement for a noun, it can occupy the same position
as a noun, and perform the function of a noun (subject, object, etc.) in a
sentence.

3.2 Types of Pronouns

In this lesson, we will consider nine types of pronouns: personal pronouns,
possessive pronouns, reflexive pronouns, relative pronouns, indefinite
pronouns, reciprocal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, interrogative
pronouns and distributive pronoun. Now, let’s discuss each of them.
3.2.1 Personal Pronouns

A personal pronoun conveys the idea of persons in a discourse. A discourse

usually involves three persons: the speaker/writer, the listener/reader and the
person/thing being discussed. Each of these three persons has singular and
plural variants, as well as subjective and objective cases, as you can see in the
table below:
PERSON SUBJECTIVE CASE OBJECTIVE
CASE
Singular Plural Singular Plural
First I we me us
Person
Second you you you you
Person
Third he/she/it they him/her/it them
Person

Study the table above, and pay attention to this: The first person is always the
speaker. If you were learning this lesson in a classroom instead of reading it,
who would the speaker be? I (Note that “I” is in bold print). I would be the
speaker. Now, look at the table again. How would you describe the position
of I in that table? I would describe it as a first person singular pronoun in
the subjective case. That is exactly what “I” is. “I” is in the first person
position because it refers to the speaker; “I” is a singular pronoun because it
indicates that it is only one person that is speaking (If this were a lecture, I
would be the only one speaking); “I” is in the subjective case because it
points to the performer of the action (speaking). Recall the lesson on the
nominative case and the objective case taught in Chapter 2. If you skipped
that lesson, you should go back and take it.
Picture yourself in the classroom again receiving this lecture. Now, try to
imagine that I am not the only one teaching you. Perhaps I am taking an
aspect and another person is taking another aspect of this topic. If I were to
make an introduction before the lesson starts, I might say something like
“This morning, we are going to teach you about pronouns” (Note that the
word “we” is in bold print). Now, look at the table again. How would you
describe "we"? From that table, you can see that “we” is a first person
plural pronoun in the subjective case. Now, here is the thing. “We” is a
first person pronoun because it shows the speakers (the other teacher and I).
It is a plural pronoun because it indicates “more than one speaker
(teachers)”. It is in the subjective case because it shows the performer of the
action (teaching).
Now, let’s try to reverse roles. You assume the role of a teacher teaching me
this. (Note that “me” is typed in bold print). Refer to the table again. How
will you describe “me”? I would describe “me” as a first person singular
pronoun in the objective case. “Me” is a first person pronoun because it
shows the speaker (Yes, the teaching is done by you, but it is I talking about
it); it is a singular pronoun because it indicates that only one person is being
taught – me; “me” is in the objective case because it shows the receiver of the
action (teaching). I taught you in Chapter 2 that the receiver of the action
performed by the subject is the object.
If it happens that you are teaching not only me, but you are teaching my
friend and me, and there is a need for me to convey that, I would say, “You
are teaching us” (Note that “us” is in bold print). From the table above, you
can describe “us” as a first person plural pronoun in the objective case.
“Us” is a first person pronoun because it shows the speakers; it is a plural
pronoun because it shows that more than one person is being taught; it is in
the objective case because it shows the receivers of the action (my friend and
me). You can do a similar analysis with the other personal pronouns in that
table.
3.2.1.1 The Agreement of Personal Pronouns and Their Antecedents

In our definition of pronouns, I told you that pronouns are used to replace
nouns. Sometimes, this is done to avoid repetitions. Now, look at the
sentences below:
5. Mother is hardworking; mother owns a supermarket.
6. Mother is hardworking; she owns a supermarket.
Sentences 5 and 6 express the same ideas, but Sentence 5 is somehow boring,
because of the repetition of “mother”. In Sentence 6, the repetition of
“mother” is avoided with the use of the pronoun “she”. “She” refers to
mother.
By the term “antecedent of a pronoun”, we mean the noun that is mentioned
earlier or later to which the pronoun refers. What is the antecedent of the
pronoun “she” in Sentence 6? Did you say “mother”? That’s correct.
7. If children depend on the wealth of their parents, they will suffer.

In Sentence 7, the antecedent of “they” is “children”, the noun to which it

refers. The antecedent of a pronoun may come before or after that pronoun,
what is important to know is that the antecedent of a pronoun is that noun
to which the pronoun refers.
A personal pronoun must always agree with its antecedent in number
and gender. If the antecedent is a woman/girl, the pronoun must reflect it.
For example, it is ungrammatical to say, “Mother is hardworking; he owns a
supermarket” since the antecedent is “mother” (a noun in the feminine
gender). Also, it is ungrammatical to say, “If children depend on the wealth
of their parents, she will suffer”, since we know that our antecedent is in
plural form (more than one child).
Sometimes, the pronoun also reflects whether the antecedent is human or
non-human. The pronouns he/him and she/her, for example, refer to human
antecedents, while the pronoun “it” refers to non-human antecedents. The
pronoun “they/them” refers to both human and non-human antecedents as
indicated in the examples below:
8. The children are beautiful; their parents love them.
9. The mangoes were ripe, I have eaten them.

In Sentences 8 and 9, the pronouns agree with their antecedents; it would be

wrong to use the pronoun “it/him/her” in any of those two sentences.
Note that the pronoun “it” can sometimes be used without an antecedent.
Consider the sentence below:
10. It is possible to fail an exam if one doesn’t read well.
We may say that “it” in Sentence 10 does not have an antecedent since it does
not refer to any noun. Now, this same sentence can be reworded thus:
11. Failing an exam is possible if one doesn't read well.
12. To fail an exam is possible if one doesn’t read well.

In Sentence 11, “it” is eliminated with the use of a gerund; in Sentence 12,
“it” is eliminated with the use of a to-infinitive. Remember, we did say that a
pronoun can replace a noun. So, in the original sentence (Sentence 10), the
pronoun “it” replaces the gerund “failing an exam” or the to-infinitive “to fail
an exam”. If you don’t know what gerunds and to-infinitives are, go back and
take the lessons in Chapter 2.
It is also important to note that personal pronouns, especially the second
person singular and plural pronoun “you”, may only be implied and not
explicitly mentioned in a sentence if the sentence is a command, a
warning or an entreaty. Look at the sentences below:
13. Go out.
14. Come here.
15. Give me some money.

In these three sentences, no pronoun is seen, but the pronoun “you” is

actually implied. Confirm that below:
16. Go out (You, go out)!
17. Come here (You, come here)!
18. Give me some money (You, give me some money).

3.2.2 Reflexive Pronouns

The singular forms of these pronouns end in “self”, while the plural forms
end in “selves”. Reflexive pronouns often mirror their subjects, whether the
subject is a noun or a personal pronoun. That is, it refers to the same person
as the subject. Consider the sentence below:
19. Jude did the work himself.
In Sentence 19, Jude (noun) is the subject (the performer of the action in the
sentence), while the pronoun “himself” mirrors Jude (the subject). The
pronoun “himself” can still mirror the subject even if the subject is a personal
pronoun instead of a noun, as in the example given below:
20. He did the work himself.

In Sentence 20, the reflexive pronoun “himself” mirrors the personal pronoun
“he”. Reflexive pronouns include “myself”, “ourselves”, “yourself”,
“yourselves”, “itself”, “herself”, “himself” and “themselves”. Note that there
is no word like “theirselves”. The table below shows the singular and the
plural forms of reflexive pronouns:
PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL
first person myself ourselves
second Person yourself yourselves
third Person himself/herself/itself themselves

A reflexive pronoun is sometimes called an emphatic pronoun when it is used

to lay emphasis on the subject which could be a noun, a noun phrase or a
personal pronoun.
In the sentence “Tolu himself found his watch”, the reflexive pronoun
“himself” is used to lay emphasis on the subject “Tolu”.
21. The people in the market themselves lynched the thief. – (The
reflexive pronoun “themselves” is used to emphasise the subject
“the people in the market”, to show that the people in the market,
not the police, killed with the thief).

3.2.3 Interrogative Pronouns

These are the pronouns that introduce questions. They include “which”,
“who”, “whom”, “what”, “whose” and “which”. You can spot an
interrogative pronoun in each of the questions below:
22. Who is at home?
 23. What are you talking about?
24. What do you want?

Note:
“Who”, “whom” and “whose” refer to only human beings. While
“who” is used only in the nominative (subjective) case, “whom” is
used only in the objective case, and “whose” is used in the possessive
case, as shown in the sentences below:

25. Who is cooking in the kitchen?

26. Whom did you give the food to?
27. Whose food is this?

As pronouns, “what” and “which” refer to non-living things and

animals; they do not refer to human beings. While "what" introduces
a question when there are unlimited options, "which" introduces a
question indicating that there are limited options. This is exemplified
below:

28. What is the child’s name? - This question suggests that the
interlocutor has no idea of the child’s name; s/he can’t even guess
it.
29. Which is yours? - There are limited options

“What” and “which” can also be used as determiners. As a

determiner, “what” can refer to a human being, an animal or a non-
living thing, e.g. “What mother beats her child like that?"
“What” can also introduce an exclamation, as in the sentence below:

30. What a beautiful day!

3.2.4 Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns, like demonstrative determiners, discussed Chapter
1, convey the idea of nearness/distance or show location. There are only four
of them: this, these, that, and those.
“This” points to a singular object or person near the speaker, e. g. “This is the
book I told you about”.
“These” points to plural objects or persons near the speaker, e.g. “These are
the books I told you about”.
“That” points to a singular object or person that is far from the speaker, e.g.
“That is the book you are looking for”.
“Those” points to plural objects or persons far from the speaker, e.g. “Those
are ripe mangoes”.
Note:
Demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative determiners perform the same
function (showing distance/nearness/location); the difference is that
demonstrative determiners are immediately followed by the nouns they
modify while demonstrative pronouns replace the nouns rather than modify
them. Compare and contrast the two sentences below:
31. This man is the man who stole your phone. –
demonstrative determiner
32. This is the man who stole your phone. – demonstrative
pronoun.

3.2.5 Possessive Pronouns

Possessive Pronouns, like possessive determiners, indicate ownership or refer

to the possessor of a possession. The possessive pronoun is underlined in
each of the sentences below:
33. This book belongs to me; it is mine.
34. This house belongs to us; it is ours.
35. The pen belongs to you; it is yours.
36. The food belongs to Sam; it is his.
 37. The phone belongs to Jane; it is hers.
38. The office belongs to them; it is theirs.

Note that while a noun in the possessive case can be indicated with the use of
an apostrophe (’), a possessive pronoun is not indicated with the use of an
apostrophe. So we say It is yours; we don’t say It is your’s.
The table below shows persons and possessive pronouns:
PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL
POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE
PRONOUN PRONOUN
first Person mine ours
second person yours yours
third person his/hers theirs

3.2.6 Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns are the pronouns that do not point or refer to specific
nouns. An indefinite pronoun usually does not take an antecedent. Examples
include somebody, something, someone, nobody, everybody, everything,
everyone, no one, anybody, anything, anyone, nothing and something.
To indicate possession with an indefinite pronoun, you have to use an
apostrophe, as indicated in the example given below:
39. It is nobody’s business that you lost your money.

3.2.7 Reciprocal Pronouns

As the name suggests, a reciprocal pronoun conveys the idea of reciprocating

an action. A reciprocal pronoun suggests that the parties involved (performer
and receiver) take turns to perform an action, which means that the subject
and the object switch roles. There are just two reciprocal pronouns: each
other and one another.
40. The boys love one another.
41. My students respect each other.
The possessive form of a reciprocal pronoun takes an apostrophe and an “s”
(’s) as shown in the two sentences below:
42. The two friends married each other’s brother.
43. The brothers trusted one another’s decision.

3.2.8 Relative Pronouns

A relative pronoun introduces a relative clause. Relative pronouns include

“who”, “whose”, “whom”, “which” and “that”. Relative pronouns have the
appearance of interrogative pronouns, except that while interrogative
pronouns introduce questions, relative pronouns introduce clauses. “What”
functions as a relative pronoun, not as an interrogative pronoun in Sentence
46 below:
44. I don’t understand what you are talking about.

No question is asked in this sentence, so it will be wrong to see “what” as an

interrogative pronoun; rather, it is a relative pronoun because it introduces the
relative clause “what you are talking about”. Relative clauses are discussed in
detail, later in this book.

3.2.9 Distributive Pronouns

They stand for the names of persons or things considered in their singular
form. Distributive pronouns are “each”, “either”, “neither” and “none”.
Example:
Question: Does she have any friend?
Answer: She has none.

3.3 Rules Guiding the Use of Some Pronouns

a. A demonstrative pronoun (this/that/these/those) must not be immediately
 followed by a possessive determiner (his/her/my/your/our/their -
otherwise identified as possessive pronouns in some textbooks). Hence,
Sentences 47 and 48 below are incorrect, but Sentences 49 and 50 are
correct:
47. I think I am in love with that your brother. – incorrect
48. This my daughter is very pretty. – incorrect
49. I think I am in love with that brother of yours. – correct
50. This daughter of mine is very pretty. – correct
b. If the subject of a sentence is a pronoun, the pronoun should be in the
nominative case, not in the objective case.
Examples:
51. My lecturer and me attended an academic conference. – incorrect
52. My lecturer and I attended an academic conference. – correct
53. You and me will attend another conference next month. –
incorrect.
54. You and I will attend another conference next month.–correct
c. If a personal pronoun comes after the word “than” the pronoun should be
in the nominative case.
Examples:
55. She is taller than me. – incorrect.
56. She is taller than I. correct
Rationale: She is tall, I am tall; but she is taller than I am tall.
e. When two personal pronouns are in the subject position, the second
person should always come before the first person.

Examples:
57. I and you will go. – incorrect.
58. You and I will go. - correct.
 Note:
There is an exception to this rule; when it is an admittance of wrongdoing
involving two people, the first person should come before the second
person.
Example:
59. I and you stole the money. - correct
e. The pronoun “she/her”, apart from referring to the female gender, is also
used for ship, country and abstraction.
Example:
60. The manufacturer of Titanic didn’t think that even God was capable
of sinking her (Titanic).
Note: Titanic is the name of a ship.
f. If a personal pronoun comes after the verb “be
(is/am/was/were/are/be)”, the pronoun should be in the subjective
case.

Example:
61. It was me who sent for you. – incorrect
62. It was I who sent for you. – correct
63. If I were her, I would not marry that man. - incorrect
64. If I were she, I would not marry that man. - correct
g. A personal pronoun in the object position should be in the objective case,
not in the nominative case.
Examples:
65. I gave the key to he. – incorrect
66. I gave the key to him. - correct
h. The pronouns “each” and “every” are singular. They should,
therefore, take singular verbs, as in:
 51. Everybody in this town has heard your story.
52. Each person in this town has heard your story.
53. All the people in this town have heard your story.
Did you observe that Sentences 51 and 52 contrast sharply with Sentence 53?
This is because “each/every” should agree with the singular verb “has”; while
“all” can agree with the plural verb “have”.
i. Your is a possessive pronoun; You’re is a contraction of “you
(personal pronoun)” and “are”.

Examples:
54. Your welcome back. – incorrect
55. You’re welcome back. – correct
56. Did you submit you’re note for an assessment? – incorrect
57. Did you submit your note for an assessment? - correct
j. Its is a possessive pronoun; it’s is a contraction of “it (personal
pronoun)” and “is”.

Examples:
58. The baby smiles at it’s mother. – incorrect
59. The baby smiles at its mother. – correct
60. Its a new dawn. – incorrect
61. It’s a new dawn. - correct
k. Their is a possessive determiner, theirs is a possessive pronoun,
and there is an adverb.

Examples:
62. They did not move to their house until their grandparents died.
63. They lived in their grandparents’ house for a long time; they
didn’t move to theirs until the grandparents died.
 64. I left them there.
l. Yours is a possessive pronoun; your’s doesn’t exist in the lexicon of
English.
Examples:
your friend – correct
a friend of yours – correct
your’s friend - incorrect

Evaluation
1. Fill the gap in each of the following sentences with the right
possessive pronoun:

(mine, ours, yours, theirs, his, hers)

i) The spoilt wristwatch belongs to Alice; it is ________.
ii) This house belongs to me; it is _______.
iii) That book belongs to you; it is ________.
iv) This town belongs to us; it is _______.
v) That farm belongs to them; it is ________.
2. a) Classify personal pronouns accordingly in the table below. The
first one has been done for you:

SUBJECTIVE
CASE OBJECTIVE CASE
PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL
first person I
second
person
third person

b) Fill the gap in each of the following sentences with the right
pronoun:
i) If my school mother didn’t plead with my dad on my behalf,
____ was going to punish me.
ii) I will not stand and watch you talk to ____ like that.
iii) Please, show us some love, _____ deserve it.
3. Decide whether the pronoun underlined in each of the following
sentences is a relative pronoun or an interrogative pronoun:

i) What on earth made you behave like that?

ii) Do you know what the committee plans to do with the money?
iii) Whose money is missing?
iv) Whom should you help?
4. Classify reflexive pronouns correctly in the table below. The first one
has been done for you:

PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL

first person myself
second person
third person

5. Read the passage below, underline all the pronouns therein and
classify each pronoun correctly in the table provided below the
passage:

Obafemi later courted Hannah Idowu Dideolu Adelana, whose father,

Moses Odugbemi Adelana, had also played a significant role in the
emerging Anglican community of Ikenne. He was installed as the Baba Ijo
or ‘father of the congregation’ of St Saviour’s Church in 1937. Like
Augusta, Hannah belonged to a family that valued education, and she had
also attended school up to secondary school level. It appears as if
Hannah’s parents had similar misgivings about the young Obafemi as
Augusta’s. In her autobiography, Hannah remembers that she secretly
wrote to him – considered too much of a rascal and troublemaker by her
mother – and, after being admonished for her choice ‘continued the
relationship underground’ (Awolowo 2003: 11). However, Hannah was
committed to Obafemi and in 1937, shortly before his business collapsed,
her parents eventually agreed to a wedding. Theirs was by all accounts a
successful marriage, which remained monogamous for almost fifty years,
from December 1937 until Awolowo’s death in May 1987. In his
autobiography, Awolowo described Hannah as an ‘ideal wife’ and ‘jewel
of inestimable value’ (Awolowo: 1960: 108 -9).
(Obafemi Awolowo and the making of Remo, Africa World Press: 154)
PERSONALREFLEXIVEPOSSESSIVEINTERROGATIVEINDEFINITE

Recap
The office of a pronoun is to substitute for a noun/noun phrase.
While a noun/noun phrase names an object, a pronoun only
refers to the object without naming it.
The nine classes of pronouns that have been identified in this
lesson are personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, reflexive
pronouns, indefinite pronouns, relative pronouns, reciprocal
pronouns, interrogative pronouns, demonstrative pronouns and
distributive pronouns.
 The antecedent of a pronoun is the noun that the pronoun refers
to.
The antecedent of a pronoun may precede or come after that
pronoun in a sentence.
The antecedent of a pronoun must agree with that pronoun in a
sentence.
The pronoun “it” may be without an antecedent if it functions as
a dummy subject.
The second person pronoun “you” may be implied (not
explicitly mentioned) in a sentence if the sentence is a command,
a warning or an entreaty.
 CHAPTER 4

Adjectives and Adjective Phrases

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
identify an adjective when you see one;
mention the different ways of forming adjectives, giving
examples for each;
mention and describe the types of adjectives;
grade adjectives correctly;
order adjectives correctly; and
position adjectives correctly.

4.1. What is an Adjective?

1. Sophia is a student.
2. Sophia is an intelligent student.

Sentence 1 simply introduces us to a student called Sophia, while Sentence 2

goes a step further, by telling us the type of student that Sophia is. The word
“intelligent” gives more information about Sophia. That is exactly what an
adjective does. An adjective tells us more about a noun or a pronoun. An
adjective is, therefore, said to modify a noun. The word “intelligent” in the
second sentence is an adjective. Here are more examples of adjectives: dark,
hardworking, rough, dirty, innocent, short and big.
Adjectives are called descriptive words because they describe nouns or
pronouns, enriching our knowledge of the nouns or pronouns.
Read the passage below. The adjectives in the passage are shaded:
Emenike was sure he heard someone cough ahead of him. The forest track
was narrow, overgrown and winding. He could not see far ahead. He
tightened his grip on his razor-sharp machete and swung his wine calabash
over his shoulder with his left hand. He was not afraid, but he did not want to
be taken unawares. He knew that surprise can beat even the strongest. He
was aware that a venerable old chief had died somewhere. This death was
kept as secret as possible. This was because they wanted to give the head-
hunters who were now abroad in the forests a chance to capture heads for
the great burial. One tapper had seen some of these fellows stalking in the
forest, and so word had gone round Omakachi that the forests were
“unhealthy”. But of course, every man who was a man would go about his
business, head-hunters or no.
(Elechi Amadi.1966. The Concubine. Heinemann African Writers Series. P.1)

4.2 Formation of Adjectives

a. Some Adjectives are Formed When Suffixes are Added to Nouns:
Some adjectives are formed from the addition of suffixes to nouns, as in the
examples given in the table below:
NOUN SUFFIX ADJECTIVE DERIVED
fear ful/less fearful/fearless
noise y noisy
care ful/less careful/careless
duty ful dutiful
week ly weekly
dirt y dirty
faith ful faithful
nation al national
 shame less shameless
comfort able comfortable
cost ly costly
danger ous dangerous
oil y oily
gain ful gainful
lonely ly lonely
elder ly elderly
fool ish foolish

The suffix “ful” means “having a lot”, the suffix “less” means “being
without”, while the suffix “y” means “having”. Hence, the adjective “fearful”
means “having a lot of fear”, the adjective “fearless” means “being without
fear” and “oily” means “having oil”.
Observe the use of the adjectives formed from the suffixation of nouns in the
sentences below:
3. The new teacher was surprised that many of her students could not
sing the national anthem (an adjective modifying the noun
“anthem”).
4. She thinks it’s a shameful thing to be unable to sing the anthem of
one's country (an adjective modifying the noun "thing").
5. So, she included the learning of the national anthem in the
students’ daily activities for one week (adjectives modifying the
noun “activities”).
6. The school authority seemed comfortable with the idea (an
adjective modifying the noun phrase “the school authority”).
7. That new teacher was not only beautiful but also dutiful (adjectives
modifying the noun phrase “that new teacher”).
 b. Some Adjectives are Formed from the Addition of Suffixes to
Verbs:

Some adjectives are formed from the addition of suffixes to verbs, as shown
in the table below:
VERB SUFFIX ADJECTIVE
DERIVED
act ive active
create ive creative
love ly lovely
smile y smiley
jubilate ant jubilant
hesitate ant hesitant

Observe the use of the adjectives formed from the suffixation of verbs in the
following sentences:
8. Students should exercise their brains with creative activities
outside the classroom (an adjective modifying the noun
“activities”).
9. When this textbook was advertised, I was hesitant about buying it;
but I’ve realised that buying it was a wise decision. (an adjective
modifying the pronoun “I”).
10. Toddlers are lovely creatures (an adjective modifying the noun
“creatures”).

c. Some Adjectives are Formed from Prefixing:

Some adjectives are formed from the addition of prefixes to other adjectives.
The new adjective (adjective derived) is usually the opposite of the adjective
prefixed, as seen in the table below:

ADJECTIVE PREFIX NEW ADJECTIVE

 capable in incapable
imaginable un unimaginable
honest dis dishonest
responsible ir irresponsible
legal legal illegal
legible legible illegible
regular regular irregular
logical il illogical
Note that the derived adjectives in the last column are the opposites of the
adjectives in the first column.
Now, observe the use of the adjectives derived from the prefixing of other
adjectives in the following sentences:
11. In an attempt to harmonise the argument of the two debaters, the
umpire came to an illogical conclusion (an adjective modifying the
noun “conclusion”).
12. Desperation to survive the economic hardship in this country has
led many people to unimaginable ventures (an adjective modifying
the noun “ventures”).

d. Some Adjectives are Formed by Compounding:

These are called compound adjectives. They are formed from the
combination and hyphenation of two or more words. In the phrases below,
the compound adjectives are shaded:
a ten-year-old girl
a two-day crusade
many poverty-stricken people
a ten-plot of land
a five-yard brocade guinea fabric
a five-mile journey
 an eight-hour sleep
a fault-finding habit
Please, note that when a noun is used to form a compound adjective, the noun
remains in the singular form (not in the plural form). So, it is correct to say
“an eight-hour sleep” and incorrect to say “an eight-hours sleep”. You can,
however, say “an eight hours’ sleep” (without the hyphen).
e. Some Adjectives are Formed with the Past Participial
Conjugation of Lexical Verbs:

The past participial conjugation of a lexical verb is the variant in the perfect
aspect/the variant which comes immediately after “have/has/had”. This is
discussed in detail in the next chapter. For example, the past participial
conjugation of “break” is “broken”, the past participial conjugation of
“cancel” is “cancelled”, and the past participial conjugation of “cook” is
“cooked”.
The three verbs in the past participial conjugation above are used as
adjectives in the sentences below:
13. He killed his brother with a broken bottle (The verb “broken”
functions as an adjective modifying the noun “bottle”).
14. A cancelled wedding is better than a cancelled marriage (The verb
“cancelled” functions as an adjective modifying the nouns
“wedding” and “marriage’).
15. Cooked beans can get spoilt easily (The verb “cooked” functions
as an adjective modifying the noun “beans”).

f. Some Adjectives are Formed with the Present Participial

Conjugation of Lexical Verbs:

The present participial conjugation of any lexical verb ends in “ing”, and
functions in the progressive aspect. Examples of such verbs are “dancing”,
“singing” and “talking”. These verbs can be made to perform the functions of
adjectives, as seen in the sentences below:
16. I bought a pair of dancing shoes (The verb “dancing” functions as
an adjective modifying the noun “shoes”).
 17. I am not in a singing mood right now (The verb “singing”
functions as an adjective modifying the noun “mood”).

18. The women danced to the beat of the talking drum. (The verb “talking”
functions as an adjective modifying the noun “drum”).
g. Nouns can be Made to Function in the Office of Adjectives:
A word that is purely a noun may sometimes be made to function outside the
office of a noun, and function in the office of an adjective which is to modify
a noun. When a noun performs the function of an adjective, it is called an
attributive noun and it modifies another noun. For example, the words
“Christmas” and “leather” are nouns, but they are made to perform the
function of adjectives in Sentences 19 and 20 below:
19. We all look forward to Christmas vacation with excitement. - The
noun “Christmas” functions as an adjective that modifies the
noun “vacation”).

20. She went to the market and bought a pair of leather sandals. - The
noun “leather” functions as an adjective that modifies the noun
“sandals”.
h. Some Words are Inherently Adjectives:
Words that are inherently adjectives include, pretty, handsome, loyal,
humble, proud, lazy, arrogant, clever, gentle, jealous, great, huge, short, big,
angry, gorgeous, attractive, elegant and clean.

4.3 Types of Adjectives

The types of adjectives we will discuss in this section are adjectives of origin,
adjectives of quality, adjectives of colour, adjectives of sizes, adjectives of
quality, possessive adjectives, and interrogative adjectives.
4.3.1 Adjective of Origin

An adjective of origin shows a person’s nationality. It shows the country

where a person/thing is from. An adjective of origin is usually formed from
the addition of a suffix to the name of the person’s country. Adjectives of
origin are also referred to as proper adjective. See examples below:
 21. The US dollar is more valuable than the Canadian dollar.
22. I bought a pair of Italian shoes.
23. The Nigerian flag is green-white-green.

4.3.2 Adjective of Quality

Words that describe the nature/features of people/things are adjectives of

quality. They include “difficult”, “pretty”, “gentle”, “clever”, “beautiful”,
“rich”, “sad”, “strong”, “wicked”, “fragile”, “solid”, “kind” and “old”.
4.3.3 Adjective of Colour

They name the colour of things, e.g. brown bag, red shoes, and whiteboard.
Note that a colour may be an adjective or a noun, depending on its usage, as
exemplified below:
24. Red means “stop”. - noun
25. He bought a red dress for his daughter. - adjective

In Sentence 24, “red” is a noun that functions as the subject of the sentence,
but in Sentence 25, “red” is an adjective modifying the noun “dress”.
4.3.4 Adjective of Size

They describe the sizes of objects/people, e.g. “large”, “big”, “tiny”, “wide”,
“narrow”, “small”, “broad”, “bulky”, “slim”, ‘tall” and “short”.
4.3.5 Adjectives of Quantity

Adjectives of quantity include numbers, e.g. little, many, few, and a few.
These adjectives are also called quantifiers or quantifying determiners. Much
has been discussed about determiners in Chapter 1. If you miss that lesson,
go back and take it.
4.3.6. Possessive Adjectives

Possessive adjectives are the adjectives that indicate ownership. They include
“my”, “you”, “our”, “his”, “her” and “their”. Some textbooks refer to these
words as possessive pronouns, but they are, indeed, possessive
adjectives/possessive determiners, since they cannot replace nouns; rather
they modify nouns, e.g. my phone, your result, our teacher. These possessive
adjectives/determiners actually have their equivalent possessive pronouns, as
shown in the sentences below.
26. This is my pencil. – possessive adjective/determiner
27. This is mine. – possessive pronoun
28. They asked for their food. - possessive adjective/determiner

29. They asked for theirs. – possessive pronoun

4.3.7 Interrogative Adjectives

These determiners, sometimes called adjectives, introduce questions. They

are “what” and “which”. When “what” and “which" function as interrogative
adjectives, they not only introduce questions but also modify nouns; when
they function as interrogative pronouns, they simply introduce questions
without modifying nouns. See examples below:
30. Which book is yours? – interrogative determiner/adjective
31. Which is yours? - interrogative pronoun

4.4. Comparison of Adjectives

When there are two or more adjectives with similar traits, it becomes
important to compare them. At the comparative degree, we compare only two
adjectives; at the superlative degree, we compare three or more adjectives.
a) Some adjectives take the inflection “er” at the comparative degree and the
inflection “est” at the superlative degree, as shown in the table below:
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
(er) (est)
smart smarter smartest
fine finer finest
loud louder loudest
cheap cheaper cheapest
tall taller tallest
 rich richer richest
new newer newest
pretty prettier prettiest
sad sadder saddest
Note
When comparing adjectives at the comparative degree, we may (or
not) use the word “than”, as seen in the sentences below:

32. My book is newer than yours.

33. Your book is new, but mine is newer.
When comparing adjectives at the superlative degree (three and
above), we don’t use the word “than” except all the nouns involved
are put in two categories. Consider the sentences below:

34. Funke is the tallest girl in the class.

35. Funke is taller than the other girls in the class.
Sentence 34 suggests that there are more than two girls in the class, so “than”
is not used. Sentence 35 puts all the girls in the class in two groups (Funke
and other girls), hence “than” is used.
Also note that the superlative form of an adjective is always preceded
by the definite article “the”, e.g. the tallest girl, the smartest boy, the
richest man.

b) Some adjectives are preceded by the word “more” at the comparative

degree and the word “most” at the superlative degree:
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
DEGREE DEGREE DEGREE
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
delicious more delicious most delicious
valuable more valuable most valuable
intelligent more intelligent most intelligent
 comfortable more comfortable most comfortable
cheerful more cheerful most cheerful
delightful more delightful most delightful

c) Some adjectives have completely different words at their comparative and

superlative degrees. See the table below:
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
DEGREE DEGREE DEGREE
bad worse worst
many more most
few less least

4.5. Non-Gradable Adjectives

Non-gradable adjectives are also known as extreme adjectives or absolute
adjectives. They describe extreme situations. See the table below:

REGULAR SITUATION EXTREME SITUATION

hungry starving
angry furious
beautiful stunning
funny hilarious
tired exhausted
clean spotless
small tiny
All the adjectives in the right column describe extreme situations. Hence,
they cannot be graded. For example, while it is correct to say “funnier” or
“funniest”, it is incorrect to say “more hilarious” or “most hilarious”.
Also, non-gradable adjectives should not be modified with intensifiers like
“very” or “rather”. So, it is incorrect to say “very tiny” or “rather spotless”.
Non-gradable adjectives can, however, be modified by intensifiers like
“absolutely”, “completely”, “extremely”, and “pretty”.
36. This baby is very tiny. – incorrect
37. This baby is extremely tiny. – correct
38. This baby is very small. – correct

4.6 Positioning Adjectives

An adjective can come before the noun it modifies; when this happens, the
adjective is called an attributive adjective. An adjective can also come after
the noun it modifies; when this happens, the adjective is called a predicative
adjective. An adjective can also be interpolated. This happens when the
adjective is neither used attributively nor predicatively, but is inserted
somewhere else in the sentence, and separated with commas.
Consider the position of the adjective “beautiful” in each of the sentences
below:
39. He is married to a beautiful woman.
40. The woman he is married to is beautiful.
“Beautiful” in Sentence 39 is used attributively because it precedes the noun
“woman” which it modifies, but it is used predicatively in Sentence 40
because it comes after the noun “woman” which it modifies.
Below are more examples of adjectives in the attributive position where the
adjectives are shaded and the nouns they modify are in bold print:
41. Members of the Communist Party were anti-racist.
42. Enemies are better than malicious friends.
43. Ill-mannered ladies often repel potential suitors.
44. Even when they sailed on tempestuous sea, their love continued to
grow.
45. A hungry man is an angry man.
Below are more examples of adjectives in the predicative position where the
adjectives are shaded and the nouns/pronouns they modify are in bold print:
45. The citizens seemed comfortable with the new policy.
46. He was worried about the welfare of his daughter.
47. The daughter is blessed to have a caring father.
48. Those who appear weak are sometimes the strong ones.
49. Her eyes were heavy with sleep after she had eaten dinner.

