Principles of Energy Conversion

Part 11A. Solar Energy Insolation

April 19, 2018

19 Solar Radiation 3
19.1 Overview and Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
19.2 Solar Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
19.3 Terrestrial Insolation & Solar Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
19.4 Beam Normal Insolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
19.5 Diffuse-Scattered Insolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
19.6 Reflected Insolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
19.7 Total Insolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
19.8 Shading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
19.9 Solar Constants for Northern Latitudes [1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

References 24

Department of Mechanical Engineering – Engineering Mechanics

Michigan Technological University
Copyright © 2018
Article 19
Solar Radiation

19.1 Overview and Background

The overall objective of this article is to determine the electromagnetic energy avail-
able at the ground level, then determine how much of the electromagnetic energy is
converted into thermal energy. The resulting thermal energy may be desired for space
heating or power generation, but it may also be undesired by creating an unwanted
heat load on a building. Failure to account for solar energy loadings will result in inef-
ficient, energy-wasting HVAC systems or uncomfortable environments. The challenges
in achieving this objective are many.
Challenge 1: The amount of electromagnetic energy available varies with the wave-
length of light. For example, blue light is more energetic than red light. The solar spec-
trum is non-uniformly distributed across wavelengths. Some wavelengths pass through
the Earth’s atmosphere easily; other wavelengths do not.
Challenge 2: The amount of solar energy available at ground level varies with location
on the Earth, time of year, and time of day. A building located in Houghton, Michigan
receives a different amount of solar energy than one located in Tuscon, Arizona. The
solar energy received by a building in either location in January is significantly different
that received in July.
Challenge 3: The amount of solar energy absorbed by a surface varies with materials
used and surface configuration. The size and shape of the surface will affect the amount
of solar energy that can be absorbed. And the materials used (brick vs wood vs glass)
will affect the amount of energy absorbed, reflected or transmitted.
Challenge 4: The amount of solar energy impinging on a surface will vary with the
immediate surroundings. A large glass building adjacent to the surface of interest may
block solar energy or double the heating load due to reflection. A line of trees on one
side of a building may affect the solar energy loading in the winter and have no affect
in the summer.
Challenge 5: The amount of solar energy transmitted through a surface varies with
what is behind the surface. For example, shades, curtains, and screens will affect the
transmittance of solar radiation into the interior of a building.
To address these challenges, we will break down the complexity of this objective into
the following subtopics:
• discussion of the nature electromagnetic energy and the solar spectrum;
• determination of how much solar energy gets through the atmosphere, which
varies during the day and season;

3
Article 19 Solar Radiation

• determination of how much solar energy is absorbed by a surface; and

• determination of how much solar energy is transmitted through windows and
openings in a structure.
• discussion on regulating solar energy transmission through external and internal
structures and materials.

19.1.1 Translation of Nomenclature

The nomenclature used in solar engineering vary widely with no accepted standard
for symbols and units. The nomenclature used in these notes is not the same as in the
HVAC textbook. Translation of symbols with those used in the textbook are periodically
located throughout the notes.

Table 19.1. Translation of nomenclature to that used in McQuiston et al. [2].

This Article McQuiston et al. [2]
Beam Insolation on a clear day [W/m2 ] IB ≡ GND Direct Irradiation on a clear day [W/m2 ]
Beam Insolation normal to a flat surface; IBN ≡ GD Direct Irradiation on a surface of arbitrary
IBN = IB cos θ orientation; GD = GND cos θ

Diffuse Scattered Insolation IDS ≡ Gd Diffuse Irradiation

Reflected Insolation IR ≡ GR Reflected Irradiation

Apparent Extraterrestrial Solar Insolation AS ≡ A Apparent Solar Irradiation (ma = 0)

Atmospheric Extinction Coefficient BS ≡ B Atmospheric Extinction Coefficient

Clearness Number CS ≡ C Clearness Number

Shape Factor; angle between surface and Fss ≡ Fws Configuration Factor; angle between sur-
sky for diffusion radiation face and sky for diffusion radiation
Angle Factor; angle between surface and Fsg ≡ Fwg Configuration Factor; angle between sur-
ground for ground-reflected radiation face and ground for ground-reflected
radiation

