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The Lost Saraswati River of Northwestern Indian Plains: Status and way
forward

Article  in  Episodes · March 2020

DOI: 10.18814/epiiugs/2020/020034

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Article

by H.S.Saini 1, Apurva Alok2, N.C. Pant2

The Lost Saraswati River of Northwestern Indian Plains:

Status and way forward
1.
Director (Retd.), Geological Survey of India. Faridabad, INDIA
2.
Dept of Geology, University of Delhi, Delhi, INDIA.

(Received : 4/1/2019; Revised accepted : 21/9/2019)

https://doi.org/10.18814/epiiugs/2020/020034

Buried course of the desiccated river Saraswati/ have existed in the NW plains of India through the states of Punjab,
Ghagghar-Hakara from Himalayan front to Arabian Sea Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat and parts of modern Pakistan during
the Vedic period which supported and sustained a big Vedic / Indus /
through the plains of NW India has been in discussion Harrapan civilization on its plains (Fig.1). Existence of the Saraswati
and scientific investigations since ~140 years due to its River is one of the oldest debated issues in Indian Geology and
importance in societal evolution and drainage archeology. The “lost river Saraswati” was first proposed by Oldham
disorganization. Its plains were inhabited by the (1886) who traced a dry river bed in Rajasthan to the coast of Gujarat.
The course showed several tributaries in Punjab plains between
Harappan/ Indus civilization (7000–1200BC) which
modern Ghagghar and Sutlej rivers which joined to form the main
collapsed around 4-3 ka BP. Views, both, in favor and Saraswati river in northern Rajasthan. Similar course and few
against a relation between collapse of civilization and landforms of dried up channels were observed in Punjab plains by
drying up of the Saraswati river exist. The palaeocourse Oldham (1893) and Stein (1942). About a century later, Indian workers
of this river, causes and timing of its drying and reasons picked up the Saraswati palaeodrainage research and reported a
number of palaeocourses of Saraswati river using remote sensing
of civilization collapse still elude consensus. A large
imagery (Wilhelmy, 1999; Yashpal et al., 1980; Sood and Sahai, 1983;
amount of new data generated in last two decades on Ghose et al., 1979; Bakliwal et al., 1998; Sahai, 1999; Kar, 1999;Roy
surface, subsurface and chronological aspects of the and Jhakhr,2001; Rajawat et al., 2003; Gupta et al., 2004;
Holocene deposits and archeology along the path of the Radhakrishna and Merh, 1999; Valdiya, 1996, 2002, 2013, 2016;
Saraswati river has enhanced our understanding but the Bhadra et al., 2009). Many of these studies also drew support from
the ancient Hindu text Rigveda in which existence of the Saraswati
problem of defining its evolution through geological time river is frequently mentioned as a river that drained northwestern
is very complex. India during the Vedic period and sustained the Indus Civilization in
In this paper we critically examine the views on the its basin from Himalayan front to Gujarat coast (Sharma, 1974;
link of the Saraswati paleochannel with the Sutlej towards Kalyanaraman, 2008).
This far, the research lacked field investigations and ground level
west and Yamuna towards east as source for the perennial
validations of the palaeocourses on imagery. However, a strong global
water supply. We also discuss the role of climate change interest of archeological and geological researchers developed in the
and evaluate the role of active faults (Himalayan Frontal beginning of 21st century due its implication on (i) climate-river
Trust and tear faults), basement structure (Delhi- channel interactions and (ii) climate-society and landscape interaction.
Sargodha Ridge) and seismicity of the Haryana plains Further the availability of modern chronological, chemical (including
isotope) and high resolution remote sensing data and processing
in context of the drainage reorganization as a possible
techniques provided a renewed impetus to the study of the “Lost River
cause of the drying up of the river. Systematic mapping Saraswati”. The palaeodrainage maps associated with Sarswati river
of the entire palaeochannel course with generation of were upgraded and refined (Mehdi et al., 2016; Srivastava et al., 2014;
sedimentological and chronological data for the gap Singh et al., 2017; Orengo et al., 2017), chronology of fluvial and
areas is suggested for understanding the evolution and aeolian architecture of parts of Saraswati plains developed (Saini et
al., 2009; Saini and Mujtaba, 2010; Clift et al., 2012; Dixit et al.,
demise of the Saraswati river.
2014, 2018; Singh et al., 2017) and geochemical finger printing of
provenance and climate-tectonic correlations worked out (Tripathi
Introduction et al., 2004;Clift et al., 2012, 2018). The isotopic signatures from
buried sediments of the Saraswati like river flowing parallel to the
The Saraswati, a mythological Himalayan river, is believed to Indus river has been traced from Punjab to Great Rann of Kutch