The adjectives in Sentences 51 and 52 below are interpolated:

50. Dorothy, hardworking and intelligent, graduated as the best
student.
51. Father, undaunted, proceeded to marry another wife.

Note
Some adjectives can function in both the attributive position and the
predicative position, as in Examples 54 and 55 below:

52. I met a courageous boy. - attributive position

53. The boy I met was courageous. – predicative position

Yet, some adjectives function only in the attributive position; they

cannot be used in the predicative position. Such adjectives include
inner, main, utter, elder, older, mere sheer, and indoor. Hence, it is
correct to say, “sheer nonsense”, but incorrect to say, “nonsense is
sheer”.
Also, some adjectives function only in the predicative position; they
cannot function in the attributive position. They include unwell, glad,
pleased, afraid, alive, asleep, alike, upset, ashamed, and ill. Hence, it
is correct to say, “These children are afraid”; but incorrect to say,
“These are afraid children”; we can, however, say “These are
frightened children”.
When an adjective is immediately followed by a prepositional phrase,
the adjective cannot function in the attributive position. Consider the
sentences below:

54. Those wounded people can no longer work. – attributive position

 55. The people wounded during the war can no longer work. –
predicative position

In Sentence 54, the adjective “wounded” functions in the attributive

position because it comes before the noun “people” which it modifies. In
Sentence 55, it can no longer be used attributively because it is
immediately followed by a prepositional phrase: “during the war”. Hence,
“wounded” has to come after the noun “people” which it modifies. It is
incorrect to write:
56. The wounded during the war people can no longer go to work.

4.7 Ordering of Adjectives

When there are two or more adjectives before a noun, the adjectives must be
arranged in a particular order. Below is the order of the arrangement of
adjectives before a noun:
i) Determiners - all, half, both, etc.
ii) Articles - a/an, the
iii) Possessives – my, your, their, our, its
iv) Demonstratives – that, this, these, these
v) Number/Quantifiers - two, four, few, most, more, less, least, etc.
vi) Opinion – delicious, good, bad, wonderful, gorgeous, terrible,
beautiful, etc.
vii) Size – large, small, tiny, small, gigantic
viii) Physical Quality– smooth, rough, shinny, etc.
ix) Shape – triangular, round, flat, etc.
x) Age – ancient, new, novel, old, young, archaic, recent, etc.
xi) Colour – blue, green, red, etc.
xii) Participle forms – broken, favoured, etc.
xiii) Nationality/origin – Italian, American, Nigerian, etc.
xiv) Material – leather, rubber, wool, stone, wood, plastic, nylon, etc.
xv) Type – chemical, domestic, electronic, etc.
xvi) Purpose – dancing, cooking, alarm (clock), party (dress), school
(bag), etc.
Note that it is not in all situations that a noun will be preceded by all the
adjectives in the arrangement above. Sometimes, you have two, three, or four
adjectives before a noun. What is important is to list them in the right order.
Look at the sentences below:
57. We bought a bottle of tasteless crystal Chinese wine.
58. There is an ancient brown metal alarm clock on the wall.

In Sentence 57, the noun “wine” is preceded by three adjectives, which are
arranged in accordance with the order above = tasteless (opinion) + crystal
(colour) + Chinese (origin); “clock” in Sentence 58 has four adjectives also
arranged in accordance with the order of adjectives above: ancient (age) +
brown (colour) + metal (material) + alarm (purpose)
Note
When listing adjectives in the predicative position, we usually
insert “and” before the last adjective as shown in Sentence 60
below:

59. Vegetables are cheap and nutritious.

We usually don’t insert “and” and “but” in the order of adjectives,

if the adjectives are in the attributive position, that is, if the
adjectives come before the noun they modify. So, it is correct to
say “a red Italian leather bag”, while it is incorrect to say “a red
Italian and leather bag”. It is, however, possible to punctuate the
adjectives in the attributive position with “and” or “but”, when we
want to lay emphasis. Examples:

60. He is a big but useless man.

61. She is a big, bold and beautiful woman.

4.8 Adjective Intensifiers

Intensifiers of adjectives are the words (usually adverbs) placed before
adjectives to show the intensity of the adjectives or to emphasize the
adjectives. Here is a list of intensifiers: very, really, a bit, little, so, much,
completely, totally, unusually, dangerously, seriously, exceptionally, etc.
See how some of these intensifiers emphasise adjectives below:
very beautiful
a bit scared
completely ignorant
unusually quiet

4.9 Adjective Phrases

An adjective phrase is a group of words that describes (tells us more about) a
noun or a pronoun, just as an adjective does.
4.9.1. The Structure of an Adjective Phrase

An adjective phrase has one of the following structures:

a) The collocation of an Intensifier and an Adjective: We have earlier
discussed intensifiers in this chapter as the words that show the degree of
seriousness or intensity of adjectives. When an adjective is preceded by an
intensifier, the combination can be regarded as an adjective phrase, as in
the examples below:
stinking rich
very good
absolutely gorgeous
Each of the expressions above is an adjective phrase. Note that the
intensifiers are in italics while the adjectives are in bold print.
b) A Sequence of Adjectives: An adjective phrase may be a sequence of
two or more adjectives, as in the expressions below:
a rich old man
big bold and beautiful Miss Nigeria
a tall but foolish boy
dark blue shirt.
In each expression, the sequence of adjectives is in italics while the
modified noun is in bold print. A sequence of adjectives can be
 interspersed with a conjunction, as in the second and third expressions. It
is also possible for an adjective to modify another adjective in a sequence
of adjectives, as in the fourth expression where “dark” modifies “blue”.
c) A prepositional phrase is an expression introduced by a preposition and
completed by a noun or a pronoun (Prepositional phrases are discussed in
detail later in this book). Sometimes, a prepositional phrase describes a
noun, when this happens, the prepositional phrase can be regarded as an
adjectival phrase, as in the examples below:

62. A picture of you is on the wall.

63. She is from Canada.
64. The man with the key should open the door.

The underlined expression in each sentence is a prepositional phrase

describing a noun, hence, they are regarded as adjective phrases. The
nouns/pronouns described are in bold print.

4.9.2 The Functions of Adjective Phrases

a. An adjective phrase can function as a premodifier of a noun in a noun
phrase, as in the examples below:
67. He bought a big round ball.
68. A beautiful slim girl visited my brother.
In Sentence 67, “a big round” is an adjectival phrase that premodifies the
headword “ball” in the noun phrase “a big round ball”. In Sentence 68, “a
beautiful slim” is an adjective phrase that premodifies the headword “girl”
in the noun phrase “a slim beautiful girl”.
b. An adjective phrase may function as the complement of a subject, as in
the examples below:
69. Ade is not only rich but also handsome.
70. Our teacher appears seriously annoyed.
In Sentence 69, “not only rich but also handsome” is an adjective phrase
that complements the subject “Ade”; in Sentence 70, “seriously annoyed”
 is an adjective phrase that complements the subject “our teacher”.
c. An adjective phrase may function as an object complement, as in the
examples below:

71. He made the food very delicious.

72. Sola married a man principled but caring.
In Sentence 71 “very delicious” is an adjective phrase that complements
the object “food”; in Sentence 72, “principled but caring” is an adjective
phrase that complements the object “a man”.

d. It may function as a postmodifier of a pronoun, as in the examples

below:

73. Something good and great is coming your way.

“good and great” is an adjective phrase that postmodifies the pronoun
“something”.
e. It may function as a postmodifier of a noun, as in the example below:
74. I met a man well-behaved and wise.
f. It may function as a nominal adjective, where the adjective is naming
rather than describing, as in the example below:
75. This society belongs to the rich and mighty.

Evaluation
1) What is an adjective?
2) Highlight five ways of forming adjectives, giving at least five examples
for each.
3) Mention five types of adjectives, giving five examples for each.
4) In each of the set below, arrange the adjectives in the right order before
the noun in bold print:
i) table yellow round plastic spoon
 ii) village narrow dusty road
iii) cooking new metal silver pot
iv) rectangular white big board
v) Nigerian tall fat a dark-complexioned man
5) Write the comparative and the superlative degrees of each of the
adjectives in this list: important, expensive, busy, simple, happy, far,
much, good, bad, tall, sad, angry, safe, independent, young, wealthy
6) Name five absolute adjectives.
7) Underline the intensifiers in the sentences below and name the adjective
that each of them modifies:
i) Kingsley’s mother was seriously sick.
ii) The sticking rich man is miserly.
iii) That is absolutely gorgeous.
iv) One of those girls is particularly beautiful.
v) You are extremely brilliant.
8) Here is a list of adjectives. Classify them accordingly in the table
provided below the list: ageless, Italian, round, triangular, red, lanky,
what, big, ten, our, narrow, Nigerian, intelligent, unintelligible, stolen,
dancing, small, grey, his, new, leather, old, those, which, an, few, recent,
ancient, rectangular

DEMONSTRATIVE ARTICLE POSSESSIVE QUANTIFIER AGE

9) Classify the adjectives in the list in Number 8 above correctly in the table
below:

FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES
FORMED FORMED PAST PRESENT NOUN
WITH WITH PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE IN THE
 PREFIX SUFFIX OFFICE
OF
ADJECTIVE

10) Determine whether the adjective underlined in each of these sentences

is used attributively, used predicatively or interpolated:
i) An innocent man was murdered in cold blood.
ii) We were content with what we had.
iii) Chike, male and Nigerian, has lived in the U.S. for twelve
years.
iv) Why should a child who is not an orphan appear unkempt?
v) There are Yoruba speakers in Canada.

Recap
An adjective is a word that describes a noun; adjectives are
modifiers of nouns.
Some adjectives can be formed from the addition of suffixes to
nouns/verbs.
Some adjectives are formed from the addition of prefixes to other
adjectives.
Sometimes, a noun can function in the office of an adjective.
The present participial and past participial conjugations of lexical
verbs can function as adjectives.
The types of adjectives include interrogative adjectives, possessive
adjectives, adjectives of quantity, adjectives of quality, adjectives
of colour, adjectives of size and adjectives of origin.
An adjective can be in an attributive position, it can be in a
predicative position, and it can be interpolated.
When there are two or more adjectives in an attributive position,
they are arranged in this order: determiner, article, possessives,
demonstrative, quantifier, opinion, size, physical quality, shape,
age, colour, participle, origin, material, type and purpose.
The three degrees of adjectives are: positive, comparative and
superlative.
An adjective phrase can be two or more adjectives in a sequence, it
can be a prepositional phrase describing a noun and it can be a
modified adjective.
 CHAPTER 5

Verbs and Verb Phrases

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
define a verb;
identify a verb in a sentence;
name different types of verbs and give examples for each;
classify the different types of verbs accordingly;
use verbs correctly in sentences;
identify the function of each given modal verb;
display an understanding of finiteness;
demonstrate an understanding of “mood” as it relates to
verbs.

5.1 What is a Verb?

read, sing, advised, kneels, dancing, wrote, follows, drive, jumping, push
What do all the words in the list above have in common? I trust that your
answer to that question is that they express actions. You could see that some
of them express past actions, some express actions that are ongoing, some
express actions performed by two or more people, while some express
actions performed by individuals; but their common trait is the expression of
actions.
You must have been taught that a verb is an action word or a doing word. It
is, therefore, correct to tag every word in that list "a verb". The office of a
verb is to express the action performed by a noun/pronoun or a noun
equivalent. Any word or group of words that can perform the function of a
noun and occupy the same position as a noun in a sentence is a noun
equivalent. You should recall that we mentioned in Chapter 2 that adjectives
and verbs can perform the functions of nouns.
Now, let's confirm that a verb is a word that expresses the action performed
by a noun/pronoun/noun equivalent. Think of three nouns (or pronouns), then
pick words from the list above. Match each noun with a suitable word from
that list to make a sentence. The nouns/noun equivalent that I can think of
right now are “students”, “the rich”, “a dog’. From the list above, I’ve picked
“read”, “advised” and “follows”. See how I combine them in the sentences
below:
1. Students read in preparation for examinations.
2. The rich among them advised the poor to work harder.
3. A dog follows Dave to school, every day.

“Read” expresses the action of “students” in the first sentence; “advised”

expresses the action of “the rich” in the second sentence; and “follows”
expresses the action of “a dog” in the third sentence. A verb is an action
word.
But it is not every verb that expresses an action. An action is expressed
when the subject (noun/pronoun/noun equivalent) has performed it. However,
there are sentences in which no action is performed, in such sentences, the
verb cannot express an action. The three sentences below are examples:
4. Your father seems angry.
5. He was innocent of the crime.
6. We are happy to be here today.

Though no action is performed in the sentences above, each of them contains

a verb: “seems”, “was” and “are” respectively. This takes us to the second
definition of a verb: a verb may express the state of being or describe
what is happening to the subject. Expressing the states of being of the
subjects (your father, he, we) is what the verbs in Sentences 4 – 6 do.
A sentence is made up of the subject (noun/pronoun/noun equivalent) and the
predicate. The verb is the most important element in the predicate. Below is a
list of common verbs in English language:
approach calculate dare accept
accuse approve can/could deal
acknowledge attempt carry decide
acquire avoid celebrate defer
adapt awake choose delay
add appreciate change deliver
adjust bathe chop demand
admire be claim deny
admit beat commit depend
adopt become communicate deserve
adore begin compare desire
advise blend compete determine
afford bind confirm dislike
agree blow consist distribute
aim borrow convince drive
announce bow cost drop
anticipate bring crawl dry
apologise burn create grow
appear burst criticise earn
apply buy cut eat
enable generate identify kiss
encourage get ignore knead
enhance give illustrate kneel
ensure go illustrate knit
enter grind imagine know
establish grind impress exist
indicate include expand lead
hesitate expect hang inform
explain happen insist lean
explore hate install leap
extend have introduce learn
feel hear investigate leave
fight hide involve lend
find hit jog lift
finish hope jump like
forget hug justify listen
forgive hurry look
freeze hurt keep loose
fry I kick lose

order maintain ought to qualify

manage overcome quit satisfy
measure overtake sanction scrub
mention owe realise seem
might own recall serve
mind receive settle warn
miss paint recommend shake
mix participate reduce should
must pay refer shrink
peel reflect snore wait
need perform refuse specify
neglect persuade remind spill
negotiate pinch represent sting
understand possess require stink
observe postpone resent struggle
obtain pour resist suppose
occur pretend rise surprise
offer promise risk survive
open propose roast sweep
operate protect run swim
tolerate watch teach wear
tear weep tend weigh
threaten whip throw will/would
tiptoe write translate try
vacuum value vary volunteer
 5.2 Classification of Verbs
Verbs

lexical
verbs auxiliary verbs

irregular verbs regular verbs

primary
auxiliary modal auxiliary

be do have
The English verbs are in two broad categories: lexical verbs and auxiliary
verbs.
5.2.1 Lexical Verbs

Lexical verbs are called “main verbs”. The meaning of a sentence largely
depends on the lexical verb; the auxiliary verb does not make any significant
contribution to meaning other than to ensure the correctness of the sentence.
Consider this sentence:
7. We have been dancing since we heard the news.

There are two lexical verbs in this sentence: “dancing” and “heard”. The
other verbs (“have” and “been”) are just in the sentence to assist in making
the sentence grammatical. The sentence above would still be meaningful,
though ungrammatical, without the two auxiliary verbs. Now, attempt
reading the sentence above, omitting the auxiliary verbs. You can still deduce
that the subjects (we) are performing an action (dancing) because of some
good news.
A lexical verb has five conjugations namely: the base form, third person
singular, present participle, simple past and past participle. To exemplify this,
let’s use the verb “take”.
take – the base form
takes – third person singular
taking – present participle
took – simple past
taken – past participle
The table below shows the five conjugations of ten lexical verbs:
BASE THIRD PRESENT SIMPLE PAST
FORM PERSON PARTICIPLE PAST PARTICIPLE
SINGULAR
become becomes becoming became become
break breaks breaking broke broken
 say says saying said said
throw throws throwing threw thrown
speak speaks speaking spoke spoken
behave behaves behaving behaved behaved
invite invites Inviting invited invited
sing sings Singing sang sung
sing rings Ringing rang rung
plan plans Planning planned planned
The base form is the verb as we know it (without any inflection); the third
person singular conjugation of the verb always ends in an “s” and is used
when the subject of the sentence is a third person singular pronoun (he/she/it)
or the name of the subject is mentioned.
Examples:
8. Stephen sings.
9. She plans to travel tomorrow.

The present participial conjugation of the lexical verb expresses an action in

progress, and ends in "ing".
Examples:
10. The siblings were discussing when their parents came in.
11. I am studying for my examination.

The simple past conjugation of the lexical verb expresses an action in the
past.
Examples:
12. The choir sang a melodious song.
13. Things happened as we planned.

The past participial conjugation of the lexical verb expresses an action that
has not only been done but has also been perfected. The past participial
conjugation of the lexical verb comes immediately after “have/has/had”.
Examples:
14. The train had left before I arrived at the station.
15. I have eaten my breakfast.

Having discussed the five conjugations of the lexical verb, let us now discuss
seven types of lexical verbs namely: regular verbs, irregular verbs, transitive
verbs, intransitive verbs, dynamic verbs, stative verbs and linking verbs.
5.2.1.1 Regular and Irregular Verbs

Revisit the table showing the five conjugations of some lexical verbs above.
You would notice that some of the verbs have the same spelling in their
simple past and past participial conjugations: they end in “ed”.
Now, those verbs that have the “ed” ending for their simple past and past
participial conjugations are called regular verbs. One of such verbs in the
table above is “invited”.
16. The Scotts invited my family for a dinner. – simple past
17. We had invited many dignitaries before the event was
cancelled – past participle.

The table below shows some regular verbs:

BASE FORM SIMPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE
open opened opened
pull pulled pulled
cook cooked cooked
aim aimed aimed
shout shouted shouted
walk walked walked
work worked worked
Irregular verbs, on the other hand, do not form their past tense and past
participle by the addition of “ed”. For some irregular verbs, the spelling of
the past tense conjugation is totally different from the spelling of the base
form; for some irregular verbs, the spelling of the past tense conjugation is
the same as the spelling of the base form.
This table shows some irregular verbs with different spellings for the past
tense conjugation and the base form:
BASE FORM SIMPLE PAST TENSE
break broke
tell told
bring brought
teach taught
see saw
buy bought
sell sold
sleep slept
sing sang
seek sought
wake woke
tear tore

The table below shows some irregular verbs in which the spellings remain the
same for base form, simple past tense and the past participial conjugation:
BASE FORM SIMPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE
burst burst burst
cost cost cost
cast cast cast
 cut cut cut
hit hit hit
hurt hurt hurt
put put put

5.2.1.2 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

As the name implies, a transitive verb is a verb expressing an action which is

transferred from the subject (the performer of the action) DIRECTLY to the
object (the receiver of the action). The action that a transitive verb expresses
is received by a direct object.
Look at the sentence below:
18. The principal flogged the latecomers.

"The latecomers" is the direct recipient of the action of "the principal". The
verb "flogged" is, therefore, a transitive verb in that sentence. As a rule,
transitive verbs should not be separated from their objects by prepositions.
19. I ordered for a pizza.
20. The nominees solicit for the support of the members.
21. The boy you met requested for your phone number.

Each of the constructions from Sentence 19 to Sentence 21 is incorrect

because the transitive verbs are separated from their direct objects by the
preposition “for”. The sentences should be reworded correctly thus:
22. I ordered a pizza.
23. The nominees solicit the support of the audience.
24. The boy you met requested your number.

An intransitive verb, on the other hand, expresses a complete action without

requiring the presence of an object. This means that when a sentence has an
intransitive verb, the action performed by the subject is complete without
being transferred to an object, as exemplified in the sentences below:
25. The labourers sweated profusely.
26. Babies often cry in the night.

"Sweated" in Sentence 25 and "cry" in Sentence 26 are intransitive verbs.

"Profusely" and "in the night" following each verb respectively are
adverbials, not objects; the action of crying performed by babies is not
transferred to anyone, and the action of sweating performed by the labourers
are not transferred to anyone (objects). Transitive verbs do not take direct
objects.
When a lexical verb is separated from its object with a preposition, it is also
an intransitive verb, e.g. “Will you pray for me?”
“Pray” in that sentence is an intransitive verb because it is separated from
"me" by "for".
It is important to know that while some verbs can function as transitive verbs
in some contexts and function as intransitive verbs in other contexts, some
verbs cannot be classed as transitive or intransitive arbitrarily. Whether a verb
is transitive or intransitive is determined by the context of usage. A verb can
be transitive in one sentence and be intransitive in another sentence. Compare
these two sentences:
27. Jesus saves. - intransitive
28. The man saves his wife. - transitive

Yet, some verbs are always transitive, and can never be intransitive. They
include order, request, congratulate, bless, lament, solicit, felicitate and
educate.
Examples:
29. I felicitate with you on your graduation. – incorrect
30. I felicitate you on your graduation. - correct

5.2.1.3 Stative Verbs and Dynamic Verbs

A dynamic verb is a verb that expresses an action that can be seen physically.
Actions expressed by dynamic verbs are visible. Dynamic verbs are also
called action verbs. In the progressive tense, they end in “ing”. Examples of
dynamic verbs are run, clap, dance, play and teach. These are actions that
can be seen in progress.
Stative verbs, unlike dynamic verbs, do not express visible actions. Rather,
they express perception, state or condition. Stative verbs, normally, do not
express actions in progress. Hence, they do not end in “ing”. Examples of
stative verbs are believe, recognize, acknowledge, want, know, own, hate,
love, like, prefer, mean, doubt, see, trust, wish and appear.
You must have observed that the list above contains verbs that refer to states
of mind and perception rather than actions that can be seen physically. Since
these actions cannot be seen in progress physically, it is incorrect to say “I am
trusting God for a miracle”, rather, one should say “I trust God for a miracle”.
It is incorrect to say “He is hating me”, rather one should say “He hates me.”
It is, however, possible for a stative verb to end in “ing” when it functions as
a noun (gerund) not as a verb, as exemplified in the sentence below:
31. Hating does not help anyone.

Gerunds have been discussed in detail in Chapter 1.

5.2.1.4 Linking Verbs

A linking verb is a verb that connects a subject (noun/pronoun) with its

description (adjective) or another word that names that subject. Linking verbs
do not express action.
32. This boy appears innocent.
33. The food tastes bland.

“Appears” in Sentence 32 connects the subject (the boy) with “innocent” (the
adjective that describes him); In Sentence 33, “tastes” connects the subject
(the food) with the adjective that describes it (bland).
This is a list of linking verbs: is, am, are, was, am, were, smell, feel, become,
seem, taste, proof, remain, turn and look.
Observe how linking verbs are used in the sentences below:
34. This water tastes salty.
35. Wole has become a comedian.
36. I am a teacher.

5.2.2 Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs. They are used together with
lexical verbs to show tenses and form negative sentences or questions.
Auxiliary verbs are grammatical elements. They may appear in sentences to
make the sentences grammatical.
There are two categories of auxiliary verbs: primary auxiliary verbs and
modal auxiliary verbs.
5.2.2.1 Primary Auxiliary Verbs

A primary auxiliary verb can appear together with the main verb in a
sentence, and it can also stand on its own to perform the function of the main
verb. There are three main classes of primary auxiliary verbs: be, do and
have.
5.2.2.1.1 Do

The three conjugations of the verb “do” are: “do”, “does” and "did". Each of
these conjugations can be used independently as an action verb or together
with the main verb as a helping verb, as shown in the sentences below:
37. The school authority does not allow students to leave before 2:00
p.m.
38. My daughter does her homework immediately she comes back from
school.

In Sentence 37, “does” functions as an auxiliary verb helping the main verb
“allow” to convey the idea of a simple present tense; in Sentence 38, “does”
functions alone as the main verb and still conveys the idea of simple present
tense.
"Do" conveys actions in the simple present tense when the subject is first
person singular/first person plural (I/we), second person singular/second
person plural (you/you) or third person plural (they); "does" conveys an
action in the simple present tense when the action is the third person singular
only (name/he/she/it); while “did” conveys an action in the simple past.
These are illustrated in the sentences below:
39. I do my homework every day.
40. We do our homework every day.
41. You (singular) do your homework every day.
42. You (plural) do your homework every day.
43. He does his homework every day.
44. She does her homework every day.
45. We did our homework yesterday.
46. He did his homework last Friday.

The negative form of “do” is “do not” (contracted as “don’t”), the negative
form of “does” is “does not” (contracted as “doesn’t”), the negative form of
“did” is “did not” (contracted as “didn’t”). See how these negative forms are
used in these sentences:
47. I do not submit my homework every day.
48. You do not submit your homework every day.
49. She did not submit her homework yesterday.

50. I did not submit my homework yesterday.

5.2.2.1.2 Have

The three conjugations of “have” are: “have”, “has” and “had”. Each of these
conjugations can function independently as an action verb, or appear together
with the main verb as a helping verb to express the idea of perfectness, as
shown in the sentences below:
51. The toddler has a doll.
 52. The toddlers have eaten their food.

In Sentence 51, “has” functions independently as a lexical verb, in Sentence

52, it is an auxiliary verb helping the lexical verb “eaten” to convey the idea
of perfectness.
“Have” conveys an action in the present perfect tense when the subject is first
person singular/first person plural (I/we), second person singular/second
person plural (you/you) or third person plural (they); "has" is used in the
simple present tense when the subject is the third person singular (he/she/it);
"had" is the past perfect tense variant of "have" and "has". These are
illustrated in the sentences below:
53. I have finished writing.
54. We have finished writing.
55. You have finished writing.
56. They have finished writing.
57. He/she/it has finished writing.
58. You had finished writing.
59. She had finished writing.

The first five sentences suggest that the writing has been done but nothing
else has happened after that, whereas the last two sentences suggest that after
the completion of the writing, something else has happened.
5.2.2.1.3 Be

The conjugations of the verb “be” are: is, am, are, was, were, be, being and
been. Each of these conjugations is explicated below:
“Is” is used in the present tense when the subject of the sentence is third
person singular (he/she/it/name); it can be used either independently as the
main verb, or as an auxiliary verb helping the main verb in a sentence.
Examples:
60. Ade is a lecturer. - main verb.
 61. Ade is reading a book. - auxiliary verb.

“Am” is used in the present tense when the subject of the sentence is first
person singular (I); it can be used either independently as the main verb, or as
an auxiliary verb helping the main verb in a sentence.
Examples:
62. I am innocent. - main verb.
63. I am singing a new song. - auxiliary verb.

"Are" is used in the present tense when the subject of the sentence is the
second person singular/plural (you); it can be used either independently as the
main verb or as an auxiliary verb helping the main verb in a sentence.
Examples:
64. You are a soldier. - main verb
65. You are shooting. - auxiliary verb

"Was" is used in the past tense when the subject is the first person singular (I)
or third person singular (he/she/it/name); it can be used either independently
as the main verb or as an auxiliary verb helping the main verb in a sentence.
Examples:
66. Mr. Bako was a trader until his death. – main verb.
67. I was reading a book when you called. - auxiliary verb.

“Were” is used in the past tense when the subject is first person plural (we) or
second person singular/plural (you) or third person plural (they); it can be
used either independently as a main verb or as an auxiliary verb helping the
main verb.
Examples:
68. We were in a meeting when you called. - main verb
69. They were watching a football match when it began to rain. -
auxiliary verb
“Be” is used in the future tense when the subject is any of the three persons
(first person/second person/third person) in singular or plural form; it can be
used either independently as the main verb or as an auxiliary verb helping the
main verb, as in these two sentences:
70. Anytime you call my name, I will be there for you. - main verb
71. Kunle will be travelling to Canada next week. - auxiliary verb

“Be” can be used with a noun to mean “act like”, e.g. “Be a lion (Act like a
lion)”. It can also be used with an adjective to sound a note of warning, e.g.
“Be careful.”
Note:
Please note that when “is”, “am”, “are”, “was”, “were” and “be” function as
auxiliary verbs, the main verbs are always in the progressive aspect. That is,
the main verbs end in “ing”.
“Being” is used together with “is”, “am”, “are”, “was”, and “were” in the
passive voice to convey the progressive aspect, as shown in the sentences
below:
72. The criminals are being interrogated by the police.
73. She was being beaten by her sister when neighbours came to
her rescue.

More is discussed about active and passive voices later in this book.
“Being” can also be used with “am”, “is”, “are”, “was” and “were” as a
linking verb, connecting the subject (first person/second person/third person)
with the word that describes it (adjective) or another word that names it
(noun), as exemplified in the sentences below:
74. I am being honest with you; I can’t allow you to come to our
house.
75. You are being a traitor with that act.

In Sentence 74, “being” connects the subject (I) with the word that describes
it (honest); in Sentence 75, “being” connects the subject “you” with another
word that names it (traitor).
“Been” always appears side by side with “have/has/had”, as exemplified in
the sentences below:
76. The principal had been warning you about coming late to
school before he finally sent for your parents.
77. We have been working since we woke up.

Note that “been” (not being) is next to “have/has”.

5.2.2.2 Modal Auxiliary Verbs

A modal auxiliary verb is used to express the attitude of the subject of a

clause to the predicate. Modal verbs express attitudes such as ability,
possibility, necessity, prediction, volition, permission, obligation and
willingness.
The English modal auxiliary verbs are: “can/could”, “may/might”,
“will/would”, “shall/should”, “must”, “ought to”, “dare”, and “need”. The
functions of each of these modal auxiliary verbs are discussed below:
Can
It is used to ask for permission or give permission.

Examples:
Can you give me some money?
You can have the money.
It is used to express ability (or inability when combined with “not”).

Examples:
The boy cannot climb the tree.
I can read from dusk till dawn.
It is used to express possibility.
Example:
Human beings can easily let you down.
Could
It can perform all the functions of “can” listed above in the past tense.

Examples:
*When I travelled to Ghana last year, I saw a three-year-old boy who could
climb a tree.
*When the late king found that human beings could let him down, he kept his
secret with no one.
In these two sentences, it would be incorrect to use “can” since we are talking
about the past.
It is used to make a polite request.

Example:
Could you please shut the door?
It is used to express possibility in an unreal situation.

