THE IMPACT

OF
COVID-19 ON
EDUCATION
INSIGHTS FROM
EDUCATION AT A

Andreas Schleicher

GLANCE 2020
®»OECD
The impact of COVID-19 on
education - Insights from
Education at a Glance 2020
This brochure focuses on a selection of indicators from Education at a Glance, selected for their particular relevance in the current
context. Their analysis enables the understanding of countries’ response and potential impact from the COVID-19 containment
measures. The following topics are discussed:

PUBLIC FINANCING OF EDUCATION

IN OECD COUNTRIES

INTERNATIONAL STUDENT
MOBILITY

The impact of the

crisis on education THE LOSS OF INSTRUCTIONAL TIME
DELIVERED IN A SCHOOL SETTING

MEASURES TO CONTINUE STUDENTS’

LEARNING DURING SCHOOL CLOSURE

TEACHERS’ PREPAREDNESS TO

BAH
SUPPORT DIGITAL LEARNING

WHEN AND HOW TO REOPEN

H
SCHOOLS

CLASS SIZE, A CRITICAL PARAMETER

FOR THE REOPENING OF SCHOOLS
COVID-19 and
educational VOCATIONAL EDUCATION DURING
THE COVID-19 LOCKDOWN
institutions
4

Introduction
As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, so do the the closures and that all subsequent cohorts resume normal
risks we face. The COVID-19 pandemic has not stopped at schooling. If schools are slow to return to prior levels of
national borders. It has affected people regardless of nationality, performance, the growth losses will be proportionately higher. Of
level of education, income or gender. But the same has not been course, slower growth from the loss of skills in today’s students
true for its consequences, which have hit the most vulnerable will only be seen in the long term. However, when considered
hardest. over this term, the impact becomes significant. In other words,
countries will continue to face reduced economic well-being, even
Education is no exception. Students from privileged backgrounds, if their schools immediately return to pre-pandemic levels of
supported by their parents and eager and able to learn, could find performance. For example, for the United States, if the student
their way past closed school doors to alternative learning cohorts in school during the 2020 closures record a corona-
opportunities. Those from disadvantaged backgrounds often induced loss of skills of one-tenth of a standard deviation and if
remained shut out when their schools shut down. all cohorts thereafter return to previous levels, the 1.5% loss of
future GDP would be equivalent to a total economic loss of USD
This crisis has exposed the many inadequacies and inequities in 15.3 trillion (Hanushek E and Woessman L, forthcoming^).
our education systems - from access to the broadband and
computers needed for online education, and the supportive The COVID-19 pandemic has also had a severe impact on higher
environments needed to focus on learning, up to the education as universities closed their premises and countries
misalignment between resources and needs. shut their borders in response to lockdown measures. Although
higher education institutions were quick to replace face-to-face
The lockdowns in response to COVID-19 have interrupted lectures with online learning, these closures affected learning and
conventional schooling with nationwide school closures in most examinations as well as the safety and legal status of
OECD and partner countries, the majority lasting at least 10 international students in their host country. Perhaps most
weeks. While the educational community have made concerted importantly, the crisis raises questions about the value offered by
efforts to maintain learning continuity during this period, children a university education which includes networking and social
and students have had to rely more on their own resources to opportunities as well as educational content. To remain relevant,
continue learning remotely through the Internet, television or universities will need to reinvent their learning environments so
radio. Teachers also had to adapt to new pedagogical concepts that digitalisation expands and complements student-teacher and
and modes of delivery of teaching, for which they may not have other relationships.
been trained. In particular, learners in the most marginalised
groups, who don't have access to digital learning resources or Reopening schools and universities will bring unquestionable

lack the resilience and engagement to learn on their own, are at benefits to students and the wider economy. In addition,

risk of falling behind. reopening schools will bring economic benefits to families by
enabling some parents to return to work. Those benefits,
Hanushek and Woessman have used historical growth however, must be carefully weighed against the health risks and

regressions to estimate the long-run economic impact of this loss the requirement to mitigate the toll of the pandemic. The need for
of the equivalent to one-third of a year of schooling for the current such trade-offs calls for sustained and effective coordination

student cohort. Because learning loss will lead to skill loss, and between education and public health authorities at different levels
the skills people have relate to their productivity, gross domestic of government, enhanced by local participation and autonomy,

product (GDP) could be 1.5% lower on average for the remainder tailoring responses to the local context. Several steps can be
of the century. The present value of the total cost would amount taken to manage the risks and trade-offs, including physical

to 69% of current GDP for the typical country. These estimates distancing measures, establishing hygiene protocols, revising
assume that only the cohort currently in school are affected by personnel and attendance policies, and investing in staff training

THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 ON EDUCATION - INSIGHTS FROM EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2020 @OECD 2020
 5

on appropriate measures to cope with the virus.

However, the challenges do not end with the immediate crisis. In

particular, spending on education may be compromised in the
coming years. As public funds are directed to health and social
welfare, long-term public spending on education is at risk despite
short-term stimulus packages in some countries. Private funding
will also become scarce as the economy weakens and
unemployment rises. At tertiary level, the decline in the
international student mobility following travel restrictions is
already reducing the funds available in countries where foreign
students pay higher fees. More widely, the lockdown has
exacerbated inequality among workers. While teleworking is often
an option for the most qualified, it is seldom possible for those
with lower levels of education, many of whom have been on the
front lines in the response to the pandemic, providing essential
services to society.

Throughout this crisis, education systems are increasingly

looking towards international policy experiences, data and
analyses as they develop their policy responses. The OECD's
publication Education at a Glance contributes to these efforts by
developing and analysing quantitative, internationally comparable
indicators that are particularly relevant to the understanding of
the environment in which the sanitary crisis has unfolded. While
the indicators in the publication Education at a Glance date from
before the crisis, this brochure puts these indicators into the
context of the pandemic. It provides insights into its economic
consequences for education, but also the dynamics of reconciling
public health with maintaining educational provision. The policy
responses presented in this brochure cover key measures
announced or introduced before the end of June 2020.

