Unity University

Civil Engineering Department

Water Treatment

By
Engidayehu Ch.
April, 2022G.C
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 Outline
 WATER QUALITY PARAMEETERS
 Characteristics of Water quality

 Physical analysis of water

 Chemical analysis of water

 Biological analysis of water

 WATER QUALITY AND HEALTH

 Drinking Water Standard

 Industrial Water Requirements

 Waterborne Diseases

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 CONVENTIONAL METHODS OF WATER TREATMENT
 Sedimentation

 Coagulation-Sedimentation

 Filtration

 Disinfection

 Water Softening

 ADVANCES IN WATER TREATMENT

 Iron and Manganese Removal

 Water Conditioning

 Multi stage Filtration

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At the end of the course, You will be able to;
 Know the basic knowledge of the water Purification Methods
 Analyze Water Quality
 Describe Water Quality standards for various purpose
 Design Water Treatment Unit for Various purpose

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 REFERENCES

 Integrated Design of Water Treatment Facility. Susumu, K

(2000), John Wiley & Sons
 Water Supply and Sewerage, 6th edition , Terence J.
McGhee(1991)
 Water Supply and Sanitation. Steel & Terence
 Water & Waste Water Engineering.Vol1&2, Fair, Geyer & Okun

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 WATER QUALITY PARAMEETERS
 Absolutely pure raw water can not be found in nature
and contains number of impurities in varying amounts
 Therefore, removing these impurities is necessary
 the process of removing these impurities is called
water treatment and the Treated water is called
wholesome water
 The nature of treatment depends upon
 the initial quality of raw water and

 the degree of purity to be attained after

treatment 7
 The following are the requirement of Treated water
 It should be free from bacteria which may cause

diseases
 it should be colorless

 It should be tasty, odor free and cool.

 It should not corrode pipes.

 It should not free from all objectionable taste and odor

matter.
 It should have dissolved oxygen and free carbonic acid

that it may remain fresh

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 Objectives of treatment
 The main objective of treatment processes is to remove all
undesirable impurities, to the extent where it does not cause
any trouble to human health

 Following are also the objectives of treating a water both for

water supply and industries
 To remove color, dissolved gases

 To remove objectionable taste and odor from the

water
 To kill pathogenic micro organisms like bacteria

 To make water safe for drinking and domestic

purposes like brewing, dyeing, stream boilers
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 Characteristics of Water quality
 Raw water or treated waters can analyzed by testing their
physical, chemical and micro-bial characteristics , So
 The impurities present in water can be divided into the

following three categories.

 Physical water Quality Characteristics

 Chemical Water Quality Characteristics

 Biological Water Quality Characteristics

1. Physical water Quality Characteristics

The following are the physical characteristics
 Turbidity
 Color and temperature

 Taste and odour 10

 Turbidity
 Turbidity is a measure of resistance of water to the passage
of light through it
 Turbidity is caused due to presence of suspended and
colloidal matter in the water
 Turbidity is expressed as NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity
Units) or PPM (parts per million)
 Drinking water should not have turbidity more than 10 N.T.U.
 This test is useful in determining.
 The detention time in settling for raw water and

 To dosage of coagulants required to remove turbidity.

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 Color and Temperature
 Color in water is usually due mineral and dissolved organic
impurities
 The permissible color for domestic water is 20ppm on
platinum cobalt scale.
 The color in water is not harmful but objectionable
 Temperature of water is measured by means of ordinary
thermometers
 The temperature of surface water is generally atatmospheric
temperature while that of
 Ground water may be more or less than atmospheric
temperature
 The most desirable temperature for public supply between
4.4°C to 10°C 12
 Taste and Odor

 Taste and odor in water may be due to presence of

 Dead or live micro-organisms,

 Dissolved gases (such as hydrogen sulphide, methane,

carbon dioxide or oxygen combined with organic matter,

 Mineral substances (such as sodium chloride, iron

compounds and carbonates and sulphates)

 The tests of these are done by sense of smell and taste

 The water having bad smell and odor is objectionable and
should not be supplied to the public
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 Chemical Water Quality Characteristics
 In the chemical Water Quality analysis the tests involve are
 the determination of total solids,

 PH value,

 Hardness of water,

 Chloride content

 Total Solids And Suspended Solids

 The quantity of suspended solids is determined by filtering
the sample of water through fine filter, drying and weighing

 The quantity of dissolved and colloidal solids is determined by

evaporating the filtered water
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 PH Value of Water
 PH value denotes the concentration of hydrogen ions in the
water and it is a measure of acidity or alkanity of a substance

 Depending upon the nature of dissolved salts and minerals,

the PH value ranges from 0 to 14.
 For pure water, PH value is 7 and

 0 to 7 acidic and

 7 to 14 alkaline range
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 For public water supply PH value may be 6.5 to 8.5
 Acidity of the water represent the amount of carbonic acid
present
 The most constituents of alkalinity in natural waters are
 carbonate (CO3 ),
2-

 bicarbonate (HCO3 ) and

-

 hydroxide (OH)

 These compounds result from the dissolution of mineral

substances

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 Hardness of Water
 Hardness is caused by presence of calcium and magnesium in
a water
 Hardness of water is two types.