Example:
If I were your wife, I could divorce you for that reason (I am not your
wife).
May
It is used to give permission/seek permission.

Examples:
You may go in my car (I permit you to use my car).
May I use your car? (I seek the permission to use your car).
It is used to express probability (likelihood). That is, it expresses the
chances that something will happen.
Example:
Since we are in July, it may rain today.
It is used to make a wish, or say a prayer.

Examples:
May we not be unfortunate.
May you live long and prosper.
Might
It expresses probability in the past tense.

Example:
They postponed the wedding because they thought that rain might disturb
them.
It is used to make suggestions.

Example:
You might include some protein in your children’s breakfast.
It is used to express a likelihood in the present tense.

Example:
I think it might rain today.
Will
Will is used to make predictions.

Example:
The storm will soon be over.
It is used to express volition (willingness).

Example:
I will help you.
It is used to make a request.

Will you give me your car?

It is used to give a command.

Example:
Will you shut up!
It is used to ask for someone’s intention or to state one’s intention.

Examples:
Will you come to my house after today’s exam?
I will buy a car on my next birthday.
It is used to make a threat.

Example:
I will deal with you.
It is used to express a plan.

Example:
I will travel to England in December.
Would
It is used to express a past habitual action.

Example:
When we were young, we would quickly finish our food and ask for more.
It is used to make an offer or accept an offer.

Examples:
Would you join us for dinner?
I would love a cup of coffee, please.
It is used to express a wish or an unreal situation.

If I had money, I would buy a car (I have not bought a car).

Shall
It is used to express willingness when the subject is the first person
singular/plural (I/we).

Example:
I shall visit you when I finish my exam.
It is used to establish a truth, make a promise or make a threat.

Examples:
His name shall be called Jesus.
We shall always fight for our rights.
It is used to initiate an action.

Example:
Shall we pray?
Should
It is used to express necessity.

Example:
You should pray when you wake up in the morning.
It is used to ask for advice or guidance.

Example:
Should I take two capsules or one?
Example:
It is used to make a wish or express an unreal situation.

If I ever get the chance to go to London, I should visit River Thames.

Must
It is used to express an obligation or compulsion in the present tense.

Example:
You must have a passport before you can travel out of the country.
It is used to express a presumption.

Example:
The two of you look alike; she must be your sister.
Ought to
“Ought to” is similar in use with “should” in expressing necessity, except that
“ought to” is used when the necessary action has not been performed,
whereas, “should” is used to suggest that it is necessary for an action to be
performed. Compare and contrast the use of “should” and “ought to” in these
two sentences below:
When you are going out, you should lock the door.
The door was wide open when you were away; you ought to lock it.
Dare
“Dare” can function both as a modal auxiliary verb and a lexical verb. As a
modal auxiliary verb, it can collocate with a lexical verb, as in the example
given below:
You dare not flout my father's order.
As a lexical verb, it can function as a full verb in a sentence, as exemplified
in the sentence below:
I dare you to come near me.
When “dare” functions as a modal auxiliary verb, it does not take an
inflection, as reflected in the first sentence; but when it functions as a lexical
verb, it can take an inflection, e.g. dares, dared, daring
It is used to express courage.

Example:
I dare to be like Daniel.
It is used to challenge someone.

Example:
I dare you to count from 1 to 100 in Roman numerals.
It is used to express outrage.

Example:
How dare you!
Need
“Need” can function as a lexical verb and as a modal auxiliary verb. As a
lexical verb, it can stand as the only verb in a clause as shown in the sentence
below:
I need a book on grammar.
As a modal auxiliary verb, it can collocate with a lexical verb, as shown in
the sentence below:
We need to visit our grandmother before we return.
As a modal auxiliary verb, “need” doesn’t take an inflection; as a lexical
verb, it can take inflections (needs, needed).
It expresses necessity.

Example:
I need to pass my exams to be admitted to a medical school.
 It expresses want/desire.

I need a bottle of chilled Coke.

NOTE:
If a verb phrase must contain a modal verb, that modal verb is usually the
first word in the verb phase, as shown in the sentence below:
They could have been informed about the meeting.

5.3 The Finiteness and Non-Finiteness of Verbs

A verb is finite or non-finite, depending on its responsiveness to the
singularity/plurality of the subject and the tense (the time expressed in the
sentence). A finite verb is a verb that changes as the number of subject
changes, and as the time of the action changes. Study the different mutations
of this sentence:
78. I prefer my tea without sugar
79. Sandra prefers her tea without sugar.
80. My late grandfather preferred his tea without sugar.

In Sentence 78, the subject is the first person singular; the only conjugation
of the verb "prefer" that can be used with the subject is the uninflected form
(prefer). The subject of Sentence 79 is the third person singular, and the only
conjugation of the verb "prefer" that is grammatically suitable for that subject
is "prefers". Sentence 80 expresses past tense; the only conjugation of the
verb “prefer” that is grammatically suitable for the subject is “preferred”.
We can, therefore, say “prefer” is a finite verb.
Non-finite verbs do not respond to the singularity/plurality of the subject,
neither do they respond to tenses. Study the variations below:
81. I love to relax with a bottle of Coke.
82. He loves to relax with a bottle of Coke.
 83. You love to relax with a bottle of Coke.
84. My late grandfather loved to relax with a bottle of Coke.

Did you observe that while the verb “love” changes in response to the
number of persons and time in each sentence, the verb “to relax” remains
constant in all the sentences, regardless of the change in subject or tense?
The verb "to relax" is, therefore, a non-finite verb, whereas "love" is a finite
verb. This does not, however, mean that "relax" is inherently a non-finite
verb while "love" is inherently finite; it is the presence of “to” that renders
“relax” non-finite
There are three types of non-finite verbs: to-infinitive; gerund and participle.
5.3.1 To-Infinitive

As noted early on, to-infinitive is derived when a lexical verb is preceded by

“to”. This combination can function as a noun, as has been explained in the
second chapter of this book (If you skipped the lesson on nouns, go back and
read). To-infinitives are irresponsive to the number of person(s) or the tense.
Hence, to-infinitives are non-finite verbs.
Functions of To-Infinitives
They are used after “wh-words/how”.

Examples:
He did not know what to tell his father.
Do you know how to answer this question?
They are used after adjectives of behaviour.

Examples:
It is silly to fart in the presence of a guest.
It is good to see you again.
They are used after adjectives of quality or quantity or size.
Examples:
The food is too small to feed three people.
My father is too honest to embezzle the fund.
They are used after adjectives of emotion.

I am sorry to hear that.

He was too angry to talk to anybody when we saw him.
Note:
To-infinitives would not change, no matter the changes in the subjects or
tenses.
5.3.2 Gerunds

I taught you in Chapter 1 that a gerund is a verb ending in “ing” made to

perform the function of a noun. Gerunds are considered non-finite verbs
because while occupying positions other than the subject position, they do
not respond to the singularity/plurality of the subjects or the tenses. See how
that is illustrated below:
85. His wife tried dissuading him, but he remained adamant.
86. His wife tries dissuading him, but he remains adamant.
87. His wives try dissuading him, but he remains adamant.

You must have noticed that whatever changes happen to the subject or the
other verbs in the sentences, “dissuading” remains the same.
5.3.3 Participle

Participles are the verbs that perform the functions of adjectives, e.g. dancing
shoes, broken bottle. There are two types of participles: the present participle
and the past participle. The present participle is the form of the verb that ends
in “ing”; the past participle ends in "d/ed" or "en", depending on whether the
verb is a regular verb or an irregular verb (Refer to the lesson on the
classification of verbs).
The verbs underlined in the sentences below are participles; they are non-
finite verbs.
88. Defended people are often grateful to their defender.
89. Have you seen a whistling tree before?

5.4 Verbs and Moods

Mood, with regard to verbs, refers to how a verb is used to show its purpose.
Three moods are identified: the indicative mood, the subjunctive mood and
the imperative mood.
5.4.1 The Indicative Mood

A verb is in the indicative mood when it establishes a fact or queries a fact,

that is, a verb in the indicative mood can express a fact in form of a statement
or a question. A verb in the indicative mood suggests that something is true
or untrue.
A verb in the indicative mood may also assume (rather than declare) a fact.
This is done with the use of conditional or concessional adverbs such as “if”,
“though”, “although”. The verbs in the sentences below are in the indicative
mood:
90. Abuja is the capital of Nigeria.
91. I didn’t know whether you would like to follow us.
92. Would you like to follow us?
93. When my salary is paid, I will go to the market.
94. Is your teacher a man or a woman?

5.4.2 The Subjunctive Mood

The subjunctive mood expresses unreal situations, such as wishes, prayers or

suppositions. The sentences below are in the subjunctive mood:
 95. If I had money, I would buy a car (I don’t own a car).
96. I would have loved to help you (I haven’t helped you).
97. God bless you (prayer).
98. If I were you, I would not give him the money (I am not you).
99. If you had a wife, you would not stay out late (You don’t have a
wife).
100. The maid suggested that her master send for the prophet (The
master had not sent for the prophet).
101. The government should listen to the cry of the masses (The
government has not listened to the cry of the masses).

Did you notice the use of “if I were you” instead of “if I am you” in Sentence
98 and “send for” instead of “sent for” in Sentence 100? The verbs are so
used because they express unreal rather than real situations.
There are two types of subjunctive mood: the present subjunctive mood and
the past subjunctive mood.

5.4.2.1 The Present Subjunctive Mood

The present subjunctive mood uses the uninflected form of the verb to make a
wish or say a prayer, in which case the subject and the verb may switch
positions or words may not follow the normal order, as it is in the sentences
below:

102. So be it.
103. Long live the king.
104. So help me God.
105. Far be it from me.
The present subjunctive mood can also be used in an adverbial clause to
express condition or concession, as in the sentences below:

106. Give the book to him, if need be (if there is a need).

 107. Be it recorded this day (Let it be recorded this day) that you
rejected the offer this company made.
108. Be that as it may, we are not going to compromise.

5.4.2.2 The Past Subjunctive Mood

The past subjunctive mood uses “were” to express a wish, it is often used in
conditional clauses as in the examples below:

109. If it were possible, the celebration would not come to

an end.
110. If man were God, there would be no more rain.
There can also be a switch of position between the subject and the verb or a
disruption in the normal order of words, as in the sentence below:
111. Were we given a chance, we would change the polity.
5.4.3 The Imperative Mood

The verb in the imperative mood is used as a direct command, request or

entreaty. The subject of the verb in the imperative mood is implicitly or
explicitly in the second person. The sentences below are in the imperative
mood.
112. Go out (You, go out)!
113. Come here (You, come here).
114. Get out of here (You, get out of here)!
115. Give me a glass of milk (You, give me a glass of milk).

The subjects in these sentences have an implied “you”.

When a sentence in the imperative mood expresses a request or an entreaty,
“let’s” or “let us” may be used to include the speaker, as shown in the two
sentences below:
116. Let us go out and play (You, let us go out and play).
117. Let’s celebrate the champion (You, let us celebrate the
 champion).

Notes on Some Verbs

Bear: When “bear” means “to give birth to a child”, its past participle is
“borne” in the active voice and “born” in the passive voice.
Examples:
118. My mother has borne a child (active voice).
119. A child has been born by my mother (passive voice).
When “bear” means “to endure something”, its past participle is “borne” for
both active and passive voices.
Examples:

120. Christ has borne our infirmities.

121. Our infirmities have been borne by Christ,
Cleave: When “cleave” means “to cling”, its past tense is “cleaved”; its past
participle too is “cleaved”.
Examples:

122. The woman cleaved to her husband throughout their trying period.
123. The couple has cleaved to each other.
When “cleave” means “to split”, its past tense is “clave/clove” and its past
participle is “cloven”.
Examples:
124. The farmer was happy because the cocoa pods clove.
125. The farmer stored all the cloven cocoa pods.
May: “May” can be used both in the indicative mood and in the subjunctive
mood. In the indicative mood, it expresses permission; in the subjunctive
mood, it expresses a doubt or a wish.
Examples:
 126. You may take my pen. – indicative mood
127. May you never lack.– subjunctive mood
128. Her anger may be because of hunger. – subjunctive mood

5.5 Verb Phrases

A verb phrase can be a verb or a sequence of two or more verbs. Verb
phrases are underlined in the sentences below.

129. The baby had stopped eating before its mother returned.
130. We have been eating all day.
131. She was studying law at university when we travelled abroad.
132. They are being interviewed.
133. By December I will have been learning this for two years.

A verb phrase is usually a collocation of different types of verbs. The verb

phrase in Sentence 129 comprises primary auxiliary verb + lexical verb +
lexical verb; the verb phrase in Sentence 130 comprises primary auxiliary
verb + primary auxiliary verb + lexical verb; the verb phrase in Sentence 131
comprises primary auxiliary verb + lexical verb; the verb phases in Sentence
132 comprises primary auxiliary verb + primary auxiliary verb + lexical verb;
in Sentence 133, the verb phase comprises modal auxiliary verb + primary
auxiliary verb + primary auxiliary verb + lexical verb. Each of these
classifications has been discussed in the early part of this lesson.

A verb phrase may be interspersed with an adverb/adverbial or a negation

(not). Consider the examples below:

134. I don’t really know what has happened to him.

135. We heard that you are now living with your friend.
136. She has not seen her husband.

The adverb/negation that each underlined verb phrase is interspersed with is

in bold print.

It is also instructive to note that in an interrogative sentence, the order of

words is reversed such that the subject switches position with the verb (or the
first verb in a verb phrase), as exemplified below:

137. You were going home when we saw you this afternoon.
138. Were you going home when we saw you this afternoon?

The first verb (were) in the verb phrase “were going” has to switch position
with the subject “you” as the statement changes to a question.

There are three types of verb phrases: finite verb phrase, participial phrase
and infinitive phrase.
5.5.1. Finite Verb Phrase
A finite verb phrase performs the same function that a finite verb performs,
that is, a finite verb phrase responds to the time and number of persons
conveyed in the subject. The finiteness and non-finiteness of verbs have been
discussed early on in this lesson. All the examples of verb phrases given so
far are finite verb phrases.
5.5.2 Participial Phrase
A participial phrase is a word (usually a verb) or a group of words that
describes a noun/pronoun. A participial phrase may have the appearance of a
verb or a sequence of verbs, but it performs a function similar to that of an
adjective. The participial phrases are underlined in the examples below:

139. Having heard the news about the robbery, the new landlord
fenced his house.
140. Mosun, defeated, could not sing.
141. Offended, Charles refused to join in the game.
The participial phrase "having heard the news about the robbery" describes
the noun "landlord" in Sentence139, “defeated” describes the noun “Mosun”
in Sentence140 and in Sentence 141, “offended” describes the noun
“Charles”.
There are two types of participial phrases: present participial phrase and past
participial phrase.
a) Present Participial Phrase: A present participial phrase is made up of
a verb ending in “ing”. The verb ending in “ing” forming a present participial
phrase can stand alone, as in the first example below, or be in the company of
other words, as in the second example below:
142. Studying, mom refused to be disturbed.
143. Walking quickly, Kelly was oblivious of the danger ahead.
b) Past Participial Phrase: A past participial phrase is made of the past
participial conjugation of the lexical verb, that is, a verb ending in “ed” or
another variant, depending on whether the verb is a regular verb or an
irregular verb. This has been discussed early on in this lesson. The past
participial conjugation of the verb in a participial phrase can stand alone, as
in the first example below; it may be in the company of other words, as in the
second example below:
144. Troubled, the bereaved husband could not sleep.
145. Excited about her admission to the university, Kenny shared the news
with her friends.
“Troubled” in the first sentence describes the noun “husband”, while “excited
about her admission to the university” describes the noun “Kenny”.
Note that a participial phrase is always separated from the word it describes
by a comma.
5.5.3 Infinitive Phrase
An infinitive phrase can simply be a to-infinitive (which has been discussed)
or be made up of a to-infinitive and its object. Below are five examples of
infinitive phrases:
to think
to give
to know
to flog us
to die for you
The first three infinitive phrases in the list are simply to-infinitives (“to” and
lexical verb) while the last two comprises to-infinitive and their objects
(direct and indirect).
The Functions of Infinitive Phrases
a) An infinitive phrase can perform the function of a noun/pronoun, as in the
examples below:
146. To travel around the world is a pleasant experience.
147. Tourism is a pleasant experience.
148. It is a pleasant experience.
149. Mother told us to sit down
150. Mother told us a story
151. Mother told us this.
You might have observed that the function that “tourism” (a noun) and “it” (a
pronoun) perform in Sentences 147 and 148 respectively is the same
function that “to travel around the world” performs in Sentence 146.
Likewise, the function that “a story” (a noun) and “this” (a pronoun) perform
in Sentences 150 and 151 respectively is the same function that “to sit down”
performs in Sentence 149.
b) An infinitive phrase can also serve as an adverbial, telling "why" or
showing "how" or telling the purpose, as in the sentences below:
152. To make amala, you boil water.
153. To become a doctor, you need a medical degree.
154. He studied hard to pass his exam.
While “to make amala” and “to become a doctor” function as adverbials of
manner in Sentences 152 and 153 respectively, "to pass his exam" functions
as an adverbial of reason in Sentence 154. More is discussed about adverbs
and adverbials in the next chapter.
c) It can also function as an adjective, describing a noun or a pronoun, as
in the examples below:
155. God is to be praised.
156. God is great
157. The gods are to blame.
158. The gods are ugly.
 159. Canada is a beautiful country to visit.
“To be praised” in Sentence 155 describes “God”. Did you observe how “to
be praised” is substituted for "great" which is an adjective in Sentence 156?
“To blame” in Sentence 157 describes “the gods”, it is also substituted for
“ugly” which is an adjective in Sentence 158. “To visit” describes the noun
“country” in Sentence 159.
d) It can function as a subject complement. See examples below:
160. The plate to serve your food is on the table.
170. A mandate to dismiss lazy teachers was given to the principal of
the school.
“Plate” and “a mandate” are the subjects in the two sentences, where “to
serve your food” and “to dismiss lazy teachers” complement the two subjects
respectively. Complements, by nature, complete the incomplete information
given by words. Subjects and complements are discussed in detail later in this
book.
e) It can also function as an object complement. See the examples below:
171. I need someone to interpret this result to me.
172. I want you to tell me where the weapons are kept.
173. Richard has a desire to further his education.
The objects in the sentences are “someone”, “you” and “ a desire”
respectively; each underlined infinitive phrase completes the information
about each of these objects.
f) It can function as a verb complement. Examples are below:
174. Pharmacists warn us to keep all medications away from the reach
of children.
175. I told you to ignore his threats and carry out your plan.
176. Michelle desires to become a professor.
Each underlined infinitive phrase completes the information given by each of
the verbs "warn", "told", and "desires".
 Evaluation
1. What is a verb?
2. Name twenty regular verbs and twenty irregular verbs.
3. Prove whether the verb in bold print in each of the following
sentences is a transitive verb or an intransitive verb.
i) The mad man slept on a mat.
ii) Frolicsome children like to paint the town red.
iii) The economic recession in the country has affected the price of
goods.
iv) Stephen, please reply to my letter when it gets to you.
v) Do you wish to change your name?

4. Mark each of these sentences as grammatical or ungrammatical

(correct or incorrect):
i) How much are you owing your friend?
ii) There is a philanthropist who pays tuition for orphans.
iii) I am hoping that my application will be considered.
iv) Considering the traffic congestion on the road, do you still plan to
travel?
v) My soul is rejoicing in Him.

5. Supply five examples of linking verbs.

6. Use the correct conjugation of the verb be/do/have in the following
sentences:
i) If one month ______ (have/has/had) four weeks, how many weeks
_____ (do/does/did) two month ______ (have/has/had)?
ii) _____ (Are/Were/Was) you in when the postman called at your
house?
iii) Juliet ______ (do/does/did) not understand what the man was
 saying, so she kept quiet.
iv) _____ (Is/Are/Were) aliens like human beings?
v) What sound ______ (do/does/did) cats make?

7. Mention what the modal auxiliary verb in each of these sentences

expresses (possibility, ability, necessity, prediction, volition,
permission, obligation, willingness):
i) Children should obey their parents.
ii) It may rain today.
iii) You may use my car.
iv) Nobody could pacify the angry man.
v) I will come to your house.

8. Decide whether the underlined verb in each of these sentences is

finite or non-finite.
i) Many customers agreed to the company’s terms and conditions.
ii) Sometimes, when I am too lazy to cook, I decide to skip dinner.
iii) Mother bought three new cooking pots.
iv) Does Stella travel during vacations?
v) My friends love singing.

9. Identify the mood (indicative, subjunctive, imperative) that is

expressed in each of these sentences:
i) Walk down the lane, then turn right.
ii) Mosquito bites may result in Malaria.
iii) It is difficult to decide who the winner is.
iv) This is a widely-acclaimed book; I hope to enjoy it.
v) God bless Nigeria.
vi) Were I in your shoes, I would choose silence over argument.
 vii) Get out of this place.
viii) Do angels always come with wings?
ix) So help me God.
x) Grace suggested that her sick sister go to the hospital.

10. Read the passage below, underline all the verbs therein and
classify them accordingly in the table provided below the passage:
It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note insofar
as her citizens of colour are concerned. Instead of honouring this sacred
obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check, a check which
has come back marked “insufficient funds”. But we refuse to believe that the
bank of justice is bankrupt. We refuse to believe that there are insufficient
funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation. So, we have come to
cash this check, a check that will give us upon demand riches of freedom and
the security of justice.
We have also come to this hallowed spot to remind America of the fierce
urgency of now. This is not time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to
take the tranquillizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to make real the
promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate
valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift
our nation from the quicksands (sic) of racial injustice to the solid rock of
brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for God's children.
(adapted from The autobiography of Martin Luther King JR: page 224)

BE DO HAVE MODAL REGULAR IRREGULAR

 11. Underline the verb phrases in the followings sentences and
classify them accordingly in the table provided:

i) She was weighed down by the thought of what could have been.
ii) Gifted, Ben Carson separated a set of Siamese twins.
iii) We are praying for the forgiveness of our sins.
iv) They have realised their mistakes.
v) They are really going to apologise.
Finite Verb Phrase Participial Phrase Infinitive Phrase
 Recap
A verb is a word expressing an action or a state of being.
The types of verbs include regular verbs, irregular verbs, transitive
verbs, intransitive verbs, stative verbs, dynamic verbs, linking verbs,
be, do, have and modals.
A finite verb is responsive to the change in subject and tense.
A non-finite verb is irresponsive to the change in subject and tense.
There are three moods with regard to verbs: the indicative mood, the
subjunctive mood and the imperative mood.
A verb phrase is a sequence of verbs which may be interspersed with
an adverb or a negation.
The three types of verb phrases are finite verb phrases, participle
phrases, and infinitive verb phrases.

Chapter 6

Adverbs

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
recognise adverbs/adverb phrases;
name the possible ways by which adverbs can be formed;
grade and compare adverbs correctly;
 determine the type of each given adverb/adverb phrase;
determine the function of each given adverb/adverb
phrase; and
use adverbs/adverb phrases correctly.

6.1. What is an Adverb?

1. Zainab wears black dresses.
2. She eats her food.
The two sentences above are grammatical, but they rouse our curiosity,
making us want to learn more. When you read the first sentence, you might
wonder when/why/where/how Zainab wears black dresses. Adverbs and
their equivalents (adverb phrases and adverb clauses) are the only elements
that can answer those questions, as shown below:
3. Zainab wears black dresses always.
4. She eats her food slowly.

Did you notice that the word in bold print in Sentence 3 has answered your
“when-question”, and the word in bold print in Sentence 4 has answered you
“how-question”?
Now, that is exactly what adverbs (and their equivalents) do. They answer the
question “how/why/where/when/how/often/to what extent/etc.” Adverbs
give additional information.
An adverb is an optional element in a sentence. A sentence can be complete
and grammatical without it. But its presence in a sentence makes the sentence
give more information than it would give without an adverb.
An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, a noun, a noun phrase, a
pronoun, another adverb or a whole sentence.

6.2. Formation of Adverbs

a. Simple Adverbs: A simple adverb contains only one word. It does not
contain a bound morpheme, neither is it compounded with another word.
Simple adverbs include “now”, “well”, “only”, “far”, “rather”, “never”,
“then”, “back”, “close”, “down”, “quite”, “today”, “yesterday”,
“tomorrow”, “always”, “hence”, “enough”, “seldom”, “right”, “near”,
“straight”, “there”, “far”, “too”, “very”, “rather”, “again’, “yet”, “again”
and “though”.

b. Compound Adverbs: A compound adverb is an adverb made up of

two words. For example “anywhere” comprises “any” and “where”,
“whenever” is made up of “when” and “ever”. Other examples of
compound adverbs are “furthermore”, “moreover”, “somewhat”,
“someday”, “any time”, “nowhere”, “whenever”, “self-consciously”,
“self-righteously”, “therefore”, “therein”, “thereupon”, “overnight”
and “sometimes”.
c. Adverb cum Adjective: Some words can function as adjectives and
function as adverbs. They include “early”, “long”, “straight”, “still”,
“fast”, “sickly”, “likely”, “wrong”, “high”, “hard”, “monthly”,
“yearly”, “further”, and “sideways”. See the use of “further” and
“wrong” as adverbs and adjectives in the four sentences below:

5. Further study revealed that man and the whale have a common
ancestor. – adjective
6. We didn’t find the treasure until we searched further. – adverb
7. She married her husband for all the wrong reasons. – adjective
8. Every child thinks their parents can never go wrong. – adverb

In Sentence 5, "further" is an adjective that modifies the noun "study"; in

Sentence 6, "further" is an adverb that answers the question "where" about
the verb "searched". In Sentence 7, "wrong" is an adjective that modifies
the noun "reason"; in Sentence 8, "wrong" is an adverb that answers the
question "how" about the verb "go".
d. Adverbs with Two Forms: Some adverbs have two forms – one
form with the suffix “ly”, the other form without the suffix “ly”. And
they mean different things: “hard/hardly”, “slow/slowly”,
 “last/lastly”, “just/justly”, “near/nearly”, “high/highly”, “late/lately”.
See how “last” and “lastly” have different functions in the two
sentences below:

9. This race is run by ten able-bodied men every year, the man
that gets to the palace last is imprisoned for six months.
10. Lastly, we should be mindful of God in all we do.

“Last” in Sentence 9 modifies the verb “gets”, while “lastly” modifies the
whole of Sentence 10.
e. Derived Adverbs: These are the adverbs derived from other parts of
speech.

i) Adverbs Derived from Adjectives: Many a time, adverbs are

derived from adjectives with the use of the suffix “ly”, e.g. sadly,
sweetly, deadly, boldly, coldly, softly, mildly, wildly, widely, oddly,
faintly, wisely, largely, timidly, stupidly, reputably, arguable,
fashionably, specially, superficially, massively, proactively,
uselessly, voicelessly and gorgeously,
ADJECTIVE ADVERB
happy happily
peaceful peacefully
slow slowly
brave bravely
bright brightly
loud loudly
fierce fiercely
slow slowly
legible legibly
cheap cheaply
smart smartly
selfish selfishly
careless carelessly
skilful skillfully
smart smartly

ii) Adverbs Derived from Prepositions: Many of these are formed by

the addition of suffixes to prepositions, e.g. upwards, inwards,
outward, onward, likewise, etc.
iii) Adverbs Derived from Nouns: Some adverbs are derived from
nouns, e.g. homewards, skyward heavenwards, clockwise, namely,
friendly, primarily, daily, hourly, etc.
iv) Adverbs Formed from Other Adverbs: These include southward,
backward, thereupon and henceforth.
v) Adverb cum Noun: Some words can function as nouns in certain
contexts and function as adverbs in other contexts, e.g. “back”,
“deep” and “down”. “Back” functions as an adverb in Sentence 11,
and functions as a noun in Sentence 12 below:
11. Are the children ready to come back with
you?
12. There is a football field at the back of the
hall.

6.3. Gradation and Comparison of Adverbs

i) Some adverbs can be graded. Some adverbs add “er” at the
comparative level and “est” at the superlative level.

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

DEGREE DEGREE DEGREE
fast faster fastest
 soon sooner soonest
often oftener oftenest

ii) Some adverbs use “more” at the comparative level and “most” at the
superlative level, as shown in the table below:
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
DEGREE DEGREE DEGREE
closely more closely most closely
confidently more confidently most confidently
gorgeously more gorgeously most gorgeously

iii) Irregular adverbs change their spellings at the comparative and

superlative levels.
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
DEGREE DEGREE DEGREE
good better best
less lesser least
bad worse worst

6.4 Adverb Phrases

An adverb phrase is a group of words, with or without an adverb, that
performs the function of an adverb. Recall that I said an adverb can answer
the question “when/why/where/how/how often/to what extent/under what
condition/ etc.” An adverb phrase too can answer the question. Adverb
phrases are underlined in the sentences below:

13. The wheels of the bus go round and round.

14. Excited children jump up and down.
15. The baby cried the whole time.
16. This boy, on the contrary, doesn’t deserve your love.
An adverb phrase may be made up of two or more adverbs interspersed with
a conjunction as in "round and round" in Sentence 13 and "up and down" in
Sentence 14; an adverb phrase may be a noun phrase as in "the whole time"
in Sentence 15; it can also be a prepositional phrase as in "on the contrary" in
Sentence 16.

What is important is that an adverb phrase, regardless of the classes of words

it contains, performs the function of an adverb in answering the question
"where/when/why/how…" For example, "round and round" answers the
question "how" in Sentence 13, "the whole time" answers the question
"when" in Sentence 15, and "on the contrary" answers the question "how" in
Sentence 16.

A noun phrase can be an adverb phrase when it doesn’t function as a noun

but functions as an adverb.