Incident Angle; angle between surface θ ≡ θ Angle of Incidence

normal and Sun’s rays
Altitude Angle of Sun; incident angle be- β1 ≡ β Solar Altitude Angle; incident angle be-
tween beam insolation and horizontal tween beam insolation and horizontal
≡ θz Solar Zenith Angle; incident angle be-
tween beam insolation and vertical
θz = 90 − β

4
 19.1 Overview and Background

Table 19.1. (continued)

These Notes McQuiston et al. [2]
Solar Azimuth Angle; relative to South, α1 ≡ φ Solar Azimuth Angle; relative to North.
west of due south are positive angles, east This choice of defining the solar azimuth
of due south are negative angles angle can cause confusion since it results
in cos α1 = − cos φ. The computed value
of θ is the same since the dependency is
cos(α1 − α2 ).

Tilt Angle of Surface relative to horizontal β2 ≡ α Tilt Angle of Surface

Azimuth Angle of Surface Normal relative α2 ≡ ψ Surface Azimuth Angle relative to North;
to South, angles east of south are negative ψ = α2 + 180; as with φ, the definition of
ψ should be relative to South
γ surface solar azimuth; γ = ∣φ − ψ∣

Declination Angle; angle between Earth’s δ ≡ δ Declination Angle

equatorial plane and beam insolation

Latitude Angle L ≡ ` Latitude Angle

Hour Angle; angles east of due south H ≡ h Hour Angle

(morning) are negative

Coordinated Universal Time; 0○ longitude UTC ≡ GCT Greenwich Civil Time

(Greenwich Mean Time)

Local Standard Time; depends upon time EST ≡ EST Local Standard Time
zone of interest, EST: eastern standard
time

Daylight Savings Time; depends upon EDT ≡ DST Daylight Savings Time
time zone of interest, EDT: eastern day-
light time

Mean Solar Time; constant velocity solar MST ≡ LCT Local Civil Time
time, based on location relative to local
meridian;

Apparent Solar Time; corrected solar AST ≡ LST Local Solar Time; LST = LCT + EOT
time for variation in velocity of Earth;
AST = MST + EOT

Equation of Time; correction to MST; EOT ≡ EOT Equation of Time

various relationships can be used or look
up tabulated values

5
Article 19 Solar Radiation

19.2 Solar Energy

Solar energy is categorized as electromagnetic, which can be described as the kinetic
energy of a particle (photon) and as the energy of a wave. The energy of a single photon
can be expressed in terms of wavelength or frequency of the electromagnetic wave.
̵
̵ p = ch ,
Ephoton = hν (19.1)
λp
where h̵ is Planck’s constant (6.625 ⋅ 10−34 J⋅s), νp is frequency (s−1 ) and λp is wave-
length (km, m, mm, µm, nm, or Å). Frequency and wavelength are related by the speed
of light c in the material of interest.
c = νλ (19.2)
The range of electromagnetic energy is illustrated in Figure 19.1. The upper scale
expresses energy as wavelength (λ) and the bottom scale expresses energy as frequency
(ν).

Figure 19.1. Electromagnetic spectrum in units of wavelength and frequency. [3]

19.2.1 Solar Energy Spectrum

Solar energy received by the Earth does not cover the entire spectrum shown in
Figure 19.1. The variation of extraterrestrial solar energy with wavelength is shown
in Figure 19.2. The higher energy is now on the left side of the plot; the wavelength
axis is opposite that shown in Figure 19.1. The energy flux per wavelength shown in
Figure 19.2 is the wavelength-specific energy flux impinging on the atmosphere of the
earth. The flux of solar energy [energy/area] is known by a variety of terms: irradiance,
radiance, irradiation, insolation, and energy flux.

6
 19.2 Solar Energy




l
l l










             
 l
Figure 19.2. Extraterrestrial solar spectra. Data from ASTM E-490-00 Standard Extraterres-
trial Reference [4].