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The impact of the crisis on

education
Public financing of education in OECD countries

While the long-term impact of the crisis Economic pressures

is uncertain, the pandemic may affect Global economic
public spending on education as activity is expected to Some countries
funds are diverted into the health sector fall by at least 6% in have introduced
and the economy 2020 short-term
11% of public support
expenditure was measures:
S
devoted to education
u
before the pandemic*

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THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 ON EDUCATION - INSIGHTS FROM EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2020 @OECD 2020
 7

The spread of COVID-19 has sent shockwaves across the (including education, healthcare, social security and defence)
globe. The public health crisis, unprecedented in our lifetimes, depend on countries’ priorities and the prevalence of private
has caused severe human suffering and loss of life. The provision of these services. Education is an area in which all
exponential rise in infected patients and the dramatic governments intervene to fund, direct or regulate the provision
consequences of serious cases of the disease have of services. As there is no guarantee that markets will provide
overwhelmed hospitals and health professionals and put equitable access to educational opportunities, government
significant strain on the health sector. As governments grappled funding of educational services is needed to ensure that
with the spread of the disease by closing down entire economic education is not beyond the reach of some members of society.
sectors and imposing widespread restrictions on mobility, the In 2017, total public expenditure on primary to tertiary education
sanitary crisis evolved into a major economic crisis which is as a percentage of total government expenditure was 11% on
expected to burden societies for years to come. According to the average across OECD countries. However, this share varies
OECD's latest Economic Outlook, even the most optimistic across OECD and partner countries, ranging from around 7% in
scenarios predict a brutal recession. Even if a second wave of Greece to around 17% in Chile (Figure 1).
infections is avoided, global economic activity is expected to fall
by 6% in 2020, with average unemployment in OECD countries However, government funding on education often fluctuates in
climbing to 9.2%, from 5.4% in 2019. In the event of a second response to external shocks, as governments reprioritise
large-scale outbreak triggering a return to lockdown, the investments. The slowdown of economic growth associated with
situation would be worse (OECD, 2020[2]). the spread of the virus may affect the availability of public
funding for education in OECD and partner countries, as tax
All this has implications for education, which depends on tax income declines and emergency funds are funnelled into
money but which is also the key to tomorrow’s tax income. supporting increasing healthcare and welfare costs.
Decisions concerning budget allocations to various sectors

Figure 1. Total public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure (2017)
Primary to tertiary education
■ Public transfers and payments to the non-educational private sector
■ Direct public expenditure on educational institutions
% ■ Total public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure

1. Year of reference 2018.

2. Primary education includes pre-primary programmes.
Countries are ranked in descending order of total public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure. Source:
Education at a Glance (2020), Figure C4.1. See Education at a Glance (OECD, 2020J for more information and Annex 3 for notes
(https://doi.org/10.1787/69096873-en).

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Economic crises have put pressure on public budgets in the graduates who are unable to find work due to COVID-19
past. In some countries, this has led to reductions in public over the summer months. The Canada Student Service

funding for education. While cross-country comparisons do not Grant will also provide financial support to students who do
national service and serve their communities during the
show a strong relationship between spending on education and
pandemic crisis. The government has also announced
educational outcomes across OECD countries, due to
plans to double student grants and broaden the eligibility
significant differences in the productivity of education systems,
for financial assistance (Trudeau, 2020[8]), as well as
reducing spending without improving productivity is likely to additional support in the form of scholarship funding
negatively affect the quality of education. It may take a few extensions for students and postdoctoral researchers
years to see the effect of a crisis on education funding. In the affected by the COVID-19 pandemic (Ministry of Education,

aftermath of the last financial crisis, despite severe budget cuts 2020[9]).

in all OECD countries, the majority continued to increase public

spending on education between 2008 and 2009, with the first
• Distance learning support measures announced by the
Italian government in March 2020 to equip schools with
signs of a slowdown only appeared in 2010 as austerity
digital platforms and tools for distance learning, lend digital
measures imposed cuts on education budgets in about one-
devices to less well-off students, and train school staff in
third of OECD countries (OECD, 2013[4]).
methodologies and techniques for distance learning
(Republic of Italy, 2020[10]). In May 2020 Italy announced
However, the current crisis may affect education budgets more
new measures which seek to provide extra funding to cover
quickly as public revenues decline sharply and governments
costs arising from responses to the pandemic crisis at the
review the prioritisation of education in national budgets (IIEP-
school and university level (Republic of Italy, 2020[11]). This
UNESCO, 2020[5]). Forecasts predict that the pandemic will lead
extra funding will cover the costs associated with special
to slower growth in government spending in the coming year,
services, safety equipment and cleaning material needed in
and that if the share of government spending devoted to
schools and universities for the next academic year, among
education were to remain unchanged, education spending
other things. Additional financial resources were approved
would continue to grow but at significantly lower rates than
to recruit new teachers for primary to secondary level for the
before the pandemic (Al-Samarrai, Gangwar and Gala, 2020[6]).
next school year. Emergency financial grants to cover partial
or total course-related costs were announced for less well-
In the short term some countries have implemented immediate
off tertiary students.
financial measures to support students and education systems
in coping with the disruptions and economic impact of school
• Support packages for tertiary students announced by the
and university closures. Examples include:
New Zealand government in April 2020 to help students
continue their studies after the crisis. Measures include
• The Higher Education Relief Package, launched in April
increasing the amount of student loans and providing
2020 by the Australian government, which provided additional support to students to cover extra course- related
funding to Australians who have been displaced as a result costs (Ministry of Education, 2020[12]).
of the COVID-19 crisis and who were looking to improve
their skills or retrain. This package reduced the cost of • England's (United Kingdom) financial support for schools
taking short online courses, provided exemptions from loan launched in April 2020, which provides additional funding to
fees for domestic students for a period of six months schools to support them with costs associated with the
starting in May and guaranteed funding for domestic coronavirus. The additional costs covered by the fund
students, even if enrolments dropped. (Australian include utilities and resources needed to keep the school

Government, 2020m). open during holidays for priority groups of children, support
for free school meals for eligible children not

• The launch of the Canada Emergency Student Benefit

announced in April 2020 which seeks to provide financial
support to post-secondary students and recent high school

THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 ON EDUCATION - INSIGHTS FROM EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2020 @OECD 2020
 9

• attending school, as well as additional cleaning Emergency Relief Fund by the education authorities in the
United States which provides funding to institutions to
costs, where schools have suspected or provide emergency financial aid grants to students whose lives

confirmed cases of the virus (Department for have been disrupted (U.S. Department of Education, 2020[14]).
The CARES Act Elementary and Secondary School Emergency
Education, 2020[13]).
Relief Fund aims to provide financial support to school districts
affected by the disruption and closure of schools from COVID-
• The announcement of the CARES Act Higher Education
19 (New Jersey Department of Education, 2020”]).