6.5 Types of Adverbs and Adverb Phrases

a) Adverb/Adverb Phrase of Time: This adverb/adverb phrase answers the
question “when”; telling us the time that an action is/was/is to be
performed. Adverbs/adverb phrases of time are underlined in the sentences
below:

17. I have been praying since yesterday.

18. Five years ago, I built this house.
19. I didn’t know until today.
20. She will be here by 10:00 a.m.
21. Our teacher would like to speak with you now.

b) Adverb/Adverb Phrase of Place: This adverb/adverb phrase answers the

question “where”; showing us the place that an action is/was/is to be
performed. Adverbs/adverb phrases of place are underlined in the
sentences below:

22. Mabel, have you gone there yet?

23. Quazeem found a dead dog outside his shop.
24. There is a river between the two mountains.
 25. Grandfather stretched his hand skywards and said a
prayer.
26. Just before the town hall is a small clinic.

c) Adverb/Adverb Phrase of Manner: This adverb/adverb phrase answers

the question “how”; it shows the manner in which something is/was/is to
be done. The underlined expressions in the following sentences are
adverbs/adverb phrases of manner:

27. The car moved very slowly.

28. Agnes swore to marry Tony by hook or by crook.
29. To kill a mosquito, one needs insecticide.
30. Move fast, we are running late.
31. He hastily had a bath.

d) Adverb Phrase of Reason: This adverb/adverb phrase answers the

question “why”; providing us with the reason for the performance of an
action. Adverbs/adverb phrases of reason are underlined in the following
sentences:

32. A lady helped the man out because of his blindness.

33. The principal pardoned the erring student for his mother’s
sake.
34. He set the trap, in order to kill a snake.
35. He went to school just to become a teacher.
36. Diana spends a lot of money on books because of her dream
of becoming a scholar.

e) Adverb/Adverb Phrase of Frequency: This adverb/adverb phrase shows

how often an action is/was/is to be performed. The underlined expressions
in the following sentences are adverb phrases of frequency:

37. Ryan never watches movies.

38. We usually go to Lagoon on Sundays.
39. I always brush my teeth in the morning.
40. It seldom rains in December.
41. Inspectors rarely visit our school.
42. Every Friday, we go to the stadium.
f) Adverb/Adverb Phrase of Emphasis: It is used to emphasise a
statement; it adds weight to the sentence it modifies. Adverbs/adverb
phrases of emphasis are underlined in the following sentences:

43. Seriously, I have never given it a thought before.

44. Honestly, there should be something you can do.
45. Sincerely, there is no place like home.
46. In fact, I am going to speak to her right away.
47. Matter-of-factly, your suggestion is the best I have
gotten so far.

g) Focus Adverbs: A focus adverb highlights the word it modifies; it marks

the word off from the other words in a sentence. Because a focus adverb
casts light on the word it modifies, care must be taken when it is being
positioned. If it is wrongly positioned, it modifies the word we do not
intend to modify. Examples of focus adverbs are “only”, “simply”, and
“just”. The word that “only” modifies is in uppercase in each of the
sentences below:

48. Only LUCAS promised to help her (No other person made
that promise to her).
49. Lucas only PROMISED to help her (Lucas didn’t do anything
other than making a promise).
50. Lucas promised to only HELP her (Lucas did not promise
her anything except help).
51. Lucas promised to help only HER (Lucas did not make that
promise to another person).

h) Adverb/Adverb Phrase of Degree: This either increases or reduces the

strength (importance) of the word it modifies. Examples are: very, quite,
rather, fairly, absolutely, wonderfully, completely, half-heartedly, so,
enough, much, any, far, too, very much, extremely, really, highly, deeply,
and greatly. In the sentences below, adverbs of degree are underlined
while the words they lend weight to (or reduce weight from) are in bold
print:
52. You have eaten enough.
 53. Don’t you think that lady is quite ugly?
54. Yes, I think she is not so beautiful.
55. You talk too much!
56. Unilorin is better by far.

i) Connecting Adverb/Adverb Phrase: It helps us to connect one clause to

another or one paragraph to another. Connecting adverbs are also called
paragraph linkers. Examples are “moreover”, “besides”, “furthermore”,
“equally”, “in addition to that”, “notwithstanding”, “however”, and “also”.
Connecting adverbs are underlined in the sentences below:
57. Vegetables are cheap, besides, they are packed with nutritional
benefits.
58. A distinction in mathematics is a requirement for admission to
the university; in addition to this, one has to pass the English
language.

j) Truth Adverb: This adverb helps us confirm the validity or invalidity of

a statement. Examples are “undoubtedly”, “honestly”, “presumably”,
“perhaps” and “maybe”. Truth adverbs are underlined in the sentences
below:
59. Students will go on vacation next week, presumably.
60. The man undoubtedly loves his wife.
61. I will ask my uncle to sponsor my university education, perhaps
he will help.

6.6. The Functions of Adverbs and Adverb

Phrases
a) An Adverb/Adverb Phrase Can Modify a Verb: This is the commonest
function of an adverb. Let’s identify the verbs and the adverbs that
modify each of them in the following sentences:
 62. My sister’s baby sleeps peacefully.
63. Gbenga never visits anybody on Christmas day.
64. The maid complains that she is tired of waking up
early.
65. My dad’s friend recently visited us.
66. That someone prayerfully chooses a spouse does not mean
that there will be no challenge in their marriage.

In Sentence 62, “peacefully” is the adverb that modifies the verb “sleeps”; in
Sentence 63, “never” is the adverb that modifies the verb “visits”; in
Sentence 64, “early” is the adverb that modifies the verb “waking up”; in
Sentence 65, “recently” is the adverb that modifies the verb “visited”; in
Sentence 66, “prayerfully” is the adverb that modifies the verb “chooses”.
Did you get all the answers right? You must have noticed that each adverb in
bold print tells you more about its corresponding verb.
b) An Adverb/Adverb Phrase can Modify an Adjective: An adjective has
the function of describing a noun (It modifies a noun). Interestingly, an
adjective itself can be modified by an adverb which lends weight to the
description made by that adjective. In the sentences below, the adjectives
are in bold print, and the adverbs that modify them are underlined:
67. The new student is very beautiful.
68. She is obviously intelligent.
69. You are always loyal.
70. I think your child is too playful.

In Sentence 67, the adverb “very” modifies the adjective “beautiful”

which in turn modifies the noun “student”; in Sentence 68, the adverb
“obviously” modifies the adjective “intelligent” which in turn modifies the
pronoun ”she”; in Sentence 69, the adverb “always” modifies the adjective
“loyal” which in turn modifies the pronoun “you”; in Sentence 70, the
adverb “too” modifies the adjective “playful” which in turn modifies the
noun phrase “your child”.
c) An Adverb/Adverb Phrase Can Modify Another Adverb/Adverb
Phrase: We have established that an adverb/adverb phrase can modify a
verb or an adjective. It is also instructive to note that an adverb itself can
be modified by another adverb. The adverbs in bold print in the following
sentences modify verbs/adverbs while they themselves are modified by
other adverbs which lend weight to them:
71. The choir sang beautifully well.
72. You are almost always late.
73. I left the book right here
74. Our tour ended too soon.

“Well” in Sentence 71 modifies the verb “sang”, while “well” itself is

modified by the adverb “beautifully”; in Sentence 72, the adverb “always”
modifies the adjective “late”, while “always” itself is modified by the
adverb “almost”; in Sentence 73, the adverb “here” modifies the verb
“left”, while “here” itself is modified by the adverb “right”; in Sentence
74, the adverb “soon” modifies the verb “ended” while “soon” itself is
modified by the adverb “too”.
d) An Adverb Phrase Can Serve as the Complement of a Subject: I
mentioned that the complement of a word has the function of completing
the information about that word. The position of a complement can be
occupied by a noun/noun phrase, an adjective/adjective phrase and an
adverb/adverb phrase. In the sentences below, the subjects are in bold
print while the adverb phrases that complement them are underlined:
75. I will be right there.
76. The children are in the middle.
77. You are right on time.

The subjects of the sentences are "I", "children " and "you", where the
adverb phrase “right here” complements “I”, the adverb phrase “in the
middle” complements “children”, and “right on time” complements “you”.
More is discussed about complements later in this book.
e) An Adverb/Adverb Phrase Can Modify A Prepositional Phrase: A
prepositional phrase (which will be discussed in detail later) is a group of
words introduced by a preposition and completed by a noun/noun phrase.
This group of words can be modified by an adverb/adverb phrase:
78. That is far beyond you.
79. The house is immediately behind the other one.
80. We saw a snake right in the middle of the road.

The underlined words are adverbs, and the modified prepositional phrases
are in bold print.
f) An Adverb Phrase Can Modify a Whole Clause or Sentence: This
happens when an adverb/adverb phrase serves a whole sentence rather
than a word or a phrase in the sentence, as exemplified in the sentences
below:
81. Furthermore, we need to study the habits of toddlers.
82. Given the present financial strength of this organisation, we
will no longer be travelling to Eastern Nigerian as we had
earlier planned.
83. Their protest notwithstanding, Nigerians were killed en
masse in South Africa towards the end of the year 2019.

The underlined adverb/adverb phrases serve the clauses they are attached
to. It should be noted, however, that in Sentence 83, there is another
adverb which is “en masse” and it serves only the word “killed”.
g) Adverbs Can Modify Determiners: We have noted that the office of a
determiner is similar to the office of an adjective. Like adjectives,
determiners modify nouns, but sometimes it is possible for a determiner
itself to be modified before it modifies a noun. In the sentences below,
note how the determiners in bold print are modified by the underlined
adverbs:
84. Very few people attended the wedding.
85. Only two of the bride’s friends were present.
 Evaluation
1. Attempt a definition of an adverb.
2. Attempt a definition of an adverb phrase.

Surely, all the young married girls were not like this? Mentally, he reeled off
a couple of names. They were all excellent girls playing their role apparently
with inborn ease. Bad luck, sheer bad luck, to have married Ahurole. No one
could blame him. That was what came of a childhood engagement.
Otherwise, he might have married any of the other girls. He focused his
attention on some of the young married girls. Strangely, none appealed to
him forcibly. Now that he examined them critically, he found things he did
not like in every one of them. He turned over on his belly, and a wave of
hatred for all young girls swept through him. They were stupid, horrible. He
had always held that view, and now by his marriage, he was proved right. All
his determination to mould Ahurole into a mature woman melted. He felt
beaten. His indifference changed into resignation. Ahurole was an unhappy
load on his head, and he just had to carry it.
Amadi, E. 1966. The Concubine, Pearson Educational Limited

3. Underline all the adverbs and adverb phrases in the passage above.
4. Classify all the adverb/adverb phrases in the passage above correctly
according to their formation in the table below:

SIMPLE COMPOUND ADVERB ADVERB ADVERB ADVERB ADVERB

ADVERB ADVERB CUM CUM DERIVED DERIVED DERIVED
ADJECTIVE NOUN FROM FROM FROM
ADJECTIVE NOUN ANOTHER
ADVERB

5. Determine the types of adverbs/adverb phrases in the passage above

and classify them correctly in the table below:
TIMEPLACEMANNERREASONTRUTHFREQUENCYDEGREEFOCUS

6. Classify the function of each adverb/adverb phrase in the passage

above

correctly in the table below:

MODIFIES MODIFIES MODIFIES MODIFIES A COMPLEMENT

A VERB AN ANOTHER PREPOSITIONAL OF A
ADJECTIVE ADVERB/ADVERB PHRASE SUBJECT
PHRASE

7. Write the positive, comparative and superlative forms of the

following adverbs: clearly, often, excitedly and confidently

Recap
An adverb gives additional information.
A sentence can be complete and grammatical without an adverb.
An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, a noun/noun phrase, a
pronoun, another adverb and a whole sentence.
There are simple adverbs and compound adverbs; some words
function as adverbs in certain contexts and as adjectives in other
contexts; some words function as adverbs in certain contexts and
as nouns in other contexts; some adverbs have two forms (one
with a suffix, the other without a suffix); some adverbs are derived
from other parts of speech.
 Chapter 7

Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
describe the office of a preposition;

give examples of prepositions and prepositional phrases;

identify prepositions and prepositional phrases in sentences;
display the knowledge of types and functions of prepositions;
and
use prepositions correctly.

7.1 What is a Preposition?

A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun/a
pronoun/a noun phrase and another word in a sentence, as exemplified in the
sentences below:
1. The new students were punished for walking across the lawn.
2. You should keep your head above water.
3. I think there is a mutual understanding between the two of them.

In Sentence 1, “across” shows the relationship between the new students and
the lawn; in Sentence 2, “above” shows the relationship between head and
water; in Sentence 3, “between” shows the relationship between two persons
represented by the pronoun “them”.

7.2 Categories of Prepositions

There are two categories of prepositions: simple prepositions (one word) and
complex prepositions (more than one word).
Here’s a list of simple prepositions:
above across after against
along amid amidst among
amongst anti around as
at before beside besides
by behind below beneath
between beyond despite down
during except excluding following
for from given in
including inside into less
like Near next notwithstanding
of off on onto
over past pending per
plus
post pro qua
re regarding around save
since than through throughout
till to toward towards
under unlike until unto
upon via vis-à-vis with
within without worth

Here is a list of complex prepositions:

according to along with
apart from as a result of
as far as opposed to
as to as well as
away from because of
by means of by way of
by virtue of care of (also c/o)
contrary to down to
due to except for
for the sake of further to
in consideration of in comparison with
in conjunction with in connection with
in contact with in contrast to
in defiance of in favour of
in front of in keeping with
in lieu of in line with
in regard to in respect of
in response to in return for
in spite of instead of
in view of in place of
in accordance with in addition to
in case of in charge of
in common with in terms of
in the case of in the course of
in the face of in the light of
 in the wake of in view of
instead of irrespective of
next to on account of
on behalf of on grounds of
on the part of on top of
out of outside of
owing to prior to
thanks to together with
up to with reference to
with regard to with respect to

7.3 Prepositional Phrases

A prepositional phrase is a group of words made up of the preposition and its
complement which is also known as the object of the preposition. The object
of a preposition is usually a noun/a nominalised word/a noun phrase/a
pronoun. The prepositional phrases in the sentences below are shaded:

4. Let us forget about that.

5. Money is not the problem of the rich.
6. We lent him some money during the holiday.
7. The minutes of the last meeting were read by Richard.

The object of the preposition in Sentence 4 is a pronoun (that); the object of

the preposition in Sentence 5 is a nominalised adjective (the rich); the object
of the preposition in Sentence 6 is a noun phrase (the holiday); the object of
the preposition in Sentence 7 is a noun (Richard). Note that the prepositions
are underlined and their objects are in bold print.
The group of words called a prepositional phrase is usually introduced by a
preposition. Common examples of prepositional phrases are in the list below:
at peace at a speed
at night at noon
 at the end at least
at the outset at a standstill
at liberty at all cost
at a discount by force
by standard by nature
by request by marriage
by all accounts by definition
by mistake by means of
In anticipation of in honour of
in good faith In defence of
in fairness to in general
in detail in danger
in hand on balance
on demand on behalf of
on account of on average
on a diet on a journey
on strike on board

7.4 The Rules of Prepositions and Prepositional

Phrases

a) A preposition in a prepositional phrase must always have an object: I

have mentioned that a prepositional phrase is a group of words introduced
by a preposition. This preposition must be followed by an object which
can be a noun, a noun phrase, a noun equivalent or a pronoun. Consider
the following sentences where the prepositional phrases are shaded:
 8. We were given some money in lieu of refreshments.
9. The prefects were sworn in in accordance with the policy of the
school.
10. The baby has some toys at home.
11. Please, don’t say that to me.

The complex preposition “in lieu of” in Sentence 8 is followed by the object
“refreshments” which is a noun; the complex preposition “in accordance
with” in Sentence 9 is followed by the object “the policy of the school”
which is a noun phrase; the preposition “at” in Sentence 10 is followed by the
object “home” which is a noun; the preposition “to” in Sentence 11 is
followed by the object “me” which is a pronoun.
A preposition cannot appear without an object. If you see a preposition
without an object, it doesn’t function as a preposition; rather, it is a
preposition that functions as an adverb. Compare and contrast the
prepositions/adverbs in the sentences below:
12. I would like you to stand before me. – (preposition)
13. Did you know this before now? – (adverb)
14. There is a river down the road. – (preposition)
15. Please keep your voice down. – (adverb)

“Before” in Sentence 12 is a preposition that has the pronoun “me” as its

object, in Sentence 13,“ before” is an adverb of time modifying another
adverb of time (Recall that we mentioned in Chapter 6 that an adverb can
modify another adverb).
In Sentence 14, “down” is a preposition that has the noun phrase “the road”
as its object, in the Sentence 15, “down” is an adverb of manner showing
how the voice should be kept.
Another instance in which a preposition can appear without an object is when
it forms a part of a phrasal verb. A phrasal verb, most of the time, is a
combination of a verb and a preposition, e.g. take off, log in, run across, etc.
b. When a preposition is followed by a pronoun, the pronoun must
be in the objective case (not in the nominative case): You should
recall that we said the noun/noun phrase/noun equivalent/pronoun
 following a preposition is the OBJECT of that preposition, it then
follows that the pronoun must be in the OBJECTIVE case (Recall our
lesson on nominative and objective cases of personal pronouns). See
the examples below:

16. Let this be a secret between you and I. - incorrect

17. Let this be a secret between you and me. – correct
(“Between” has two objects: “you” and “me”.)
18. You have told the story to we before.
19. You have told the story to us before.

c. A preposition is never followed by a verb: I have mentioned

repeatedly that the object of a preposition is a noun/a noun phrase/ a
noun equivalent/a pronoun, never a verb. See the examples below:

In the church, to him, about you, among the trees, between us

You must have observed that none of the objects of these prepositions is a
verb. It is, however, possible to see the preposition “to” followed by a
verb, as in the examples below:
to tell; to pray; to eat; to come; to see; to think
When you see this type of arrangement, do not think that the verb is the
object of that preposition. The arrangement is not a prepositional phrase,
rather, it is a to-infinitive. We have discussed “to-infinitives” in two of the
previous chapters.
d. It is untrue that a sentence cannot end in a preposition:
Traditional grammarians rule that a preposition should not end a
sentence. Hence, they consider incorrect a sentence like the one
below:

20. Whom did you give the money to?

…reconstructing the sentence as:

21. “To whom did you give the money?

Contemporary grammarians, however, regard the two constructions as

 correct, as long as there is no unnecessary repetition of the preposition, as
in:
22. “To whom did you give the money to?” (incorrect)

e. A preposition should be dispensed with if a sentence is

grammatical without it: For example, the underlined prepositions
are unnecessary in the following sentences:

23. Where are you heading to?

24. Where are you heading for?
25. Where are you going to?

f. A preposition should be followed by a noun/a noun phrase/a noun

equivalent/a pronoun, not a clause: A preposition can be followed
by a phrase, it shouldn’t be followed by a clause. The preposition
“like” should be deployed accordingly: Look at the constructions
below, each of them is incorrect:

26. My boss talks like she owns the world.

27. Alex talks like his mother does.

"She owns the world" is a clause, "his mother does" too is a clause. Each
of these clauses comes after the preposition "like" in the sentences above,
rendering the sentences ungrammatical since we have established that a
clause cannot come next to a preposition. Sentence 26 should therefore be
revised thus:
28. My boss talks as if she owns the world.

Sentence 27 should be revised thus:

29. Alex talks as his mother does.

7.5 The Functions of Prepositions and Prepositional

Phrases
a. A preposition can function as a conjunction: There are some words
that can be used as both prepositions and conjunctions. They include
after, as, before, since and till/until. When they are used as
prepositions, they are immediately followed by nouns or pronouns.
When they are used as conjunctions, they are immediately followed
by clauses. See examples below:

30. My book is new as yours. - preposition

31. Please act as you have been instructed. – conjunction
32. There is a mosque before the house. – preposition
33. People should always think before they talk.–
conjunction
b. A preposition can also function as a participle: We
have discussed participles and participial phrases in
Chapter 5. The following prepositions can function as
participles or parts of participial phrases: concerning,
given, granted, concerning and following. See examples
below:
34. Granted that you sponsor my university education, I will
study medicine.
35. Following the presidential election, the electorate
protested the result.
c. A preposition can also function as an adverb: Many
prepositions and prepositional phrases can function as
adverbs and adverbials. You should recall that an adverb
has the office of answering the question
“how/why/when/where…” When a preposition or a
prepositional phrase is able to answer this question, it is
said to function as an adverb/adverbial. The following
prepositions can function as adverbs/adverbials: around,
over, inside, off, under, before. The underlined
prepositions and prepositional phrases function as
adverbs/adverbials in the examples below:
36. He was locked outside. – adverb of place
37. They have gone out. – adverb of place
38. He was arrested on account of Internet fraud – adverbial
phrase of reason modifying the verb “arrested”.
 d. A prepositional phrase can function as a
postmodifier of a noun: The underlined prepositional
phrases in the following sentences are functioning as
postmodifiers of nouns in the shaded noun phrases:
39. Do you know the man in that house? – postmodifying the
noun “man”
40. Yes, the man is a friend of mine. – postmodifying the
noun “friend”.
41. He is also the secretary to the governor. – postmodifying the
noun “secretary”.
e. Some prepositions behave like adjectives and they
can be premodified by “very”: Such prepositions
include “like”, “unlike”, “close to” and “near”. Like
adjectives, “close to” and “near” can also be graded and
compared, as exemplified below:
42. That is very unlike you.
43. Alex is close to God but I think Richard is closer to Him.
44. The nearest person to that phone should bring it.

g. A preposition can be compounded with a verb; a preposition can be

immediately followed by a verb to form a phrasal verb, e.g.
overflow, outstay, outgrow withdraw, overlook, overtake, break
through, and fall through.

h. A preposition can also be compounded with an adverb, e.g. thereby,

therein, whereupon and thereupon.

7.6 The Positions Prepositions

1. A preposition often comes before a noun/pronoun/noun equivalent,
as in: outside the box, except you, after that, etc.
2. A preposition can also come before an adverb, e.g. before then.
3. A preposition can take a modifier, that is, it can be modified. In the
following examples, the prepositions are underlined, and their
modifiers are in bold print: all of them, almost on the ground,
directly in the front.
4. A preposition can be the last element in a clause, as in the
 examples below:

a) What class are you in?

b) This is the house Mother was talking about.
c) This is the responsibility I am saddled with.

7.7 Types of Prepositions

1. Preposition of Place and Direction: in, at, between, among, outside,
out, on top of, below, beneath, under, beside, among, up, down, over, above
underneath through off, away from, towards, toward, from, beside, by,
around, round, along, towards, southwards, within, through, across, to, into,
in, behind
Examples:
d) There is a ball inside the box.
e) He moved away from his friends.
Some prepositions of place also express time, as in the sentence below:
f) The meeting will commence at 10:00 a.m.

7.7.1 Notes on Some Prepositions of Place

At
“At” is used to mean a particular location/spot, e.g. “Who is at the
door?”
“At” can also be used with an event.

Examples:
(i) I met her at Sandra’s party”.
(ii) There was plenty of food at the graduation ceremony.”

“At” is used with a building, e.g. “I met an accident victim at the

drugstore.”
“At” can be used for a town, a city or a village, if it is a point in a
journey, e.g. “While going to Jebba, we had a stop at Ilorin.”
On
“On” is used for a surface, e.g. “There is a book on the table”.
“On” is also used for bus, e.g. “There are eighteen commuters on
the bus (not “in the bus”).
We also use “on” for money, e.g. “I have no money on me.”

In
“In” is used for something that is surrounded.

Examples:
(i) She is in a circle”.
(ii) There is money in my pocket (The money is surrounded/secured
by my pocket).

“In” is used for a town or a country, while “at” may be used for a
smaller segment of a town or city, e.g. “I am in Nigeria, living at
No 4, Lucas Street”.

Above/Over
“Above/over” means “more than”.
“Over”, not “above”, is used for numbers, e.g. “There are over five
hundred people at the party”.
“Above” is used for measurements, e.g. “His temperature was
above 50 degrees Celsius”.
“Over” can mean “during” especially when it is related to food,
e.g. “We can discuss the business over lunch.”
“Over” is used for movement from one side to another, e.g. “The
goat jumped over the fence”.
The opposite of “above” is “below”; the opposite of “over” is
“under”.

2. Prepositions of Time: These prepositions answer the question

“when?” They include “for”, “during”, “since”, “on”, “at”, “by”,
“over”, “till” and “until”.

At
We use “at” for a specific time, like clock time or mealtime, e.g. at two
o'clock, at the moment, at breakfast, at Christmas, at 65 (age).
On
“On” is used for days of the week, e.g. On Friday, on Wednesday,
etc.
“On” is also used to express an action that happens immediately
after another action, e.g. “On their father’s arrival, the children
conducted themselves properly.”

In
“In” is used for months, e.g. in February, in November, etc.
"In" is also used for longer periods, e.g. in the 19th Century, in
1995. Etc.
“In” is also used for parts of the day, e.g. in the evening, in the
morning.
“In” can be used to predict or forecast a future, e.g. “Your result
will be ready in two weeks.”; “I will join you in five minutes’
time.”

During

“During” is used with an event, e.g. during the party.

“During” is also used to mean “the whole time”, e.g. “I will work
on the document during the week (I am going to need the whole
week to work on the document). When “during” is used to mean
“a whole time”, it can be substituted for “throughout”.

Over

"Over" too can be used to mean "a whole period", e.g. "We
discussed the matter over breakfast".

For and Since.

“For” is used to show how long an action continues/continued, e.g.

“She stayed indoors for one year”.
 “Since” is used to show the specific time that an action started, e.g.
“He has been bedridden since January.”

Till/Until

“Till” and “until” are used interchangeably to show when an action

finishes, e.g. “The baby cried till its mother returned from work”;
“We worked until 6:00 p.m.” “Until” is considered formal.

“From” and “To”/ “Between” and “And”

“From” is used with “to”, while “between” is used with “and”, e.g. “Our
visitors will be around from 10 a.m. to 6 p.m.”; “The meeting will be held
between 2 p.m. and 4 p.m.”

Evaluation
1) What is a preposition?
2) Give twenty examples of simple prepositions.
3) Give ten examples of complex prepositions.
4) Underline all the prepositional phrases in the passage below:
Political activism in Sierra Leona was also activated by British
constitutional reforms after World War II. The National Council of Sierra
Leone (NCSL) was formed in 1950 through the merging of several semi-
political groups of Creoles under H.C. Bankole-Bright. The program of
NCSL, very naturally, reflected the Creoles’ interest in preserving their
elevated status in the country’s modern or western sector. The Sierra
Leone People’s Party (SLPP), on the other hand, was organized in 1951
to represent the indigenous inhabitants of the protectorates, but Sir Milton
Margai insisted that it take a territorial approach.

Recap
A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a
noun/pronoun and another word in a sentence.
A simple preposition is one word while a complex preposition is
made up of two or more words.
A prepositional phrase is a group of words introduced by a
preposition and completed by a noun/pronoun/noun phrase/noun
equivalent.
A preposition must always have an object unless it functions as an
adverb or a part of a phrasal verb.
The pronoun following a preposition must always be in the
objective case, never in the nominative case.
It is untrue that a sentence cannot end in a preposition.
A preposition can be followed by a phrase, but it should not be
followed by a clause.
Some prepositions also function like conjunctions, e.g. “after”.
A preposition can perform the function of an adverb.
A preposition can function as a participle in a participial phrase.
A preposition can function as a postmodifier of a noun in a noun
phrase.

Chapter 8

Conjunctions

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

define a conjunction;
give examples of conjunctions; and
identify conjunctions when you see them.
 8.1 What is a Conjunction?
Conjunction are connecting word. Conjunctions link words, phrases, clauses,
sentences and paragraphs.

8.2 Categories of Conjunctions

The two categories of conjunctions: are coordinating conjunctions and
subordinating conjunctions.

8.2.1 Coordinating Conjunction

These conjunctions are otherwise called coordinators. They connect two or
more units of equal grammatical status. By this, we mean that a coordinator
can connect a phrase and another phrase, a word and another word, or a
clause and another clause. There are four types of coordinating conjunctions.
a) Copulative Conjunctions: These conjunctions are used to couple
expressions that are of the same line of thought. A copulative conjunction
is used when the next idea is in agreement with or in furtherance of the
previous idea. Examples of copulative conjunctions are “moreover”, “as
well as”, “as”, “and”, “also”, “furthermore” and “besides”. Note how the
underlined copulative conjunctions in the sentences below coordinate two
or more ideas that align:

1. The CEO, as well as his wife, attended the party.

2. Teachers and editors need to have vast knowledge of the English
language.
3. Vegetables are cheap, besides, they are very nutritious;
furthermore, they are highly recommended by dieticians.

The copulative conjunction in Sentence 1 connects two phrases (the CEO,

his wife); the copulative conjunction in Sentence 2 connects two words
(teachers, editors); the copulative conjunctions in Sentence 3 connect
clauses (Vegetables are cheap, they are very nutritious, they are highly
recommended by dieticians).

b) Adversative Conjunctions: These conjunctions connect opposite words

or expressions. That is, they connect expressions that do not align. They
include “but”, “still”, “yet”, “however”, “only”, and “only that”. See how
 the shaded adversative conjunctions connect expressions that do not align
in the following sentences:

4. He studied hard, yet, he did not pass his exam.

5. My friend is hardworking, only that she is irritable.
6. All, but one, of these are farm implements.

c) Casual Conjunctions: They express the reasons for actions. They

include because, since, for, therefore, hence, then. Observe how the
casual conjunction in each of the sentences below shows the reason for an
action:

7. I will stop teaching you since you have refused to lean.

8. Salaries were not paid, hence, teachers went on strike.

d) Alternative Conjunctions: An alternative conjunction presents a case of

two options, that is, they tell us that something may happen or another
thing may happen. Some of them appear in pairs; and are, therefore, called
correlative conjunctions. They include “either…or”, “neither…nor”, “not
only…but also”, “both…and…”, “also”, “whether” and “or”. See how
some of these conjunctions are used in the following sentences:

9. She not only steals but also gossips.

10. She wants neither food nor drink.

8.2.2 Subordinating Conjunctions

Unlike coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions connect two or

more units of different grammatical status: They include “although”, “until”,
“because”, “whereas”, “after”, “before”, “like”, “since”, “than”, “once”,
“since”, “in order that” and “if”. They often introduce subordinate clauses
which will be discussed later in this book. There are different types of
subordinating conjunctions. Some of them are mentioned below:
a) Subordinating Conjunctions of Place: “where”, and “wherever”,
b) Subordinating Conjunctions of Time: “when”, “whenever”, “before”,
“until”, “while”, “as”, “since” and “after”
c) Subordinating Conjunctions of Manner: “how”, “however”, and “as”
d) Subordinating Conjunctions of Reason/Cause: “seeing that”, “because”,
“since”, “that”, “for”, “while”, and “as”
e) Subordinating Conjunctions of Comparison: “than” and “as”
f) Subordinating Conjunctions of Purpose: “that”, “so”, “so that” and “in
order that”
g) Subordinating Conjunctions of Condition: “in the condition that”, “if”,
“unless”, “incase”, “provided”, “provided that” and “even if”
h) Subordinating Conjunctions of Concession: “though” and “although”
i) Substantive Subordinating Conjunctions: These are used to introduce
noun clauses. They include “whether”, “that”, “sometimes” and “if”.

Evaluation
1. Give at least two examples for each of these: coordinating
conjunction, conjunction of purpose, conjunction of concession,
conjunction of time, and conjunction of manner.

Recap
Conjunctions are linking words.
Coordinating conjunctions link units of equal grammatical status.
Types of coordinating conjunctions include copulative
conjunctions, adversative conjunctions, casual conjunctions and
correlative conjunctions.
Copulative conjunctions connect ideas that are in agreement.
Adversative conjunctions connect opposing ideas.
Alternative conjunctions present cases of two options.
Correlative conjunctions appear in pairs.
Subordinating conjunctions introduce subordinate clauses which
can be of time, place, manner comparison, condition, concession
or degree.
 Chapter 9

Interjection

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

explain what interjections are;

identify interjections; and
give examples of interjections.

9.1 Definition
An interjection is a word for expressing emotion or feeling, such as
excitement, pleasure, surprise or sadness. An interjection is an exclamatory
expression and it ends in an exclamation mark (!) See examples of
interjection in these expressions:

1. What a pity!
2. Oh, my God!
3. Wao! Hurray! Oh! Ah!

Evaluation
Give five examples of interjections.
 Chapter 10

Clauses

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

conceptualise a clause;
mention the two main categories of clauses;
describe the main clause and give examples for it;
describe a subordinate clause and give examples for it;
identify and explain each element of a clause;
explain the mechanism for the coordination of clauses;
explain the concept of rankshifting;
identify the different types of subordinate clauses; and
use clauses correctly.

10.1 What is a Clause?

A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb. The subject is
the performer of the action in a clause, while the verb is the action performed.
Each of the following group of words, where the subject is in bold print and
the verb/verb phrase is underlined, is therefore a clause:

1. The baby slept.

2. James is favoured.
3. You have not heard the story.
A clause may contain other elements like an adjunct, a complement and an
object. But for a group of words to be referred to as a clause, it must contain a
subject and a verb. The first clause above contains a subject and a verb, the
second clause also contains a subject and a verb phrase, while the third clause
contains a subject, a verb phrase and an object.
You must also have observed that each of the clauses expresses a complete
thought. This is an indication that a clause can also be a sentence. The two
most important elements of a sentence are the subject and the verb, which are
also the two most important elements of a clause. So, a clause has all it takes
to be a sentence. A sentence may however be made up of two or more
clauses, as shown below:

4. I want you to tell me whether you have been there before.

The sentence above contains two clauses; the first clause is shaded green,
while the second one is shaded yellow. In each of these clauses, the subject is
in bold print, and the verb/verb phrase is underlined. This sentence is a proof
that while a clause has all it takes to make a sentence, a sentence can be made
up of two or more clauses. If a sentence has only one clause, like the first
three sentences, the sentence is referred to as a clausal sentence.