19.2.2 Solar Constant

All of the solar energy lies in a narrow band of the electromagnetic spectrum; from
approximately 0.2 µm to 2.5 µm. The total extraterrestrial solar energy flux is found by
integrating under the wavelength-specific energy flux curve; which is known as the solar
constant S.
There is no consensus on the value of the
solar constant. The annual average value of
the solar constant reported by NASA is S =
1353 ± 1.6% W/m2 ; other values reported are
1367 W/m2 and 1377 W/m2 [2, 3].
Extraterrestrial solar insolation, AS , varies by
approximately ±3.3% during the year as a result
of the Earth’s elliptical orbit around the Sun.
Sunspots and solar bursts also result in vari-
ations in extraterrestrial solar insolation. Fig-
ure 19.3 plots the average variation in extrater-
restrial solar energy with time of year. Tabulated
Figure 19.3. Variation in the solar con-
values of AS are available. Alternatively, a sim-
stant with time of year [5].
ple engineering relationship for the variation in
extraterrestrial solar insolation is:
360n
AS (n) = S [1 + 0.034 cos( )] , (19.3)
365
where As is the daily extraterrestrial solar insolation and n is the day of the year begin-

7
Culp: Principles of Energy 2. Principal Fuels for Text © The McGraw−Hill 539
Conversion, Second Edition Energy Conversion Companies, 1991

Article 19 Solar Radiation

ning at January 1st.

Figure 19.4. Earth’s orientation with respect to sun [1].

19.2.3 Solar Energy and the Atmosphere

The next step is to determine how much of the extraterrestrial solar energy gets to
the Earth’s surface. As the electromagnetic energy (radiation) passes through the at-
mosphere a portion of the energy is scattered or absorbed by particles or water drops.
Scattering occurs due to air molecules, water vapor, water drops and dust. The absorp-
tion and scattering is wavelength dependent.
The spectral transmittance of solar energy through the atmosphere can be seen Fig-
ure 19.5. Absorption of solar radiation is due primarily to ozone (O3 ) in the ultraviolet
(0.3 - 0.4 µm). Below 0.29 µm there is nearly complete absorption by ozone. Water
vapor and carbon dioxide absorb energy in the infrared portion of the spectrum. Water
has very strong absorption at 1.0, 1.4, and 1.8 µm.

8
 19.2 Solar Energy

Figure 19.5. Solar irradiance attenuation in Earth’s atmosphere. (A) Extraterrestrial spectral
energy flux [1353 W/m2 ]. (B) Terrestrial spectral energy flux with ma = 1 [924.9 W/m2 ] (C)
Terrestrial with ma = 4 [528.9 W/m2 ], (D) Terrestrial ma = 10 [234.5 W/m2 ]. Curves computed
for 20-mm water vapor, 3.4-mm ozone, and clear atmosphere. [6]

19.2.4 Transmittance

Multiple curves are shown in Figure 19.5 corresponding to different air mass ratios,
which is the thickness of the atmosphere that the solar energy passes through. At solar
noon, the Sun is directly south and the atmospheric thickness will be at the minimum
for that day. In the early morning and late afternoon the Sun is low on the east and
west horizons, respectively, and the thickness of the atmosphere that the solar radiation
passes through is at a maximum because of the angle between the Sun’s rays and the
normal to the Earth’s surface. An air mass ratio equal to 1 corresponds to solar noon.
The ratio of solar radiation that passes through the atmosphere to the total extrater-
restrial available is known as the Transmittance.
Iterrestrial
T= (19.4)
I0,extraterrestrial

9
Article 19 Solar Radiation

The amount of solar energy flux lost due to reflection, scattering and absorption is
proportional to the extraterrestrial solar energy flux and the thickness of the air.

Ilost ∼ I0 ∆x (19.5)

At some wavelengths, such as 1.4 µm, virtually no energy gets through while at other
wavelengths nearly all of the energy gets through. Therefore, the amount of energy flux
lost is expressed in terms of spectral (wavelength dependent) values.

Ilost,λ = I0,λ − Iλ (x) = kλ I0,λ ∆x , (19.6)

where the proportionality constant kλ is known as the monochromatic extinction coef-

ficient. The value of kλ depends upon scattering and absorption. For an infinitesimal
thickness the transmission of solar energy becomes

dIλ
= −kλ dx Ô⇒ Iλ (x) = I0,λ e−kλ x (19.7)
Iλ
Equation 19.7 is known as the Beer-Lambert law. The monochromatic transmittance
is
Tλ = e−kλ x (19.8)
The total transmittance is found by integrating over all wavelengths.
λ
T = ∫ Tλ dλ (19.9)
0

10
 19.3 Terrestrial Insolation & Solar Angles

19.3 Terrestrial Insolation & Solar Angles

Terrestrial insolation received by a structure or building is generally divided into three
components. The first is normal beam insolation IBN , which is the irradiation directly
(line-of-sight) from the sun relative to the surface normal. The second component is
diffuse scattered insolation IDS , which is the irradiation felt when in the shade. The
third component is reflected insolation IR due to surrounding structures and the ground.