1. Temporary hardness (carbonate hardness)

 Calcium bicarbonate (Ca (HCO3)2)
 Magnesium bicarbonate (Mg(HCO3)2)
2. Permanent hardness (non- carbonate hardness)
 calcium sulfate (CaSO4)
 Magnesium chloride (MgSo4)
 calcium chloride (CaCl2)
 Magnesium chloride (Mg cl2)
 Hardness is usually expressed in gm/litre or p.p.m. of calcium
carbonate in water 17
HARDNESS REMOVABLE
 Generally a hardness of 100 to 150 mg/litre is desirable.
Excess of hardness leads to the following effects
 Large soap consumption in washing and bathing

 Hard water is not fit for industrial use like textiles, paper

making and ice cream manufactures

 The precipitates clog the pores on the skin and makes

the skin rough

 Precipitates can choke pipe lines and values

 Softening has to be is practiced when hardness exceed

300mg/lit.
 Water hardness more than 600 mg/lit have to rejected for
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drinking purpose.
 Methods of Removal of Hardness
 Removal of Temporary Hardness

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 Removal of permanent Hardness
 Lime soda process : In this method, the lime soda (sodium
carbonate) used to remove permanent hardness from water
 Zeolite process : This is also known as the base-exchange
or Ion exchange process
 By this method hardness can be completely removed by this
process
 Zeolites are compounds (silicates of aluminium and sodium)
which replace
 sodium Ions with calcium and magnesium Ions when hard
water is passes through a bed of zeolites, then
 The zeolite can be regenerated by passing a concentrated
solution of sodium chloride through the bed 20
 Generally accepted classification of hardness is as follows
Soft <50 mg/l as CaCo3

Moderately hard 50 – 150 mg/l as CaCO3

Hard 150- 300mg/l as CaCO3

Very hard >300 mg/l as CaCO3

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 Chloride Content
 The natural waters near the mines and sea may have dissolve
sodium chloride
 Excess of chlorides is dangerous and unfit for use

 The chlorides can be reduced by diluting the water

 Chlorides above 250p.p.m. are not permissible in water

Nitrogen Content
The presence of nitrogen in the water indicates the presence of
organic matters in the water
 Excess presence of nitrogen in water supply will cause series
disease to the children

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 Fluoride Content

 It is generally associated with a few types of sedimentary or

igneous rocks
 Fluoride is found in surface waters and appears in ground water
in only few geographical regions
 Fluoride is toxic to humans and animals in large quantities, while
small concentrations can beneficial
 Concentrations of approximately 1ppm in drinking water
help to prevent dental cavities in children
 Excessive intakes of fluoride can result in discoloration of teeth
which is known as mottling
 This problem may occur when fluoride concentrations in drinking
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water exceed 2 ppm
 This problem may occur when fluoride concentrations in
drinking water exceed 2 ppm
 Adult tooth are not affected by fluoride but
 Excessive concentrations of grater than 5 ppm in drinking
water can also result in bone fluorisis and other skeletal
abnormalities.

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 METALS AND OTHER CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES

 Raw Water also may contains various minerals or metal

substances such as iron, manganese, copper, lead, barium,
selenium, fluoride, etc
 The concentration of iron and manganese should not allow
more than 0.3 ppm
 Excess will cause discoloration of clothes during washing
 Lead, berium and Selenium are very toxic, therefore they
must be removed totally

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 Dissolved Gases
 Oxygen and carbondi-oxide are the gases mostly found in a
raw water
 Surface water contain large amount of dissolved oxygen
because they absorb it from the atmosphere and
 Algae and other tiny plant life of water also give oxygen to
the water
 The presence of oxygen in the water in dissolved form keep it
fresh and sparkling
 But more quantity of oxygen causes corrosion to the pipes
material
 Water absorbs carbon-dioxide from the atmosphere
 The presence of carbon-dioxide is easily determined by
adding lime solution to water gives milky white color 26
 3. Biological Water Quality Characteristics

 A feature of most natural water is that they contain a wide

variety of micro – organisms forming a balance ecological
system
 The types and numbers of micro – organisms present are
related to Biological characteristics of water quality
 Micro bials are indicators of water quality or because of their
relationships to human and animal health
 Water polluted by pathogenic micro- organisms should not be
supplied to the public water supplies

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 Micro- organisms includes
 Bacterium:- pathogenic. Bacterial –born diseases

include typhoid fever, cholera, and bacterial dysentery

 Viruses These are group of infectious that require
susceptible host cells for multiplication and activity
 Algae These are small, Chlorophyll bearing plats

generally they are plants of varying shapes and sizes

which live in water
 Protozoa:- They are the lowest and simplest forms of

animal life
 Fungi:- These are non –chlorophyll bearing plants
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 Water Quality and Health

Water Quality Standards

 The treatment process should be designed such that, they

should treat the water up to the desired standard

 That gives the standard of water quality for domestic water
supplies.
 Water quality standards may be set regional, national, or

international bodies
 Guidelines for drinking water quality have established by the
World Health Organization (WHO
 WHO Guideline for drinking water quality

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 Parameter Unit Guideline value
Microbial quality
Fecal coli forms Number/ 100 ml Zero*
Coli form organisms Number /100 ml Zero*
Inorganic constituents
Arsenic Mg/1 0.05
Cadmium Mg/1 0.005
Chromium Mg/1 0.05
Cyanide Mg/1 0.1
Fluoride Mg/1 1.5
Lead Mg/1 0.05
Mercury Mg/1 0.001
Nitrate Mg/1 10
Selenium Mg/1(N) 0.01
Aesthetic Quality
Aluminum Mg/1 0,2
Chloride Mg/1 250
Color Mg/1 15
Copper Mg/1 1.0
Hardness True color unit(TCU) 500
Iron Mg/1 0.3
Manganese Mg/1(as caco3) 0.3
PH Mg/1 6.5 to 8.5
Sodium Mg/1 200
Total dissolved solids Mg/1 1000
Sulfate Mg/1 400
Taste and odor ----- inoffensive to most consumers
Turbidity NTU 5
Zinc Mg/1 5.0