International student mobility

Remote learning is a
poor substitute for
the experience of
studying abroad:
r
,

THE CRISIS HAS AFFECTED:

continuity Students are missing out on:

of learning
X international
exposure
input into foreign
job markets and
networking
safety and legal status of
international students
Fewer international students may
significantly affect the funding model of
students’ perception of some institutions where international
the value of studying students pay higher tuition fees than
abroad for their degree domestic ones.

One of the aspects of tertiary education which Education at a their host countries, and students' perception of the value of their
Glance tracks each year is international student flows. This is an degree.
area where future editions of this publication may reveal a sharp
reversal of trends in the year that COVID-19 struck. The global International students were particularly badly hit at the start of the

spread of the COVID-19 pandemic severely affected higher lockdown as they have had to sort out the implications of

education as universities closed their premises and countries university closures on their status on campus and within their

shut their borders in response to lockdown measures. The crisis host country. Students had to decide whether to return home with

has affected the continuity of learning and the delivery of course limited information about when they might return, or remain in

material, the safety and legal status of international students in their host country with restricted employment and education

THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 ON EDUCATION - INSIGHTS FROM EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2020 @OECD 2020
1
0

opportunities, all while sorting out their visa status. Some equivalent level, public institutions in Australia, Canada and the
countries, such as Canada or the United Kingdom, have offered United States charged foreign students over USD 13 900 more
leniency around visa rules, or allowed students to remain on per year than national students on average in 2017/18. Given the
campus (Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada, large share of international students in these countries,
2020[16]; UKCISA, 2020^7]) but this has not been the case international student inflows provide an important source of
everywhere. revenue for tertiary institutions. In Australia, the estimated
revenue from foreign students’ tuition fees exceeds one-quarter
To ensure the continuity of education despite the lockdown, of the total expenditure on tertiary educational institutions
higher education institutions have sought to use technology and (OECD, 2017[2”).
offer online classes and learning experiences as a substitute for
in-class time. However, many universities struggled and lacked Perhaps most importantly, the crisis has exposed the value
the experience and time they needed to conceive new ways to proposition of universities. Students are unlikely to commit large
deliver instruction and assignments. Examinations were also amounts of time and money to consume online content. Students
affected, causing disruption to students' learning trajectories and go to universities to meet great people, have inspiring
progression. Although many higher education institutions offered conversations with faculty, collaborate with researchers in the
online courses before the pandemic, few students considered it laboratory and experience the social life on campus. To remain
as the sole alternative to physical in-person learning. For relevant, universities will need to reinvent learning environments
example, in the United States, only 13% of first-cycle tertiary so that digitalisation expands and complements, but does not
students were exclusively enrolled in distance education courses replace, studentteacher and student-student relationships.
in 2017 (NCES, 2019"]). With the reopening of institutions for the Students are already demanding a partial refund of their tuition
coming academic year severely compromised and travel likely to fees and many institutions have made pro-rata refunds on room
remain restricted even after the confinement period, international and board, or have offered fee deferrals. With the enrolment of
students are being forced to deal with the reality of online international students for the next academic year severely
learning. compromised, this will cut into universities’ bottom line, affecting
not only their core education services, but also the financial
Beyond the transactional learning experience, these students are support they provide domestic students, as well as research and
also losing out on other benefits of international mobility such as development activities.
international exposure, access to a foreign job market and
networking. A survey of EU students studying in the United
Kingdom found that the main reasons for choosing to study
abroad were to broaden their horizons or experience other
cultures, improve their labour-market prospects and improve their
competence in English (West, 2000[19]). Similarly, the opportunity
to live abroad, learn or improve a foreign language and meet new
people, were among the three top reasons cited by students
participating in the EU-ERASMUS programme (European
Comission, 2014_).

A decrease in the share of international students may, in turn,

have severe repercussions on the funding model of some higher
education institutions where international students pay higher
tuition fees than domestic ones. Countries such as Australia,
Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States that rely
heavily on international students paying differentiated fees will
suffer the greatest losses. For instance, at the bachelor’s or

THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 ON EDUCATION - INSIGHTS FROM EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2020 @OECD 2020
 1
1

Figure 2. Incoming student mobility in tertiary education, by level of study (2018) International or foreign
student enrolment as a percentage of total enrolment in tertiary education
■ All tertiary
48 —Bachelor's or equivalent
6 • Master’s or equivalent
'7 ▲ Doctoral or equivalent
8
%

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Note: All tertiary education includes short-cycle tertiary programmes, which are not presented separately in the figure.
1. Data on short-cycle tertiary programmes are based on nationality and refer to the Flemish community only.
2. Year of reference 2017.
Countries are ranked in descending order of the percentage of international or foreign students in tertiary education.
Source: Education at a Glance (2020), Figure B6.4. See Education at a Glance (OECD, 2020[3]) for more information and Annex 3 for notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/69096873-
en).