March 2020
 525

r
ve

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Riv
AMRITSAR

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Jhelum River

as
en
SHIMLA

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Be
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Be

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Ghaggar River
PANIPAT
FATEHABAD JIND
Indus River

C
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PALWAL

Old bed of Saraswati Ch

j
lu

ann
at

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O

Flow direction

Figure 1. Drainage map of northwestern India showing old bed of Saraswati river which is largely occupied by modern Ghagghar River
except a 35 km loop which flows north of the palaeochannel near Fatehabad. The old connections with Satluj River and Yamuna river are
also shown (After Yashpal, et al, 1980). Point A to D are the locations of OSL chronology indicating cessation of river flows.

(Gujarat) through Rajasthan (Singh et al., 2016; Khonde et al., and the timing of river drying (Yashpal et al., 1980; Sood and Sahai,
2017).Shallow subsurface studies brought out the buried fluvio- 1983; Ghose et al., 1979; Sahai, 1999; Kar, 1999; Gupta et al., 2004;
aeolian landscape and its relation with the Saraswati River (Saini et Valdiya, 1996, 2002). Whether today’s Ghagghar river was Saraswati
al., 2009;Kshetrimayum and Bajpai, 2012;Sinha et al., 2013). (Valdiya 1996; Gupta et al., 2004; Sharma, 2008) or a channel of
Similarly the dynamics of distribution, migration and dispersal Sutlej river drained into it (Oldham 1893; Naruse, 1974, 1985; Singh
of Harappan/ Indus civilization vis-à-vis its association with the et al., 2016) or the Yamuna river was tributary to it (Clift 2012; Clift
Saraswati river and the climate change were also vigorously pursued and Giosan, 2018) are some of the hypotheses explored so far. If not
(Mughal, 1997; Kenoyer, 1998; Possehl, 2002; Madella and Fuller, these, then was the Saraswati an independent river emptying in the
2006; Giosen et al., 2012). The Indus was a large Bronze age Arabain Sea (Khonde et al., 2017). Broadly the three models exist as
civilization of the old world scattered in NW India and Cholistan of (i) Saraswati was a glacial fed river which disappeared due to tectonic
Pakistan under varied physiography and climate. Its urban phase was and climatic reasons (Valdiya, 2002, 2013); (ii) both Sutlej and
the best flourished period ca. 2600–1900 BC (Kenoyer 1998; Lal, Yamuna drained through this region and Yamuna migrated towards
2002; Lawler, 2008; Chakrabarti and Saini, 2009) which declined east between 49-10 ka (Clift et al., 2012) and that (iii) only monsoon
for reasons still not well known. fed rivers were active in the region during Holocene (Tripathi et al.,
Most of these studies are focused on specific segments of the 2004;Giosan et al., 2012). Though specific studies have given a good
paleochannel course leaving large gaps in between its exit point at insight on the above aspects but not comprehensively accommodated
Himalayan front and the Arabian sea. The hydrology and timings of the role of tectonic, geologic, geomorphic and climatic setting along
flow and drying/ disappearance, and the reason thereof also require the entire course of the river. This is due to the paucity of the subsurface
in depth investigation. In following we attempt to discuss some of geological data and anthropogenic modifications of the original
these questions. landscape.
In spite of similar palaeocourses of the Saraswati river (also In all these studies, Quaternary alluvial plains of Punjab and
referred as Ghagghar-Hakara) proposed by remote sensing techniques Haryana, south of Himalayan front, constitute the most critical sector
in Rajasthan and Gujarat, divergent views still persist on its upstream for the Saraswati river research as it has still preserves some good
continuity in the Himalayan piedmont for a perennial water source archives of the past alluvial landforms and is not affected by massive