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 Water Borne Diseases
 World health organization has observes that 80% of
communicable diseases that are transmitted through water
 The diseases like cholera, typhoid, amoebia, diarrhoea,
polio, hepatitis (Jaundice), Leptospirosis, Dracontiasis are
caused by bacteria
 Excess of fluorides present in water [ above 1.5 mg/litre]
cause diseases like dental flurosis, sketetal flurosis
 Excess of nitrates in water effects the hemoglobin in the
blood and reduces its capacity to transport oxygen to the
cells

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 Toxic ions of chromium, lead, arsenic and pesticides in
water cause diseases affecting the kidney, liver and high
blood pressure and cancer
 These toxic substances are due to industrial effluents
reaching the surface and ground water sources

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35
 TREATMENT OF WATER
Contents of The Chapter
 Introduction

 Preliminary Treatment

 Sedimentation

 Coagulation and Flocculation

 Filtration

 Disinfection

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 Introduction
Common wards in water treatment :-
 Palatable- suitable for drinking i.e. safe and pleasant to taste or
water having no unpleasant taste
 Safe Water - water free from pathogenic micro organisms &
chemicals which could be a harmful for consumer
 Clean- water free from suspended solids and turbidity
 Reasonably soft – water allowing easy wash of cloths, dishes with
less soap.
 Whole same- potable water having sufficient minerals of natural
origin which are must for life.
 Contaminated- water having micro organisms, chemicals or
substances making the water unsafe and dirty
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 Water available in various sources contains various types of
impurities and
 Should not be directly used by the public for various purposes,
before removing the impurities
 For potability water should be free from
 unpleasant tastes, odours and
 must have sparkling appearance
 free from disease-spreading germs

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 The surface sources generally contains large amount of
impurities therefore they requires
 sedimentation,
 flocculation, (removal of turbidity)
 aeration,
 filtration and
 chlorination as treatment
 Ground water which are usually clear may require only
disinfection and chemical treatment for the removal of
pathogens, Iron removal and Softening
 Sometimes ground water contains dissolved gases like (H2S)

(CO2) which gives very bad odour and requires its removal by
aeration 42
43
 Location of treatment plant
The treatment plant should be located
 Should be located as near to the town so as to avoid the
contamination
 Away from any source of pollution and sewer pipes

 Away from the border of other countries and should be

protected area b/c during conflict may contaminate it

 At higher elevation if the natural topography permit.

 All the units are arranged in such a way that minimum area
is required so as to reduce the cost of construction
 Sufficient area should be reserved for the future expansion

 The site of treatment plant should be very neat and give

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very good aesthetic appearance
 A complete water treatment plant requires the following
process starting from the source of water up to the
distribution zone in order of sequence

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 Factors Affecting the Choice of Treatment
Schemes

The following factors influence the choice of treatment

 Limitation of capital

 Availability of skilled man power

 Availability of equipment, construction material, and water

treatment chemicals
 Local codes of drinking water standards and material
specifications
 National sanitation and pollution policies

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 Basic Water treatment methods

 The methods adopted for purifying the public water

supplies are:
i. Preliminary Treatment
ii. Screening
iii. plain sedimentation
iv. sedimentation aided with coagulation
v. filtration
vi. Aeration
vii. disinfection
viii. softening
ix. miscellaneous treatments, 47
 I. Preliminary Treatment

 High turbidity water which may occur particularly during the

rainy season requires pre treatment in the form of
sedimentation or roughing filtration to reduce much of
the suspended solids
 Proper design of the intake structure is the other way of
achieving preliminary treatment
 The intakes should be located in such a way that rolling
debris at the bottom is prevented from entering the intake
 Bar Screens are provided to screen out larger size floating
and suspended materials before entering the treatment
plant
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River Intake

49
Reservoir (Dam) Intake

50
 Example

 Design a bell mouth intake for a city of 80,000 persons

drawing water from a channel which runs for 10hrs in a day
assume average consumption per person =150l/d and the
velocity through the screen & the bell mouth to be less than
16cm/s & 32cm/s respectively
 Determine the
1. Intake capacity (Q)
2. Area of intake opening through the screen
3. Area of bell mouth entry

Assume the velocity through the conduit 1.5m/s.

Design the intake conduit 51
 Screens
 Screening of water which is one form of pre-treatment is
done by passing the water through closely spaced bars,
perforated plates
 Screening does not change the chemical or bacteriological
quality of the water
 It serves to retain the coarse material and suspended matter
that are larger than the screen openings
The Purposes of Screening
 Removal of floating and suspended matter which clogs pipes,

damages pumps, etc.