The financial losses are not limited to higher education learning and the experience of studying abroad in ways that have
institutions. Countries have traditionally relied on international no precedent. It has also raised awareness of the vulnerability of
student mobility to facilitate the immigration of foreign talent and international students in times of crisis. All of this is likely to
contribute to both knowledge production and innovation influence students' perception of the value they will get from
nationally. Indeed, international student mobility is particularly studying abroad in relation to the price they are willing to pay.
high for doctoral programmes, where one in five students comes Faced with these challenges, higher education institutions will
from abroad on average across OECD countries (Figure 2). need to develop a new value proposition that reassesses the
Some countries, such as Australia, New Zealand and the United quality of learning and delivery mechanisms in the classroom,
Kingdom, have also reduced barriers to the migration of highly and that addresses the needs of an international student
qualified students, facilitating their entry into the labour market population that may be less willing to cross borders for the sole
after graduation (OECD, 2017[22]; OECD, 2016[23]). A decline in purpose of study.
international student mobility in these countries risks affecting
productivity in advanced sectors related to innovation and
research in the coming years.
Higher education has often been considered a refuge in periods
of low employment, enabling adults to develop their skills. In
contrast to previous economic downturns, the lockdown
measures of this current crisis have affected the delivery of

THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 ON EDUCATION - INSIGHTS FROM EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2020 @OECD 2020
COVID-19 and educational
institutions
X X X The loss of instructional time delivered in a school
X X X X
X X X
setting

Across the 46 OECD and partner countries covered in Education at a Glance...

Some • FEB 2020 • MAR 2020
of China was the first to By the end of March, all 46
these close schools, with countries had closed some
other countries or all of their schools
shortly following

WEEKS CLOSED # COUNTRIES

7 4+tl-ll 2
periods have included schools breaks. Some countries have also 8-12 II 6
reorganised their school years to minimise loss of instruction time. 12-16-I4tt-mt 4Htl 24
JUN 2020 16-18 mi 13
By the end of June, the duration of school closures ranged from 7 >18 4ttm4wmiii
to 19 weeks across OECD and partner countries 1

THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 ON EDUCATION - INSIGHTS FROM EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2020 @OECD 2020
In their first attempts to contain the spread of the virus, many countries By the end of March, school closures had been implemented to some
1
imposed a lockdown and schools and/or universities have closed for extent in all 46 countries covered by Education at a Glance, but to 3

several months across all OECD and partner countries. different degrees: 41 countries closed schools across the country while
5 (Australia, Iceland, the Russian Federation, Sweden and the United
Out of the 38 OECD countries and 8 partner countries covered by States) closed them at a subnational or local level (Figure 3). However,
Education at a Glance 2020, the People's Republic of China was the not all countries hit by the pandemic closed all of their schools. For
first to close schools in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. School example, primary schools in Iceland remained open if class sizes were
closures were imposed on 16 February 2020 in some parts of China, below 20 students. In Sweden, most primary and lower secondary
where the scheduled spring semester starts earlier, and extended schools remained open, while upper secondary schools switched to
nationwide about a week later. Other countries also began to close mainly distance learning from mid-March (UNESCO, 2020 [24]).
schools (closing school premises, without necessarily completely
ceasing teaching and learning) as the pandemic expanded. Preliminary It is difficult to estimate accurately the number of instruction weeks
information from various sources (see below) provides a snapshot of affected in all countries, as in some countries individual schools or local
responses during this ongoing and evolving global pandemic. authorities have autonomy over the

Figure 3. Number of countries with school closures due to COVID-19

Data covers the period between 17 February 2020 and 30 June 2020

■ Nationwide (OECD county) ■ Nationwide (Partner country)

Number ■ Localised (OECD country) ■ Localised (Partner county)
of countries
40

35

30

25

20

15

10

10
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Note: This figure covers educational institutions from early childhood education to tertiary education. Localised school closure refers to school closures of some levels of education only and/or for
some subnational entities.
Source: UNESCO (2020[ 4]), COVID-19 educational disruption and response, https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse; Education at a Glance 2020, Figure D1.4.
2

THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 ON EDUCATION - INSIGHTS FROM EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2020 @OECD 2020
14

organisation of the school year and the reopening of schools. March (see Figure X3.D1.2 in Annex 3 of Education at a Glance
However, by the end of June 2020, some degree of school for more information) (UNESCO, 2020^; European
closure was effective for at least 7 weeks in 2 countries (4%), 8- Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2019[25】).
12 weeks in 6 countries (13%), 12-16 weeks in 24 countries
(52%), 16-18 weeks in 13 countries (28%) and more than 18 Moreover, some countries have reorganised their school years to

weeks in China (UNESCO, 2020[24]). minimise the loss of instruction time. For example, in some
jurisdictions in Australia and Chile the winter school holidays
The actual impact may have been less severe as some of these were brought forward; in Korea the school year started in April
periods included scheduled school breaks. In many European (about one month later than the typical start) by shortening the
and Southern Hemisphere countries, Easter holidays scheduled summer vacation, and in Lithuania compulsory school holidays
in mid-April and/or spring vacations between April and early May were introduced in the last two weeks of March (OECD,
mitigated the impact of school closure by up to two weeks. In 2020[26】).
Japan for example, there is a two-week spring vacation in late

Measures to continue students' learning during

school closure

Countries used a variety Online platforms were used in

of remote learning nearly all OECD and partner
resources: countries. These tools included:
instructional
packages
Educational content
for exploring if
desired

r Real-time lessons
ta on virtual meeting
e d
e platforms
lid
e o
u
vc online Online support
a
ia instructional services for parents
n
st
d resources and students
ii
o o
n n f Self-paced
formalised lessons

THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 ON EDUCATION - INSIGHTS FROM EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2020 @OECD 2020
 1
5