Itotal = IBN + IDS + IR (19.10)

All three components are related to the terrestrial beam insolation IB ; i.e., the solar
irradiation that made it through the atmosphere. The first step in determining Itotal is
to calculate IB .

19.3.1 Beam Insolation on Clear Days

Beam Insolation, IB , is the amount of direct solar radiation received through the at-
mosphere. IB is determined using the Beer-Lambert law (equation 19.7), IB = AS e−Bs ma
once three parameters are established.
1. Extraterrestrial solar insolation, AS , which varies with day of the year due to the
elliptical orbit of the earth and cyclic variations in solar activity. Values of AS are
tabulated in §19.9. Alternatively, equation 19.3 can be used to approximate AS .
2. Extinction coefficient, BS , which varies with seasonal changes in water content
in the atmosphere. For the purposes here, the extinction coefficient has been
integrated across all wavelengths in the solar spectrum. Values of BS are tabulated
in §19.9.
3. Atmospheric path length through which the solar radiation must pass. The at-
mospheric path length, ma , will vary from dawn to dusk on each day and has to
be computed for a specific time.
On any given day the minimum thickness of the atmosphere through which solar radi-
ation passes occurs at solar noon. At this time the air mass ratio is one ma = 1. In the
morning and evening, the atmospheric thickness is relatively large (ma > 1) resulting in
greater attenuation of solar irradiation.
Determining ma is traditionally based on the Ptolemaic view that the sun moves
relative to a fixed coordinate system based on the observer’s location. The sun’s position
is measured relative the horizontal plane at the observer’s location. This angle is known
as the Altitude Angle denoted as β1 . Using analytical geometry the air mass ratio can
be related to the altitude angle; ma = 1/ sin β1 . The resulting expression for terrestrial
beam insolation is
IB = AS e−Bs / sin β1 (19.11)

11
Article 19 Solar Radiation

19.3.2 Altitude Angle

The altitude angle β1 is the angle between the sun’s rays and horizontal at the
observer’s location. In addition to time of day, this angle varies with location and day
of year. For example, at 2:00 eastern standard time the angle between the sun’s rays
in Houghton, Michigan is not the same as the angle in Chicago, Illinois due to the
curvature of the earth. The tilt of Earth’s axis relative to the sun changes from January
to July which results in the daily altitude angle varying. Therefore, three new angles
are necessary to calculate β1 . These three angles, illustrated in Figure 19.7, are
Declination Angle, δ: angle between the earth’s equatorial plane and the sun’s rays.
Latitude Angle, L: angle between location and earth’s equatorial plane. This angle is
the Latitude of the location.
Hour Angle, H: angle between sun’s rays projected on a horizontal plane and due south.
In the morning when the sun is east of due south the hour angle is negative. When
the sun is west of due south the hour angle is positive.
The geometric relationship between these three angles and the altitude angle is:
sin β1 = cos L cos δ cos H + sin L sin δ (19.12)

Figure 19.6. Altitude Angle, β1 . Figure 19.7. Declination, Latitude and Hour Angles.

19.3.3 Declination Angle

The declination angle is the angle between the sun’s rays and the equatorial plane
of the earth. Due to the tilt of the earth’s axis and the elliptical orbit, the declination
angle varies between ±23.45○ . The value of the declination angle is tabulated by date
in §19.9. A simple engineering approximation is
360
δ = 23.45○ sin [ (284 + n)] (19.13)
365
where 1 ≤ n ≤ 365.

