International Journal of Advanced Engineering

Research and Science (IJAERS)

Peer-Reviewed Journal
ISSN: 2349-6495(P) | 2456-1908(O)
Vol-9, Issue-5; May, 2022
Journal Home Page Available: https://ijaers.com/
Article DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijaers.95.35

Hydrological Risk Mitigation from Natural Hazards in

Ojirami Dam Edo State Nigeria
Jonathan Abulime1, Ikri Samuel Obokparo2

1Department of Civil Engineering, Benson Idahosa University, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria.
[email protected]
2Institution of Civil Engineers, London, United Kingdom.

[email protected]

Received: 19 Apr 2022, Abstract— The objective of this paper works is to analyze the rainfall
Received in revised form: 11 May 2022, and runoff discharge of the Ojirami dam area, and effective modeling
and simulation of hydraulic parameters in water distribution network
Accepted: 18 May 2022,
and design of hydraulic structure (Reservoir water tank). The
Available online: 31 May 2022 engineering tools used in this research work are EPANET PROGRAM,
©2022 The Author(s). Published by AI AUTOCAD, GOOGLE EARTH and GIS for portable pipe born-water
Publication. This is an open access article supply, regarding to the relief of the inhabitants towards mitigation of
under the CC BY license risk from natural hazard, by protecting lives and properties against
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). diseases: such as cholera and dysentery. During investigation and
modeling the water network, the following climatic elements are
Keywords— Reservoir, Catchment area,
defined: monthly and annual rainfall, maximum wind velocity for
Spillway, Dam, Return period, Precipitation
prevailing direction, free water surface evaporation, air temperature,
relative humidity and sediment transportation. The capacity of the
reservoir of the Ojirami dam is equal to 5 Mcm (5 X 10 6) the dam
height of 7m and is located within Akuku community boundaries,
Akoko-Edo Local Government Area, Edo-State. The area has a
moderate slope around the dam too steep in higher parts of the dam.
Due to proper researched on the internet and other information
collected from Edo state water board and relevant statistics data from
census of Nigeria. The dam was constructed across Onyami river the
output capacity of the reservoir is about 473m3 per/hr. The construction
dam is used as a source to supply water to the water distribution
network. Google earth was used to generate toposheet of Akoko-Edo
Local Government boundary, while Geographic information system
was used to create Nigeria local government map and boundaries, due
to local government shapefile data of Nigeria. Epanet program was
used to digitalized the water network, which is based on census data and
to estimate water demand. The Epanet tracks the flow of water in each
pipe, the pressure at each node, the height of water in the tanks, and the
concentration. The preliminary modeling of the (WDN) concluded that
the water distribution network is sufficient to supplied water to
communities. The water quality and the cost of modeling the water
distribution network (pipe network) were estimated.

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Abulime et al. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 9(5)-2022

I. INTRODUCTION site to dispose of surplus water from the reservoir to the

The atmospheric part of the circle when the channel downstream. Spillway is provided for all dams
moisture of the atmosphere return to the ground as as safety measures against overtopping and the
precipitation. Important engineering problems arise from consequent damages and failures. A spillway act as a
the variability of precipitation in space and time. They safety value for the dam, because as soon as the water
include securing the water supply conveyance for level in reservoir rises above a predetermined level,
humans, agriculture and industrial needs, providing storm excess water is discharged safely to the downstream
water supply from drainages due to floods ranging in channel and the dam is not damaged. The spillway must
magnitude from minor over bank flows to the largest have adequate discharge capacity to pass the maximum
floods and that in which nature can produce. flood downstream without causing any damage to the
dam or its appurtenant structures. At the same time the
In study of hydrology of catchment does not limit to
reservoir level should not rise above the maximum water
geological nature of specific importance in the
level (M. W. L)
determination of maximum rainfall which is critical for
hydraulic structural design. Furthermore, the A spillway of inadequate capacity may lead to the
determination of the appropriate reservoir pattern of overtopping of the dam which may cause serious
precipitation, seepage and evaporation. Thus, the damages and even the failure of the dam. On the other
acquisition essential for such forecast and design hand, a spillway of much larger capacity than therequired
purpose. The basis of hydrological forecasting is the would be an uneconomical design. In addition to provide
representation of basin processes and the movement of adequate discharge capacity, the spillway must be hydro
water both through and over the land surface which also dynamically and structurally safe. The spillway surface
represent the aquifer processes such as forecasting can should be erosion resistance to withstand the high
lead to improved water management, including flood and velocities created by the fall of water from the reservoir
drought prediction or water demand supply. The surface to the tail water. Moreover, the spillway should
chorological graphical representation of stage or be located so that the spillway discharge will not
discharge is often used to portray the behavior of the undermine the downstream toe of the dam. Generally,
river during normal weather conditions, flood or some energy dissipating device such as hydraulic jump is
droughts. providedat the toe for the dissipation of excess energy.