Countries used a variety of resources to support students' content to continue students’ learning. In some countries, TV

learning while they were unable to come to school, including programmes mostly catered for younger children in primary

instructional packages (textbooks, worksheets and printouts), schools (for example, in Greece, Korea and Portugal), who

radio education, educational television and online instructional may have had difficulty using online learning platforms or
conducting self-directed learning. TV broadcasts are also a
resources. Countries usually used several tools in order to
way to reach students who do not have adequate resources for
reach the largest proportion of students possible. In the OECD
online instruction. Despite these advantages, broadcasts can
and partner countries, online platforms were the most popular
be limited to covering only a few subjects due to the short
tool used during school closures (Schleicher and Reimers,
amount of time devoted to these TV programmes. For
2020
[27] ).
example, two channels in Spain covered one of five subjects
(Spanish, mathematics, social science, natural sciences and
Online platforms were used in nearly all OECD and partner
arts and/or physical education) per day during a one-hour slot
countries. Online learning tools ranged from educational
(Ministry of Education and Vocational Training, 2020_;
content which students could explore at their own discretion
Schleicher and Reimers, 2020[27]).
and formalised learning programmes conducted at their own
pace, to real-time lessons led by their teachers using virtual
Other measures were also used to help students learn at
meeting platforms. For example, Estonia collaborated with
home. For example in Luxembourg, the government set up a
private services to provide a wealth of educational content free
new support system for students and parents to support home
to students during school closure. In France, already-existing
schooling. In Mexico, a telephone line “Your Teacher Online”
distance learning programme “Ma classe a la maison” (My
has been activated to offer mentoring to students (OECD,
classes at home) became available for all students in primary
2020[26]).
and secondary schools (Ministere de l’Education Nationale et
de la Jeunesse, 2020roJ. In Greece, teachers conducted virtual
In the majority of the OECD and partner countries, these
real-time classes in conjunction with other online learning tools
measures were conducted by the government with active
(Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs, 2020 [29];
involvement from individual schools. However, in Estonia,
Schleicher and Reimers, 2020[27]).
Finland, Japan and the Netherlands, individual schools had
more autonomy in organising these alternative education
Another popular learning arrangement in many OECD
arrangements (Schleicher and Reimers, 2020[27r).
countries were television broadcasts providing educational

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16

Teachers’ preparedness to support digital

learning

Teachers have reported high need for training in the use

of information and communication technologies (ICT):

Teachers are also not relying

60% heavily on distance learning

for their own development**
of teachers received
professional
development in ICT*
36
QQ/ reported a higher need
%
18 reported
/% for development in this area
participa
ting in
online
*In the year preceeding the TALIS survey courses
or
seminar
“Data on professional development for
reported s
lower secondary teachers, on average
across OECD countries participating in
courses or
seminars in
During the pandemic, remote learning became a lifeline teachers from imparting received knowledge towards
person
for education but the opportunities that digital working as co-creators of knowledge, as coaches, as
technologies offer go well beyond a stopgap solution mentors and as evaluators.
during a crisis. Digital technology offers entirely new
answers to the question of what people learn, how they That being said, the COVID-19 crisis struck at a point

learn, and where and when they learn. Technology can when most of the education systems covered by the

enable teachers and students to access specialised OECD’s 2018 round of the Programme for International

materials well beyond textbooks, in multiple formats and Student Assessment (PISA) were not ready for the world

in ways that can bridge time and space. Working of digital learning opportunities. A quarter of school

alongside teachers, intelligent digital learning systems principals across the OECD said that shortages or

don't just teach students science, but can inadequacy of digital technology was hindering learning

simultaneously observe how they study, the kind of quite a bit or a lot, a figure that ranged from 2% in

tasks and thinking that interest them, and the kind of Singapore to 30% in France and Italy (OECD, 2019[31]).

problems that they find boring or difficult. The systems Those figures may even understate the problem, as not

can then adapt the learning experience to suit students’ all principals will be aware of the opportunities for

personal learning styles with great granularity and instruction that modern technology can provide.

precision. Similarly, virtual laboratories can give

students the opportunity to design, conduct and learn Technology is also only as good as its use. According to

from experiments, rather than just learning about them. OECD’s Teaching and Learning International Survey
(TALIS) in 2018 just 53% of teachers on average let

Moreover, technology does not just change methods of their students frequently or always use information and

teaching and learning, it can also elevate the role of communication

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 1
7

technologies (ICT) for projects or classwork While most teachers participate in professional

(Figure 4). However, in Denmark and New development, the programmes they enrol in are not
Zealand the share reaches 80% or more, and always the ones they find most valuable. According to
in Finland, Israel or Romania those teachers, the professional
numbers have more than doubled over the
five years leading up to the survey.

According to TALIS, younger teachers use technology

more frequently in the classroom, but so too do teachers
for whom technology was included in their formal
training. However, only 60% of teachers received
professional development in ICT in the year preceding
the survey, while 18% reported a high need for
development in this area.

These figures highlight that teachers need to renew their

skills regularly in order to be able to innovate their
practices and adapt to the rapid transformations inherent

Figure 4. Percentage of lower secondary teachers who “frequently” or “always” let students use ICT for
projects or class work

Note: The OECD average is the arithmetic average based on lower secondary teacher data across 31 OECD countries and economies with adjudicated data. Countries
and economies are ranked in descending order of the percentage of teachers who "frequently” or "always” let students use ICT for projects or class work. Source: OECD
(2019[3 ]),TALIS 2018 Results (Volume I): Teachers and School Leaders as Lifelong Learners, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/1d0bc92a-en, Web table I.2.1.
2

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18

development programmes that have the ICT skills are particularly important given the radical shift
towards online teaching during the COVID-19 lockdown
most impact are those based on strong
in many OECD countries. Even before the crisis,
subject and curriculum content which teachers reported a strong need for training in the use of
ICT for teaching, with 18% on average across OECD
involve collaborative approaches to
countries identifying this as a high training need (OECD,
instruction, as well as the incorporation of 2019[32]). This is the second commonest training need

active learning (OECD, 2019 2 ). However,

[3 ]
teachers identified, just after teaching special needs
students. However, not only are teachers reporting a
teachers are more likely to participate in need for ICT training, they are also not relying on
courses or seminars than more collaborative distance learning for their own professional
development. Data on professional development show
forms of professional development. On
that on average across OECD countries, 36% of lower
average across OECD countries, 76% of secondary teachers reported participating in online
courses or seminars, less than half the share
lower secondary teachers reporting
participating in courses or seminars in person. Although
attending courses or seminars in person, this is the case in most countries, there are some

while only 44% of teachers participated in exceptions such as Korea and Shanghai (People's
Republic of China) where over 90% of teachers reported
peer and/or self-observation and coaching
undertaking online professional development in the past
as part of a formal school arrangement year. This practice is also widespread in Australia,
Chinese Taipei, England (United Kingdom), Israel,
(Figure 5).
Mexico, the Russian Federation and the United States,
where the share is over 50% (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Percentage of lower secondary teachers who participated in selected types of

professional development (2018)
Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS)
▲ Courses/seminars attended in person
♦ Peer and/or self-observation and coaching as part of a formal school
arrangement
• Online courses/seminars
%