 Clarification by removal of suspended matter to lighten the load on
subsequent treatment processes
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 Bar screen spacing is typically between 0.5 and 5cm
 Angle of inclination of bars is
 60-75 if screening are very small
0

 30-45 if larger amount is retained over the screen bar

0

 Velocity of flow should be low towards the screen bar

(0.1-0.2m/sec). it may be increased to 0.3-0.5m/sec after
the screen to prevent settling there
 If regular cleaning is done an allowance for heads loss is up
to 0.1 to 0.2m

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Screen
54
 Head Loss Through Bar Screen

Where
 c=empirical discharge coefficient to account for turbulence

and eddy motion. (c=0.7 for clean bar and 0.6 for clogged
bar screen)
 V2 = velocity of flow through openings

 V1 = approaching velocity of upstream channel

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 Head Loss Through fine Screen
Where
Q= discharge (m3/s)
A=effective opening area of the screen
Examples
Determine the building up of head loss through a bar screen
when 50% of the flow area is blocked off by the accumulation
of coarse solids assume the following conditions are applied
 Approach velocity =0.6m/s
 Velocity through a clean bar screen =0.9m/s
 Open area for flow through clean bar screen =0.19m2
 Compute the Head Loss Through a clean Bar Screen
 Compute the Head Loss Through a clogged Bar Screen 56
 i. Head Loss Through a clean Bar Screen

hL= 0.0327m

The Head Loss Through a clogged Bar Screen

hL = 0.245m

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 Group work 1
 Determine the building up of head loss through a bar screen
when 25 % of the flow area is blocked off by the
accumulation of coarse solids. Assume the Conditions of the
above Example and Compute the Head Loss Through a
clogged Bar Screen

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 SEDIMENTATION

 Sedimentation is a treatment process in which the velocity

of the water is lowered below the suspension velocity and
the suspended particles settle out of the water due to
gravity.
 The process is also known as settling or clarification
 Most water treatment plants include sedimentation in their
treatment processes.
 However, sedimentation may not be necessary in low
turbidity water of less than 10 NTU

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60
Sedimentation theory
 The settlement of a particle in water is opposed by the
following forces
 The velocity of flow

 The viscosity of water

 The size and specific gravity of the particle

 The two important and common types of sedimentation are:

 Plain Sedimentation (Type I sedimentation)

 Aided Sedimentation (Type II sedimentation)

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 PLAIN SEDIMENTATION
 It is the process in which the suspended solids are made to
settle by gravity under still water conditions
 Refers to discrete particle settling
 A discrete particle is one that, in settling, is not altered in size,
shape and weight.
 They settle as individual particles and do not flocculate or stick
to other particles during settling.
 Examples of these particles are sand and grit material

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 Consider a spherical discrete particle is falling in a body of
water in a quiescent condition

FD Fb

Fg

 The forces acting on the particle are

 The drag force, FD
 Gravitational force, Fg and
 Buoyant forces Fb
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 FD + FB = Fg
FD = Fg - FB the effective weight of the particle

 From the Newton‟s law the drag force is given by

 FD= drag force

 CD= drag coefficient
 A = projected area of the particle
 v = relative velocity of particle and fluid
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 4 gd  s  w 
The fall velocity is given by V 
2
  or
 w
s
3C D 

V 
s
2 4 gd
G  1
3C D
The drag coefficient CD is not constant but varies with the
Reynold’s number Re, and the shape of the particle

Where is kinematic viscosity

d is diameter of the particle 65
CD is defined by

Transitional Flow
(1000 < Re < 1)

 For laminar flows with Re<1, the last terms may be neglected
to yield

 For turbulent flows with Re>1000, CD tends to a value of 0.4

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 Examples

1. Find the settling Velocity of a spherical Particle with

diameter of 0.5mm and a specific gravity of 2.65 settling
through water at 20 oC. The flow is transitional flow with Re
= 112
Vs  0.11m / s

2. Find the diameter of the particle that has a settlement

velocity of 0.1m/sec. Density of particle = 2650 and density
of water = 1000kg/m3 if the flow is laminar with CD= 1.412
(Ans d= 0.65mm)

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 Sedimentation Tank

Sedimentation tanks are designed to reduce the

velocity of flow of water so as to permit suspended
solids to settle out of the water by gravity.
Important terms to design the sedimentation zone
 Particle settling velocity, vs
 Velocity of flow , Vo
 Capacity of tank
 Inlet and outlet arrangements
 Shapes of tanks

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 Type of sedimentation basins
Rectangular basins: are the simplest design, allowing water
to flow horizontally through a long tank

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 Double-deck rectangular basins: These are essentially
two rectangular sedimentation basins stacked one a top the
other

70
Square or circular sedimentation basins: these are often
known as clarifiers

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 All the Sedimentation basins have four zones

1) An inlet zone
2) A settling zone
3) Sludge zone
4) An outlet zone

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 DESIGN OF SEDIMENTATION TANKS

 The design of an ideal sedimentation basin is based on the

removal of all particles that have a settling velocity greater
than or equal to the overflow rate, Vo.
Important assumptions
 There is uniform dispersion of suspended particles in the

inlet zone
 Continuous flow at a constant rate(steady flow) exists

 Once a particle enters the sludge zone, it remains there

 The horizontal flow time is equal to detention time

 Particles move forward with the same velocity as the

liquid.
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 DESIGN OF SEDIMENTATION TANKS

Velocity of flow:
The velocity of flow of water in the sedimentation tanks should
be sufficient enough to cause the hydraulic settling of
suspended impurities.
 It should remain uniform throughout the tank and

 it is generally not allowed to exceed 150mm to 300mm per

minute. (0.0025 – 0.005m/sec)