It is an unfortunate trait of human nature that all A spillway may be located either in the middle of the dam
professions like to hesitate to advert their failure. Notable or at the end of the dam near the abutment. In some cases,
successes are broadcast for the world to hear, but the the spillway is located away from the dam as an
failures are spoken of only in muffled tone. Professionals independent structure. If there is a suitable saddle, such a
pride and ethics are the principal reason for this situation. spillway is called a saddle spillway. Generally, a saddle
It is nevertheless true that a full knowledge of the failures spillway is designed as an auxiliary or an emergency
and their causes provides some of the most valuable spillway, which is an addition to the main spillway at the
information that can possibly serve to guide the engineer dam site.A major portion of the storage volume in the
or other practitioner. reservoir on the upstream of a dam is below the spillway
crest level. Dam outlets are provided in the body of
Most history of hydrology examples of hydrologic
dam or its abutment below the crest level of the
failure was as result of faculty understanding of the
spillway so that the water can be withdrawn from the
principle of hydrology failures which include the failure
reservoir. Sluiceways are special type of outlets
of dams resulting from inadequate spillway capacity,
provided in the body of a concrete (or masonry) dam.
causing overtopping and erosion of embankment, the
economic failure of water-power development, storage Outlet are required for releasing the impounded water
reservoirs, water supply system etc as at when needed for various purposes such as hydro-
power, irrigation, municipal water supply and pollution
A dam is a hydraulic structure of impervious material
control on the downstream. Outlets are also used for
built across a river to create a reservoir on its upstream
diverting water into canals or pipelines. Sometime outlet
side for impounding water for various purposes. These
is design to pass a part of the design flood to the
purposes may be irrigation, Hydro- power, water supply
downstream, as a supplement to the spillway. The water
navigation. Dam may be built to meet the one of the
released by an outlet may be also used for a combination
above, purpose or they may be constructed for fulfilling
of multipurpose requirements. An outlets work may also
more than one purpose and as such it can be classified as
act as a flood control regulator for releasing water stored
single or multipurposedam.
temporally in the space reserved for flood control or to
A spillway is structures constructed near the dam evacuate storage space in anticipation of high floods. The

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Abulime et al. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 9(5)-2022