Fr
en
ch
Co
m
m.
THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 ON EDUCATION - INSIGHTS FROM EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2020 @OECD 2020
(B
el
gi
 1
9

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20

When and how to reopen

schools

Steps to manage the risks of reopening

amidst the pandemic:

Two significant opportunities to

seize as schools reopen:

Step 4. assess the affect of

Step 3. ensure adequate remote learning on
training of student competencies
Step 2. revise attendance
teachers and
policies to
develop clear staff continue to build
Step 1. accommodate
protocols on infrastructure and
conduct a risk health-related
social distancing capacity for remote
assessment for absences
learning
staff

A survey recently conducted by the OECD and Harvard University on schools will also bring economic benefits to families by enabling them
the education conditions faced in countries and on the approaches to return to work, once public health authorities deem that this is
adopted to sustain educational opportunity during the pandemic has feasible.
found that the learning that has taken place during the period when
schools were closed was at best only a small proportion of what Those benefits, however, must be carefully weighed against the

students would have learned in school (Schleicher and Reimers, health risks and sanitary measures needed to minimise the health

2020[27]). The period of learning at home has made visible the many impact of the pandemic. Evidence from previous epidemics suggests

benefits that students gain from being able to learn in close contact that school closures can prevent up to 15% of infections (OECD,

with their teachers and peers, and with full access with the wide 2020_). While this impact is modest compared with other public

variety of educational, social and health-related services which policy measures (for instance workplace social distancing can reduce

schools offer. This public awareness of the importance of schools transmission by up to 73%, case isolation by around 45% and

and of teachers could be strategically deployed to increase household quarantine by around 40%), it is not negligible. In some

engagement and support from parents and communities for schools countries there are also high levels of interaction between the

and for teachers. This will be particularly important in the current youngest children and the older generations most at risk from the

context as the health and economic costs of the pandemic risk virus.

reducing the funds available to education.

There are unquestionable benefits to reopening educational

institutions in terms of supporting the development of knowledge and
skills among students and increasing their economic contribution
over the longer term. In fact, the learning loss which has already
taken place, if left unremedied, is likely to exact an economic toll on
societies in the form of reduced productivity and growth. Reopening

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1
The need to consider such trade-offs calls for sustained and effective It is just as important to protect teachers, administrative staff and
co-ordination between education and public health authorities at students who are at high risk due to age or underlying medical
different levels of government. Such collaboration should be conditions, with plans to cover absent teachers and continue remote
enhanced through local participation and autonomy that enable education to support students unable to attend school. Governments
responses to be tailored to the context. Many respondents to the and teacher organisations may also need to revise personnel and
OECD/Harvard study indicate that the plans are for schools to reopen attendance policies to accommodate health-related absences and
progressively, beginning in areas with the lowest rates of support remote and hybrid learning combining online and on-site
transmission and lowest localised risk (Schleicher and Reimers, teaching.
2020[27]).
Investment in human capacity will be central to this. School leaders
After mid-April, some OECD countries gradually started to reopen need to have the capacity and training to establish procedures for
schools. By the end of May, more than two months after the school when students or staff become unwell, and to put in place partial or
closures began in most OECD countries, schools were reopened (at complete school closures where needed. They need to be able to
least partially) in two-thirds of OECD countries (UNESCO, 2020 [24]; conduct a risk assessment for teachers and other staff and take
Schleicher and Reimers, 2020[27]). Younger students were the first to appropriate action to support them. Effective guidance and
return to school in Denmark (childcare and primary schools with procedures are needed for monitoring student and staff health,
additional measures such as reduced class sizes and physical maintaining regular contact with local health authorities, and updating
distancing), France (primary schools in most regions with limitations emergency plans and contact lists. When students enter school
on the number of children in a classroom), the Netherlands (primary premises, their temperature may need to be taken and infected
schools) and Norway (kindergarten and grades 1 to 4 in primary students isolated and cared for by specialised medical staff, without
schools with additional measures such as reduced class sizes and stigmatising them. Teachers, too, may need to be tested before the
physical distancing). In contrast, schools reopened first for older school reopens and the health and sanitary managers of schools
students in Greece and Korea, especially for final year students who should take the temperature of teachers when they enter the
were sitting secondary school qualification examinations or entrance premises.
examinations for tertiary education. However, in Ireland, Italy,
Lithuania, Portugal (except grades 11 and 12) and Spain (except for Similarly, administrative and teaching staff need training on how to

grades 10 and 12, where attendance will be voluntary) the plans cope with the virus, to recognise risks and to implement appropriate

were for primary and secondary schools to be closed until June measures. This includes implementing physical distancing and

(inclusive), that is to say the end of the school year 2019/20 (OECD, hygiene practices, such as increasing both the intensity and

2020_; Schleicher and Reimers, 2020[27]; UNESCO, 2020[24]). frequency of cleaning and disinfection activities and improving waste
management practices. Cleaning staff need to be trained in
Several steps can be taken to manage the risks and tradeoffs. First disinfection and be equipped with personal protection equipment as
of all, it is important to develop clear protocols on physical distancing far as possible.
measures, including avoiding activities that require large gatherings,
staggering the start and end of the school day, staggering meal As schools reopen, there are two significant opportunities to seize,

times, moving classes to temporary spaces or outdoors, and having building on plans which many of the respondents to this survey

students attend in shifts to reduce class size. Equally important are indicate are already in the making. The first is to take stock of the

protocols and practice on hygiene measures, including handwashing, lessons learned in this crisis as children return to school and to
respiratory etiquette, use of protective equipment, cleaning assess the learning loss. This exercise in student assessment should

procedures for facilities and safe food preparation practices. focus not just on the extent to which students gained the knowledge
and skills intended in the curriculum, but also on what skills and
competencies they demonstrated, or failed to demonstrate, during
the period of remote learning. Effective learning out of school has
clearly placed greater demands on students' autonomy, capacity for

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22

independent learning, executive functioning, self-

monitoring and capacity to learn on line. These are all
essential skills for the present and the future. It is
likely that some students were more proficient in
them than others and that, as a result, were able to
learn more than their peers while not in school. The
plans to return to school should therefore focus on
more intentional efforts to cultivate these essential
skills among all students.