Capacity of tank : capacity of tank is determined based on:

 Detention period

 Overflow rate
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 L
.
Flow Q B H
Particle X

Vs

75
 Design Elements
Detention period: The time taken by a particle in the water
to pass between entry and exit of a settling tank

The time for the falling distance is given by

For the particle to reach the bottom before the water leaves
the tank, the time of fall must equal the time of horizontal
flow,

76
 Basin dimension
 Surface area = Capacity of tank(Volume)/surface loading

 Length to width ratio minimum of 2:1

 Preferable 3:1 to 5:1

 Depth 2.5-5m (inclusive of allowance )

 Preferred value = 3m

77
Find the dimension of a rectangular sedimentation basin for
the following data
 Volume of water to be treated =3*10 l/day
6

 td=4hr

 velocity of flow = 10cm/min and

 Assuming the working depth = 3m

78
79
 Group Work 1

 The maximum daily demand at a water purification plant has

been estimated 12 million litres per day. Design the dimensions
of a suitable sedimentation tank for the raw water supplies,
assuming a detention period of 6hrs and the velocity of flow as
20 cm/min. Take a freeboard of 0.5m and depth of the tank be 3.75 m
 Solution:
 Quantity of water to be treated in 24 hours = 12*106 litres
 Quantity of water to be treated during the detention period of
6 hrs = (12*106)6/24 = 3000 m3,
 which is the capacity of the tank 80
 Velocity of flow to be maintained through the tank is
20 cm/min = 0.2 m/min
 The length of the tank required =velocity of flow * detention
period = 0.2 * (6*60) = 72m
 Cross sectional area of the tank required = capacity of the
tank/length of the tank=3000/72 = 41.67 ≈ 41.7 m2
 The width required =
Area/depth of tank = 41.7/3.75 = 11.12 m
 Overall depth = depth of tank + Free board = 4.25 m
 Rectangular sedimentation tank having the overall size =
75m x 11.12 m x 4.75m should be provided
81
 Quiz
A grit chamber is designed to remove particles with a
diameter of 0.2mm, specific gravity 2.65. At the grit
chamber the flow is laminar with drag coefficient of
CD = 10.9 and flow velocity of 0.3m/sec will be
maintained by proportionate weir.
Determine the channel dimensions for a maximum raw
water flow of 10,000m3/d. Assume the depth of the
chamber is 1m

82
Solution: horizontal velocity of flow, vh = 0.3 m/sec
Q = Vh * A = 0.3 * A = 0.116 m3/sec A = 0.385 m2
Let depth, d = 1m: width, B = 0.385/1 = 0.385 m  0.40 m
Settling velocity, vs = V
s
2

4 gd
G  1 = 0.02 m/sec
3CD

depth, of , the, ba sin 1

  50 sec onds
Detention time, td = settling , velocity 0.02
Length of the tank, L = Vh * td = 0.3 * 50 = 15m
Hence, rectangular tank with dimensions
LxBxD = 15mX 0.40mX1m

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Assignment
Design Suitable Intake and Sedimentation tank
for Hawassa town Waste Water supply
treatment
The population of Hawassa take 2 million
@ the should trap particle having dia. More than
0.25mm
Assume any data reasonably
84
Submission date Dec. 9/2015
 SEDIMENTATION AIDED WITH COAGULATION

 The primary purpose of the coagulation process is the

removal of turbidity from the water
 Turbidity is a cloudy appearance of water caused by small
particles suspended therein
 Water with little or no turbidity will be clear

85
 Coagulation is the process by which colloidal particles and
very fine solid suspensions present in a water are combined
into larger fragments that can be separated via
sedimentation, filtration, or other separation methods
 Coagulation is achieved by adding different types of
chemicals (coagulants) to the water
 These coagulants further have an advantage of removing
colour, odour and taste from the water.
 In a coagulation process
 Turbidity of water reduced up to 5-10 ppm and

 removes bacteria up to 65%.

86
 Location in the Treatment Plant
 After the source water has been screened and has passed
through the optional steps of sedimentation, pre-chlorination
and aeration, it is ready for coagulation and flocculation

87
 Principle of coagulation
The principle of coagulation can be explained two conditions:
 Floc formation
 Electric charges
I. Floc formation
 When coagulants (chemicals) are dissolved in water and
mixed with it, they produce a think gelatinous precipitate.
 This precipitate is known as floc and
 this floc has got the property of arresting suspended
impurities in a water
 The gelatinous precipitate has therefore, the property of
removing fine and colloidal particles quickly.
88
II. Electric charges
 Most particles dissolved in water have a negative charge, so
they tend to repel each other.
 As a result, they stay dispersed and dissolved or colloidal in
the water
 The added coagulant chemicals neutralize the negative
charges on the turbidity particles to prevent those particles
from repelling each other and
 Coagulants tend to be positively charged. Due to their
positive charge, they are attracted to the negative particles
in the water, as shown below
89
 The next force which will affect the particles is known as van
der Waal's forces.
 Van der Waal's forces refer to the tendency of particles in
nature to attract each other weakly if they have no charge.