12
 19.3 Terrestrial Insolation & Solar Angles

19.3.4 Hour Angle

The hour angle H is measured relative to solar noon; that is when the sun is at the
zenith for that particular day. When the sun is east of solar noon the hour angle is
negative. In the afternoon when the sun is west of solar noon the hour angle is positive.
Modern society works on time measured relative to meridians or time zones and not
solar position relative to the zenith. Therefore, local time (i.e., clock time) will need to
be converted into solar time.
The earth revolves 360 degrees in a 24-hour pe-
riod. Each hour increment of rotation is equivalent US Time Zone Meridians
to 15 degrees, which is used to define meridians. Atlantic 60○ W longitude
Meridians are imaginary lines running from pole Eastern US 75○ W
to pole around the earth’s surface on 15 degree Central US 90○ W
increments in longitude. Meridians are used to Mountain 105○ W
define time zones and are nominally in the center Pacific 120○ W
of the geographic time zone. The standard merid- Yukon 135○ W
ian runs from the north pole through Greenwich, Alaska-Hawaii 150○ W
England to the south pole and defines Greenwich
Mean Time (GMT), which is now known as Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). 1
The relation between mean solar time (MST) and local standard time is based on
the difference in location and meridian longitudes. There are 4 minutes for each degree
of longitude. Thus,
⎧
⎪ ⎫ ⎧ standard ⎫
⎪ local ⎪⎪ ⎛ 4 min ⎞ ⎪ ⎪ local ⎪ ⎪
MST = ⎨standard⎬ + ○ ⎨ meridian − ⎬ (19.14)
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎝ longitude ⎠ ⎪
⎪ longitude ⎪
⎪
⎩ time ⎭ ⎩ longitude ⎭
During Daylight Savings Time clocks are advanced by one hour so the local standard
time must be adjusted.
⎧
⎪ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
⎪ local ⎪⎪ ⎪ ⎪ local daylight ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎨standard⎬ = ⎨ ⎬ − ⎨ 1 hour ⎬ (19.15)
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ savings time ⎪⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎩ time ⎭ ⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
Mean Solar Time (MST) is based on the average velocity of the earth around the
sun, but the earth’s velocity is not constant due to the orbit and the “wobble” of the
earth’s axis. A correction to the MST must be applied that provides the Apparent Solar
Time (AST). The correction is known as the Equation of Time (EOT).

AST = MST + EOT (19.16)

The correction (EOT) varies from +16.3 minutes in November to -14.4 minutes in
February. Daily variation in EOT is tabulated in multiple sources. Engineering approxi-
mations are also available [3].

1 Houghton,Michigan is part of the Eastern US time zone with longitude 88.57○ W, very close the
Central US Meridian.

13
Article 19 Solar Radiation

19.3.4.1 Example: Mean and Apparent Solar Times

Calculate the mean and apparent solar times for Houghton, MI at 12:00 pm (noon) on
June 21. On this date, daylight savings time is in effect. Houghton is located at 88.57○
W longitude and 47.90○ N latitude. On this date the equation of time is EOT = -1.5
min.
4 min
MST = (12 ∶ 00 pm − 1 hr) + ( ) (75○ W − 88.57○ W) = 10.095 am = 10 ∶ 05 ∶ 42 am
deg. long.
´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹¸ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹¶ ´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹¸ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹¶
local standard time time from eastern meridian = -54.28 min

1 hr
AST = MST + EOT = 10 ∶ 09 am + 1.5 min ( ) = 10.065 am = 10 ∶ 04 am
60 min
Solar noon occurs two hours before noon local daylight savings time.
19.3.4.2 Example: Hour Angle
Calculate the Hour Angle for the example in §19.3.4.1. The apparent solar time (AST) is
10:04 am, which is -116 minutes before east of zenith. The hour angle will be negative.
deg. long.
H = −116 min ( ) = −28.5○
4 min
19.3.4.3 Example: Altitude Angle
Calculate the Altitude Angle for the example in §19.3.4.1.
Latitude Angle: L = 47.90○ (Houghton, MI)
Hour Angle: H = −28.5○ (noon EDT, June 21)
Declination Angle: δ = +23.45○ (June 21, table lookup)

sin β1 = cos L cos δ cos H + sin L sin δ = 0.8358

Altitude Angle: β1 = 56.7○

19.3.4.4 Example: Terrestrial Beam Insolation
Calculate the Terrestrial Beam Insolation for the location and time in §19.3.4.1. Using
a lookup table for June 21.
Apparent Extraterrestrial Solar Insolation: AS = 1087 W/m2
Extinction Coefficient: BS = 0.207
2
IB = AS e−BS / sin β1 = 848.5 W/m