The second, which is equally important, will be to build on the already

ongoing efforts to develop the infrastructure for online and remote
learning, and to continue to develop the capacity of students and
teachers to learn and teach in that way. This is essential first
because there is a possibility that, until a vaccine is widely available,
any return to school may have to be again interrupted as a result of
future outbreaks, at least locally. But beyond COVID-19 pandemic,
there are evident benefits to students in expanding their learning time
and opportunities beyond the school gate by being able to learn
using a variety of distance learning approaches. Plans for school
reopening could consider blended modalities to allow all students to
access the curriculum.

Maintaining a safe distance between pupils and staff depends on:

1-2m

Social distancing in the classroom

This distance is adjusted to the level of
containment of the virus.

Average primary
class size across
OECD countries:

context, this
16 (Costa Rica) 21 (Average) 31
(Chile)
means reducing contact between groups of children
Social distancing has proven to be one of the most effective
and maintaining a safe distance of 1-2 metres between pupils and
measures to prevent the spread of the COVID-19. Within a school
staff. In some countries, the safety distance depends on the level of

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3
containment of the virus achieved. For example, schools in less-
affected areas in Japan (Level 1) are required to maintain a distance
of 1 metre while those in more- affected ones (Levels 2 or 3) must
maintain a distance of 1-2 metres (MEXT, 2020 [34]). Guidance in
many countries has been to reduce or halve the size of the classes
in order to maintain the required distance between students. Some
countries

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24

have specified the maximum number of students While returning to school is compulsory in most OECD countries for

allowed in the classroom at any given time. For students in the permitted age groups or specific levels of education
example, France and the United Kingdom have (except for sick students or those with a vulnerable or sick family
recommended a limit of 15 students in primary member), attendance is optional in Canada, the Czech Republic,
classes, provided the safety distances are maintained France, and Spain, with remote and online learning for students who
(Ministere de l'Education Nationale et de la Jeunesse,
wish to stay at home. These hybrid measures aim to secure support
2020[35]; Department for Education, 2020 36]). [

for the reopening of schools while optimising their capacity for social
Ensuring a minimum safety distance between pupils and staff will distancing (Schleicher and Reimers, 2020[27]).
depend on many factors such as classroom size, room availability,
and the number of students per class. Countries with smaller class To ensure all students have the opportunity to benefit from face-to-
sizes may find it easier to comply with new restrictions on social face teaching in a context of reduced class sizes, schools in about
distancing provided they have the space to accommodate the 60% of OECD member and partner countries are organising shifts to
number of students safely. Although France and the United Kingdom alternate students throughout the day when they cannot
recommend the same limit on the number of children per primary accommodate them all on site (Schleicher and Reimers, 2020 [27】).
class, public institutions in France have class sizes of 23 students on Unless schools can establish effective forms of hybrid learning which
average, smaller than the United Kingdom where the average is 27 combine on-site and online learning experiences, the consequence
students per class. With more than 30 students per class in lower of such a measure will be reduced classroom instruction time than
secondary level, countries such as Chile, Colombia and Japan may before school closures. Distance learning has therefore remained in
face more difficulties in reorganising classes into smaller groups of place in most countries until the end of the academic year to
students to maintain a safe distance between desks (Figure 6). continue to support students, including for those who have opted not
to or cannot attend class for sanitary or personal health reasons.

Figure 6. Average class size, by level of education (2018)

Number of ■ Primary
students ♦ Lower secondary

Countries are ranked in descending order of the average class size at the primary level.
Source: Education at a Glance (2020), Figure D2.3. See Source section for more information and Annex 3 for notes (https://doi,org/10,1787/69096873-en).

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5

Vocational education during the COVID-19 lockdown

42% of upper secondary students are enrolled in vocational education and training (VET)*

25-90%
of the VET curriculum in these
L> of those, programmes is organised in the
workplace

programmes. Social distancing and

lockdown of facilities makes
this difficult or impossible

With companies
struggling to recover
economically, there
may be fewer
apprenticeships
available.
average across OECD countries

1 in 3 are enrolled in combined school and work-based

While remote learning has offered some educational continuity when than 60% of total learning time. VET programmes that rely most
it comes to academic learning, vocational education and training heavily on practical training, such as agriculture, health, engineering,
(VET) has been particularly hard hit by the crisis. Compared to construction and crafts, will struggle the most to adjust to remote
general programmes, VET programmes suffer a double learning. Even in cases where practical training can be simulated
disadvantage as social distancing requirements and the closure of remotely, the learning experience is more limited.
enterprises have made practical and workbased learning that are so
crucial for the success of vocational education difficult or impossible. Among VET qualifications, combined school- and workbased
Yet, this sector plays a central role in ensuring the alignment programmes, where 25-90% of the curriculum is organised as work-
between education and work, the successful transition of students based learning in enterprises, have been particularly affected as
into the labour market, and for employment and the economic businesses have closed or reduced their operations. For example,
recovery more generally. Not least, many of the professions that apprentices who were placed in companies and sectors such as
formed the backbone of economic and social life during the lockdown catering or tourism that have come to a standstill as a result of
hinge on vocational qualifications. border closures and

Whether they are school-based or combined school- and work-based

programmes, practical teaching forms an important part of the VET
curricula. This involves hands-on experience in workshops,
laboratories or in the workplace, specific equipment, and careful
attention from teachers to ensure that tasks are correctly performed.
In some countries, the work-based component can account for more

THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 ON EDUCATION - INSIGHTS FROM EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2020 @OECD 2020
26

the confinement of populations have largely stopped (Figure 7).