Episodes Vol. 43, no. 1

526

desertification like downstream reaches of the Saraswati. The area depression (Saini and Mujtaba, 2010). From north to south, these
has humid climate near Himalaya (1000mm annual precipitation) plains can be broadly demarcated in three geomorphic units, namely,
that southwards grades into semiarid precipitation in NW Haryana piedmont plain, central alluvial plain and the Thar fringe (Anand
(600-400mm) and arid conditions (300mm) in the northern part of and Kazim, 1992; Thussu, 1999, 2006; Srivastava et al., 2006,
Rajasthan. The effect of climate is visible on the modern drainage 2014).
originating in humid part which disappears in the semiarid and arid The piedmont plain is 20-30 km wide steep gradient zone between
parts after traversing 40-80 km downstream. In the arid region alluvial 350 and 300 m above sea level. Unlike the gravelly piedmont of Ganga
landforms have been masked by younger aeolian deposits barring basin (Kumar, 2005), it is composed of argillaceous sediments with
few imprints in northern Rajasthan mainly between Hanumangarh layers and lenses of gravels and grey sands (Shukla et al., 2014). Two
and Anupgarh (Rydh, 1958). perennial, glacial fed Himalayan Rivers, namely, the Sutlej in the
west and the Yamuna in the east are separated ~150 kms at their exits
from the Himalaya. The Sutlej river flows southwesterly and the
Geomorphologic and Geologic setting Yamuna southeasterly. Both have well defined valleys flanked by 2-
Eastern part of the Indus plains, south of the Himalayan front, in 5m high terraces (Kumar, 2005; Saini and Mujtaba, 2010). The
Haryana and Punjab show active as well as buried palaeochannels Ghagghar river originates in the outer Siwalik ranges near Morni
(Fig.2). On ground, the latter can be identified by high moisture in Hills and flows south-southeasterly in the interfluve zone of the Sutlej
soil, silt-clay lithology, and fresh groundwater and at places by subtle and the Yamuna rivers. Besides, a number of seasonal, monsoon and

76 30 77 0 77 30 78 0

RT
0 20 40 km
R
IV E ROPAR
JR
TLU
SA KHE
CHANDIGARH TPU
R
HFT ALI
Modern Drainage A
ER ND

Palaeochannel AMBALA
RIV RKA
ER
IV
IR

Aeolian Deposits
AL

MA
W
BA
AM
JH

Piedmont
River Terrace
YAMUNA RIVER

Himalaya
Slope
River Flow
ER
IV
R

KAITHAL
R

KARNAL
A

R
H

VE
G
G

RI

TOHANA
A
H

G
G

N
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AU
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SIRSA GH JIND
FATEHABAD
GOHANA

HISSAR
HANSI ROHTAK
JHB
MIRKA

BHADRA SA
HIB
74 30 IR
29 75 0 IVE
R DELHI
0
Figure 2. Geomoprhological map of a part of the piedmont and central alluvial plain between Satluj and Yamuna rivers showing plaeo and
modern drainage. GH is Ghagghar-Hakara palaeochannel, JHB is Older palaeochannel along Chautang river. (Base map after Anand and
Kazim, 1992).