outlets may also be used to empty the reservoir up to the II. EXPERIMENTAL WORK/METHODOLOGY
crest level to permit inspection to make needed repairs or 2.1 CATCHMENT AREA
to maintain the upstream face of the dam or other
The catchment area controlled by the dam is about
structures. Outlets are usually provided with gates and
600km2 the towns located in the dam area are Ojirami
valves for controlling the outflow. These gates and
patesi, Ojirami Afekunu, Dagbala, Uneme – ose, Eturu,
valves may be used for regulating the outflow or for
Akuku, Enwan, Igara, Okpe, Ikao, Ugboshi.
completely closing the outflow depending upon their
location and design. 2.2 GEOLOGY OF THE AREA
An outlet is a closed conduit formed in the body of the The service area lies on the basement complex, the
dam, it may also be in the form of pipe or tunnel that broken edge of a widely extending high rocky plateau
passes through the hill side at one end of the dam. The that dominate the region. The local crystalline rocky of
function of an outlet is to discharge the stores water into the basement complex consist of granites, gneisses and
the channel downstream, for a concrete (or a masonry) schist’s comprising derivatives such as grandiose, variably
dam, the outlets pass through the body of the dam, and magmatised biotite, quartz biotite, hornblende granites
they are called sluiceways. and granite ferrous biotitic genesis. The rock is practically
impermeable, and aquifer are defined as cleaved jointed
For the earth and rock fill dams, the outlet is generally
and fractured, the decomposed crystalline loose angular
placed outside the limits of the dam. However, the small
sands, clay and lateral horizon on the surface. This loose
earth dams sometimes the outlets conduits are permitted
mantle normally contains some shallow groundwater
to pass through the body of the dam. Generally, there are
mainly along intermittent river course where some local
more than one outlet in a dam. If the outlets discharge
hand dug well has been located.
varies considerably, it is always better to provide several
small outlets than one larger outlet

Fig.1: Physically illustrates the natural geographic features of Akoko-Edo terrain, such as themountain and valley

2.3 DAM Description The spillway is made of concrete with a gate made
The dam is an earth fill structure of about 200m of metal (iron) two set of outlet pipes were installed
long 7m high at its highest section. The earth below for the release of water from the reservoir to the
embankment has a crest elevation of 78 and the upstream head works, weir and intakes. These outlets are open
face has a slope of about 2.5 to 2.8. the upstream was during period of flow when insufficient water is
design to be mostly grassed. The dam is provided with discharged over the spillway. All pipes are made of PVC
services spillway which are supported with abutment on of 400mm diameter and thickness of 4mm.
both sides.

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Fig.2: Image of the Ojirami dam

source of water distribution to the network

2.4 RESERVOIR CAPACITY: runoff will be equal to the rate of rainfall. This forms the
The capacity of the reservoir impounded in the dam is basin of the rational formula and which may be expressed
approximately, but during my research I found out the as;
present capacity is now 5Mcm. Qmax = c . I (tc) . A
2.5 USE OF RUNOFF COEFFICIENT Where:
Most analytical procedures of estimating runoff Q = Max is the peak flow C = Is a runoff coefficient A =
involve the use of a coefficient of runoff, which takes Is the catchment area
cognizance of the drainage area. The volume of runoff I(tc) = Is the intensity of rainfall of duration equal to the
could be estimated using an equationof the form. tc (as in the IDF curve)
Q = KP
2.7 TIME OF CONCENTRATION (TC)
Where It is defined as the time needed for water to flow from the
Q = runoff or discharge most remote point in a watershed to the watershed outlet.
P = rainfall It is also the time necessary for watershed to entirely
contribute to the surface flow. The time of concentration
K = coefficient whose value depends on the surface of
depends on topography, land use and geomorphology.
the drainage of the area
2.8 RECURRENCE INTERVAL OR RETURN
2.6 RATIONAL METHOD
PERIODS
This method is used in evaluating peak runoff
Return period (or recurrence interval), Tr is the average
rate, a vital parameter in the design of hydraulic
time that elapse between two event that equal or exceed a
structures. If rain fall on an impervious surface at a
specified level. In other word an “N” year flood is that
constant rate, the intensity of the resulting runoff would
flood which can be expected to be equaled or exceed on
eventually be equal to the rate of rainfall. At the
the average once every “N” year. An estimate of its
beginning only a portion of the rainwater gets to the
recurrence interval overturns.
outlet but after a period water will start arriving at the
outlet from the entire area, when the runoff rate becomes Period Tr is given by the Hazen’s formula Tr = 2n/2m1
equal to the rate of rainfall. The time required to attain But the most widely used is the Gumbel formula
this equilibrium state is referred to as time of
P = m/n + 1 or Tr = n + 1/m
concentration (TC). For small impervious area we may
assume that if rainfalls continuously at a uniform rate for
a period at least to the time of concentration, the peak