10.2 Categories of Clauses

There are only two categories of clauses: main clause (also called
independent or principal clause) and subordinate clause (also called
dependent clause).
10.2.1 Main Clause (Independent Clause/Principal Clause)
The main clause is a clause that is self-sufficient; it does not need the
assistance of another clause to express a complete thought and be
meaningful. A sentence which has only one clause (a clausal sentence)
contains a main clause. Each of the three clauses in the first three sentences,
for example, is the main clause. The part shaded green in Sentence 4 (I want
you to tell me) is also a main clause.
10.2.2 Subordinate Clause (Dependent Clause)
Though containing a subject and a verb, a subordinate clause cannot express
a complete thought or be meaningful without depending on the main clause.
This is why it is often called a dependent clause. The part shaded yellow in
Sentence 4 above, for example, cannot stand on its own and be meaningful.
Or how would it sound to you if someone looked at you and said, “Whether
you have been there before”? You would think something is wrong with that
person. Wouldn’t you?
A subordinate clause is so-called because of the presence of a subordinator.
Words like “that”, “which”, “what”, “where”, “who”, “how” and “whether”
are subordinators when they introduce clauses. For example, “whether you
have been there before” would not be a subordinate clause if not for the
presence of the word “whether”. I mean, it is sensible if someone says, “You
have been there before”.
So, subordinators are to blame for the subordinate status of subordinate
clauses.
There are three types of subordinate clauses: noun clause, adjective clause
and adverb clause. Each of them will be discussed in detail later.

10.3 Elements of a Clause

We have established that the two most important elements of a clause are the
subject and the verb. These two elements are obligatory, but there are other
elements that may also be present in a clause. They are object, complement
and adverbial. Read the following sentences:
S V
5. Raymond | gives.

S V Od
6. Raymond | gives | his offering.
S V Od Oi

7. Raymond | gives | his offering | to God.

S V Od Oi A
8. Raymond | gives | his offering | to God | in the church.

S V C

9. Raymond | is | a giver.
Each of the sentences above shows the different patterns that can be obtained
in clauses.

S = subject
V = verb
Od = direct object
Oi = indirect object
Cv = verb complement
A = adverbial
Cs = subject complement
Co = object complement

Now, let us discuss each of these elements.

10.3.1 Subject

If a verb is defined as an action word, the subject of a clause is the performer

of the action in that clause. Fly, cry and laugh are verbs (action words). The
performer of each of these actions is in bold print in the sentences below:

10. Birds fly.

11. Babies cry.
12. Hyenas laugh.
The word in bold print is the subject in each clause. Remember, the two most
important elements of a clause are the subject and the verb.

Besides, when a verb indicates a condition or a state of being, the subject is

that person/thing whose condition or state of being the verb shows. In other
words, the subject is that person/thing that the verb talks about, as shown in
the clauses below:

13. Children are lovely creatures.

14. The weather is being observed.
15. That was a brilliant performance.

In each of the clauses above, the subject is in bold print while the verb is
underlined. You would find that no action is performed in any of these
sentences; only states of being are shown.

In an active voice, the subject answers the question “who?’ or “what?”. In

Sentence 13 for example, “children” answers the question “Who are
children?/ What creatures are children?”; “That” in Sentence 15 answers the
question “What was a brilliant performance?”.

In a declarative sentence, the subject is usually the first element and the verb
is the second element. In each of the examples above, the subject is the first
element. That is because those clauses are declarative sentences. In an
interrogative sentence, the subject is the second element, while the verb is the
first element. See the switch of positions between the subject and the verb in
the examples below:

16. Women are confined to their compounds during the festival.

17. Are women confined to their compounds during the festival?

In each of the sentences above, the subject is in a green shade, and the verb is
in a yellow shade. Sentence 16 is a declarative sentence; Sentence 17 is an
interrogative sentence.

10.3.1.1 Words in the Subject Position

The classes of words that can occupy the subject position in a clause are
nouns, noun phrases, pronouns, gerunds, to-infinitives and nominalized
adjectives.

Each of these word classes has been discussed in-depth in the previous
chapters. Now with examples, let’s see how each of them can function as the
subject of a clause:
Noun in the Subject Position

18. Atheists do not believe in the existence of God.

19. Abuja is the capital of Nigeria.
20. People will always criticize good moves.

Noun Phrase in the Subject Position

21. The lady in this picture is a lawyer.

22. The love of money is the root of evil.
23. People who live in glass houses should not throw
stones.

Pronoun in the Subject Position

24. Someone has broken the glass.

25. Mine is the bigger one.
26. They made some promises to us.

Gerund in the Subject Position

27. Writing comes to me naturally.

28. Cleaning the house is what she does the whole
day.
29. Hating helps nobody.

To-Infinitive in the Subject Position

30. To err is human.

31. To return home has been her desire since she
left.
32. To win the prize is my prayer.
Nominalised Adjective in the Subject Position

33. The poor are not satisfied with their lot.

34. The first is not always the best.
35. The deaf and dumb need the support of their
families.

10.3.1.2 The Length of a Subject

The length of the subject varies, as you must have observed in the given
examples. The subject of a clause may be one word, while the subject of
another clause may be up to six words. Compare the subjects of the three
clauses below:

36. She is my mother.

37. The tallest woman in the crowd is my mother.
38. The decision of the committee to postpone the
programme was not welcomed by the members.

The word(s) in bold print in each sentence is the subject. The clause labelled
36 has a short subject (one word), the clause labelled 37 has a subject of a
medium length comprising six words, while the clause labelled 38 has a
lengthy subject comprising nine words.

You must take care when dealing with lengthy subjects. Some people are
accustomed to inserting commas after lengthy subjects, separating the
subjects from their verbs with commas. This is wrong. It would be
ungrammatical, for example, to have a comma after “programme” in
Sentence 38 above.

To determine where a subject ends, mentally replace the subject with an

appropriate pronoun. Be sure of the length of words that will adequately
account for the pronoun.

Let’s say I want to replace the subject in Sentence 38 above with a pronoun,
the appropriate pronoun would be “it”. I have to be sure of the number of
words that will adequately account for “it”. Let’s confirm that below:

39. The decision of the committee to postpone the

 programme was not welcomed by the members.
40. It of the committee to postpone the programme was not
welcomed by the members. - incorrect
41. It to postpone the programme was not welcomed by the
members. – incorrect
42. It the programme was not welcomed by the
members. – incorrect
43. It was not welcomed by the members. – correct

Remember, as you would not separate a short subject from its verb with a
comma, so should you not separate a long subject from its verb with a
comma.

10.3.1.3 Dummy Subjects (Empty Subjects)

Since a clause cannot be without a subject, unless the subject is elliptical as in
imperative sentences, dummy subjects are there to fill the void that the
absence of a subject might leave in a clause. A dummy subject is also
used when the subject of the clause is elsewhere rather than the initial
position. We will consider two dummy subjects: “it” and “there”.

Read the following sentences where the empty subjects are in bold print and
the real subjects are in green shades:

44. It’s nice to see your face again.

45. It’s going to rain.
46. There are ten mangoes in the basket.
47. There is a pole at the end of the road.

Let’s reword each of these clauses to put the real subjects in their right
positions and dispense with the empty subjects:

48. To see your face again is nice

49. Rain is going to fall.
50. Ten mangoes are in the basket.

60. A pole is at the end of the road.

 10.3.2 Verb

Refer to Chapter 4.

10.3.3 Object
A clause has an object, only if the subject has performed an action. Recall we
said that the subject may either perform an action or be the element the verb
is about. If the subject of a clause performs an action, the object is the
receiver of that action. Consider the sentences below where the objects are
in green shades and the subjects are in bold print:

61. He slammed the door in annoyance.

62. Europe underdeveloped Africa.
63. Marion remembered the information, hard and small like bird
droppings.
64. Dorcas gave some money to her sister.

In Sentence 61, “the door” is the recipient of the action performed by “He”;
in Sentence 62, “Africa” is the recipient of the action performed by “Europe”;
in Sentence 63, “information” is the recipients of the action performed by
“Marion”; in Sentence 64, the recipients of the action performed by Dorcas
are “some money” and “her sister”.

Yes, it is possible for a clause to have two objects as we have in Sentence 64.
When a clause has two objects, one of them is the direct object, while the
other is the indirect object. The directness or indirectness of an object is not
measured by its proximity to the verb. Rather, the real-life scenario is
pictured. Let’s consider Sentence 64 again:

Dorcas gave some money to her sister.

If you paint a mental picture of the scenario, you find that “Dorcas” has
contact with “some money”, and the money has contact with “her sister”.
Hence, “some money” is the direct object while “her sister” is the indirect
object. Even if the sentence is reworded so that the two objects switch
positions, “some money” remains the direct object, as “her sister” remains the
indirect object. See here: Dorcas gave her sister some money.
 Below are more examples of clauses containing two objects:

65. This mother uses a whip on her children.

66. Do not put the book on the table.

In Sentence 65, “mother” has contact with “a whip” and “a whip” in turn has
contact with “her children”; hence, “a whip” is the direct object while “her
children” is the indirect object. Sentence 66 is an imperative sentence, so its
subject, “You”, is implied. “You” has contact with “the book”, “the book” in
turn has contact with “the table”; hence, “the book” is the direct object while
“the table” is the indirect object.

Always remember that the direct object is the direct recipient of the action
from the subject, while the indirect object receives the action from the direct
object.

10.3.3.1. Word Classes in the Object Position

The words that can be in the object position are nouns, noun phrases,
pronouns, gerunds, to-infinitives, and nominalised adjectives.

Noun in the Object Position

67. Kunle is riding a car.

68. My grandmother told me a story.
69. A Muslim can make a pilgrimage to Mecca.

Noun Phrase in the Object Position

70. God bless all the children in this country.

71. My father has bought a new car.
72. You should take some malaria pills.

Pronoun in the Object Position

73. Your mother is talking to you.

74. Remember to give the book to me.
75. Didn’t you see that?
 To-infinitive in the Object Position

76. I do not wish to discuss it.

77. My children love to watch American movies.
78. Does she plan to do the work?

Gerund in the Object Position

79. My children love watching American movies.

80. I can’t help thinking he is crazy.
81. I look forward to hearing from you.

Nominalised Adjective in the Object Position

82. The healthy should help the unhealthy.

83. Does he plan to give some money to the blind?
84. This government is not mindful of the less-
privileged.

Note that an object can either be long or short as you must have noticed in the
given examples. To determine the length the object, try substituting it for an
equivalent pronoun, as done for you in the lesson about subjects.

10.3.4 Complements

The complement is that element that completes the information we have

about another element in the clause. The complement of an element makes
our understanding of that element full. For the purpose of clause analysis, we
will consider three types of complements: subject complement, object
complement and verb complement.

Subject complement completes the information about the subject; object

complement completes the information about the object, and verb
complement completes the information about the verb.

10.3.4.1 Subject Complement

As I have said, the subject complement in a clause is that element that
completes the information we have about that subject. It is not every subject
that has a subject complement. A subject does not have a complement
when it performs an action. Rather, a subject has a complement when
information is given about that subject. The verb that follows the subject in
this case is not an action verb, but a verb expressing a state of being. Read
the sentences below where the subjects are in yellow shades and the subject
complements are in green shades:

85. Africans are resilient people.

86. The new doctor is unavailable for consultation.
87. We are there.
88. You are being insensitive.

“Resilient people” completes the information about “Africans”; “unavailable”

completes the information about “the new doctor”; “there” completes the
information about “we”; and “insensitive” completes the information about
“you”.

A clause that has a subject complement must have one of these verbs: am, is,
are, was, were, being, be, seem, appear, become, taste, smell, look (appear)
and used to be. The verbs in this list express conditions and states of being.
Hence, any word that comes next to any of them is a subject complement, not
an object.

Note, however, that “taste”, “smell”, “appear” and “look” can also act as
action verbs. When they act as action verbs, they take objects, not
complements. Compare and contrast the use of “taste” in the two sentences
below:
The food tastes delicious. – subject complement
Please, taste it. – object

10.3.4.1.1 Classes of Words in the Position of Subject Complement

A subject complement can be a noun/noun phrase, an adjective or an

adverb.

Nouns/Noun Phrase as Subject Complement

 89. My mother is a teacher.
90. His late brother was a medical doctor.
91. He used to be our president.

Adjective as Subject Complement

92. He has become independent.

93. She seems content.
94. The baby looks unkempt.

Adverb/Adverb Phrase as Subject Complement

95. The head-teacher is away on a journey.
96. Gifts are up for grabs.
97. Some Nigerians are abroad.

10.3.4.2 Object Complement

An object complement completes the information we have about the object.

A clause cannot contain an object complement if it does not contain an
object. An object complement can be a noun, a noun phrase, a gerund, a bare
infinitive (verb), an adjective or a participle. See examples below:

98. I will make you regret. – verb (bare infinitive)

99. I found it interesting. – adjective
100. The opposing team considered our team a threat. –
noun
101. They made him king of the Jews. – noun phrase
102. I saw you talking to her. – gerund
103. The master of ceremonies declared the programme
open – adjective
104. Consider the job done – participle

Here is a list of verbs with objects that can take object complements:
appoint, believe, call, elect, name, drive, declare, find, keep, proof, paint,
make and want.
 10.3.4.3 Verb Complement
A verb complement serves to explicate and expand on the action conveyed by
the verb, as shown in the sentences below where the verb complements are in
green shades and the verbs are in bold print:

105. The secretary informed us that her boss was not

around.
106. The armed robbers demand that the ransom be paid before
the release of the victim.
107. Mother insists we return early.

The verb complement can be another clause entirely; usually, a subordinate

clause, as shown in Sentences 105 and 106.

10.3.5. Adverbials

An adverbial is not necessarily an adverb. An adverb usually functions as an

adverbial, but there are other words or group of words that can also function
as adverbials. An adverbial is that word or group of words that is part of a
clause or loosely attached to a clause in order to modify the whole clause or a
part of the clause. Though an adverbial is not always an adverb, it answers all
the questions that adverbs answer: why, where, when, how, to what extent,
how often, etc.
An adverbial can be an adverb, an adverb phrase, a prepositional phrase, or a
noun phrase. What is important is that an adverbial modifies the whole clause
or a part of it. Consider the sentences below where the adverbials are
underlined:
108. I didn’t hear the news until now. – adverb phrase
109. I heard the news over the radio. – prepositional
phrase
110. I heard the news this morning.– noun phrase
111. We ate our food yesterday. – adverb
112. We ate our food outside the house – prepositional
phrase

All the underlined expressions are adverbials, but not all of them are adverbs,
as has been indicated. There are three types of adverbials: adjuncts, conjuncts
and disjuncts.
10.3.5.1 Adjuncts

An adjunct is an integral part of the clause it appears in; it is not loosely

attached to the clause. It may refer to place, time, process or focus. An
adjunct is not separated from the rest of the clause with a comma. The
adjuncts in the following sentences are in bold print:
113. I don’t want to live there anymore.
114. It is cold outside.
115. I recently bought a car.
116. I will come again tomorrow.
117. It is temporarily out of service.
118. I often listen to the news.
119. He says his prayer daily.

10.3.5.2 Conjuncts

A conjunct connects or links a clause to another clause or another paragraph.

Examples of conjuncts are: “after all”, “next”, “by the way”, “finally”,
“lastly”, “at any rate”, “at the same time”, “all the same”, “to begin with”, “in
any case”, “still”, “though”, “nonetheless”, “first of all”, “last of all’,
‘besides”, “on the contrary”, “on the other hand”, “equally”, ‘likewise”,
“similarly”, “in the same way”, “in contrast”, “otherwise”, “else”, “rather”,
“also”, “furthermore”, “moreover”, “what is more”, “as a consequence”, etc.
A conjunct is often separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
See how conjuncts connect clauses in the following sentences:
120. I am happy to see you again. By the way, have you finished
the book you were writing?
121. To write a research paper, you have to choose a topic.
Next, you identify a theory that is suitable for the topic.

122. Vegetables are nutritious; moreover, they are very cheap.

10.3.5.3 Disjuncts
Like a conjunct, a disjunct is loosely attached to a clause, rather than being an
integral part of it. Also like a conjunct, a disjunct is separated from the rest of
the sentence by a comma. Unlike a conjunct, a disjunct does not link one
clause to another. Rather, it is attached to a clause to comment or remark
on the clause.
Here is a list of disjuncts: “in short”, “in all fairness”, “in brief”, “generally”,
“surprisingly”, “obviously”, “probably”, “naturally”, “thankfully”,
“touchingly”, “wisely”, “evidently”, “undoubtedly”, “certainly”,
“admittedly”, “clearly”, “indeed”, “plainly”, “actually”, “supposedly”,
“fortunately”, “reasonably”, “wisely”, “shrewdly”, “sensibly”, “reasonably”,
“wrongly”, “unjustly”, “significantly”, “technically”, “significantly”,
“likely”, “presumably”, “really”, “luckily”, “perhaps”, “amazingly”,
“regrettably”, “cleverly” and “foolishly”.
See how the disjuncts in bold print are used in the following sentences:
123. Luckily for you, the doctor you want to see is
around.
124. In all fairness, she doesn’t owe me a dime.

It is important to note that the function of an adverbial in a clause will

determine its status (as an adjunct, a conjunct or a disjunct). An adverbial is
an adjunct if it is ingrained in the clause; it is a conjunct if it links one clause
to another or one paragraph to another; it is a disjunct if all it does is to
comment on the clause.

10.4 Coordination of Clauses

Coordination of clauses happens when two or more main clauses are
linked by coordinating conjunctions (and/or/but). Coordination of clauses
result in compound sentences that will be discussed in the next chapter. Each
of the sentences below contains coordinated clauses; each clause is shaded in
a different colour.

125. I got there but did not meet him.

126. Mother got home, fed the baby and prepared dinner.

It may be a syndetic coordination where a coordinating conjunction links two

clauses or an asyndetic coordination where no coordinating conjunction links
two clauses. In Sentence 126, for example, the coordination of the first clause
and the second clause is asyndetic, while the coordination of the second
clause and the third clause is a syndetic coordination.

10.5 Subordination of Clauses

Subordination of a clause occurs when a subordinate clause is linked to the
main clause. I have said early on that a subordinate clause is usually
introduced by a subordinator, e.g. “while”, “when”, “where”, “which” and
“that”. Subordination of clauses occurs in the three sentences below. The
subordinate clauses are shaded green, but the main clauses are not shaded.

127. While there is a rivalry between the two groups, their

members get along on personal levels.
128. I never imagined that you would betray me.
129. Do not inform me about your progress since you have
decided to do it your way.
 10.5 Rankshifting
A clause is rankshifted if it functions within a unit lower than its rank.
For example, a phrase has a grammatical rank that is lower than that of a
clause; but it is, sometimes, possible for a clause to be a part of a phrase.
When this happens, that clause is rankshifted. See the examples below:

130. The man who lives in this house is a policeman.

131. The student I introduced to you last week has won a
scholarship.

The expression in bold print in each sentence is a noun phrase; interestingly,

the words in a yellow shade in each sentence is a clause. Can you see that
each of these clauses is part of a phrase? That means these clauses have been
rankshifted. Recall once more that a clause has a subject and a verb, so,
qualifies to be a full sentence. “Who lives in this house” in Sentence 130 can
be a full interrogative sentence if it ends in a question mark: Who lives in this
house? Yet, it functions as a part of the noun phrase “the man who lives in
this house”.

“I introduced to you” in Sentence 131 too is a clause containing a subject and

a verb, and can function as a full declarative sentence on its own. Yet, it
functions as a part of the noun phrase, “The student I introduced to you last
week”.

A clause is also rankshifted if it is ingrained in another clause rather than

attached to it; that is, a clause functioning as an element (subject or adjunct)
of another clause. See examples below:
S V O A
132. That you could betray me at this time | came | to me | as a surprise.

S V O Cv A
133. I | advise |you | to stay positive |as we prepare for the examination.
The part shaded and labelled "subject" in Sentence 132 is a subordinate
clause, which can be a full sentence if ridden of “that” (You could betray
me), yet it only functions as the subject of another clause.

The part shaded and labelled "adverbial" in Sentence 133 is also a

subordinate clause which, if ridden of the word “as”, can function as a full
sentence (We prepare for the examination), yet it only functions as an
adverbial in another clause.

10.6 Clause Patterns in Examples

S V A O
134. The Second World War |contributed| immensely |to emergent political
nationalism.

S V A
135. The delegates |agreed to cooperate |for the complete emancipation of
Africa.

S V O CO
136. She | had | a mental picture of Cynthia| listening in.

S V O A
137. Marion | didn’t have | the words | ready.

S V Cs A
138. Some mats| were |spread |around.

S V Cs A
139. It | has become |difficult |to stay indoors.

S V O
140. My grandmother | didn’t want | to forget.
 S V Cv
141. Your sister | mentioned | that you are a lawyer.

S V Od Oi A
142. She | got | a knock | on her head | for murmuring and complaining
too much.

S V O Oc A
152. She | left | her daughter |crying |inside the room.

S V Cs
153. Her Saturdays| are | busy.

A S
154. As they continued to farm on the land| regular meeting days |
were |
Cs
instituted.

A
155. Because the towns that founded Sagamu continue to be
important

S V Cs
political units | their identification | is |a matter of both historical
and political importance.

S V O Co A
156. His wife |considers | him | stupid |for investing so much in that
project.
 S A V O
157. This narrative | only | illustrates | the power of God.
 10.7 Types of Clauses
Please, be informed that each time we talk about types of clauses, we mean
“types of subordinate clauses”. Main clauses are not categorised.
10.7.1 Noun Clause
A noun clause, also called a nominal clause, performs the same functions that
a noun performs. In Chapter 2, we mentioned that a noun can function as the
subject of a sentence, as the object of a verb, as the subject complement, as
the object complement, in apposition and as the object of a preposition. Noun
clauses too can perform these functions. The difference between a noun
clause and a noun/noun phrase is that a noun clause, like other types of
clauses, has a subject and a verb, whereas a noun/noun phrase doesn’t (except
in a condition of rankshifting). Noun clauses are often introduced by
“what/why/whether/that/how/whoever/who/whom”. The noun clauses in the
examples below are shaded:
Noun Clause as the Subject of the Sentence
158. That you could betray me at this time came to me as a surprise.
159. What you do with your time is none of my business.
160. Why he did it remains a mystery.

Noun Clause as the Object of the Verb

161. I believe that You are my God.
162. I know what you are trying to do.
163. I also know how you will do it.

Noun Clause as the Subject Complement

164. The hidden truth is that his wife has been messing around.
165. His claim is that no one is trustworthy
166. The question is whether he plans to return home.
Noun Clause as the Object Complement
167. He has a premonition that his wife will try to kill him.
168. He preaches a message that Jesus is Lord.
169. He has divorced his wife whom he married as a virgin.

Noun Clause in Apposition

170. His argument that the nation’s economy cannot thrive without
agriculture met strong opposition.
171. The club’s motto, “Success is found by only those who seek it”, has
been their guiding principle.

Noun Clause as the Complement of Preposition.

172. That is the reason for who you are.

10.7.2 Adjectival Clause

Adjectival clause, also called relative clause, is that clause which performs
the function of an adjective (gives more information about a noun) and is
introduced by a relative pronoun: that/which/who/where/whom/whose/when.
The adjectival clauses in the following sentences are in yellow shades:
174. This lady whom the whole world celebrates is an opportunist.
175. The man who owns this company is from China.
176. I love the girl whose bag I carried.
177. That was the day that I stopped talking to him.
There are two types of relative clauses: restrictive and non-restrictive relative
clauses. A restrictive relative clause is an integral part of the noun it modifies;
it describes that noun in an important way that it cannot be removed without
an alteration to the meaning of the clause; a restrictive relative clause is not
separated by a comma. Restrictive relative clauses point to the nouns they
modify. The relative clauses in the three sentences below are restrictive:
178. The lady whom you met here last week has died.
179. I don’t understand the reason why he wants to change his name.
180. She doesn’t remember the time when her mother asked her to marry
that man.
Non-restrictive relative clauses provide added information about a noun that
has already been described, as exemplified below:
181. My father, whom nobody believed in, is now a force to reckon with.
182. Bola, who is her mother’s first child, is very successful.

10.7.3 Adverbial Clause

An adverbial clause is a clause that performs the functions of an adverb. The
functions of adverbs have been discussed extensively in this book. Adverbial
clauses are underlined in the two sentences below:

183. His education stopped because his father died.

184. If you always get angry, you will lose all your friends.

10.7.3.1 Types of Adverbial Clauses

Adverbial clause of Place

An adverbial clause of place shows the position or direction of the action
performed in the main clause.
Examples:
185. There was a snake where he stood.
186. This is the hospital where I was given birth to.

Adverbial Clause of Time

This clause shows the time of the action expressed in the main clause.
Examples:

187. I spoke with the minister before he left.

 188. Do not open the question paper until you are told to do so.

Adverbial Clause of Condition (Conditional Clause)

This clause gives the condition for the fulfilment of the action in the main
clause. It is usually introduced by “if”.
Examples:
189. If you come behind schedule, you may not meet us.
190. You would not desert your mother if you cared about her.

Conditional clauses are of four categories: zero conditional clause, first

conditional clause, second conditional clause and third conditional clause.

A zero conditional clause expresses a condition which is generally known

to be true; the condition expressed in the main clause is more of a fact than a
condition. Sentence 191 and Sentence 192 below contain zero conditional
clauses:
191. If you are bitten by anopheles mosquito, you have malaria.
192. If one drinks too much alcohol, they get intoxicated.

The first conditional clause expresses the probability of an event

happening in the future; the event expressed in the first conditional clause
is based on likelihood, whereas, the zero conditional clause expresses
certainty. Sentences 193 and 194 below contain first conditional clauses:

193. I will go to university if you can sponsor me.

194. If we don’t meet them at home, we will wait for them.

The second conditional clause expresses an event in a future that has

already become a past; it expresses what we had planned to do in future, but
at the time we report the plan, even that future has become a past. While the
first conditional clause uses the verb “will”, the second conditional clause
uses the verb “would”. It is used to express regret about things that did not
happen or would never happen. What the second conditional clause expresses
is a mere wish/imagination/daydream:

195. If his father didn’t die, he would go to university. – He didn't go to

university.
196. If I were the president of this country, I would make education free for
all. – I am not the president of this country.
Did you observe the use of the verb “were” in Sentence 196? As far as the
second conditional clause is concerned, “were” not “was/am/is” is the correct
verb to use. Thus:
If I were you… - correct
If Sade were God… - correct
If I am you… - incorrect
If Sade is God… - incorrect

The third conditional clause too expresses regret about an action that should
have taken place in the past but didn’t take place. The main clause that a
third conditional clause is attached to expresses the positive thing that
would also have happened if another thing had happened in the past.

197. If you had listened to your father, you would not have found yourself in
that mess (You found yourself in that mess because you did not listen
to your father).
198. If I had studied well, I would have passed my examination (I did not
pass my examination because I did not study well).

The third conditional clause uses the form “If…had…would have…”

Concessional Clause
Adverbial clauses of concession are introduced by “though”, “although”,
“even though”, “whereas”, “even if” and “in spite of”. A concessional clause
contrasts with and undermines the idea expressed in the main clause:
Examples:
200. He didn’t pass the exam, although he studied well.
201. Ade is taciturn, whereas his wife is talkative.

Adverbial Clause of Reason

This clause explains the rationale for the action expressed in the main clause,
mostly using “because” and “since”.
Examples:

202. He was able to build a mansion because he inherited some fortune from
his late grandmother.
203. He wasn’t promoted with his colleague since he did not appear for the
promotion interview.
Adverbial Clause of Manner
This adverbial clause answers the question “how?” about the main clause. It
shows how the action in the main clause is performed. It mostly uses “as if”
and “as tough”.

Examples:
204. He cried as if he was beaten by military men.
205. He acts as though he owns the world.

Evaluation
1. What is a clause?
2. Underline the subordinate clause in each of the following
sentences and label the underlined subordinate clause correctly:

a) While the Ibo did not evolve a bureaucratic state system of

government, they were indeed a dynamic and influential people.
b) Why he thinks so highly of himself is a mystery to his colleagues.
c) We didn’t realise that the inspectors were around.
d) The plate which you used still lies dirty on the kitchen cabinet.
e) Here comes the champion whom we didn’t know could win.

3. Using the SVOCA formula, label the elements in the five

sentences in No 2 above.
4. Identify the rankshifted clause in each of these sentences:

a) The man whom we have all been expecting has come.

b) This is the place where I do my work.
c) What you think of me is none of my business.
d) It is easy to get lost on the path you are treading.
e) I will forever be grateful to the woman who helped me.

5. How many clauses are in each of the following sentences?

a) The phone rang and Sarah picked it up.

b) One man with his shirt tied around his waist was separating a pile of
 rubble.
c) He lost his phone and had no hope of buying another one, so he
decided to steal.
d) If you continue indulging her, she will continue cheating you.
e) She said that she had never wanted to be a teacher.

6. Decide whether each of the following sentences contains a zero

conditional clause, a first conditional clause, a second conditional
clause or a third conditional clause:

a) Had I gained admission to the University of Ibadan eight years ago, I

would have become a medical doctor.
b) If you treat your pets well, they will be loyal to you.
c) If Alex proposes to me, I will say “yes” to him.
d) If Alex proposed to me, I would say “yes” to him.
e) If I were you, I would not put all my eggs in one basket.

7. Reword each of these sentences to show the real subjects and

dispense with the dummy subjects:

a) There are too many patients in Ward 6.

b) It was your stupidity that made him leave you.
c) Here are your children.

8. Write a sentence for each of these:

a) Adverbial clause of time

b) Adverbial clause of place
c) Adverbial clause of manner
d) Adverbial clause of concession
e) Adverbial clause of condition

Recap
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb.
A clause has all it takes to be a sentence, but a sentence may
contain more than one clause.
When a sentence contains only one clause, it is a clausal sentence.
The two broad categories of clauses are main clause and
subordinate clause.
The main clause (also called the principal or the independent
clause) is self-sufficient; it doesn't require the help of another
clause.
A subordinate clause cannot stand on its own and be meaningful; it
has to depend on the main clause.
The subject and the verb are the two obligatory elements of a
clause.
The optional elements of a clause are object, adverbial, subject
complement, object complement, and verb complement.
The subject is the performer of the action in a sentence or the
person/thing that the sentence revolves around.
The object is the recipient of the action performed by the subject.
The direct object has contact with the subject, whereas the indirect
object has contact with the direct object.
An adverbial answers the “why/when/where/how…” question
about the verb/clause.
An adverbial can be an adjunct, a conjunct or a disjunct.
An adjunct is an integral part of a clause; a conjunct is loosely
attached to a clause, connecting it to another clause; a disjunct
only comments on a clause.
A complement completes the information about another element in
a sentence.
A dummy subject is used when the real subject is elsewhere rather
than in the initial position in a sentence.
Coordination of clauses happens when two or more main clauses
are connected to make a sentence.
A clause is rankshifted if it is a part of a grammatical unit below
its rank or is reduced to a mere element of another clause.
The types of subordinate clauses are noun clause, relative clause
and adverbial clause.
The zero conditional clause expresses certainty.
The first conditional clause expresses the probability of something
happening in the future; it uses the verb “will”.
The second conditional clause expresses an event in a future that
has already become a past; it uses the verb “would”.
The third conditional clause expresses regret about something
good not happening in the past because a condition was not met.
 Chapter 11

The Sentence

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the form, structure
and function of each given sentence.

11.1 What is a Sentence?

You probably have learnt the definition of a sentence as a group of words that
expresses a complete thought. Sometimes, however, a sentence might express
more than one complete thought. Consider this sentence below:

1. When I got home, I found him sleeping.

In this sentence, two complete thoughts are expressed: (1) I got home. (2) I
found him sleeping. So the sentence above can be re-written as two separate
sentences.