March 2020
 527

groundwater fed drainages such as Dangri, Markanda and Chautang channel which disappeared 11.6+ 0.4 ka ago (Singh et al., 2016) was
also originate from the piedmont zone. These rivers transport pebbles weaker than the main Sutlej river, it is unlikely that its channel
for about 30 km length of river up to the limit of piedmont zone. completely perished leaving no scar of westerly shift. Incidentally a
Except, Chautang river, all other drainage join the Ghagghar river at number of NNE-SSW trending palaeochannels have been identified
a maximum distance of 180 km south of the Himalayan front. Most in the area between Ghagghar and Sutlej rivers which appear to join
of them are entrenched streams with sub-dendritic to sub parallel the Ghagghar at different locations downstream of Tohana (Ananad
drainage patterns. Palaeochannel impressions are sparse in the and Kazim, 1992). Thus in spite of new data, this view needs
piedmont zone. further corroborative evidence from surface and subsurface across
The central alluvial plain is a low relief surface with imperceptible the avulsed Sutlej channel to establish the Sutlej- Ghagghar-Hakara
southwesterly slope and dotted with paleo and buried channels, lakes linkage.
and depressions, aeolian mound etc. An interesting feature of this
zone is the existence of a subtle east-west saucer like depression along
the Rohtak-Maham-Hansi axis which is prone to flooding following
The Yamuna- Ghagghar-Hakara link
heavy rains. The area south of this axis has a northerly slope with two Yashpal et al. (1980) identified three channels of Yamuna (Y1,
ephemeral northerly flowing drainage of the Dohan and the Sahibi Y2, and Y3, Fig.1) in which the northern most, Y1, joined Ghagghar
rivers (Fig.2). near Satrana while Y2 and Y3 joined Ghagghar-Hakara near Suratgarh
Geologically, the piedmont and central alluvial plain are devoid in Rajasthan through Jind-Hissar-Bhadra axis. Some of these
of rock exposures. In central alluvial plain, NNE-SSE trending palaeocourses were verified by Mehadi et al. ( 2016) and also mapped
outcrops of Delhi Supergroup rocks terminate along WNW-SES by ground survey as a 2 km wide silt-clayey surface extending east
Delhi-Tosham line and becomes subterranean northward (Thussu, and west of Hissar (Saini and Mujtaba, 2004) with no apparent surface
1995). The bedrocks lay around 200 to > 400 m deep below the depression (JHB in Fig.2). The modern Chautang River descending
Quaternary overburden and are affected by hidden faults (Thussu, from piedmont zone joins this course and disappears near Jind (Fig.2).
1995; Saini and Anand, 1996). The Hansi – Jind stretch of this palaeocourse is a well-known flood
prone zone. According to Clift et al. (2012) the Yamuna River flowed
eastward to join the Ghagghar-Hakara probably through JHB
Palaeochannels and the Saraswati river palaeocourse some 49 ka ago. This course of Yamuna shifted eastward
Nearly all studies, so far, agree on the course of Ghagghar-Hakara somewhere between 49 ka and 10 ka. The palaeocourse JHB is
palaeochannel from downstream reaches to Tohana –Satrana in occupied by a number of sand dunes on surface whose chronology
upstream (GH in Fig.2). Beyond this, there are three views on its give us the upper time limit of the river disappearance. OSL quartz
feeder Himalayan connection, i.e., through Sutlej or Yamuna or dating of pits and well sections near Mirka, Ganguwana and Rawalwas
Ghagghar? (Fig.2) near Hissar showed that fluvial activities, in this palaeocourse
presently buried at six meter depth, ceased between 26 and 18 ka
and was followed by dune deposition between ca. 17-12 ka (Saini
The Sutlej and the Ghaghara-Hakara and Mujtaba, 2012). This palaeocourse, thus, appears very old and
Link does not support the premises that Saraswati/ Ghagghar-Hakara drew
water from Yamuna during the period of Indus civilization, though
This view has grown stronger in recent studies which suggest minor fluvial activity at some places is indicated at around 8 ka (Saini
that an avulsed channel of the Sutlej river joined the Ghagghar-Hakara and Mujtaba, 2012).
river north of Tohana and that the latter was actually a former course
of the Sutlej which subsequently dried up (Singh et al., 2016). Studies
tend to point out that desiccation of the Ghagghar-Hakara was a long The Ghagghar and Ghagghar-Hakara link
process of few thousand years during which different segments of The third contention of modern Ghagghar being the paleo
river dried up at different times. It appears that the flow of water first Saraswati has many support and critique. Near the Himalayan exit, in
ceased in the avulsed channel of the Sutlej during 15 -12 ka (A in piedmont zone, the Ghagghar is a robust river making wide channel
Fig.1). The flow dried-up around 8 ka near its confluence with with channel bars cut terraces (Fig.3A). Downstream it is an
Ghagghar-Hakara, (B in Fig.1) and at about 12 ka near Kalibanga,150 entrenched, locally meandering river with gradually narrowing
km downstream of the confluence C in Fig.1 (Singh et al.,2016). channel which reduces to <50 m in some stretches between Tohana
Further, about 200 km downstream of Kalibanga, the channel flow and Sirsa (Fig.3B). The Ghagghar-Hakara paleochannel appears near
near Fort Abbas, Chak and Marot in Pakistan stopped between 7.3 Tohana in Haryana as a low lying, flood prone, high moisture zone
and 5 ka (Clift et al., 2012; D in Fig.1). Continuity of river till around with narrow, rudimentary, ephemeral courses. It extends
10 ka is also recorded in Great Rann of Kutch, just before its entry in southwestward as 2-7 km wide channelized zone, most conspicuous
the Arabian Sea, (Khonde et al. 2017). However, sediments characters near Fatehabad and makes ~5 m high scarp on its southern bank near
in the palaeochannel near Fatehabad indicate that river was active Hoshanga where the northern bank, however, is not discernable (Saini
until around 4.3 ka (Saini and Mujtaba, 2010). and Mujtaba, 2010). It is further characterized by absence of aeolian
A missing link in the Sutlej connection is the absence of surface deposits, presence of reddish clay on surface and fresh quality of
evidence of the palaeochannel from its mountain exit to its proposed ground water. West of Fatehabad, the depression gradually shallows
confluence with Ghagghar-Hakara channel. The valley of modern down and attains the level of adjacent uplands, but the reddish clayey
Sutlej is 2-5m deep and 10-25 km wide (25 km wide between Firozpur surface and its flood prone nature continues further west. The
and Faridkot (Saini and Mujtaba, 2003). Considering that the avulsed Ghagghar river occupies this depression southwest of Sirsa from where