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III. DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF accessible by major and minor roads, main paths and
RESULTS footpaths which link the villages and towns together.
3.1 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT IN ONYAMI RIVER The area has undulating landscape with highland
AT OJIRAMI RESERVIOR consisting of granite outcrops east of the area. The study
The Ojirami reservoir basin has small capacity (5 area is characterized by the wet-dry tropical climate
MCM) and the Onyami river having large inflow (174 (Koppen climate type Am), with two districts season the
MCM), the capacity inflow ratio is low corresponding rainy season (April-October) and the dry season
trap efficiency is also small, Morgan (1986). Most of the (November-March). The average annual rainfall is
inflow is quickly discharged to downstream and the between 1000 and 1500 mm with temperature as high as
suspended sediment are not able to settle fully. 37.70 being recorded in the region. The vegetation belt
that is most prominent in the study area is the Guinea
In general, the greater the capacity inflow ratio, the
Savannah which is made up of sparsely distributed tress,
greater is the trap efficiency. In other words, the
herbs, shrubs and grasses,
sedimentationrate is higher in relatively larger reservoirs.
(Abubakar and Sagar, 2013) and (Creaco Enrico,2019) The major agricultural products in the aera are
yams, cassava, plantain, maize, cocoyam, livestock and
3.2 STUDY AREA DESCRIPTION
cash crops such as cocoa, cashew, kolanut, oil palm and
The Akoko-Edo Local Government Area lies coffee. Akoko Edo is very rich in mineral resources.
between latitudes 705’59’’ and 7035’24’’N and longitudes Some of the mineral resources available in Akoko- Edo
5055’12’’E and 6025’47’’E. It headquarters is at Igarra, include Marble in Ikpeshi, Gold in Atte, Dagbala and
approximately 160km from the stste capital. The Ososo, previous stones in Ibillo, Granite in Ikpeshi and
population as captured by the 2006 population census is Gravel in Igarra
261,567. The total land area is about 1371 km2 with a
(Ogbeide et al. 2003)
population density of three people per square kilometer.
The area is made of (fourth) 40 villages which is

Fig.3: The digitization of the network with Epanet program

3.3 The Schematization of Akoko Edo Distribution After the schematization of the network with epanet
Network System (WDN) platform, the next step was to assign network parameters.
The layout of the schematization of the water The parameters include the pipe length, diameter and
distribution network due to rule of thumb, in satellite roughness, coefficient, node and links ID (Hazen
map shown the land surface as it really looked. Based on Williams Equation by the Epanet). These are basic
image taking from the earth orbit. network parameter on which future.

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3.3 Water Quality Analysis In accordance with the best practice in pipeline
The transport of decayed of chlorine was specified in the analysis, the Hazen Williams friction factor from
network due to the manual guide. The bulk coefficient asbestos cement pipe is 130
was specified with -1.0, the bulk coefficient is what (http://www.primepump.com.au/index)
happened in the center of the pipes near the wall. And the 3.4 Reaction Report of Water Distribution Network
wall coefficient was also specified with 1.0 due to water Since only specified the decayed of the bulk flow,
reaction with the impurities of pipes parameter. that is where most of the decay is coming from whereby
simulation will be based depending on the flow to being 0.06% is coming from the tank, shown in figure 3
simulated. The pipe network is made of asbestos cement
pipes varies of different length from (600m, 500m and
400m)