In the light of this, we can define a sentence as a group of words that is

grammatically complete. A sentence may have one or more complete
clauses. We have discussed clauses extensively in the previous chapter.

11.2 Forms of Sentences

We are going to discuss three forms of sentences: elliptical sentence,
unfinished sentence and complete sentence.

11.2.1 Elliptical Sentence

An elliptical sentence has some parts missing, yet the meaning of the
sentence is perfectly understood. This type of sentence is common in
informal speeches or writings. The missing part of an elliptical sentence may
be the verb, e.g.

2. You were told. Weren’t you?

The elliptical part of that interrogative sentence is “told”. The sentence

should have read: Weren’t you told?

The missing part may also be the subject which is expected to be understood
by the listener.
Example:

3. Got a cold.

The subject of this sentence is an implied “I”. Hence, as a full sentence, it

should read: I’ve got a cold.

11.2.2 Unfinished Sentence

A sentence may be unfinished, ending abruptly for a number of reasons. For,
example, a sentence may be unfinished if the speaker is overtaken by
emotion. This is common with exclamatory sentences in conversations.
Examples:

4. Can’t you just…oh, my God!

5. Charles, is it difficult for you to listen to…ouch! Just get out of
this place!

Unfinished sentences are considered ungrammatical.

11.2.3 Complete Sentence

This is a sentence that is grammatical and complete in accordance with the
patterns of clauses (subject and predicate). A sentence may be affirmative,
negative or interrogative.

11.3 Classification of Sentences

Sentences are broadly classified according to their structures and according to
their functions.
11.3.1 Classification of Sentences According to Structure
Your knowledge of clauses will come in handy at this juncture. You need the
foundational knowledge of the elements of a clause discussed in Chapter 10
to fully comprehend the lesson in this section; if you skipped that lesson, go
back and take it.

There are four categories of sentences with regard to the number of clauses
each contains. The four categories are simple sentence, compound sentence,
complex sentence and compound-complex sentence.

11.3.1.1. Simple Sentence

A simple sentence has one clause which is the main clause; it does not
contain a subordinate clause. A simple sentence does not necessarily mean
a short sentence; it may be long or short. It may be long if the subject is
lengthy or if it contains many phrases. For example, “Olu hates snakes” is a
short sentence, whereas the “The vale has many magnolia trees, red flowers
and a beautiful green lawn” is a long sentence. Yet, both sentences are simple
sentences because each of them has one main clause.

What is important is that a simple sentence contains only one clause. Recall
that a clause contains a subject and its predicate. Recall also that the most
important element of a predicate is the verb. To drive home the point that a
simple sentence contains only one main clause, we will analyse some simple
sentences:

6. Many of these people do not understand what it means to be a

writer.
7. Is it possible to cough and yawn at the same time?
8. The lady plays piano, guitar, and saxophone.
9. The baby in the cot cries a lot.
10. Alice, Patricia and their mother are eager to leave the party
because of the visitor at home.

Now, let’s analyse each of the sentences above to foreground the fact that
they are simple sentences.

Sentence 6 has only three elements:

Many of these people – subject
do not understand – verb phrase
what it means to be a writer – object

As lengthy as Sentence 6 appears, it is a single clause which is made up of a

subject and a predicate comprising the verb and the object. Do not be
deceived by the length of each of these elements.

Sentence 7 has four elements.

Is – verb
it – subject
possible to cough and yawn – subject complement
at the same time – adjunct

The first thing you would notice in this sentence is the reversal of positions
between the subject and the verb. As a statement, the subject comes before
the verb, but since it has become a question, the subject has switched position
with the verb.

It is also important you realise that the verb in this sentence is neither
“cough” nor “yawn”; those two are to-infinitives functioning as a part of the
subject complement. You shouldn’t be confused about why “at the same
time” is an adjunct; it is an adverb phrase answering the question “when”.

On the whole, Sentence 7 contains one subject (it) and one verb (is). That’s
all it takes to form a simple sentence.

Sentence 8 has three elements:

The lady – subject
plays – verb
piano, guitar and saxophone – object

Sentence 8, like the other sentences before it, is made up of one subject and
one verb which is an integral part of the predicate. This sentence does not
have three objects (piano, guitar and flute); it contains one object which is in
the plural form.
Sentence 9 has three elements:
The baby in the cot - subject
cries - verb
a lot - adjunct

This sentence too has one subject and one verb; it is a simple sentence.

Sentence 10 has four elements:

Alice, Patricia and their mother - subject
were – verb
eager to leave the party – complement
because of the visitor at home – adjunct
This sentence has one subject which is in the plural form and one verb which
is the heart of the predicate.

The lesson I want you to go away with is that a simple sentence contains only
one independent clause, i.e., a simple sentence contains only one subject
and one verb/verb phrase.

11.3.1.2 Compound Sentence

While a simple sentence has only one main clause, a compound sentence is
made up of two or more main clauses. In other words, a compound sentence
is two or more sentences combined as one. Read the sentence below for
example:

11. She went to the market and bought some pepper, so she could
cook.

This sentence is one sentence, but it can be broken into three independent
sentences as shown below:

She went to the market. – first clause

She bought some pepper. – second clause
So, she could cook. – third clause.

Can you see that each of these sentences can stand on its own and be
meaningful? The main difference between a simple sentence and a compound
sentence is that a compound sentence can be broken down to make two or
more simple sentences since a compound sentence is merely a combination of
two or more simple sentences.

Below are five more examples of compound sentences; each clause is shaded
in a different colour:

12. You pay the fine or go to prison.

13. She studied every day, yet she failed the examination.
14. His dad’s advice fell on deaf ears; he had already made up his
mind.
15. Richard does not go to school, neither does he learn a trade.
16. They spent money and got financial support from their patron, but
the project failed.

Note that we can further analyse each shaded clause with the SVOCA
formula, as we did with simple sentences. For example, we can analyse the
second clause of Sentence 14 thus:
He – subject
had already made up – verb phrase
his mind – object.

Since compound sentences are made up of two or more simple sentences,

coordinating conjunctions are instrumental in the merging of these simple
sentences. We have said much about coordinating conjunctions in Chapter 8.
Coordinating conjunctions include “and”, “but”, “yet” and “or”.

You must, however, take care when you are dealing with coordinating
conjunctions, because coordinating conjunctions don’t coordinate only
clauses, they also coordinate phrases and words.
Look at these two sentences for example:

17. You can go to a bank or use an ATM.

18. You can use a bank or an ATM.

In Sentence 17, “or” coordinates two independent clauses because the

sentence is a compound sentence; in Sentence 18, “or” coordinates two
phrases (a bank and an ATM) because Sentence 18 is a simple sentence.
So, it not every sentence with a coordinating conjunction that is a compound
sentence; a compound sentence must yield itself to being broken into two or
more simple sentences.

11.3.1.3 Complex Sentence

Like a simple sentence, a complex sentence comprises only one main

clause; but unlike a simple sentence, it also comprises a subordinate
clause(s). In other words, a complex sentence comprises only one main
clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

In the previous chapter, we learnt in detail the intricacies of main clause and
subordinate clause. Among other things, I mentioned that a subordinate
clause is introduced by a subordinator. Subordinators include “who”,
“whom”, “which”, “what”, “that”, “while”, “when”,” although”, “until”,
“since”, “before”, “if”, etc.

Apart from having only one main clause, a complex sentence will have one
or more fragments introduced by one or more words from the list above.
Let’s establish this in the sentences below where the main clauses are in
yellow shades and the subordinate clauses are in green shades:

19. If you don’t stand for something, you will fall for anything.
20. Say the grace before you eat your food, even if you are
famished.
21. When a man and a woman go out for the first time, they spend a
lot of time listening to each other.
22. Although he had worked with the company for several years, he
was fired when he least expected it.
23. He has been brooding since he heard the news.

Study all the fragments in green shades, you will observe that each of them is
introduced by a subordinator.

11.3.1.4 Compound-Complex Sentence

Recall that a compound sentence is a sentence that comprises at least two
main clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (and/but/or), whereas a
complex sentence is a sentence that comprises the main clause and at least
one subordinate clause introduced by a subordinator
(if/when/while/since/others). A compound-complex sentence is, therefore, a
sentence comprising at least two main clauses and at least one subordinate
clause.

The sentences below are examples of compound-complex sentences:

24. Although she was unmotivated, she participated in the competition

and won a prize.

25. The oranges are sour but the apples are still good, though they
don’t taste very fresh.

26. When they got home, she cleaned the house, and her mother
prepared dinner.

From Sentence 24 to Sentence 26 above, the main clauses are in yellow

shades and the subordinate clauses are in green shades.

11.3.2 Classification of Sentences According to Function

Sentences are in four classes according to their functions: declarative

sentence, interrogative sentence, imperative sentence and exclamatory
sentence.
11.3.2.1 Declarative Sentence
A declarative sentence can be used to:

make a statement, make an assertion or give information.

Examples:

27. Mangoes are more nutritious than apples.

28. I will not leave until my request is granted.
29. She was asleep when the armed robbers came.
 make a suggestion.

Example:

30. You may approach the CEO for some loan.

show appreciation.

Examples:

31. I am unreservedly grateful for your support.

32. Thank you for always being there.
33. I do not take your input for granted.

give an order without sounding so.

Example:

34. You shouldn’t still be here when I return.

make an enquiry without asking questions.

Examples:

35. I will like to know whether it is okay to send my

secretary to you.
36. I want to verify the requirements for this
fellowship.

Note that a declarative sentence always ends in a full stop.

11.3.2.2 Interrogative Sentence

An interrogative sentence is a sentence we use to ask a question or make an

enquiry.
Examples:

37. How old are you?

 38. Would you please stand in for me?

Note that an interrogative sentence must always end in a question mark.

11.3.2.3 Imperative Sentence
An imperative sentence is used:

to give an order, e.g. “Get out (You, get out!)”; “Let’s go (You,
let’s go)”.
to make an offer, e.g. “Take a seat (You, take a seat)”; “Don’t take
a seat (You, don’t take a seat)”.
to give direction, e.g. “Make a right turn, then walk up the hill”.
to sound a note of warning, e.g. “Don’t try that again”.

Note that the subject of all imperative sentences is “you” which is usually
implied (elliptical). An imperative sentence could be inclusive; the person
giving the order may be included. In that case, the phrase “let us (let’s)” is
used.
Examples:

39. Go out and eat. – non-inclusive

40. Let’s go out and eat – inclusive

11.3.2.4 Exclamatory Sentence

An exclamatory sentence is one in which the emotion of the speaker is

expressed. Sometimes, an exclamatory sentence is not a full Sentence, e.g.
“What a day!’ An exclamatory sentence usually ends in an exclamation mark.
Below are three exclamatory sentences:

41. Oh, my goodness!

42. What a beautiful baby!
43. You must be joking!

Evaluation
1. Name three forms of sentences.
2. Label each of the following sentences according to its structure:
a. There is no faster way of losing a friend than by talking
too much and listening less.
b. Brian Tracy has produced more than one hundred audio
and video learning programmes.
c. If you have any question, let me know.
d. Whenever my grandfather visits us, we get a lot of gifts
if we behave.
e. She was too lazy to prepare dinner, so she went to bed
hungry.
f. Why do you always act as if you own the world?
g. Wait for your chaperone when you get to the junction.
h. You have to sleep on the couch or sleep on a mat
because there is no space on the mattress.
i. Let me put a ball on it.
j. Children are fun to play with.

3. Label each of the following sentences according to its function:

a. Did you see the fire truck?

b. Yes, someone might be in danger.
c. Let’s go and check.
d. Hurray, I did it!
e. Do not press that button.

Recap
According to structure, there are four classes of sentences: simple
sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence and compound-
complex sentence.
A simple sentence contains only one main clause without a
subordinate clause.
A compound sentence contains at least two main clauses without a
subordinate clause.
A complex sentence comprises only one main clause and one or
more subordinate clauses.
A compound-complex sentence has two or more main clauses and
one or more subordinate clauses.
Sentences are in four classes according to their functions.
A declarative sentence may give information, offer a suggestion,
show appreciation or give an order without sounding so.
An interrogative sentence is used to ask a question.
An imperative sentence is used to give an order, sound a note of
warning or give direction.
An exclamatory sentence expresses the emotion of the speaker.
 Chapter 12

Tense and Aspect

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

describe the structure of each tense;

describe the function of each tense;
identify the tense and aspect in each given clause; and
name the sense in which each tense is used in the given clauses.

12.1 The Definition of a Tense

Tense is the reference to the time of an action. The tense (time of an action)
of a clause is indicated by the way the verbs are combined or deployed.
Sometimes, adverbs (e.g. now, yesterday, today, tomorrow), prepositional
phrases (e.g. in the nineteenth century), noun phrases (e.g. this evening) and
clauses (e.g. before he came back) may suggest the time of an action (tense).
There are four tenses: past tense, present tense, future tense and future in the
past.

12.2 The Definition of an Aspect

Aspect refers to our attitude to the time of an action (tense). There are four
aspects: the simple aspect, the progressive aspect, the perfect aspect and the
perfect progressive aspect. The simple aspect merely expresses the
occurrence of an action; the progressive (continuous) aspect captures the
action when it is still ongoing; the perfect aspect expresses the completion of
an action before or at the time of the commencement of another action.
Hence, we can say the perfect aspect focuses on the completion of an
action, whereas the progressive aspect focuses on the process of an
action. The perfect progressive aspect is the combination of the process and
the completion of an action.
 12.3 Tenses and Aspects
12.3.1 The Past Tense

12.3.1.1 The Simple Past Tense

The simple past tense merely indicates the presence/absence of an

action/idea/condition in the past (a time before now). It doesn’t concern itself
with either the process or the perfection of the action/idea/condition. A clause
in the simple past tense uses the past conjugation of the verb to show that the
action/idea/condition expressed occurred at a time before we speak/write.
The Structure of the Simple Past Tense

a. Simple Past Tense in the Affirmative Sense: The affirmative sense

indicates the presence of an action/condition/idea. The simple present
tense in the affirmative sense uses the past conjugation of the verb.
The following sentences are in the affirmative sense of the simple
present tense:

1. She was at a birthday party last week.

2. I attended a training on how to make domestic supplies.
3. I had a friend.
4. She visited me there.

All the underlined verbs reveal that the actions/conditions expressed were
at a time before now. Study Sentence 3 again. Note that “had”, not “have”,
is the verb used. What does that suggest to you? It means that I no longer
have that friend. Perhaps we stopped being friends; perhaps “he/she” died.

b. Simple Past Tense in the Negative Sense: The negative sense

indicates the absence of a condition/an action. The simple past tense
in the negative sense uses the word “not/never” to indicate the
absence of an action/condition at a time before now. The simple past
tense in the negative sense can have one of these structures:

auxiliary verb + not + (lexical verb in its base form)

never + lexical verb in the past conjugation
 Pay attention to the verbs in the following sentences which are in the
negative sense of the simple past tense:

5. I never told you any story.

6. I did not tell you any story.
7. You were not there when it happened.

c. Simple Past Tense in the Interrogative Sense: The simple past

tense in the interrogative sense asks a question about a time before
now. Such a sentence, thus, ends in a question mark. The simple past
tense in the interrogative sense has this structure:

auxiliary verb + subject + (lexical verb in its base form)

Examples:

8. Did I tell you a story?

9. Were you there when it happened?
10. Was she with you?

d. Simple Past Tense in the Negative Interrogative Sense: The

negative interrogative sense asks a question about the absence, rather
than the presence, of an action/a condition. It has this structure:

auxiliary verb + subject + not + (lexical verb in its base form)

11. Did I not tell you a story?

12. Were you not there when it happened?
13. Was she not with you?
The Functions of the Simple Past Tense
a. It is used to express an action that happened/did not happen at a specified
time before now.
Example:

14. Last week, we visited the zoo. / We did not visit the zoo last
week.
b. It is used to express an action that happened or did not
happen at an unspecified time in the past, as indicated in the
 sentences below:
15. Once upon a time, there was a boy…
16. I once met the governor.
c. It is used to express an action that happened repeatedly in
the past. Note that when expressing repeated actions in the
past, the simple past tense can also make use of “used to”.
17. When I was a child, I went everywhere with my mom.
18. As a college student, I visited my friends on Fridays.
19. I used to go to the river with my grandmother.
d. It is used to show a particular condition in the past.

Examples:

20. I was a pampered child.

21. She was crippled for several years before she died.
e. It is used in narratives.

Examples:

22. A long time ago, there lived a man…

23. Once upon a time, there was…
f. We use the simple past tense to express wishes.

Example:

24. If I had money, I would travel around the world.

g. Sometimes, the simple past tense expresses an occurrence
that will likely be in future.

Example:

25. If she met a handsome man, they would get married.

12.3.1.2 The Past Progressive Tense

The past progressive tense (the past continuous tense) shows the process of
an action in the past. Our focus is that an action was (or was not) in progress
at a time before now. We are not concerned with whether the action was
completed or not.

The Structure of the Past Progressive Tense

a. Past Progressive Tense in the Affirmative Sense: This expresses an

action that was in progress at a time before now. Its structure is:

was/were + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

26. We were reading when our teacher entered the

class.
27. She was playing a game.

Please note that aspects are responsive to clauses, not sentences. This
means that if a sentence has more than one clause, each of the clauses may
be in a different aspect. Sentence 26, for example, has two clauses. The
first one is past progressive tense and the second is simple past tense.

b. Past Progressive Tense in the Negative Sense: It expresses an

action that was not in progress in the past. Its structure is:

was/were + not + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

28. We were not reading when our teacher came in.

29. She was not playing a game.

c. Past Progressive Tense in the Interrogative Sense: It asks a

question about the progress of an action at a time before now. Its
structure is:

was/were + subject + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

30. Were we reading when our teacher came?

31. Was she playing a game?

d. Past Progressive Tense in the Negative Interrogative Sense: It

asks a question about the absence of the progress of an action at a
time before now. Its structure is:
 was/were + subject + not + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

32. Were we not reading when our teacher came?

33. Was she not playing a game?

The Functions of the Past Progressive Tense

a. We use it to report an action/event that happened temporarily but

continued for some time in the past.

Example:

34. I was living with some friends.

b. We use it to express an action that was in progress when another

action happened at a time before now.

Example:

35. I was reading when my mom came home.

c. It is used to report two actions happening simultaneously at a time

before now.

Examples:

36. When his mother was cooking, he was playing a game.

37. While his wife was singing, he was drumming.

d. It is used to make a polite request with the use of “was wondering”.

Example:

38. I was wondering whether you could lend me some money.

12.3.1.3 The Past Perfect Tense

This expresses an action that was not only completed in the past but was also
followed by another action in the past. Its structure is: had + past participial
conjugation of the lexical verb.

a. Past Perfect Tense in the Affirmative Sense: It states that an action

was completed at a particular time in the past and was followed by
another action. Its structure is:

had + past participial conjugation of the lexical verb.

Examples:

39. Bianca had finished her food before her mother came.
40. At the time of their arrival, I had fetched ten buckets of water.

b. Past Perfect Tense in the Negative Sense: It expresses the

incompleteness of an action at the beginning of another action in the
past. Its structure is:

had + not + past participial conjugation of the lexical verb.

Examples:

41. Bianca had not finished her food when her mother came.
42. At the time of their arrival, I had not fetched up ten buckets of
water.

c. Past Perfect Tense in the Interrogative Sense: It asks a question

about the completion of an action at the start of another action in the
past. Its structure is:

had + subject + past participial conjugation of the lexical verb.

Examples:

43. Had I fetched ten buckets of water at the time of their arrival?
44. Had Bianca finished her food before her mother came?

d. The Past Perfect Tense in the Negative Interrogative Sense: It

asks a question about the incompleteness of an action at the start of
another action in the past. Its structure is:

had + subject + not + past participial conjugation of the lexical verb.

 Examples:

45. Had I not fetched ten buckets of water at the time of their arrival?
46. Had Bianca not finished her food before her mother came?

The Function of the Past Perfect Tense

a. It expresses an action that was completed before a specific time in the

past, e.g. “I had known him before he got married”.

12.3.1.4 The Past Perfect Progressive Tense

It shows that an action started in the past and was in progress up to another
time in the past, but as of the time we speak, the action is over. It uses the
form: had + been + lexical verb in the past participial conjugation.

a. Past Perfect Progressive Tense in the Affirmative Sense: It asserts

the progress of an action before a specified time in the past. Its
structure is:

had + been + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

Examples:

47. I had been eating before he came.

48. She had been fetching water before her parents returned.

b. Past Perfect Progressive Tense in the Negative Sense: It states that

an action was not in progress up to a specified time in the past. Its
structure is: had + not + been + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

Examples:

49. The baby had not been eating well until a paediatrician
prescribed some drugs.
50. She had not been fetching water until her mother flogged her.

c. Past Perfect Progressive Tense in the Interrogatives Sense: It asks

a question about the progress of an action until a specified time in the
 past. Its structure is:

had + subject + been + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

51. Had this baby been eating well before you took her to a
paediatrician?
52. Had she been fetching water before her parents returned?

d. Past Perfect Progressive Tense in the Negative Interrogative

Sense: It asks a question about the absence of the progress of an
action before a specified time in the past. Its structure is:

had + subject + not + been + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

122. Had this baby not been eating well before you took her to a
paediatrician?
123. Had she not been fetching water before her parents came?

The Function of the Past Perfect Progressive Tense

a. It is used to show an action that began in the past and continued to

another point in the past, e.g. “He had been drinking before ten
o’clock in the morning.

12.3.2 The Present Tense

12.3.2.1 The Simple Present Tense

The simple present tense does not necessarily convey what is happening at
the moment. Rather, it expresses an action that happens regularly.
The Structure of the Simple Present Tense

a. Simple Present Tense in the Affirmative Sense: In the affirmative

sense, the simple present tense uses the verb form:
is/are/does/do/has/lexical verb in the base form/lexical verb ending in
“s” (if the subject is a third person singular pronoun). Each of the
examples below is in the simple present tense:
 124. The clerk does his job dutifully.
125. The boy is conscious of his environment.
126. Teachers are indispensable.
127. The baby laughs.
128. Babies laugh a lot.

b. Simple Present Tense in the Negative Sense: In the negative sense,

the simple present tense uses the verb form: is/are/does/do + not +
(lexical verb in its base form). The examples below are in the
negative sense of the simple present tense:

129. The clerk does not do his job dutifully.

130. The boy is not conscious of his environment.
131. Teachers are not indispensable.
132. The baby does not laugh.
133. Babies do not laugh.

Please, note that when a clause contains “do/does” and a lexical verb, the
lexical verb must be in its base (uninflected) form. Hence:

134. He does not come. – correct

135. He does not comes. – incorrect

c. Simple Present Tense in the Interrogative Sense: In the

interrogative sense, the simple present tense uses the form:
is/are/does/do + subject + (lexical verb in its base form). The
following sentences are simple present tense in the interrogative
sense:

136. Does the clerk do his job dutifully?

137. Is the boy conscious of his environment?
138. Are teachers indispensable?
139. Does the baby laugh?
140. Do babies laugh a lot?

d. Simple Present Tense in the Negative Interrogative Sense: In the

negative interrogative sense, the simple present tense uses the form:
is/are/does/do + subject + not + (lexical verb in its base form).
The sentences below are in the negative interrogative sense of the simple
present tense:

141. Does the clerk not do his job dutifully?

142. Is the boy not conscious of his environment?
143. Are teachers not indispensable?
144. Does the baby not laugh?
145. Do babies not laugh a lot?

The Functions of the Simple Present Tense

a. It is used to express a general truth or common knowledge.

Examples:

146. The sun rises from the East.

147. Birds fly.

b. It is used to express a habitual action or something done as a routine.

Examples:

148. I go to school every Monday.

149. She travels to India every year.

c. It is used to show the present situation/condition.

Examples:

150. I work with TESCOM.

151. His son is a ten-year-old.

d. It is sometimes used to express an action that will happen in the

future.

Examples:

152. I go to Dubai next year.

 153. Your teacher enters the class in ten minutes’ time.

e. It may be used to give instruction.

Example:

154. You boil some water, and you cook the noodles.

f. It is sometimes used for narrations in books.

Example:

155. The man says, “Do not come here again.” The lady replies, “I no
longer have any business with you.”

12.3.2.2 The Present Progressive Tense

The Present continuous tense expresses an action that is ongoing at the

moment we speak.
The Structure of the Present Progressive Tense

a. Present Progressive Tense in the Affirmative Sense: In the

affirmative sense, the present progressive tense uses the form:
is/am/are + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

Examples:

156. I am typing some documents.

157. We are reading our English textbook.
158. You are writing a letter.

b. Present Progressive Tense in the Negative Sense: In the negative

sense, the present progressive tense has the form: is/am/are + not +
lexical verb ending in “ing’.

Examples:

159. I am not typing some documents.

 160. We are not reading our English textbook.
161. You are not writing a letter.

c. Present Progressive Tense in the Interrogative Sense: In the

interrogative sense, the present progressive tense has the form:
is/am/are + subject + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

Examples:

162. Am I typing some documents?

163. Are we reading our English textbook?
164. Are you writing a letter?

d. Present Progressive Tense in the Negative Interrogative Sense: In

the negative interrogative sense, the present progressive tense uses
the form: is/am/are + subject + not + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

Examples:

165. Am I not typing some documents?

166. Are we not reading our English textbook?
167. Are you not writing a letter?
The Functions of the Present Progressive Tense

a. It is used to express an action that is ongoing at the time we speak,

i.e. the action that started before we started speaking but is still in
progress as we speak.

Example:

168. I am reading a book.

b. It may sometimes be used to express things that we plan to do in

future.

169. Tomorrow, I am going to the bank.

170. Next week, we are welcoming a visitor in this house.
 c. It is used to report a temporary situation; the situation may not
necessarily be in progress at the time we speak.

Examples:

171. I am writing a textbook on Grammar.

172. She is taking a business course online.

d. It may be used to express an action that happens repeatedly.

173. He is always crying.

174. You are often acting strange.

12.3.2.3 The Present Perfect Tense

The present perfect tense expresses an action that begins before we start
speaking and ends just before we start speaking or even infiltrates the time
we start speaking. For example, a sentence like “Today has been hectic”
might mean that the speaker has been working hard before he/she starts
speaking, and he is still busy even as of the time he is speaking or he finished
working just before the statement was made. It expresses an action that
extends from the past to the present; it expresses an action after which
no other action has happened.

The Structure of the Present Perfect Tense

a. Present Perfect Tense in the Affirmative Sense: In the affirmative

sense, the present perfect tense has the structure:

have/has + past participial conjugation of a lexical verb.

Examples:

175. I have cooked the food.

176. She has written the letter.

b. Present Perfect Tense in the Negative Sense: In the negative sense,

the present perfect tense has the structure:

have/has + not + past participial conjugation of a lexical verb.

 177. I have not cooked the food.
178. She has not written the letter.

c. Present Perfect Tense in the Interrogative Sense: In the

interrogative sense, the present perfect tense has the structure:

have/has + subject + past participial conjugation of a lexical verb.

179. Have I cooked the food?

180. Has she written the letter?

d. Present Perfect Tense in the Negative Interrogative Sense: In the

negative interrogative sense, the present perfect tense has the
structure: have/has + subject + not + past participial conjugation
of a lexical verb.

Examples:

181. Have I not cooked the food?

182. Has she not written the letter?
The Functions of the Present Perfect Tense

a. It is used to express an action concluded recently, that is, an action in

the past that leads to the present.

Example:

183. I have eaten.

b. It is used to express an action that happened after which there is no

other action.

Example:

184. I have earned a degree I English (I have not earned

another degree).

c. It is used to express an action that started in the past and continues in

 the present.

Examples:

185. I have never been there (not in the past, not in the
present).
186. Have you read any of Wole Soyinka’s books? (in the past or
in the present)?

d. It is used to express an action that happened at an unspecified time in

the past.

Example:

187. I have registered for a voter’s card.

e. It is used to express the state/situation of something/someone as of

the moment we speak.

Examples:

188. I have had this knowledge since I was a child (I still have the
knowledge).
189. The drug store has opened since 10:a.m. (It is still
open).

f. We sometimes use it to express futurity.

Example:

190. We will discuss it when you have finished your

assignment.

12.3.2.4 The Present Perfect Progressive Tense

The present perfect progressive tense expresses an action that has just been
concluded but was in progress for a while before its completion.

The Structure of the Present Perfect Progressive Tense

 a. Present Perfect Progressive Tense in the Affirmative Sense: In the
affirmative sense, the present perfect progressive tense has the
structure:

have/has + been + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

Examples:

191. I have been singing.

192. She has been praying.

b. Present Perfect Progressive Tense in the Negative Sense: In the

negative sense, the present perfect progressive tense has the structure:

has/has + not + been + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

Examples:

193. I have not been singing.

194. She has not been praying.

c. Present Perfect Progressive Tense in the Interrogative Sense: In

the interrogative sense, the present perfect progressive tense has the
structure:

have/has + subject + been + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

Examples:

195. Have I not been singing?

196. Has she not been praying?

d. Present Perfect Progressive Tense in the Negative Interrogative

Sense: In the negative interrogative sense, the present perfect
progressive tense has the structure:

have/has + subject + not + been + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

Examples:

197. Have I not been singing?

198. Has she not been praying?
 The Functions of the Present Perfect Progressive Tense

a. It is used to express an action that happens throughout a period.

Example:

199. The baby has been crying (The baby cried the whole time).

b. It expresses an action that started in the past but continues to the

present.

Example:

200. I have been working (I started working in the past, but I am

still working).

c. Sometimes, the clause may include “since”.

Example:

201. I have been working since last year.

Note that we use “since” when the specific time the action started is
mentioned, but we use “for” if the whole period that the action has
covered is mentioned.

d. We use it to express an action that was in progress but finished or was

completed just before the present.

Example:

202. I have been praying (I just finished praying; I am not

praying at this time).

e. We use it to express an action that has happened repeatedly from the

past up to the present.

Example:
 203. I have been attending seminars and conferences.

12.3.3 The Future Tense

12.3.3.1 The Simple Future Tense

The simple future tense simply expresses an action that is to take place at a
time after now. It does not concern itself with the process and the perfection
of the action. Its only focus is to inform us about an action scheduled for a
time after now. Note that the time after now may be a near or a distant
future.

The Structure of the Simple Future Tense

a. Simple Future Tense in the Affirmative Sense: In the affirmative

sense, the simple future tense uses the structure:

will/shall + lexical verb in its base form.

Examples:

204. I shall come to you.

205. She will visit us.

b. Simple Future Tense in the Negative Sense: In the negative sense,

the simple future tense uses the structure:

will/shall + not + lexical verb in its base form.

Examples:

206. I shall not come to you.

207. She will not visit us.

c. Simple Future Tense in the Interrogative Sense: In the

interrogative sense, the simple future tense has the structure:

will/shall + subject + lexical verb in its base form.

Examples:
 208. Shall I come to you?
209. Will she visit us?

d. Simple Future Tense in the Negative Interrogative Sense: In the

negative interrogative sense, the simple future tense has the structure:

will/shall + subject + not + lexical verb in its base form.

210. Shall I not come to you?

211. Will she not visit us?

The Functions of the Simple Future Tense

a. It is used to make a promise.

Example:

212. I will come to your house in the evening.

b. It is used to make an invitation.

Example:

213. Will you come with me?

c. It is used to make a request.

214. Will you help me, please?

d. We use it to make an offer.

Example:

215. Will you join us for dinner tonight?

12.3.3.2 The Future Progressive Tense

The future progressive tense is used to express an action that will be in

progress at a specific time after now.