Episodes Vol. 43, no. 1

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A B

C D

Figure 3. Different forms of Ghagghar River. (A). Deep and wide channel in the Piedmont zone with isolated terraces. (B). Narrow channel
between Toahana and Sirsa when it flows independent of the Ghagghar-Hakara palaeochannel. In this zone the channel shows two
prominent lateral shifts. (C). Shallow and narrow channel downstream of Sirsa when Ghagghar flows through the palaeochannel zone.
(D). A sandy scarp marking the northern palaeobank of Ghaggahr downstream of Ottu.

it flows as a small stream with wide flood plain (Fig.3C) and at places Himalayan river, it is not possible to accept it as the Vedic Saraswati
with 3-5m high paleobank (Fig.3D). The Ghagghar river, even though river reaching Arabian sea
disappears in Rajasthan, but its palaeocoaurse continues up to
Anupgarh (DG, ASI map in Rydh, 1958) with an average width of 5
km (Maemoku et al., 2012).
Societal Evolution and the Saraswati
Near Tohana, Ghagghar occupies the course of palaeochannel River
for a short distance and then diverts and flows for about 35 km as an
independent river north of palaeochannel. Further downstream, The Indus–Saraswati river plains in northwestern India and
southeast of Sirsa, it re-occupies the palaeochannel zone which is adjoining regions were inhabited by human communities from
flanked by low lying Pre and Harrapan mounds on the periphery. It is Neolithic to fourth millennium historic period but are best known for
shown that fluvial activity in the palaeochannel was active around the Old World largest Harrapan (Indus) civilization that thrived during
~6-4 ka and even before and diminished at ~4 and 3.4 ka (Saini and 5.7-3.3 ka (Kenoyer, 1998; Dikshit, 2012) or 9-2.5 ka (Possehl, 2002)
Mujtaba, 2010). The major dune accumulation in this region, during on the flood and alluvial plains, in desert and alluvial fans (Petrie et
18-12 ka (Saini and Mujtaba, 2012) has not affected the palaeochannel al., 2016). Even though the Saraswati plains experienced arid and
because it was a wet surface and prevented the dunes to be formed in semi-arid climate as compared to the humid climate of the Ganga
its channel. plains, the early human societies favored the former probably due to
In the absence of a perennial catchment of water, it is unlikely to its low forested surface. The Pre-Harrapan, also known as Hakara,
consider the Ghagghar river as the predecessor of the Lost River was a village based culture scattered in Cholistan desert and also
Saraswati. The Ghagghar has a small monsoon fed catchment of 570 along palaeochannel of the Saraswati in Hissar and Fatehabad (Sarkar
sq km spread in 10 sub-basins. New studies show that Ghagghar is et al., 2016). The mature Harrapan (2600-1900 BC) was a highly
also an old river which passes through the gravelly terraces deposited evolved urban phase with five major cities of Mojenjo-daro, Harappa,
during a long period of about 156 to 56 ka in upper reaches, 17-15 ka Rakhigarhi and Dholavira each with large village hinterlands
in piedmont zone and 7-1.8 ka just downstream of piedmont zone (Kenoyer, 2008; Petrie, 2013). Agriculture and trading were dominant
(Shukla et al., 2014). During non-monsoon period, its lean flow is occupations. It is suggested that the perennial supply of water by
maintained by groundwater hardly sufficient to keep the river wet Saraswati River sustained this society. Interestingly the society
downstream of Ottu. Therefore, unless it had a connectivity with any collapsed when it was well developed and transformed in a village