14
 19.4 Beam Normal Insolation

19.4 Beam Normal Insolation

Beam insolation, IB , is the amount of solar energy
available at ground level, but this is not the amount
that will be absorbed by or transmitted through a struc-
ture. The amount of solar energy available at a sur-
face if found by integrating the beam insolation over
an area:

direct solar energy: IBN = ∫ IB ⋅ dA

Figure 19.8. Relative angle be-
tween surface normal and sun’s
where IBN is the beam normal insolation. dA = n̂dA rays.
and n̂ is the unit vector normal to the surface at in-
cremental area dA as shown in Figure 19.8. Over a flat surface the direction of n̂ does
not vary and the integral of the dot product reduces to:

IBN = IB cos θ (19.17)

The angle θ between the beam insolation (sun’s rays) and the surface normal is Incident
Angle.
In order to determine the incident angle four angles will need to be calculate. Two of
the angles, α1 and α2 , are related to the orientation with respect to zenith of the sun’s
rays and surface normal, respectfully. The other two angles, β1 and β2 , are related to
the orientation relative to the horizontal plane of the sun and the surface, respectfully.
The altitude angle of the sun β1 has already been defined in Figure 19.6 and §19.3.2.
Using analytical geometry, the incident angle is related to these four angles as

cos θ = sin β1 cos β2 + cos β1 sin β2 cos (α1 − α2 ) (19.18)

19.4.1 Surface Tilt Angle

The Tilt Angle β2 is the angle between the surface and horizontal as shown in
Figure 19.9. Equivalently, β2 is also the angle between the surface normal and vertical.
When the surface is horizontal β2 = 0○ and cos θ = sin β1 . This orientation is equivalent
to θ = 90 − β1 .

19.4.2 Solar Azimuth Angle

The sun’s position is measured relative to the zenith, which can be measured by
projecting the sun’s rays onto a horizontal plane at the observer’s location. The angle
between this projection and due south is the Solar Azimuth Angle, illustrated in Fig-
ure 19.9 as α1 . This angle can be computed using either of the following relationships.
cos δ sin H
sin α1 = (19.19)
cos β1
sin δ cos L − cos δ sin L cos H
cos α1 = (19.20)
cos β1

15
Article 19 Solar Radiation

19.4.3 Surface Azimuth Angle

The angle between the sun’s zenith (due south) and the projection of the surface
normal onto the horizontal plane is the Surface Azimuth Angle denoted as α2 . A south-
facing wall would have a surface azimuth angle of 0○ . Azimuth angles east of south
are negative while west of south are positive. The slanted roof shown in Figure 19.9 is
pointed towards the southeast which results in α2 = −45○ . When the surface is vertical
and facing south then β2 = 90○ and α1 = α2 resulting in cos θ = cos β1 or θ = β1 .

Figure 19.9. Solar angles. Top: Side view. Middle: Birds-eye view. Bottom: Global view.

16
 19.4 Beam Normal Insolation

19.4.3.1 Example: Incidence Angle on a Slanted Surface

Calculate the incidence angle θ on an old, galvanized roof. The roof is inclined at 70○
from vertical and facing southeast. The building is located at 38○ N latitude, 67○ W
longitude. It is 9:00 am on July 7.

The latitude angle is L = 38○ .

To find the hour angle, first determine the mean solar time MST. The nearest standard
meridian is 60○ so we will assume this building is in the Atlantic time zone. On July 7,
the location is assumed to be in daylight savings time.

4 min
MST = {9:00 am − 1 hr} + ( ) [60○ − 67○ ] = 7 ∶ 32 am
deg
On this date the equation of time correction is EOT = −4.7 min per §19.9. The apparent
solar time is:
AST = MST + EOT = 7:27 am
The hour angle H is the number of degrees relative to the zenith. The number of
minutes before zenith are:

∆t = 7 ∶ 27 am − 12 ∶ 00 = −273 min

with a corresponding hour angle of:

deg. long.
H =( ) ∆t = −68.25○
4 min
The declination angle is δ = +22.5○ per §19.9.