The Structure of the Future Progressive Tense

a. Future Progressive Tense in the Affirmative Sense: In the

affirmative sense, the future progressive tense has the structure:

shall/will + be + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

Examples:

216. Next year, I shall be writing about my experience as

a teacher.
217. Tomorrow, you will be visiting some of your friends.

b. Future Progressive Tense in the Negative Sense: In the negative

sense, the future progressive tense has the structure:

will/shall + not + be + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

218. I shall not be writing about my experience as a

teacher.
219. Tomorrow, you will not be visiting some of your
friends.

c. Future Progressive Tense in the Interrogative Sense: In the

interrogative sense, the future progressive tense has the structure:

will/shall + subject + be + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

Examples:

220. Shall I be writing about my experience as a teacher

next year?
221. Will you be visiting some of your friends tomorrow?

d. Future Progressive Tense in the Negative Interrogative Sense: In

the negative interrogative sense, the future progressive tense has the
structure: will/shall + subject + not + be + lexical verb ending in
“ing”.
 Examples:

222. Shall I not be writing about my experience as a

teacher next year?
223. Will you not be visiting some of your friends
tomorrow?

The Function of the Future Progressive Tense

We use it to express an action that will be in progress at a specific

time in the future, e.g. “I will be singing for thirty minutes in the
church this evening”.

12.3.3.3 The Future Perfect Tense

It is used to express an action that will already be completed before a

specified time in the future. It is used with the expression: “by … will have”,
e.g. by December, I will have earned a PhD.
The Structure of the Future Perfect Tense

a. Future Perfect Tense in the Affirmative Sense: In the affirmative

sense, the future perfect tense has the structure:

will/shall + have + past participial conjugation of the lexical verb.

Examples:

224. By December, I shall have completed this book.

225. By tomorrow, you will have finished the food you
cooked.

Note that as far as the future perfect tense is concerned, the correct
structure is “shall have” not “should have’.

b. Future Perfect Tense in the Negative Sense: In the negative sense,

the future perfect tense has the structure:

will/shall + not + have + lexical verb in the past participial

conjugation.
 Examples:

226. By December, I shall not have completed this book.

227. By tomorrow, you shall not have finished the food
you cooked.

c. The Future Perfect Tense in the Interrogative Sense: In the

interrogative sense, the future perfect tense has the structure:

will/shall + subject + have + lexical verb in the past participial

conjugation.
Examples:

228. By December, shall I have completed this book?

229. By tomorrow, will you have finished the food you
cooked?

d. The Future Perfect Tense in the Negative Interrogative Sense: In

the negative interrogative sense, the future perfect tense has the
structure: will/shall + subject + not + have + past participial
conjugation of the lexical verb.

Examples:

230. By December, shall I not have completed this book?

231. By tomorrow, will you not have finished the food
you cooked?

The Function of the Future Perfect Tense

It is used to express an action that will already be completed at a

specified time in the future, e.g. By December, I will have earned a
PhD.

12.3.3.4 The Future Perfect Progressive Tense

It is used to express an action that is in progress at the moment we speak and
will still be in progress at a certain time in future.
Example:
 232. By next December, I will have been learning
tailoring for two years.
The Structure of the Future Perfect Progressive Tense

a. Future Perfect Progressive Tense in the Affirmative Sense: In the

affirmative sense, the future perfect progressive tense has the
structure:

will/shall + have + been + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

Examples:

233. By next month, I shall have been writing this book

for six months.
234. By summer, you will have been living in Dallas for
six years.

b. Future Perfect Progressive Tense in the Negative Sense: In the

negative sense, the future perfect progressive tense has the structure:
will/shall + not + have + been + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

Examples:

235. By the time you return next month, I shall not have been
writing this book for six months.
236. By summer, you will not have been living in Dallas
for six years.

Note that the future perfect progressive tense in the negative sense is a rare
usage.

c. Future Perfect Progressive Tense in the Interrogative Sense: In

the interrogative sense, the future perfect progressive tense has the
structure: will/shall + subject + have + been + lexical verb ending
in “ing”.

237. By this time next month, shall I have been writing this book
for six months?
 238. By summer, will you have been living in Dallas for
six years?

d. The Future Perfect Progressive Tense in the Negative

Interrogative Sense: In the negative interrogative sense, the future
perfect progressive tense has the structure:

will/shall + subject + not + have + been + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

239. By this time next month, shall I not have been writing this
book for six months?
240. By summer, will you not have been living in Dallas for six
years?

12.3.3.5 Other Ways of Expressing Futurity

Other than with the use of “shall/will”, there are a number of other ways by
which actions that will happen in the future can be expressed. Some of them
are identified below:
Expressing the Future with ‘Going to’

We use the phrase “going to” to express a prediction about the

future, e.g. “I think it’s going to rain.
We use it to express certainty about the future, e.g. “We are going
to become graduates once we defend our projects”.
We use it to express our intention or plan for the future, e.g. I am
going to buy a house in Texas.

Expressing the Future with “am to/is to/are to”

We use it to:

give instruction.

Examples:

241. You are to use this key to open the door when you
get there.
242. You are to submit your homework on Monday.
243. All of you are to face the wall now.
 make an official arrangement.

Example:

244. You all are to come for the interview next Friday.

make prohibition.

Example:

245. You are not to open the question paper until you are
told to do so.

Expressing the Future with “about to”

“About to” is used for an action that will happen in the immediate future,
that is, an action that will happen soon.

246. The woman is in labour; she is about to give birth to

a baby.

Expressing the Future with “Due to”

"Due to" may be used to report a schedule or timetable or plan.
Examples:

247. The baby is due to be born in June.

248. We are due to have (due for) our lunch at noon.
249. School is due to open by 7:45 a.m.

12.3.4 The Future in the Past

12.3.4.1 Simple Future in the Past

The simple future in the past is used in the wake of a failed plan. If an action
was planned for the future, but as of the time we speak, even that future
schedule has become a past and that plan has failed, we use the simple future
in the past. The simple future in the past can be expressed with phrases like
“was to”, “were to”, “would”, “was going to” and “was about to”, and
“were about to”.
Examples:

250. I would see him upon my return, unfortunately, he died

before I returned.
251. We were to serve all the guests at the party last week.
252. Olu was to meet me at the airport; I don’t know why he
didn’t show up.
253. He was going to marry his heartthrob before he died.
254. We were about to eat dinner when the light went off.

12.3.4.2 The Future Perfect in the Past

If an action expected to be perfect at a specified time in the future fails, we
use the future perfect in the past. As of the time we use the future perfect in
the past, even that future that we made plans for has become a past. This
tense is used when the plan for that future (that has become a past) fails. It
uses the structure: should/would + have.

255. We would have served all the guests at the party last week
(Unfortunately, we didn’t serve them).

256. Olu would have met me at the airport (But something

stopped that from happening).

12.3.4.3 The Future Progressive in the Past

When an action expected to be in progress at a specified time in the future
fails, we use the future progressive tense. As of the time we use the future
progressive tense, even the failed future has become a past. It uses the
structure: would/should + be + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

257. We would be serving all the guests at the party last

week.
258. Olu would be coming to meet me at the airport.

12.3.4.4 Future Perfect Progressive in the Past

This tense is used when an action which was expected not only to be in
progress in the future but also be perfected at a specified time in the future
fails. As of the time we use the future perfect progressive tense, even that
failed future has become a past. It uses the structure:
would/should + have + been + lexical verb ending in “ing”.

259. We would have been serving all the guests at the

party last week.
260. Olu would have been helping me with my project.

Note that all the four aspects of the future in the past are obtainable in the
affirmative sense, negative sense, interrogative sense and negative
interrogative sense. For example, Sentence 251 above (We were to serve all
the guests at the party last week) can have any of the mutations below:

261. We were not to serve all the guests at the party last
week. - negative
262. Were we to serve all the guests at the party last
week? - interrogative
263. Were we not to serve all the guests at the party last
week? – negative interrogative

Evaluation
1. For each of these, write four sentences (indicating the affirmative
sense, the negative sense, the interrogative sense and the negative
interrogative sense):
i) The Simple Future in the Past
ii) The Future Progressive in the Past
iii) The Future Perfect in the Past tense
iv) The Future Perfect Progressive in the Past

2. According to tense and aspect, label the shaded sentences or parts

of sentences from number 1 to 20 below:
i) A plump woman got out of the car and walked towards the entrance.
ii) People with this kind of attitude don’t go far in life.
iii) He had groaned for several hours before a nurse attended to him.
iv) He had been groaning for several hours before a nurse attended to
him.
v) Are beneficiaries always grateful to their benefactors?
vi) Doesn’t Julius have a wife?
vii) I would have come, but it rained all day.
viii) I was going to attend the party but the rain prevented me.
ix) She has been singing one song since she woke up.
x) You were about to step on a snake before power was restored.
xi) All of you are to submit your reports before the next meeting.
xii) By the time his daughter returns from the United Kingdom next
month, he will have been bedridden for three years.
xiii) Will you be cooking for the guests your husband is expecting?
xiv) Won’t you be cooking for the guests your husband is expecting?
xv) I am going to become a professor someday.
xvi) I am preparing for an examination.
xvii) Will you join me?
xviii) God is not like man.
xix) Nigeria celebrates her independence on the 1st day of October.
xx) As an undergraduate, I studied only in the afternoon.

Recap
Tense is the reference to the time of an action.
The four tenses identified are past, present, future and future in the
past.
An aspect refers to our attitude to the time of an action (tense).
The four aspects identified are simple, progressive, perfect and
perfect progressive.
The affirmative sense indicates the presence of an action.
The negative sense indicates the absence of an action.
The interrogative sense asks a question about the presence of an
action.
The negative interrogative sense asks a question about the absence
of an action.
 Chapter 13

Concord

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to construct sentences that
adhere to the rules of concord.

13.1 What is Concord?

In Chapter 10, we examined the different elements that make up a clause
where we established that the most important elements of a clause are the
subject and the verb. By concord, we refer to the agreement of the verb
with the subject as regards number and time. For a sentence to be
grammatical, among other things, the subject and the verb must be in
agreement. For instance, if the subject is singular, the verb must not project
plurality. Consider these sentences:

1. Ade goes to school every day.

2. Ade and Ayo go to school every day.
3. Ade go to school every day.

The first two sentences are correct, whereas the last one is incorrect. The
ungrammaticality of the third sentence is because the subject “Ade” is
singular while the verb “go” is plural. So, we can say the subject and the verb
do not agree, hence, the sentence is ungrammatical.

13.2 The Rules of Concord

i) Grammatical Concord
This rule states that if the subject is singular, the verb must be singular; and if
the subject is plural, the verb must be plural. The subject and the verb must
agree in number, as exemplified in the sentences below where the subjects
are in bold print and the verbs are underlined:
4. Harry and Henry have eaten their food. - correct
5. Harry and Henry has eaten their food. - incorrect
6. Henry has finished his food. – correct
7. Henry have finished his food. - incorrect
8. A woman thinks she is the best creature in the world. –
correct
9. A woman think she is the best creature in the world. -
incorrect
10. Women think they are the best creatures in the world. –
correct
11. Women thinks they are the best creatures in the world -
incorrect

ii) Notional Concord

Notional concord relates to collective nouns in the subject position. Some

collective nouns can take either singular verbs or plural verbs, depending on
whether they are perceived as unified whole or made up of constituents. Such
collective nouns include panel, club family, band, choir, board, audience,
congregation, class, crew, community, staff, committee, association, and
club. In the examples below, the subjects are in bold print while the verbs are
underlined:
12. The committee has agreed on the matter. – correct
13. The committee have agreed on the matter. – correct
14. The royal family support the decision of the prince. – correct
15. The royal family supports the decision of the prince. –
correct
Note that there are some collective nouns that never take singular verbs; they
always take plural verbs. Examples of such collective nouns are “police” and
“personnel”.
15. The police have arrested the criminals. – correct
16. The police has arrested the criminals. – incorrect
 iii) Concord of Coordinate Subjects

This rule states that if two or more independent nouns are joined by “and” in
the subject position, the subject should take a plural verb. See examples
below:
17. If I am to spend a week in the wilderness, a blanket and
water are all that I need. - correct
18. If I am to spend a week in the wilderness, a blanket and
water and torch is all that I need. - incorrect
19. The chief and his wife have been interrogated. - correct
20. The chief and his wife has been interrogated. - incorrect
iv) Double Title Concord

When two titles referring to one person are joined with “and”, the verb must
be singular. See examples below:
20. My redeemer and friend is Jesus. – correct
21. My redeemer and friend are Jesus. - incorrect
22. Tolu’s father and confidant doesn’t believe in
reincarnation. – correct
23. Tolu’s father and confidant don’t believe in reincarnation.
– incorrect

These sentences mean that Tolu’s father is also her confidant, while Jesus
doubles as my friend and redeemer.

v) Accompaniment Concord
When two subjects are joined with complex conjunctions like “together
with”, “as well as”, “in addition to”, “along with” and “in conjunction with”,
the second subject is disregarded and the first subject is reckoned with.
Hence, the verb should be singular, as exemplified below:

24. The CEO, along with his boys, has visited us. – correct
25. The CEO, along with his boys, have visited us. - incorrect
26. Peter, as well as Paul, hopes for a better tomorrow. – correct
27. Peter, as well as Paul, hope for a better tomorrow. -
 incorrect

vi) Concord of Indefinite Pronouns

When the subject of a clause is an indefinite pronoun, the verb must be
singular.
Examples:

28. Nobody cares about the poor man.

29. Everybody has heard his story.

vii) Concord of Proximity

The rule of proximity says that when two subjects are joined with correlative
conjunctions like “either … or”, “neither … nor”, “not only … but also”, the
subject that is closer to the verb determines whether the verb will be singular
or plural. If that subject is singular, the verb should be singular, if that subject
is plural, the verb should be plural. See examples:
30. Neither Sade nor her parents are to blame for the mishap. -
correct
31. Neither Sade’s parents nor Sade herself is to blame for the
mishap. - correct
32. Not only the children but also their mother visits us every
Friday. - correct

viii) Concord of Pronouns’ Antecedents

I have mentioned in Chapter 3 that the antecedent of a pronoun is that noun

that the pronoun refers to. If the antecedent of a relative pronoun is singular,
the verb should be singular; if the antecedent is plural, the verb should be
plural. See the examples below, where the relative pronouns are in bold print,
the antecedents are in italics and the verbs are underlined:

33. One of the people who live in this house is blind. – correct
34. One of the people who lives in this house is blind. –
 incorrect
35. The woman is one of the few people that are loyal to their
bosses. – correct
36. The woman is one of the few people that is loyal to their
bosses. - incorrect

In Sentence 33, the antecedent of “who” is “people (plural subject)”. This

sentence can be broken down thus: “People live in this house; one of them is
blind.”
In Sentence 35, the antecedent of “that” is “few people (plural subject)”. The
sentence can be broken down thus: Few people are loyal to their bosses; this
woman is one of them.
ix) Concord Relating to “More Than”

When a noun is preceded by the phrase “more than”, whether the verb will be
singular or plural depends on the noun. If the noun is singular, the verb
should be singular; if the noun is plural, the verb should be plural.
37. More than ten people were in the room. – correct

37. More than one person was in the room. – correct

x) Concord Relating to Percentage and Fraction

If the noun succeeding the fraction/percentage is singular, the verb must be

singular; if the noun succeeding the fraction/percentage is plural, the verb
should be plural; if the noun succeeding the percentage is a non-count noun,
the verb must be singular. See examples below where the verbs are
underlined and the subjects are in bold print:
38 When I got to the class, I found that 90% of my students
were not in the class. – correct
39. When I got to the class, I found that 90% of my students was
not in the class. - incorrect
40. One-quarter of the tomato is spoilt. – correct
41. One-quarter of the tomatoes are spoilt. - correct
42. 10% of the food in the freezer was rotten before power was
 restored. – correct
xi) Concord of Pluratia Tantum

Some nouns are singular, but they have the appearance of plural because they
end in the letter "s". This category has been discussed early on in this book.
Examples of such nouns are mathematics, economics, physics, and
measles. When such a noun is the subject, the verb must be singular:
44. Mathematics is not a difficult course.
45. Measles has been identified as one of the causes of
infant mortality.

xii) Concord Relating to Time/Distance/Measurement/Money

When a word or phrase relating to money/time/distance is the subject of a

clause, the verb must be in the singular form.
46. Three miles has been covered since I started jogging. -
correct
47. Eight million dollars is a lot of money. - correct
48. Fifteen yards of the fabric was all I paid for. –
correct

xiii) Concord Involving “Many a”

The phrase “many a” is always succeeded by a singular noun, never a plural

noun. Whenever the subject of a clause is prefaced by “many a”, the verb
must be singular. See examples below:
49. Many a girl was accused of theft. – correct
50. Many a man is not faithful to his wife. - correct

xiv) Concord Involving “The number of/A number of”

When the subject of a clause is prefaced by the phrase “a number of”, the
subject must be followed by a plural verb. See examples below:
51. A number of landlords have been arrested. -
 correct
52. A number of students were around when the lecture started.
- correct

On the contrary, when the subject of a clause is prefaced by “the number of”,
the verb must be a singular verb, as exemplified below:
53. The number of students available when the lecture started
was insignificant.
54. The number of landlords arrested was an
appreciable number.

xv) Concord Involving “Here/There”

When a sentence starts with a dummy subject like “here/there”, the verb is
determined by the noun complementing the empty subject.
55. Here are your children.
56. Here is your child.
57. There is one mango.
58. There are ten mangoes.

xvi) Concord Involving “A lot of”

If the noun following the phrase “a lot of” is singular and in the subject
position, the verb should be singular, if the noun is plural, the verb should be
plural. If the noun is an uncountable noun, the verb should be singular.
59. A lot of people have heard the story.
60. A lot of the food is sour.

xvii) Concord Involving “A Pair of”

The phrase “a pair of” always attracts a singular verb, though the noun it
precedes is in two parts. Hence, the following usages are correct:

61. A pair of socks was being washed by the girl.

 62. A pair of scissors is on the table.

If, however, the noun comprising two parts is not prefaced by “a pair of”, the
noun takes a plural verb as shown below:

63. The scissors are on the table. – correct

64. The scissors is on the table. - incorrect
65. The socks were being washed by the girl. –
correct
66. The socks is being washed by the girl. – incorrect

xviii) Concord Involving “Much of/Most of”

When “much of/most of” prefaces a noun in the subject position, the verb can
be singular or plural, depending on the noun. See the correct usage in the
sentences below:
67. Most of the people in that house are widows.
68. Much of what he said was a lie.

xix) Concord Relating to Titles of Books/Movies

The title of a book/movie in the subject position should take a singular verb,
even if there are elements of plurality in that title. See examples below:
69. A Tale of Two Cities is a compelling book.
70. ‘Seven and a Half Dates’ was written by Joy Isi
Bewaji.

xx) Concord Relating to the Subjunctive Mood

When a sentence is in the subjunctive mood, it must adhere to the rule of the
subjunctive mood. The subjunctive mood is comprehensively discussed in
Chapter 5. You can go back and take that lesson if you skipped it. With
regard to the subjunctive mood, the following sentences are correct:
 71. If I were you, I would not behave like that.
72. I wish he go to the hospital.

Evaluation
Fill in each of the blank spaces in the following sentences with the correct
word:
1. Julius’ parents _____ an aversion for his choice of woman. (have,
has)
2. These premises ______ being watched. (is, are, have, has)
3. The police _______ been informed about the robbery. (have, has,
is, are)
4. The CEO, as well as his manager, _____ like to be treated like
that. (doesn’t, don’t)
5. My sister and chief bride’s maid ______ to see me happy. (like,
likes)
6. Awa believes that everybody _____ her. (like, likes)
7. Neither her friends not her sister ______ her to marry that man.
(want, wants)
8. Many of you ______ understand what is meant by “concord”.
(don’t, doesn’t)
9. More than half of her friends _______ at her wedding. (was, were)
10. 70% of this book ______ all you need to read in order to pass your
exam. (is, are)
11. Snakes and Ladders ________ critical thinking. (is a game
that requires, are games that require)
12. Many ______, people mistake gentility for
stupidity. (a times, a time)
13. The number of people who showed up for that event _____
astonishing. (was, were)
14. Here _____ the things you were looking for. (is,
are)
15. A lot of people ________ about your attitude.
(complains, complain)
16. Your pants _____ on the floor. (is, are)
 17. Most of your argument _____ flawed. (is/are)
18. The lion and the Jewel by Wole Soyinka ______ been
recommended for college students. (has, have)
19. Timi suggests that his sick mother ______ a doctor.
(see, sees)

Recap
The main verb in a clause must always agree with the subject of that
clause in number, that is, a singular subject takes a singular verb
while a plural subject takes a plural verb.
 Chapter 14

Active Voice and Passive Voice

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

explain the difference between the active voice and the

passive voice;
change sentences in the active voice to the passive voice
correctly;
distinguish between sentences in the active voice and
sentences in the passive voice.

14.1 The Active Voice

A sentence in the active voice is one in which the focus of the speaker/writer
is the performer (subject) rather than the receiver of the action. In the two
sentences below, our concern is what Ade and mother did, rather than what
happened to “the snake” and “us”.

1. Ade killed a snake.

2. Mother told us a story.

Since the focus of the active voice is the performer rather than the receiver of
an action, the receiver of the action can even be dispensed with altogether;
even in some cases, something is said about the subject and there is no object
at all.

3. The mother got angry.

4. Olu is a good boy.
Sentences 3 and 4 above have subjects without objects, they are in the active
voice. While there is no need at all for an object in Sentence 4 since it only
tells us about Olu, a fragment of Sentence 3 containing the object may be
missing. For example, Sentence 3 could have read something like this:

*The mother got angry with her children.

The part about the children is missing in Sentence 3 since the mother is our
focus.

It is in the active voice that the verb is used in such a way that the subject is
the performer of the action or the focus of our discourse.

14.2 The Passive Voice

The receiver of the action, not the performer of the action, is our focus in
the passive voice. This is why the object becomes the subject and the
original subject becomes an addendum that may be dispensed with, if we
wish.

5. We were told a story.

6. A snake was killed.

In Sentence 5, the subject is “we”. “We” were not the ones that did the
telling; “we” were the receiver of the action (telling), but since this is a
sentence in the passive voice, our concern is not who did the telling; our
concern is about who did the listening.

In Sentence 6 too, our concern is not who did the killing, our concern is the
snake; we are concerned about what happened to it.

Sentences 5 and 6 above can be re-written to become active sentences thus:

7. She told us a story.

8. Ade killed a snake.
 14.3 Formation of the Passive Voice
The word “passive” projects docility. In a sentence with the passive voice, we
are not claiming that the receiver has performed the action, what we are
saying is that something is done to the receiver; we don’t care about who
did it. This is why you will never see an active verb coming immediately
after the subject of a sentence in the passive voice; the verb that immediately
comes after the subject (the flipped receiver) of a sentence in the passive
voice is always a conjugation of the verb “be”: is/am/are/was/were. This is
then followed by the active verb which is now in its past participial
conjugation. Recall our lesson on verb conjugations.

The major thing to look out for when dealing with active and passive voices
is the main verb. When the main verb is intransitive, the sentence can
only be in the active voice; never in the passive voice.

It is also very important to note that it is not all sentences in the active voice
that can be changed to the passive voice. What are the categories of
sentences in the active voice that cannot be changed to the passive voice?
a. A sentence in the active voice cannot be changed to the passive voice if
the only verb it contains is an auxiliary verb: An auxiliary verb
never portrays an activity; it only portrays a condition. For a verb to be
convertible from the active voice to the passive voice, it has to portray
an activity. Hence, while a clause like “Tolu sings a song” can be
changed to the passive voice, a clause like “Tolu is beautiful” cannot be
changed to the passive voice. The reason is that “sings” portrays an
activity; “is” does not portray an activity but only express a condition.
b. A clause in the active voice cannot be changed to the passive voice
even if it has an active verb but does not have an object: You should
recall I said that when a sentence in the active voice is being converted
to a passive voice, the object will become the subject while the original
subject is either totally dispensed with or becomes an addendum
introduced by “by”. Sentence 9 below cannot be converted to the
passive voice because it does not have an object; Sentence 10 can be
converted to a passive voice because it has an object:

9. The principal spoke for a long time.

 10. They heard the sound.

The passive voice is formed with the suitable conjugation of the verb
“be” + the past participial variant of the lexical verb + the performer of
the action introduced by “by” (optional).

14.4 The Passive Voice in Tenses

14.4.1 The Passive Voice in the Simple Past Tense
Affirmative Sense: object + was/were + past participial conjugation of the
lexical verb + (by subject)
Negative Sense: object + was/were + not + past participial conjugation of the
lexical verb + (by subject)
Interrogative Sense: was/were + object + past participial conjugation of the
lexical verb + (by subject)
Negative Interrogative Sense: was/were + object + not + past participial
conjugation of the lexical verb + (by subject)

Examples:

11. The pastor prayed for us.

12. He gave her a book.

13. We were prayed for by the pastor. – affirmative

14. A book was given to her by him. – affirmative

15. We were not prayed for by the pastor. – negative

16. A book was not given to her by him. – negative

17. Were we prayed for by the pastor? – interrogative

18. Was a book given to her by him? – interrogative

19. Were we not prayed for by the pastor? – negative

interrogative
20. Was a book not given to her by him? – negative
interrogative
 14.4.2 The Passive Voice in the Past Progressive Tense
Affirmative Sense: object + was/were + being + past participle + (by subject)
Negative Sense: object + was/were + not + being + past participle + (by
subject)
Interrogative Sense: was/were + object + being +past participle + (by subject)
Negative Interrogative Sense: was/were + object + not + being + past
participle + (by subject)
Examples:

21. They were singing a song.

22. She was preparing dinner.

23. A song was being sung by them. – affirmative

24. Dinner was being prepared by her. – affirmative

25. A song was not being sung by them. – negative

26. Dinner was not being prepared by her. – negative

27. Was a song being sung by them? – interrogative

28. Was dinner being prepared by her? –
interrogative

29. Was a song not being sung by them? - negative

interrogative
30. Was dinner not being prepared by her? – negative
interrogative

14.4.3 The Passive Voice in the Past Perfect Tense

Affirmative Sense: object + had + been + past participle + (by subject)

Negative Sense: object + had + not + been + past participle + (by subject)
Interrogative Sense: had + object + been + past participle + (by subject)
Negative Interrogative: had + object + not + been + past participle + (by
subject)

Examples:
 31. I had taken the course.
32. She had eaten her food.

33. The course had been taken by me. – affirmative

34. The food had been eaten by her. - affirmative

35. The course had not been taken by me. – negative

36. The food had not been eaten by her.– negative

37. Had the course been taken by me? – interrogative

38. Had the food been eaten by her? – interrogative

Note that the passive voice in the past perfect progressive tense is
uncommon. Hence, there are no examples for it in this book.

14.4.4 The Passive Voice in the Simple Present Tense

Affirmative Sense: object + is/are + past participle + (by subject)
Negative Sense: object + is/are + not + past participle + (by subject)
Interrogative Sense: is/are + object + past participle + (by subject)
Negative Interrogative: is/are + object + not + past participle + (by subject)
Examples:

39. Her husband loves her.

40. Parents love their children.

41. She is loved by her husband. - affirmative

42. Children are loved by their parents. - affirmative

43. She is not loved by her husband. - negative

44. Children are not loved by their parents. - negative

45. Is she loved by her husband? - interrogative

46. Are children loved by their parents? -
interrogative

47. Is she not loved by her husband? - negative

 interrogative
48. Are children not loved by their parents? -
negative interrogative

14.4.5 The Passive Voice in the Present Progressive Tense

Affirmative Sense: object + is/are + being + past participle + (by subject)
Negative Sense: object + is/are + not + being + past participle + (by subject)
Interrogative Sense: is/are + object + being + past participle + (by subject)
Negative Interrogative Sense: is/are + object + not + being + past participle +
(by subject)

Examples:

49. She is blaming us.

50. They are investigating the matter.

51. We are being blamed by her. - affirmative

52. The matter is being investigated by them. -
affirmative

53. We are not being blamed by her. – negative

54. The matter is not being investigated by them. -
negative

55. Are we being blamed by her? - interrogative

56. Is the matter being investigated by them? –
interrogative

57. Are we not being blamed by her? – negative

interrogative
58. Is the matter not being investigated by them? – negative
interrogative

14.4.6 The Passive Voice in the Present Perfect Tense

Affirmative Sense: object + have/has + been + past participle + (by subject)
Negative Sense: object + have/has + not + been + past participle + (by
subject)
Interrogative Sense: have/has + object + been + participle + (by subject)
Negative Interrogative Sense: have/has + object + not + been + past participle
+ (by subject)

Examples:

59. She has seen us.

60. They have opened the shop.

61. We have been seen by her.- affirmative

62. The shop has been opened by them. – affirmative

63. We have not been seen by her. – negative

64. The shop has not been opened by them. –negative

65. Have we been seen by her? – interrogative

66. Has the shop been opened by them? –
interrogative

67. Have we not been seen by her? – negative

interrogative
68. Has the shop not been opened by them? –
negative interrogative

Note: Passive voice in the present perfect progressive tense is uncommon.

14.4.7 The Passive Voice in the Simple Future Tense

Affirmative Sense: object + will/shall + be + past participle + (by subject)
Negative Sense: object + will/shall + not + be + past participle + (by subject)
Interrogative Sense: will/shall + object + be + past participle+ (by subject)
Negative interrogative: will/shall + object + not + be + past participle + (by
subject)
Examples:

69. I shall read the book.

 70. You will practise personal hygiene.

71. The book shall be read by me. – affirmative

72. Personal hygiene will be practised by you. –
affirmative

73. The book shall not be read by me. – negative

74. Personal hygiene will not be practised by you. –
negative

75. Shall the book be read by me? – interrogative

76. Will personal hygiene be practised by you? –
interrogative

77. Shall the book not be read by me? – negative

interrogative
78. Will personal hygiene not be prastised by you? – negative
interrogative

Note that the passive voice in the future progressive tense is uncommon.

14.4.8 The Passive Voice in the Future Perfect Tense

Affirmative Sense: object + will + have + been + past participle + (by

subject)
Negative Sense: object + will + not + have + been + past participle + (by
subject)
Negative Sense: will + object + have + been + past participle + (by subject)
Negative Interrogative Sense: will + object + not + have + been + past
participle + (by subject)

Examples:

79. By tomorrow, I will have weeded this place.

80. By this time next week, I will have completed the
story.
 81. By tomorrow, this place will have been weeded
by me. – affirmative
82. By this time next week, this story will have been completed
by me. – affirmative

83. By tomorrow, this place will not have been weeded by me. –
negative
84. By this time next week, this story will not have been
completed by me. - negative

85. By tomorrow, will this place have been weeded

by me? - interrogative
86. By this time next week, will this story have been completed
by me? – interrogative

87. By tomorrow, will this place not have been weeded by me?
– negative interrogative.
88. By this time next week, will this story not have been
completed by me? – negative interrogative

Note that the passive voice in the future perfect progressive tense is
uncommon.

14.5 Uses of the Passive Voice

a. We use it when we don’t want to take responsibility for something or

blame a mishap on someone. Compare Sentences 89-91 with
Sentences 92-94:

89. You have broken the plate.

90. I will report you to the authority.
91. The children scattered the whole place.

92. The plate has been broken.

93. You will be reported to the authority.
94. The whole place was scattered.
You must have noticed that some people are held responsible for the actions
performed in the first three sentences because they are in the active voice, but
in the last three sentences, nobody is blamed; this is because our focus is not
who makes something happen but the person/thing to which something has
happened. So, the persons that make these things happen may not be included
in the sentence, as in Sentences 92-94.

b. We use the passive voice when we focus on what is done rather than
who does it, or our focus is on who receives the action rather than
who performs it:

95. His brother was shot when he went out.

c. We use it when we are uncertain about who performs an action, and

we want to avoid the use of vague subjects like “someone” or
“somebody”. So, instead of saying, “Somebody has stolen my
money”, we say, “My money has been stolen”.