March 2020
 529

based society which is known as the late Harappan phase. The density at ~4.1 ka BP. Incidentally this time period coincides with the
of dwelling units reduced in the western and central part of basin and deurbanization phase of the Harappan civilization when people started
increased towards east and north (Fig.4) (Allchin, 1995; Petrie et al, deserting their dwellings. However, the fossil bone biosparite from
2016). Birhana near the Ghagghar-Hakara paleochannel north of Fatehabad
Both social and natural reasons have been cited for this decline. suggested an early decline of monsoon at around 7.0 ka BP (Sarkar et
Archeologists believe that loss of river flow led to migration of people al., 2016).
towards north (Mishra, 1984; Moghul, 1997; Possehl, 2002). Geological archives of last fluvial activity, buried at 8- 6m depth
Geological studies also show reduced summer monsoon rains during in NW Haryana plains, indicate strong monsoon rains during 34-18
4.1 and 4.0 ka BP starved the river flow and affected the agriculture ka (Saini and Mujtaba 2012; Shukla et al., 2014) while flow of the
production forcing the dispersal of urban society (Clift and Plumb, Ghagghar-Hakara palaeochannel ceased much later during 12-4 ka.
2008;Giosan et al., 2012; Staubwasser and Weiss, 2006; Dixit et al., The earliest drying of river flow is indicated at around 12 ka near the
2014, 2018). The northerly shift was influenced by the availability of mountain exit and in middle reach of the Ghagghar-Hakara
regular flooding due to stronger winter monsoon in the Himalayan palaeochannel near Kalibanga (Singh et al., 2016), 10 ka in lowermost
foothill region (Wright et al., 2008; Petrie et al., 2017; Giosan et al., reach in Ran of Kutch (Khonde et al., 2017), 5 ka near Fort Abbas
2018). In view of this it is difficult to suggest a direct dependence of (Clift et al., 2012), 8 ka near Sutlej-Ghagghar confluence (Singh et
Indus society on the Saraswati River which considerably dried up al., 2016) and ~4.3 ka near Fatehabad (Saini and Mujtaba, 2010; A,
much before the establishment of urban phase of Indus civilization B, C, D, E in Fig.1).
(Singh et al., 2017; Giosan et al., 2018; Clift and Giosan, 2018). In addition to fluvial data, higher monsoonal rain during Mid-
Holocene is also evidenced by a lake phase (Saini et al., 2005) which
led to the precipitation of 1.5m thick lenses of limestone during
Discussions c.5363+110 and 3640 yr BP (Bhatia and Singh, 1988) in Haryana
The drying up of the Saraswati river is attributed to monsoon plains and 2 m thick gypsum lenses during about 7.6-4.4 ka in NE
weakening (Tripathi et al., 2004; Giosan et al., 2012; Dixit et al., Thar fringe (Dixit et al., 2018). This phase was able to sustain a large
2014, 2018) and tectonic shifts (Valdiya,1996). New data from lake, number of lakes in sandy landscape of northern Rajasthan and also
aeolian, fluvial deposits utilizing OSL, AMS 14C dating and isotopic the Ghagghar-Hakara river until ca. 4.1 ka BP when aridity increased
δ18O from ostracodes, gastropods and carbonates along with the and rainfall decreased. The increased aridity resulted in the deposition
geomorphological studies has helped in developing high resolution of sand dune during 3.4 –1.8 ka BP near Rohtak and Gurgaon (Saini
climate chronology. It shows prevalence of dry condition around and Mujtaba, 2010). It indicates that higher monsoon rains during
5.3 ka BP in the Thar desert (Enzel et al., 1999), at 4.1 ka on its Mid-Holocene was certainly a factor in sustaining the Harappans and
northern margin around lake Karasandi and the eastern margin around the Saraswati River at least in the northern Rajasthan, western Haryana
Kotla Dahar (Dixit et al., 2014, 2018). The marine record from the and Punjab.
Arabian sea (Staubwasser, 2003) and a speleothem from northeast However, regional studies along the Saraswati palaeocourse show
India (Berkelhammer, 2013) also suggest decreased summer monsoon that decreasing flow of the Saraswati river started much earlier than