Now the solar altitude and azimuth angles can be calculated.

sin β1 = cos L cos δ cos H + sin L sin δ = 0.5054 Ô⇒ β1 = 30.36○

cos δ sin H
sin α1 = = −0.9945 Ô⇒ α1 = −84○
cos β1
The azimuth and tilt angles of the roof are:

β2 = 20○ (tilt from horizontal) α2 = −45○

The incidence angle between the sun’s rays and this surface at this time is:

cos θ = sin β1 cos β2 + cos β1 sin β2 cos (α1 − α2 ) = 0.7043 θ = 45.7○

Thus, the angle between the sun’s rays and the surface normal is 45.7○ .

17
Article 19 Solar Radiation

19.5 Diffuse-Scattered Insolation

There are three components of insolation to consider when determining the heat load
on a structure or building due to solar radiation. The first is the beam normal insolation
IBN . The second is insolation due to the sky radiation; that is, the solar radiation
scattered in the atmosphere referred to as diffuse-scatted insolation IDS . This is the
radiation felt when standing in the shade.
Diffuse-scattered insolation is linearly proportional to the sky radiation. The constant
of proportionality is a shape factor between the surface and the sky. The shape factor
can be approximated as:
1 + cos β2
shape factor: Fss ≈ (19.21)
2
where β2 is the tilt angle of the surface. Sky radiation is proportional to the beam
insolation through a Clearness Number CS , which varies seasonally. The clearness
number is the ratio of measured diffuse-scattered insolation to beam insolation on a
horizontal surface where Fss = 1; CS = IDS /IB . Tabulated values of CS are provided in
§19.9.
For an arbitrary surface orientation, therefore, diffuse-scatted insolation can be com-
puted as
IDS = IB CS Fss (19.22)

19.6 Reflected Insolation

The ground-reflected insolation occurs due to the total insolation on a horizontal

surface multiplied by a ground reflectivity ρg and an Angle Factor between the surface
and the ground Fsg .
IR = (IB + IDS ) ρg Fsg (19.23)
The angle factor can be approximated as
1 − cos β2
angle factor: Fsg ≈ (19.24)
2
where β2 is the tilt angle of the surface. Reflectivity for a grassy surface is approximately
ρg = 0.2 and for snow covered ground is approximately ρg = 0.8 [3].

19.7 Total Insolation

The total insolation on a surface is the sum of the beam normal, diffuse-scatted and
reflected insolation.
Itotal = IBN + IDS + IR (19.25)
All three components are dependent on the beam insolation IB . Combining equa-
tions 19.11, 19.22, and 19.23:
1 1
Itotal = IB {cos θ [CS (1 + cos β2 ) + ρg (1 − cos β2 )] + CS ρg sin2 β2 } (19.26)
2 4

18
 19.7 Total Insolation

19.7.0.1 Example: Total Insolation

Calculate the total insolation on a clear day for the previous example.

First, determine the beam insolation. The solar constants for July 7 are (see §19.9):
Extraterrestrial Insolation: AS = 1086.6 W/m2
Extinction Coefficient: BS = 0.206
Clearness Number: CS = 0.135

Beam Insolation: IB = AS e−BS / sin β1 = 722.9 W/m2

Beam Normal Insolation: IBN = IB cos θ = 504.9 W/m2

1 + cos β2
The shape factor for the surface-to-sky view is Fss = = 0.97.
2
Diffuse-Scattered Insolation: IDS = IB CS Fss = 94.6 W/m2

Assume the surrounding ground is grassy with a reflectance of ρg = 0.2.

1 − cos β2
The angle factor for the surface-to-ground view is Fsg = = 0.03.
2
Reflected Insolation: IR = (IB + IDS ) ρg Fsg = 4.9 W/m2 . The reflected insolation is very
small for this surface. The reflected component would be much greater for a vertical
surface.

Thus, the total insolation on the roof is:

Itotal = IBN + IDS + IR = 504.9 + 94.6 + 4.9 = 604.4 W/m2

19.7.0.2 Example: Heat Load

In the previous example, the total insolation on an old galvanized roof was computed.
Not all of the insolation will be absorbed by the roof. Some will be reflected. The
electromagnetic energy absorbed is equal to:

Iabsorbed = αItotal ,

where α is the absorptivity. For most surfaces, the absorptivity α is the same as the
emissivity . These values are tabulated in numerous sources. For dirty, galvanized iron
the emissivity is between 0.87 and 0.91 [1]. Using a value of  = 0.89, the total energy
flux absorbed (rate of energy accumulation) by the roof is 537.9 W/m2 .