Evaluation
1. Describe the passive voice.
2. In what instances is it impossible to use the passive voice?
3. Change each of the following sentences in the active voice to the
passive voice in the affirmative, negative, interrogative and
negative interrogative senses:
a. As the Lord lives, we shall conquer our enemies.
b. Have your parents paid your tuition?
c. You are singing for the baby.
d. God protects his children.
e. The child had broken the plate before his mother
returned.
f. My teacher punished me.
g. We were watching a movie.
 h. By this time next year, I will have married you.

Recap
The active voice focuses on the performer of an action while the
passive voice focuses on the receiver of the action.
A clause in the active voice cannot be changed to the passive voice if
it does not have an action verb.
A clause in the active voice cannot be changed to the passive voice if
it does not contain an object.
In the simple aspect, the passive voice changes the lexical verb to the
past participial conjugation.
In the progressive aspect, the passive voice uses the form: being +
lexical verb in the past participial conjugation.
In the perfect aspect, the passive voice uses the verb form:
have/has/had + been + lexical verb in the past participial conjugation.
 Chapter 15

Direct Speech and Reported Speech

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

highlight the difference between a direct speech and a

reported speech;
name the various instances where reported speeches are
used; and
change direct speeches to reported speeches correctly.

15.1 What is a Direct Speech? What is a

Reported Speech?
In our everyday lives, we communicate with the people around us. A direct
speech is an address targeted directly at someone/something. The four
sentences below are examples of direct speeches:

1. I will return soon.

2. Bingo, leave that place!
3. Will you marry me?
4. Why is this always happening to me?
If the sentences above were written rather than spoken, they could be in either
the prose format (appearing in novels, novellas or short stories) or the drama
format (appearing in drama texts). Hence, the expressions above may appear
in any of the styles below:
DRAMA
John: When will you return?
James: I will return soon.
***
(The fawn dog is playing with the foil paper in the box.)
Alex: Bingo, leave that place!
***
Alice: I love you, Alex.
Alex: Will you marry me?
***
Teacher: I’m afraid, Jane. You failed this test again.
Jane: Why is this always happening to me?

PROSE
‘I will return soon,’ James promised.
***
Festus shouted, ‘Bingo, leave that place!’
***
‘Will you marry me?’ asked Alex.
***
‘Why is this always happening to me?’ Jane lamented.
When we use a direct speech, we use the exact words that the speaker
has used, as exemplified in style 1 (drama) and style 2 (prose) above.
A reported speech (sometimes referred to as an indirect speech), on the
other hand, does not involve exactness, rather we report the saying from
our own viewpoint using our own words as much as we can while still
ensuring that meaning is not altered. When we use a reported speech, instead
of quoting someone and using their exact words, we report the saying from
our own point of view. The four sentences above can be written as reported
speeches thus:
*James promised that he would return early.
*Festus shouted at the dog (Bingo) to leave the place.
*Alex asked Alice whether she would marry him.
*Jane lamented her failure/Jane asked why that was always happening to her.

15.2 Points to Note When Making Reported

Speeches
1. The main verb or the introductory verb must be in the past tense as you
can see in “told” and “asked” in the examples below:
Direct speech: I love you.
Reported Speech: He told her that he loved her.
Direct speech: Will you visit me this evening?
Reported speech: He asked her whether she would visit him that
evening.
2. The quotation marks in a direct speech are removed in a reported
speech.
Direct Speech: “Stand up, all of you.”
Reported Speech: The teacher commanded all of them to stand up.

15.3 Reported Speech and the Different Sentence

Types
15.3.1 Reporting a Declarative Sentence
We discussed the four sentence types early on in this book. I told you that a
declarative sentence is a sentence that gives information/states a fact. Apart
from observing the rule about the removal of the quotation marks and writing
the introductory verb in the past tense, you should also deploy reporting verbs
appropriately when writing reported speeches. There are some verbs that are
useful in reporting declarative sentences. They include: said, declared,
announced, promised, observed, noted, advised, recommended, accused,
apologised, posited, argued, contested, proposed, insisted, answered,
remarked, stated and implied.
See how the declarative sentences below are converted to reported speeches:
Direct Speech: I scored two goals.
Reported Speech: Jude announced that he scored two goals.
Direct Speech: Teachers are more important than farmers.
Reported Speech: Esther argued that teachers are more important than
farmers.
Please, remember that when you use the verbs “recommended” and
“suggested”, you must adhere strictly to the rule about the subjunctive
mood. If you skipped that lesson, go back and take it.

15.3.2 Reporting an Interrogative Sentence

Recall we have established that an interrogative sentence is a sentence that
asks a question. This type of sentence usually ends in a question mark. When
converting an interrogative sentence to a reported speech, please note that the
question mark is dispensed with, and replaced with a full stop, since the
nature of reported speeches generally is to give information rather than ask
questions. If it is an indirect question, it is introduced by “whether” or “if”.
The reporting verbs applicable to interrogative sentences include: asked,
inquired, enquired, queried, and wanted to know.
See how the interrogative sentences below are converted to reported
speeches:
Direct Speech: Have you heard the news?
Reported Speech: He asked whether we had heard the news.
Direct Speech: Who stole my pen?
Reported Speech: She wanted to know the person that stole her
pen.
15.3.3 Reporting an Imperative Sentence
We have said that imperative sentences give command or warning. The verbs
for reporting imperative sentences include: threatened, warned,
commanded and directed.
See how the imperative sentences below are changed to reported speeches:
Direct Speech: I will deal with you.
Reported Speech: He threatened to deal with her.
Direct speech: Take a right turn.
Reported Speech: She directed me to take a right turn.
15.3.4 Reporting an Exclamatory Sentence
An exclamatory sentence is one that expresses emotion and ends in an
exclamation mark. When it is changed to a reported speech, the exclamation
mark is dispensed with and replaced with a full stop.
Reporting verbs for exclamatory sentences include: enthused, prattled,
chattered, stammered, effused, ranted, raved and lamented.
See how exclamatory sentences are changed to reported speeches in the
examples below:
Direct speech: What a happy day!
Reported Speech: She enthused about a happy day.

15.4 Mutations of Word Classes and Tenses in

Reported Speeches
Certain word classes experience alterations as direct speeches glide to
reported speeches. They are verbs, pronouns and adverbs. Tenses too change.
Pronouns in the first person or second person change to the third person.
We use the past tense of reporting verbs: present tense becomes past tense,
present perfect tense becomes past perfect tense, but past tense does not
change.
15.4.1 Verb Changes in Reported Speeches
The Verb Be: “Is” and “am” become “was”; “are” becomes “were”.
Examples:
Direct Speech: This is the man I talked to you about.
Reported Speech: He said that was the man he had talked to us about.
Direct Speech: You are the one we have been waiting for.
Reported Speech: Tade declared that you were the one they had been waiting
for.
The Verb Have: “Have” and “has” become “had”.
Examples:
Direct Speech: I have finished cooking.
Reported Speech: She announced that she had finished cooking.

Direct Speech: Has the baby eaten its food?

Reported Speech: He asked whether the baby had eaten its food.
Modal Auxiliary Verbs: “Can” becomes “could”; “will” becomes “would”,
“may” becomes “might” and “must” becomes “needed to/had to”.
Direct Speech: I can’t stop thinking about you.
Reported Speech: He said he couldn’t stop thinking about me.
Direct Speech: Will you attend the wedding?
Reported Speech: He asked whether I would attend the wedding.
Direct Speech: You must return before twilight.
Reported speech: Mother warned that we needed to return before twilight.
Note that if the modal auxiliary verb is already in the past tense in the direct
speech, there is no need to change it in the reported speech; it remains in the
past tense, as exemplified below:
Direct Speech: I could run a long distance when I was young.
Reported speech: He told us that he could run a long distance when he was
young.
15.4.2 Pronoun Changes in Reported Speeches
Personal Pronouns:
“I” becomes “he/she/it”.
“Me” becomes “him/her/it”.
“We” becomes “they”.
“Us” becomes “them”.
“Him/her/it” remains “him/her/it”.
“Them” remains “them”.
“You” either becomes “him/her/them/me” or remains “you”.
Examples:
Direct Speech: I love you.
Reported Speech: He said he loved her.
Direct Speech: Don’t do this to me.
Reported Speech: She pleaded with us not to do that to her.
Direct speech: We will give the money to them.
Reported speech: She announced that they would give the money to them.

Demonstrative Pronouns:
“This” becomes “that”.
“These” becomes “those”.
“That” remains “that”.
“Those” remains “those”.
Examples:
Direct Speech: This is the boy that has been disturbing me.
Reported Speech: He said that was the boy that had been disturbing him.
Direct Speech: These are the boys that have been disturbing me.
Reported Speech: He said those were the boys that had been disturbing him.
15.4.3 Adverb Changes in Reported Speeches
“Now” becomes “then”.
“Today” becomes “that day”.
“Tomorrow” becomes “the next day”.
“Last night” becomes “the previous night”.
“Tonight” becomes “that night”.
“This morning” becomes “that morning”.
Examples:
Direct Speech: I will see you tomorrow.
Reported Speech: He promised that he would see us the next day.
Direct Speech: Yesterday was my birthday.
Reported Speech: He told us that the previous day was his birthday.
Direct Speech: Tonight, you will know the owner of this house.
Reported Speech: He said we would know the owner of that house that night.

15.4.4 Tense Changes in Reported Speeches

Simple present tense becomes simple past tense.
Direct Speech: I love you.
Reported speech: He declared that he loved me.
Direct speech: These are my neighbours.
Reported Speech: He announced that those were his neighbours.
Present progressive tense becomes past progressive tense.
Direct Speech: I am eating.
Reported Speech: She announced that she was eating.
Direct: Funmi is praying.
Reported Speech: He told us that Funmi was praying.
Present perfect tense becomes past perfect tense.
Direct speech: I have eaten.
Reported speech: She said she had eaten.
Direct speech: My daughter has returned from school.
Reported speech: She told us that her daughter had returned from school.
Present perfect progressive tense becomes past perfect progressive tense.
Direct Speech: I have been hearing this tale since I was a child.
Reported Speech: She said that she had been hearing that tale since she was a
child.
Direct Speech: My boyfriend has been breaking my heart since I started
dating him.
Reported Speech: The lady said her boyfriend had been breaking her heart
since she started dating him.
Simple future tense becomes future in the past.
Direct speech: I will see you on Monday.
Reported speech: She said she would see her the next Monday.
Future progressive tense becomes future progressive in the past.
Direct Speech: I will be attending a wedding next week.
Reported speech: She said she would be attending a wedding the following
week.
Future perfect tense becomes future perfect in the past.
Direct Speech: By this time next week, I will have completed this task.
Reported Speech: She said by the same time the following week, she would
have completed that task.
Future perfect progressive tense becomes future perfect progressive in
the past.
Direct speech: By this time next week, we will have started building our
house.
Reported Speech: She said that by the same time the following week, they
would have started building their house.
 15.5 Functions of Reported Speeches
1. Reported speeches are used in narrations (recounting past events).
Example:
Last week, Funke told us a story about her childhood. She said that when
she was a child she usually went to the market with her mother…
2. Reported speeches are used in report writing; it is the language of the
minutes of meetings.
Example:
Mr. Timothy observed that some of our students were involved in
entrepreneurial activities which were hindering excellent academic
performances…
3. Reported speeches are used in newspaper and TV/Radio
correspondences.

Evaluation
1. What is the difference between a direct speech and a reported
speech?
2. In what instances is the reported speech used?
3. Rewrite these direct speeches as reported speeches:
a. Principal: How many candidates participated in the last exam?
b. Teacher: Only fifty-three students participated in the examination.
c. “I will be attending a meeting with my secretary this Friday,”
announced, the CEO.
d. Patriot: I have a dream that Nigeria will be better.
e. “Don’t disturb me,” the mother warned her child.
f. Teacher: All work and no play makes jack a dull boy.
g. Supervisor: When the visitors we are expecting arrive, we will take
them around these premises.
h. I am happy to see you.
i. Is this what you have been doing since yesterday?
j. ‘It will be well with you’, prayed his grandfather.
k. “Our resources are not enough for the demand we have”, said the
manager.
l. Mother: You need to wash the dirty plates in the kitchen.
m. The young boy shouted at the old man, “You are a liar”.
n. “I will buy you something when returning home,” the father promised
his son.
o. “Don’t go near the fire”, the mother warned the toddler.

Recap
A direct speech uses the exact words of the speaker/writer,
whereas a reported speech is not concerned with exactness, but
reports a situation without an alteration of meaning.
When a direct speech changes to a reported speech, the quotation
marks are dispensed with.
Some word classes change status as direct speeches change to
reported speeches: they are pronouns, verbs and adverbs.
Reported speeches are used in minutes, narrations and
correspondences.
 Chapter 16

Formation of Questions

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
mention the different types of questions;
describe the structure of each type of question; and
describe the answer requirement for each type of question.

Introduction
Questions are used when we seek information, when we seek suggestions,
when we make requests, when we make or ask for offers, etc.

16.1 Types of Questions

16.1.1 Wh-Questions

These are the questions introduced by wh-words (what, why, where, who,
whose, whom, which, how). These words, otherwise known as relative
pronouns/adjectives, are called “question-words”. Apart from being used in
forming questions, wh-words also introduce relative clauses, as we have
established in Chapter 10. Usually, when wh-words introduce relative
clauses, they appear in the middle of sentences, but they appear at the
beginning of sentences when they are used in questions. Questions (except
indirect questions) should always end in the question mark. Consider the use
of “who” in the two sentences below:
1. Who is this man in a yellow shirt?
2. The woman who gave me a ride yesterday was my mother’s friend.
In the first sentence, “who” is a question word; in the second sentence, it is a
relative pronoun. Note that some of these wh-words can function in questions
as adjectives/pronouns just the way they can function in declarative
sentences.
Below are more question words in examples:
3. Why do you always eat late supper?
4. How do you intend to spend your holiday?
5. What is your plan for Christmas?

When a question is introduced by a wh-word, the answer to the question is

expected to be given in a full sentence, not with a “yes/no”. For example, the
answers to Questions 3 and 4 above could never be “no”; rather they could
be:
6. I eat late supper because I go to bed late.
7. I intend to spend my holiday with my friends.

It is recommended that the answer be given in a full sentence rather than in a

fragment when a wh-question is asked.
For example, a fragmentary answer to Question 1 would be “because I go to
bed late”. This type of answer is not recommended in an examination
condition. If a candidate, however, chooses to give a fragmentary answer, the
fragment should be introduced with an ellipsis, followed by a letter in the
lower case, not in the upper case.
Example:
…because I go to bed late. – standard
Because I go to bed late. – nonstandard

16.1.2 Yes/NO Question

This question requires a “yes/no” as the answer. In a yes/no question, there is

an inversion in the ordering of subject and auxiliary verb; the subject
switches position with the auxiliary verb.
In a declarative sentence (statement), the subject is the first element, and the
verb comes next; when a declarative sentence is converted to an interrogative
sentence (yes/no question), the auxiliary verb becomes the first element in the
sentence, and it is followed by the subject.
Note the switch of positions between the subject (shaded yellow) and the
auxiliary verb (shaded green) in the statement and the question below:
8. Paulina has finished eating.
9. Has Paulina finished eating?

The question in Sentence 9 demands a “yes/no” as an answer. Note, however,

that when a question is answered with a “yes/no”, the “yes/no” should be
followed by either an affirmative sentence or a negative sentence. Hence, the
answer to the question in Sentence 9 above would either be “Yes, she has
(Yes, she has finished eating)” or “No, she has not (No, she has not finished
eating)”.
Here are other examples:
10. Question: Have you locked the door?

Answer: Yes, I have.

Answer: No, I have not.
11. Question: Does she love the dress?

Answer: Yes, she does.

Answer: No, she does not.
16.1.3. Indirect Questions

Indirect questions do not often come in form of questions. They may come as
declarative sentences (statements), as imperative sentences
(requests/commands), or as interrogative sentences (questions). Hence, an
indirect question does not necessarily end in a question mark.
See how direct questions are converted to indirect questions in the following
sentences.
12. Direct Question: Where does Alice live?

Indirect Question: I wonder where Alice lives. – statement

Indirect Question: I will like to know where Alice lives. – statement
Indirect Question: Could you please tell me where Alice lives? –
question
13. Direct Question: Has the baby stopped crying?

Indirect Question: I wonder whether the baby has stopped crying. -

statement
Indirect Question: I will like to know whether the baby has stopped
crying. – statement
Indirect Question: May I know whether the baby has stopped crying? –
question
Indirect Question: Could you tell me whether the baby has stopped
crying? - question

14. Direct Question: Do you need anything?

Indirect Question: Tell me if you need anything. – imperative

sentence
Indirect Question: I will like to know whether you need anything. -
statement
Indirect Question: Please, let me know whether you need anything. –
imperative sentence
16.1.3.1 Rules about Indirect Questions

You do not need to use a question mark if the indirect question

does not come in form of a question. Note the use of question
mark and full stop in the indirect questions below:
 15. Do you know whether the baby has eaten?
16. I will like to know whether the baby has eaten.
If the indirect question comes in form of a statement, the word
order too should be patterned like a statement, not like a question.
This means that the subject and verb will not switch positions.
Hence:
17. I will like to know where you are. – correct
18. I will like to know where are you.– incorrect
In a formal setting, don’t use “if” when you should use “whether”,
except a condition is attached; “If” is a marker of conditional
clauses. If there is no condition attached, use “whether” instead of
“if”. “Whether” is considered formal.

Examples:
19. I will like to know if you want to go with me. – non-
standard
20. I will like to know whether you want to go with me. –
standard
21. Will you come back if you don’t meet him at home? –
standard

There is a condition in Sentence 21, but there is none in the first two
sentences.
16.1.4 Negative Questions

We have said in the previous chapters that a negative sentence is one that
contains “no/not/never/hardly”. Negative questions also have these markers
(no/never/not/hardly). Note that a negative question can be a wh-question, a
yes/no question or an indirect question; what is important is that it contains
a marker of negativity (no/not/never/hardly). Read the negative questions
below, taking note of the markers of negativity in bold print:
22. Have you not heard the news?
 23. Have you no shame/ Don’t you have shame?

A negative question is expected to be answered in a full sentence. For

example, the answer to Question 22 above could be “No, I haven’t heard’ or
“Yes, I have heard”.
16.1.4.1 Uses of Negative Questions

a. It is used to express surprise, e.g. “Are you not going again? (We
expect that the person should have gone)”.
b. It is used to express frustration or unease with a situation, .e.g.
“Isn’t that enough? - We are tired of the situation.
c. It is used to make suggestions, e.g. “Why don’t you try reaching him
before it is too late?”
d. We use it to seek clarification or confirmation, e.g. “Was he not the one
that was talking with you in the studio last week? - He is likely the
one; we are not sure.
e. We use it to seek information, e.g. “Which of these lessons don’t you
understand?”
16.1.5 Question Tag

A question tag is a short question that comes immediately after a statement to

emphasise that statement. The question tag is in bold print after each of the
statements below:
24. You have eaten. Haven’t you?
25. We didn’t see them. Did we?

27. He travels every year. Doesn’t he?

16.1.5 Rules about Question Tag

a. If the statement is affirmative, the question should be negative and vice

versa. Recall that an affirmative statement does not contain
“no/not/never/hardly”, whereas, a negative statement does. For
 example, “You have eaten” is an affirmative statement, whereas “You
have not eaten” is a negative statement. Hence, the tag for the former
should be “Have you not?” while the tag for the latter should be “Have
you?”
b. If the statement contains an auxiliary verb
(is/are/am/was/were/have/has/had/do/does/did/can/could/will/would/may/might/shal
when forming the question tag, let the auxiliary verb switch position
with the subject (The auxiliary verb should come first while the subject
should come next). See how the auxiliary verbs in green shades switch
positions with the subjects in yellow shades in the statements and tags
below:
28. I have never done it before. Have I?
29. She is the owner of this place. Isn’t she?

c. If the statement does not contain an auxiliary verb, be certain about the
auxiliary verb equivalent of the lexical verb, and form your question
tag with that auxiliary verb. Please pay attention at this juncture. You
cannot form a question tag without an auxiliary verb. You,
therefore, need an auxiliary verb before you form your question tag.
Yet, it is not all statements that have auxiliary verbs. The two
statements below do not have auxiliary verbs, for example:
30. Audu loves his dog.
31. Daramola and his friend play games.

Can question tags be formed with these two sentences? Yes! Here is
how:
“Audu loves his dog” would translate to “Audu does love his dog”.
“Daramola and his friend play games” would translate to “Daramola
and his friend do play games.” If you do not understand how we
arrived at this construction, go back and read Chapter 5. So, to form a
question tag with Sentence 30, mentally do something like this:
Audu loves his cat.
Audu does love his cat.
 Audu loves his cat. Doesn’t he?
Let’s try that with Sentence 31 too:
Daramola and his friend play games.
Daramola and his friend do play games.
Daramola and his friend play games. Don’t they?
d. If the statement contains both an auxiliary verb(s) and a lexical verb,
ignore the lexical verb and form your question tag with the auxiliary
verb, as exemplified below where the auxiliary verbs are in green
shades and the lexical verbs are in yellow shades:
32. I have told you this story before. Haven’t I?
33. People above age thirty are exempted from this project.
Aren’t they?

e. When a statement contains multiple verbs, form the question tag only
with the first verb. All the verbs in the verb phrases in each of the
sentences below are in bold print, but our business is with the first verb
in each verb phrase:
34. They could have been teaching her against her husband.
Couldn’t they?
35. You should have answered when I called you.
Shouldn’t you?

f. When the subject of a sentence is a demonstrative pronoun (this, these

that, those), replace the demonstrative pronoun with “it/they” when
forming a question tag.
36. That is a book about time-travelling.

Isn’t that? – incorrect

Isn’t it? – correct
37. Those are your pencils.
 Aren’t those? – incorrect
Aren’t they? - correct
g. If the subject of a statement is a noun, change it to a corresponding
pronoun when forming a question tag.
Examples:
38. Azeez has worked with this firm for six years.

Hasn’t Azeez? – nonstandard

Hasn’t he? – standard
h. If the subject of a statement is an indefinite pronoun referring to a
human being, replace it with “they” in the question tag; if the subject of
the statement is an indefinite pronoun referring to a thing, replace it
with “it” in the question tag.
Examples:
39. Someone broke the window. Didn’t they? - correct
40. Something terrible will happen if you don’t stop going
there. Won’t it? - correct

i. When forming a question tag, the main clause is your concern; you
have no business with the subordinate clause. In each of the two
examples below, the main clause is in a green shade while the
subordinate clause is in a yellow shade. The question tags are formed
with the main clauses.
41. Your father told me that you are around.

Aren’t you? – incorrect

Didn’t he? – correct
42. Except there is no money, you will return to school.

Is there? – incorrect
 Won’t you? – correct
16.5.2 Contractions to Use in Question Tags

is + not = isn’t
am + not = aren’t
are + not = aren’t
was + not = wasn’t
were + not = weren’t
does + not = doesn’t
do + not = don’t
did + not = didn’t
has + not = hasn’t
have + not = haven’t
had + not = hadn’t
can + not = can’t
could + not = couldn’t
will + not = won’t
would + not = wouldn’t
shall + not = shan’t
should + not = shouldn’t
must + not = mustn’t
need + not = needn’t

Evaluation
1. Form a question with each of the following wh-words:

a. Which
 b. Why
c. What
d. Where
e. When
f. Who
g. Whom

2. a. Form eleven questions, each introduced by one of the

following auxiliary verbs: have, has, had, does, did, do, is, are,
were, was and am.

b. Provide an answer to each of the questions you have formed.

3. Change each of the following direct questions to an indirect question:
a. Have you ever considered living on an Island?
b. How can friendship influence business?
c.What will you do if someone gives you five thousand dollars?
d. How much is this?
e. What am I expected to do next?
4. a. Outline three reasons why we use negative questions.
b. Write five negative questions.
5. Form a question tag with each of the following statements:
i) Your friends should have informed you about the change of
venue.
ii) Biola answered the question in the affirmative.
iii) You are not here to sell anything.
x) Detoun and her mother could have been standing at that door for
over two hours.
xi) The pastor informed the congregation that his daughter was
 getting married.
xii) Nobody believes his story.
xiii) I can hardly wait for you to come back.
xiv) We have discovered a mechanism to help you earn more and
spend less.
xv) There are supposed to be more than one hundred techniques.
xvi) His income soared within a year.
xvii) Everyone should exercise regularly.

Recap
Wh-questions are introduced by wh-words (what, why, where, who,
whose, whom, which and how).
A yes/no question requires a “yes/no” as an answer.
An indirect question does not need to take a question mark if it is
worded like a statement.
Negative sentences are used to express frustration/surprise, make
suggestions and seek clarifications/information.
A question tag is a question that comes immediately after a
statement.
A demonstrative pronoun in the subject position changes to
“it/they” when we form a question tag.
The main clause of a statement is your focus when you form a
question tag; you have no business with the subordinate clause(s).
An indefinite pronoun in the subject position changes to “they/it”
in a question tag.
A noun in the subject position becomes a pronoun in a question
tag.
The first verb in a statement (usually an auxiliary verb) is the only
verb you need to form a question tag.
An affirmative statement takes a negative question and vice-versa.
 Chapter 17

Sample Examination Questions

West Africa Senior School Certificate Examination

(WASSCE), 2019
THE CORRECT ANSWERS ARE IN GREY SHADES.

1. You have no excuse __________ late.

A. in being
B. to being
C. been
D. for being

Lesson 2.2.7.1 - Gerunds

2. My phone is superior ______ yours.

A. to
B. than
C. from
D. over

Lesson 7.2 - Categories of Prepositions

3. You will surely help me with my work. __________?

A. Can you?
B. Won’t you?
C. Would you
D. You won’t

Lesson 16.5.1 – Rules about Question Tags

4. She hates __________ waiting.

A. to have been kept

B. having been kept
C. being kept
D. to be keeping

Lesson 2.2.7.1 - Gerunds

5. He took his share and gave them __________.

A. their
B. there’s
C. there
D. theirs

Lesson 3.2.5 – Possessive Pronouns

6. It is advisable to mind your own business and not ________.

A. somebody’s else
B. somebody else’s
C. somebody’s else’s
D. somebody else

Lesson 3.2.6 – Indefinite Pronouns

7. Mike was very glad _____ that he had won the lottery.

A. to hear
B. for hearing
C. at hearing
D. on hearing

Lesson 2.2.7.2 – To-Infinitives

8. Mr. Kwesi bought __________.

A. a cupboard attractive new

 B. attractive a new cupboard
C. a new attractive cupboard
D. an attractive new cupboard

Lesson 4.7 – Order of Adjectives

9. The culprits __________ when we entered the courtroom.

A. were being interrogated

B. are being interrogated
C. will be interrogated
D. would be interrogated

Lesson 14.4.2 – Passive Voice in the Past Progressive Tense

10. My submission ___________ by the council at the moment.

A. considering
B. is being considered
C. considers
D. is considered

Lesson 14.4.5 – Passive Voice in the Present Progressive Tense

11. If she had known, she wouldn’t have come. _________?

A. Could she?
B. Couldn’t she?
C. Wouldn’t she?
D. Would she?

16.5.1 – Rules about Question Tags

12. It is I who ______ to blame for the lapses.

A. was
B. am
C. is
D. are
 Lesson 5.2.2.1.2 – The Verb “Be”

13. Though ______ by opposition from his own supporters, the

chairman pressed ahead with his plans.

A. shaking
B. shook
C. shaken
D. was shaken

Lesson 5.2.3 – Participial Phrase

14. To avoid trouble, it is best to say very ______ on the case.

A. less
B. little
C. few
D. small

Lesson 1.3 – Notes on Some Determiners

National Examinations Council Senior School

Certificate Examination, 2018
THE CORRECT ANSWERS ARE IN GREY SHADES.

1. Jane is ______ than her twin sister.

A. more prettier
B. most prettier
C. much prettier
D. prettiest
E. pretty

Lesson 4.8 – Adjective Intensifiers

2. The dog is wagging _____ tail.

A. his
B. it
C. it’s
D. its
E. its’

Lesson 3.3 – The Rules Guiding the Use of Some Pronouns

3. The cashier and ______ were apprehended and interrogated by the

police.

A. him
B. I
C. me
D. myself
E. them

Lesson 3.3 – The Rules Guiding the Use of Some Pronouns

4. The founder and chief executive of the company _____ a private

jet.

A. has
B. have
C. is having
D. was having
E. were having

Lesson 13.2 – The Rules of Concord

5. The storey building belongs to Ayo and his younger brother. It is

______.

A. his
B. ours
C. their’s
 D. theirs
E. theirs’

Lesson 3.2.5 – Possessive Pronouns

6. My friend gave me a _______ wig.

A. black long new Brazilian

B. Brazilian long new black
C. long new black Brazilian
D. new Brazilian long black
E. new long black Brazilian

Lesson 4.7 – Order of Adjectives

7. One of the eggs in the refrigerator ____ bad.

A. are
B. are being
C. is
D. is being
E. were

Lesson 3.2.1.1 – Agreement of Personal Pronouns and Their

Antecedents

8. I have taken my breakfast, ________ I?

A. am
B. did
C. have
D. haven’t
E. should

Lesson 16.5.1 – The Rules about Question Tags

9. Joyce, as well as her course mates, _____ expelled from the school
last week.
 A. are
B. is
C. was
D. were
E. were being

Lesson 13.2 – The Rules of Concord

10. Active Voice: The students presented a short drama.

Passive Voice: A short drama ____ presented by the students.

A. have been
B. is
C. is being
D. was
E. was being

Lesson 14.4.1 – Passive Voice in the Simple Past Tense

11. The cat is restless in its cage, ______ it?

A. didn’t
B. does
C. doesn’t
D. is
E. isn’t

Lesson 16.5.1 – Rules about Question Tags

12. Direct Speech: “Have you taken your drugs?” Mommy asked
John.

Indirect Speech: Mommy asked John if (sic) he ______ his drugs.

A. had taken
B. has taken
C. took
D. was taking
 E. have taken

Lesson 15.3.2 – Reporting Interrogative Sentences

13. Direct Speech: “I am making the bed now,” Tina said.

Indirect Speech: Tina said that ______

A. I was making the bed then.

B. she is making the bed now.
C. she was making the bed now.
D. she was making the bed then.
E. she would make the bed soon.

Lesson 15.3.1 – Reporting Declarative Sentences

14. My uncle shared his property _____ four children before he died.

A. across
B. along
C. among
D. between
E. for

Lesson 7.2 Categories of Prepositions

15. My son _________ while he was asleep.

A. had screamed
B. is screaming
C. scream
D. screamed
E. was screaming

Lesson 5.2.1.1 – Regular and Irregular Verbs

16. The screening exercise _____ last week.

A. began
 B. begin
C. begins
D. begun
E. has begun

Lesson 5.2.1.1 – Regular and Irregular Verbs

17. I shall give you a treat ____ you graduate from the university.

A. although
B. If
C. unless
D. until
E. while

Lesson 10.9.3 – Zero Conditional Clause

18. My neighbour ____ his wife have been at loggerheads.

A. and
B. as
C. as well as
D. or
E. with

Lesson 8.2.1 – Coordinating Conjunctions

19. We _______ movies at the cinema every weekend.

A. are watching
B. have watched
C. watch
D. watched
E. watches

Lesson 12.3.2.1 – The Simple Present Tense

 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Oluyemisi A. Adedokun-Oladejo was the winner of the 2020 African Writers

Award for Creative Nonfiction. She holds a master's degree in English from
the University of Ibadan. Oluyemisi is a classroom and virtual teacher of the
English language with work experience that spans several years. She has
three other publications to her credit. She is the executive director @
Teachers’ Tribe, a network of educators who are intentional about
professional and financial growth.
Did you find this book helpful? Kindly drop a review and rate me here to encourage others to purchase
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