their work activities. With an economic crisis Although VET programmes are generally attractive to employers and

looming, it is still an open question whether offer strong employment prospects to students, the pandemic has
companies will be able to take on apprentices as they created considerable uncertainty over what will happen next. Some
struggle to recover from the economic setback. initiatives have already been announced. According to a joint
Overall, more than 44% of upper secondary VET OECD/Harvard survey carried out in May 2020, in 70% of countries
students are enrolled in combined school- and work-
for which data are available, plans to reopen schools generally
based programmes in 12 out of the 35 OECD
countries with available data. Of these countries, the include provisions and remedial measures for students in

proportion of students enrolled in these programmes vocationally oriented programmes (Schleicher and Reimers, 2020 [27]).
exceeds 90% in Denmark, Germany, Hungary, The measures do not stop at the early reopening of schools for VET
Ireland, Latvia, the Netherlands and Switzerland students; in many countries, there is a genuine understanding

Figure 7. Distribution of upper secondary vocational students by type of

vocational programme (2018)

■ Combined school- and work-based programmes

% ■ School-based programmes

Note: Figures in parentheses refer to the most typical duration of the work-based component as a percentage of the total programme duration for combined school- and work-based
programmes. For example, in Germany, more than 98% of students in combined school- and work-based programmes are enrolled in a programme where the duration of the work
component accounts for about 60% of the total programme duration. See Table B7.3 for more information.
1. Data on typical duration of the work-based component are not applicable because the category does not apply.
2. The most typical duration of the work-based component is at least 46% for the Flemish Community of Belgium and 60% for the French Community of Belgium.
3. Data on the most typical duration of the work-based component are missing.
4. The share of students enrolled in combined school- and work-based programmes as a percentage of all student enrolled in upper secondary vocational education is estimated
based on the results of the INES ad-hoc survey on VET.
Countries are ranked in descending order of the share of students enrolled in school-based vocational programmes.
Source: Education at a Glance (2020), Figure B7.6. See Education at a Glance (OECD, 2020[ ]) for more information and Annex 3 for notes (https://doi.
3

org/10.1787/69096873-en).

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7

that apprenticeship streams should not be the first victims of

the current situation, and many have already taken measures
to support the continuation of VET. These include (OECD,
2020[37]):

• increasing the use of online and virtual platforms more

appropriate to VET to ensure continuity of learning

• financing training breaks or extensions to avoid breaks in

learning resulting in fees, repayments or other penalties
for both learners and providers

• providing wage support for apprentice retention to allow

apprentices to maintain contact with employers and if
possible continue working through remote working or
virtual meetings

• leveraging links between work-based and schoolbased

VET to provide alternative school-based VET in cases
where upper secondary VET students are unable to
secure an apprenticeship, including work-based
components

• offering flexible skills assessment and awarding of

qualifications as, in many sectors, particularly healthcare a
direct route to qualification may need to be established
quickly in response to the COVID-19 crisis

• informing, engaging and communicating with learners,

providers and social partners about new guidance on the
delivery of assessment, or to ensure apprentices are
informed of changes to regulations and practices

• investing in VET to mitigate future skills shortages and

minimise the shock of the crisis.

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28

Conclusion
As we enter the COVID-19 recovery phase, it will be critical to prospects of certain professions, including those considered
reflect on the role of educational systems - and particularly paramount for the common good.
vocational education - in fostering resilient societies. The global
health crisis and the lockdown that followed have brought to the Real change often takes place in deep crises, and this moment
fore professions that have often been taken for granted, renewing holds the possibility that we won’t return to the status quo when
our awareness of their value to society. This has helped restore a things return to “normal”. While this crisis has deeply disruptive
sense of esteem for those workers who have worked relentlessly implications, including for education, it does not have
during this time to keep economies afloat. predetermined outcomes. It will be the nature of our collective
and systemic responses to these disruptions that will determine
The outlook is very uncertain. But, if anything, the pandemic has how we are affected by them.
exposed our vulnerability to crises and revealed how precarious
and interdependent the economies we have built can be. In this sense, the pandemic is also a call to renew the

Disruptions on the scale we have just witnessed are not limited to commitment to the Sustainable Development Goals. Ensuring

pandemics, but may also result from natural, political, economic that all young people have the opportunity to succeed at school

and environmental disorder. Our capacity to react effectively and and develop the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that will

efficiently in the future will hinge on governments’ foresight, allow them to contribute to society is at the heart of the global

readiness and preparedness. Through their role in developing the agenda and education’s promise to our future society. The

competencies and skills needed for tomorrow’s society, current crisis has tested our ability to deal with large-scale

education systems will need to be at the heart of this planning. disruptions. It is now up to us to build as its legacy a more

This includes rethinking how the economy should evolve to guard resilient society.

against adversity, and defining the skills, education and training

required to support it. This also means working in close
collaboration with other government sectors and the private
sector to increase the attractiveness and labour-market

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9

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For more information on Education at a Glance 2020 and to access the full set of Indicators, visit www.oecd.org/ educationZeducation-at-
a-glance-19991487.htm.

Updated data can be found on line at http:adx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-data-en.

Explore, compare and visualise more data and analysis using the Education GPS: https:"gpseducation.oecd.org/.

Education ata Glance: OECD Indicators is the authoritative source for information on the state of education around the world. It
provides data on the structure, finances and performance of education systems in OECD and partner countries.

This work is published under the responsibility ot the Secretary-General ot the OECD. The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily
reflect the otficial views ot OECD member countries.

This document, as well as any data and any map included herein, are without prejudice to the status ot or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation ot
international trontiers and boundaries and to the name ot any territory, city or area.

On 15 May 2020, the OECD Council invited Costa Rica to become a Member. While Costa Rica is included in the OECD averages reported in this note, at the time
ot its preparation, Costa Rica was in the process ot completing its domestic procedures tor ratification and the deposit ot the instrument ot accession to the OECD
Convention was pending.

The present publication presents time series compiled by the OECD Secretariat for the European Union which include the United Kingdom for the entire time
series, even when data extend beyond the date of the United Kingdom’s withdrawal from the European Union on 1 February 2020.

The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and are under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without
prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.

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