90
 Factors affecting coagulation

 Type of coagulant
 Dose of coagulant
 Characteristic of water
 Type and quantity of suspended matter

 Temperature of water

 pH of water

 Time and method of mixing

91
 Common Coagulant Chemicals
Coagulant chemicals come in two main types -
Primary coagulants:- neutralize the electrical charges of
particles in the water which causes the particles to clump
together
Coagulant aids:- add density to slow-settling flocs and
add toughness to the flocs so that they will not break up
during the mixing and settling processes
In water treatment plants,
the following are the coagulants most commonly used with
normal dose and PH values required for best floc formation

92
 I. Aluminum sulfate [Al 2(SO4)3.18H2O].

 It is also called Alum. It is the most widely used chemical

coagulant in water purification work
 Alum reacts with water only in the presence of alkalinity.
 If natural alkalinity is not present, lime may be added to
develop alkalinity
 These Alum reacts with alkaline water to form aluminum
hydroxide (floc), calcium sulphate and carbon dioxide

93
 The chemical is found to be most effective between pH
range of 6.5 to 8.5
 Its dose may vary from 5 to 30mg/lit, for normal water
usually dose being 14mg/l.
 Due to the following reason, Alum is the most widely
used chemical coagulant
 It is very cheap
 It removes taste and color in addition to turbidity
 It is very efficient
 Flocs formed are more stable and heavy
 It is not harmful to health
 It is simple in working, doesn‟t require skilled supervision
94
for dosing
 The dosage of coagulants, which should be added to the water,
depends upon
 Kind of coagulant,

 Turbidity of water,

 Colour of water,

 PH, of water

 Temperature of water

 Mixing & flocculation time.

 The optimum dose of coagulant required for a water treatment

plant is determined by a Jar test
95
 II. Sodium aluminates (Na2Al2O4)
 In the process of coagulation, it can remove carbonate and
non-carbonate hardness
 It reacts with calcium and magnesium salts to form
flocculent aluminates of these elements

96
Example
 Find out the quantity of alum required to treat 18 million

liters of water per day. The dosage of alum is 14mg/lit. Also

work out the amount of CO2 released per liter of treated
water
 The chemical reaction as follow:

Al2(SO4)3.18H2O+3Ca (HCO3)2 2Al (OH)3+3CaSO4+18H2O+6CO2

The Molecular weight (O = 16, S= 32, H= 1, Al = 27, C = 12 Ca = 40)

97
Quantity of alum per day = (14mg/l)* (18*106)
= 252kg
Molecular weight of alum: Molecular weight of CO2
At.
Element No. Molecule Wieght Total At.
No. Wiegh
Alumunium 2 27 54
Element Molecule t
Sulfur 3 32 96 Carbon 1 12 12
Oxygen 30 16 480 Oxygen 2 16 32
hydrogen 36 1 36 Total 6*CO2 =6*44
Total Alum 666

98
 666mg of alum release 264mg of CO2
14mg of alum will releases ?

 It releases 5.55mg/lit
 Therefore it releases 5.5mg/lit x 18 million liter per a day

=100kg of CO2 is released in a day

Group work
Calculate the amount of alkaline required in a day

99
 Feeding of coagulant
Coagulants may be put in raw water either in powder form or
in solution form
I. Dry-feed Type :- Dry powder of coagulant is filled in the
conical hopper
 The hoppers are fitted with agitating plates which prevents

arching of chemicals
II. Wet feeding type:- Solution form of the coagulant is
filled in the tank and allowed to mix channel in required
proportion to the quantity of water

100
 Mixing devices
Rapid mixing of the mixture of coagulant used to
 Disperse chemicals uniformly throughout the mixing basin

 Allow adequate contact between the coagulant and particles

 Formation of microflocs

The mixing is done by mixing device

Flash mixer
Deflector plate mixer

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 Flocculation
 After adding the coagulant to the raw water, rapid agitation
is required to obtain a uniform mixing
 Next to rapid mixing, mixture is kept slowly agitated for
about 30 to 60min
 In the slow mixing process particles are brought into contact
in order to promote their accumulation which is called
flocculation
 The tank or basin in which flocculation process is carried out
is called flocculation chamber
 The velocity of flow in the chamber is kept between 12 – 18 cm/sec
 Activated carbon in powder form can be used to speed up
the flocculation 102
 The rate of flocculation is dependent upon
 Type and concentration of turbidity
 Type of coagulant and its dose
 Temporal mean velocity gradient

The flocculation technique most commonly used involves

mechanical agitation with rotating paddle wheels or vertical
mounted turbines

103
The design criteria of a horizontal continuous flow rectangular
basin flocculator

104
Clarifier (Secondary Sedimentation)
 After flocculation, water enters the settling tank which is called
a clarifier
 Water is retained in the sedimentation tank for a sufficient
period to permit the settlement of the floc to the bottom.
 The principle of design of clarifier is the same as for plain

sedimentation basin except that its detention period is lower

 The detention period commonly adopted is 2.5 to 3hrs with an
overflow rate of 1 to 1.2 m/hr.

105
 FILTRATION
 The effluent obtained after coagulation does not satisfy the
drinking water standard and is not safe.
 So it requires further treatments
 Filtration is one of the water purification process in which
water is allowed to pass through a porous medium to
remove remaining flocs or suspended solids from the
previous treatment processes
 Filtration consists of passing water through a thick layer of
sand. During the passage of water through sand, the
following effects take place.