19
Article 19 Solar Radiation

19.8 Shading
An old practice for managing heating loads on buildings is to design the roof overhang
such that the windows are blocked from the Sun’s rays during summer months, but allow
the sunlight to enter in the winter due to the smaller altitude angle. The portion of
the window that is shaded depends on the altitude and azimuthal angles. Based on the
schematic shown in Figure 19.10a, the vertical distanced shaded is:
tan β1
y =b (19.27)
cos(α1 − α2 )

Similarly, if the window is inset with side blockages similar to the overhang, then the
horizontal distance shaded is:

x = b tan(α1 − α2 ) (19.28)

(a) Vertical Shading (b) Horizontal Shading

Figure 19.10. Shading of a window from an overhang.

20
 19.8 Shading

19.8.0.1 Example: Sizing Window Overhang

Using the ASHRAE Clear Sky Model, compute the following for a south facing
window in Minneapolis, MN. The time is solar noon on June 21. A paved park-
ing surface is located just south of the building with a ground reflectivity of 0.35.

(a) The altitude and incident angles of the solar insolation.

(b) The size of the overhang, b, so that 90% of the window
is shaded vertically.
(c) The total insolation (IBN + IDS + IR ).

The following data (§19.9) is for June 21 in Minneapolis, MN.

L = 45○ As = 1087 W/m2
δ = 23.45○ Bs = 0.205
EOT = -1.5 min Cs = 0.134
H = 0○ (solar noon) nday = 172

(a) The solar altitude angle, β1 , is equal to:

sin β1 = cos L cos δ cos H + sin L sin δ = 0.93 Ô⇒ β1 = 68.45○

cos δ sin H
solar azimuth, α1 : sin α1 = = 0 (solar noon)
cos β1
surface tilt: β2 = 90○ (vertical surface)

surface azimuth: α2 = 0○ (facing south)

The solar incident angle, θ, is:

cos θ = sin β1 cos β2 + sin β2 cos β1 cos(α1 − α2 )

´¹¹ ¹ ¹¸ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¶ ´¹¹ ¸¹¹ ¶ ´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹¸ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¶
=0 =1 =1

Thus, cos θ = cos β1 Ô⇒ θ = 68.45○

(b) The vertical shaded distance is 90% of the window, which corresponds to:

y = 2 ft + 0.90 ⋅ 5 ft = 7.5 ft

tan β1
y =b Ô⇒ b = 2.6 ft
cos(α1 − α2 )

21
Article 19 Solar Radiation

(c) The total insolation is the sum of the beam normal, diffuse scattered, and reflected
components:

beam, IB :
IB = AS e−Bs / sin β1 = 872.0 W/m2

beam normal, IBN :

IBN = IB cos θ = 320.3 W/m2

diffuse scattered, IDS :

1 1
IDS = IB Cs Fss and Fss = (1 + cos β2 ) = Ô⇒ IDS = 58.4 W/m2
2 2

reflected, IR :
1 1
IR = (IB + IDS ) ρg Fsg and Fsg = (1 − cos β2 ) = Ô⇒ IR = 162.8 W/m2
2 2

total insolation on vertical surface, Itotal :

Itotal = IBN + IDS + IR = 541.5 W/m2

22
 19.9 Solar Constants for Northern Latitudes [1]

19.9 Solar Constants for Northern Latitudes [1]

23
Bibliography
[1] Archie Culp, Jr. Principles of Energy Conversion, 2nd ed. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 1991.

[2] Faye C. McQuiston, Jerald D. Parker, and Jeffrey D Spitler. Heating, Ventilating, and Air
Conditioning. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 6th edition, 2005.

[3] D. Y. Goswami, F. Kreith, and J. F. Kreider. Principles of Solar Engineering. Taylor &
Francis, 2000.

[4] Standard extraterrestrial spectrum reference, 2000.

[5] J. A. Duffie and W. A. Beckman. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 2006.

[6] M. M. El-Wakil. Powerplant Technology. McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1984.

25