Fig.4: The reaction of bulk flow in water distribution network

3.6 EPANET Analysis of The Network with The In respect of the akoko-edo schematization water
Operation Of Water Proposed Tank distribution network (wdn), which is designed for both
The total height of the water tank is 23m, Epanet was industrial and residential purpose. which include 400,000
used to evaluate the scenario in which the height is inhabitants with 4 stories building and 12 meters in height
elevated and the advantage, is that it increases the and density area of about 237.8/km2 with topography
pressure head demand at each node. In real world how area of different elevation and with a pipe length of (600,
the installation of elevated water tank and laying of water 500, 400) meters which is little bit longer. since the
pipe network is carry out on site is represented in network has a large density area and different surface
pictures at the end of the result report analysis. (Creaco elevation and longer pipes installation, thorough
Enrico, 2019) investigation shown that the (wdn) need a pressure (psi)
of about 60 – 300 for both industrial and residential
3.7 Nodal Head Result under Current Demand
purposes.
After a proper investigation both on the internet and
With this pressure of flow in the pipe will enable the
hydrology and hydraulic textbooks regarding to pressure
network to supply sufficient water to the public and
(psi) in fluid pipes. if the water must move a couple of
supply water to the upper flood of the building. epanet
meters per second, which determine the pressure needed.
program was used to digitize the akoko- edo water
the longer the pipe the more the energy lost and the
distribution network with a pressure (psi) ranging from
greater the pressure drop.

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Abulime et al. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 9(5)-2022

67 – 236 with shown that the (wdn) is generally good sufficient water to the public. for the network to be on
having the capacity to supply water to the public. the safer side it was decided to installed the pressure
The main reason to control the pressure in fluid pipe, regulatory device which helps to regulate the pressure
if the pressure is too high may damage the pipes and (psi) in the fluid pipe. the result of the pressure (psi) is
appliances. and if is too low (wdn) cannot supply shown below in a tabular form with theepanet program.

Fig.5: Epanet Result

IV. CONCLUSION REFRENCES

a) In this study, the empirical analysis of the Akoko- [1] Abubakar, A.S and Sagar, N.l. (2013): Design of NDA
Edo Local Government, Edo-State, Nigeria. Water water distribution network using epanet, international
journal of emerging and engineering (IJESE) ISSN: 2319-
distribution network has been put using epanet 6378, volume 1, issue 9.
computer-based simulation software for water [2] Akintola J.O. “Rainfall distribution in Nigeria (1892-1983)
distribution network. Prelude to the analysis a impact publisher Nigeria Ltd, Ibadan. (1986)
[3] Arora K.R “Irrigation, waterp o w e r and water resources
review of literature was carried out whereby the
engineering” standard publisher distribution (2004)
inhabitants leaving in Akoko-Edo Local [4] Creaco Enrico, lecture slide for Hydraulic infrastructures,
Government are lacking potable water for drinking. university of pavia, Italy.
b) The result of all analysis was supported by charts, [5] Mario Martina, lecture slide for Hydrological risk, IUSS,
Pavia, Italy
screen print and pictures, the current analysis [6] Paolo Ghilardi, fluvial hydraulic, for sediment transport,
revealed sufficient water supply to the communities university of pavia, Italy.
attached to the network. [7] Paolo Ghilardi and Patricia Gabriella, lecture slide for
flood propagation and structural measures for flood risk
c) The result of the analysis shows that the network has mitigation. University of pavia, Italy
very good pressure heads at reach nodes, and the [8] LInsley R.K “Water resources engineering” McGraw-Hill
book company Inc. New York, N.Y (1986)
velocity in the pipes has adequate flow rate.
[9] Ogbeide H.E. Uyigue E, Oshodin O. (2003) “The impact
of dams on the environment and people of Nigeria-Okhore
and Ojirami dam in Edo-State as a case study, submitted to
V. RECOMMENDATION society for water and public health protection
(SWAPHEP) supported by the global green grant/tide’s
The objective of a dam operation been able to manage at
foundation.
any moment resources accumulated in the storage [10] Taylor D.M. Leslie M.K and Johnson R.C “Ground water
capacity and the expected ones to face the need and to modelling key to isolating contamination” wastewater
avoid loss of water or lack of storage. So, hydrological international USA (1989).
studies of dam during the design step as well as in the
operation period are essential. As a result, hydrological
studies of dam and reservoir can provide better guaranteed
on waterallowance for various-uses.

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