106
 i) Suspended matter and colloidal matter are removed
ii ) Chemical characteristic of water get changed
iii ) Number of bacteria considerably reduced
Mechanisms of filtration can be explained on the basis of:
I. Mechanical straining:-
II. Sedimentation and Adsorption:-
III. Electrolytic action
IV. Biological Action
The bacterial activities convert organic impurities by a complex
biochemical action into simple, harmless compounds
107
 Types of filter
Two types of filter:
1. Gravity filter system
i Slow Sand Filter (SSF)
ii Rapid Sand Filter (RSF)
2. Pressure filter system

Slow Sand Filter (SSF):-

 The slow sand filter removes particles from the water

through adsorption and straining

 Slow sand filters are best suited for the filtration of water for
small towns 108
 The sand used for the filtration is specified by the effective
size and uniformity coefficient.
 The effective size , D10, which means 10% sand by weight

to pass in sieve analysis

 The uniformity coefficient is calculated by the ratio of D60

and D10
Construction of Slow Sand Filter (SSF)
 Slow sand filter is made up of a top layer of fine sand of
effective size 0.2 to 0.3mm and
 uniformity coefficient 2 to 3

 The thickness of the layer may be 75 to 90 cm

109
 Below the fine sand layer,
 a layer of coarse sand of size
whose voids do not permit the
fine sand to pass through it
 The thickness of this layer is 30cm
 The lowermost layer is a graded
gravel of size 2 to 45mm and
thickness is about 20 to 30cm
 Fine sand = 75 to 90cm
 Coarse sand = 30cm
 Gravels = 20 to 30cm
110
 Operation of Slow Sand Filter (SSF)
 Slow Sand Filter media operates at an average rate of 2.4 to
3.6m3/m2/day (0.08m3/m2/h to 0.15m3/m2/h)
 During filtration as the filter media gets clogged due to the
impurities, which stay in the pores, and loss of head also
increases
 When the loss of head reaches 60cm, filtration is stopped and
about 2 to 3cm from the top of bed is scrapped and replaced
with clean sand
 The scrapped sand is washed with the water, dried and stored
for return to the filter
 The filter can run for 6 to 8 weeks before it becomes
necessary to replace the sand layer. 111
 The slow sand filters are effective in removal of 98 to 99%
of bacteria of raw water and completely all suspended
impurities and turbidity is reduced to 1 N.T.U
 Slow sand filters also removes odours, tastes and colours
from the water but
 However it does remove not pathogenic bacteria which
requires disinfection to safeguard against water-borne
diseases
 The slow sand filter requires large area for their construction
and high initial cost for establishment.
 The rate of filtration is also very slow.
112
 Rapid Sand Filter
 Rapid sand filter are replacing the slow sand filters because
of high rate of filtration ranging from 100 to 150m3/m2/day
(4 to 6.25m3/m2/h) and small area of filter required.
The main features of rapid sand filter are as follows
 Effective size of sand 0.45 to 0.70mm
 Uniformity coefficient of sand 1.3 to 1.7
 Depth of sand 60 to 75cm
 Filter gravel 2 to 50mm size
 Depth of gravel - 45cm
 Overall depth of filter
including 0.5m free board 2.6m
 Area of single filter unit 50m2
113
 Loss of head - Max 1.8 to 2.0m
114
115
Pressure Filter
 This one is rapid type sand filter in closed water tight

cylinder through which the water passes through the sand

bed under pressure ( as a sprinkeler )
 All the operation of the filter is similar to rapid gravity filter

expect it is pressurized
 These filters are used for industrial plants but these are not

economical on large scale

 Pressure filters may be vertical and horizontal pressure filter.

 The rate of flow is 120 to 300m /m /day

3 2

116
117
 Example 1
 Design a rapid sand filter to treat 10 million liters of raw
water per day allowing 0.5% of filtered water for
backwashing. Half hour per day is used for backwashing.
Assume the rate of filtration be 5m3/ m2 /h of bed and
length to width ratio for rapid sand filter is 1.3
 Calculate the volume of sand, filter gravel and gravel
required and
 The diameter of Under drainage system if the velocity of
drain is 2m/sec

118
 Example 2
Design a rapid sand filter (rate of filtration be 5000l/h/m2 )to
treat water for 100,000 population, The per capita water
demand of the water supply is 150lit/capita per day and
maximum day factor of 1.8 allowing 0.5% of filtered water for
backwashing. Half hour per day is used for backwashing
length to width ratio for rapid sand filter is 1.3
Assume the velocity through the under drain is 2.5m/sec

119
 DISINFECTION
 Disinfection is the process of selectively destroying or
inactivating pathogenic organisms in water, usually by
chemical means
 The primary goal of water treatment is to ensure that the
water is safe to drink and
 These water should does not contain any disease-causing
microorganisms
 Disinfection is different from sterilization, which is the
complete destruction of all organisms found in water
 which is usually expensive and unnecessary

120
 Methods of Disinfection
 The disinfection of water can be done by one of the
following methods:
a) Boiling of water
b) Ultra–Violate rays
c) Iodine and bromine
d) Ozone O3
e) Excess lime
f) Potassium permanganate [KMnO4]
g) Chlorine
 In most situations chlorine is selected as disinfectants
121
 Requirements of Good Disinfectant

 Destroy bacteria/pathogens within a practicable period of

time
 Effective at variable compositions, concentration and
conditions of water treated
 Not toxic to humans and domestic animals
 Doesn’t change the property water
 The amount Can be determined easily, and quickly
 Should not be costly
 Safe and easy to store, transport, handle and supply
 Do not form toxic by-products due to their reactions with
any naturally occurring materials in water 122
The most common Disinfectant is Chlorine
Some of the reason Chlorine is popular in disinfections are:
 Quick and effective at killing micro –organisms

 Readily soluble at the concentration needed for

disinfection
 Tasteless and odourless at the concentration required

 Non-toxic to human life at the concentration required

 Easy to handle, transport and apply

 Easy to detect and measure concentration

 Readily available

 Cheap 123
 The most common method of disinfection is the use of
chlorine i.e. chlorination.
 The various chlorine compounds which are available in the
market and used as disinfectants are:
1. Calcium hypo chlorite [Ca (OCl2] – Poweder form
2. Sodium hypo chlorite [NaOCl] –Liquid form
3. Free chlorine Cl2- Gaseous form

124
Dosage of Chlorine
 The amount of chlorine needed to disinfect water will vary

from source to source

 When chlorine is added to water some the amount is used
to oxidize any organic matter and to kill bacteria in the
water
 The chlorine dosage rates are usually in the range of 0.5 to

2.0mg/l, depending up on the initial quality of the water

 Contact times are between 10 and 30 minutes, with a time
of 30 minutes being recommended

125
(A) Plain Chlorination
 It is the process of addition of chlorine only when the

surface water with no other treatment is required

 The water of lakes and springs are pure and can be used
after plain chlorination
(B) SUPER CHLORINATION
It is defined as applying considerably in excess dose of clorine
that necessary for the adequate bacterial purification of water
 About 10 to 15 mg/lit is applied with a contact time of 10 to

30 minutes

126
(C) Brake Point Chlorination
 When chlorine is applied to water containing organics, micro
organisms and ammonia the residual chlorine levels
fluctuate with increase in dosage
 The breakpoint is the point at which the chlorine demand

has been totally satisfied

 When more chlorine is added above the breakpoint,

 the chlorine reacts with water and forms hypochlorous acid

in direct proportion to the amount of chlorine added
 This process, known as breakpoint chlorination

127
(D) De-chlorination
 Removal of excess chlorine resulting from super chlorination

in part or completely is called De-chlorination

 Excess chlorine in water gives strong smell and corrodes the
pipe lines
 Hence excess chlorine is to be removed before supply

 Physical methods like aeration, heating and absorption on

charcoal may be adopted as De-chlorination
 Chemical methods like sulphur dioxide (SO2), Sodium Bi-
sulphate (NaHSO3)are used as De-chlorination
128
 MISCELLANEOUS WATER TREATMENT

1. Removal of Taste and Odor Problem

Causes of Odor and Taste
 Concentrations of inorganic salts (sodium chloride

or magnesium sulphate , Iron and manganese)

 Hydrogen sulphide (commonly found in ground waters

from deep wells)

 Contact with painted surfaces

 Industrial discharges _ pesticides, phenols etc

 Metabolites of micro organisms, algae etc

 Dead and decaying organic material including sewage

 Chlorination 129
 Recommended method to remove test and odour
problem

Aeration
 Some bacteria reduce sulphate to sulphide (H2S) and these

are controlled by aeration and chlorination

 Removes slightly volatile odors resulting from the
decomposition of vegetation
Chlorine
 Super chlorination with more than a breakpoint dosage will
destroy most malodorous compounds
 Ammonia/chlorine treatment can be useful in preventing
chlorophenolic, odours
130
Ozone
 Ozone reduces H2S odors and tastes and also the odors

from decaying vegetable matter

 Also removes odor and taste from non-biodegradable
organic material
Hydrogen peroxide
 This is occasionally used for odor control.

 It works by releasing oxygen but is generally too costly.

Chlorine Dioxide Cl02

 Cl02 is particularly effective at removing phenolic odors from water
 It is most effective when mixed with an excess of chlorine.
131
Potassium Permanganate
 It is one of the most effective chemical reagents for odour

taste control
 Although it is about three times as costly as activated
Carbon it has been claimed to be up to five times as
effective
Activated Carbon
 It is used either as powdered activated carbon or as
granular activated carbon
 At low levels of taste and odour powdered activated carbon
is economic than the granular but the reverse is true once
132
higher dosages are required
 Removal of Hydrogen sulphide

 The permissible concentration of H2S in water, which are

required for domestic purpose, is 0.5 mg/l of H2S and
 The odours are less noticeable as the PH rises due to the
formation of alkaline sulphides
 Hydrogen sulphide is removed by aeration and chlorination
 aeration has a limited effect and it is necessary to establish a
cost balance between aeration and chlorination
 Removal by chlorination is highly effective but as much as
10kg of chlorine may be required to remove 1.0 kg of H2S

133
 Removal of Iron and Manganese

 Iron and manganese problems most commonly occur with

groundwater
 Manganese may occur in significant quantities in river water
These metals in potable water can cause
 Colour and taste (metallic or medicinal taste) in the water
 Discoloration of plumbing fixtures (Fe -brown. Mn -black)
 Growth of iron bacteria

134
 Method of Removal of Iron and Manganese

 The variety of forms in which the iron or manganese exist

requires a variety of treatment processes
 Usually manganese is more difficult to remove than iron
 Aeration 0.14 mg/1 of dissolved oxygen is needed to

oxidize 1 mg/1 of iron

 Sedimentation

 Filtration

 Contact oxidation It provides a catalytic effect,

 Lime Raising the PH will cause oxidation

 Ion exchange

 Sequestration sodium hex meta phosphate (Calgon)

135
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Thank you!