Figure 4. Distribution of archeological sites during Mature Harappan (A) and late Harrapan (B) in northwestern India and adjoining
regions. Heavy concentration of sites in northern part during late Harappan is due to migration of people after the disintegration of mature
Harrapan phase. Average Isohytes of 1900-2008 period are also shown (After Petrie et al., 2017).

Episodes Vol. 43, no. 1

530

the 4.1 ka climatic deterioration. This could have triggered the in the drainage disorganization (e.g. Sinha et al., 2013) though it has
abandonment of the Harappan urban centers but not the drying of the shown to be an important factor in tectonically active arid domains
Saraswati River in its entity. At the most it could have substantially (e.g. Lal et al., 2018). An active and nearby source of disturbance
reduced the water flow of already weakened river. could be the Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) which separates the
Quaternary Indo-Gangetic alluvial basin from the Tertiary Himalayan
mountain ranges along its E-W length and represents a regional
Tectonics detachment plain along which Indian plate is sliding below the
In spite of overwhelming data favoring climate change, it is Himalaya (Nakata, 1972; Valdiya, 2003; Thakur, 2013). It has
difficult to comprehend that a large river traversing different climatic displaced several Quaternary landforms and modified drainage lines
regions could have been made defunct by increased aridity. If so, (Nakata, 1989; Mallik et al., 2003;Srivastava et al., 2016). Its last
then aridity should have also affected the flow of other nearby rivers surface rapture has been dated between 1404 - 1422 A.D. with a
namely the Sutlej in west and the Yamuna in east. Therefore, it will coseismic slip varying between ~18 - 26 m at several locations of the
be appropriate to look at other causative reason i.e., the recent tectonic exposures (Kumar, 2005). It is mostly a hidden feature but recently
disturbances in the region. The neotectonism is less explored aspect many exposures have been mapped. One such exposure is recorded
at the Khetpurali and Dulupur villages
(Survey of India Toposheet nos 53B/14
and 53F/2) in Panchkula district, Haryana
where the Tatrot Formation of Upper
Siwalik rocks override the river terrace
gravels (Kumar et al., 2012; Fig.5). The

HFT thrust dips northerly with 300 m wide

crushed zone. The underthrusted gravels
also show warping and dragging. Such
Tatrot Formation exposures suggest that the HFT has been
active during Holocene and thus

Gravel compressional rising of the Siwalik

ranges must have had a bearing on the
flow and alignment of drainage south of
it. The Holocene activities of faults like
Ghagghar fault, Sirsa -Jhajra Fault (SJF),
Pinjor Garden faults, Ropar tear, Kala
A Amb tear, Yamuna tear and others in the
outer Siwalik belt become critical to
understand their influence on drainage
and landscape.
In addition to the active faults, the
Pre-Quaternary basement under the
plains of Haryana-Punjab is marked by
irregularities of basement ridges and
depressions (Wadia, 1978). The basement
HFT configuration below Quaternary
overburden worked out from the
exploratory borehole lithologs of Central
Groundwater Water Board and
Geological Survey of India drilled in NW
Haryana and adjoining Punjab plains
indicated the presence of bedrock
between 200 to >400 meter depth and this
further deepens to few kilometer.
Presence of Delhi-Sargodha Ridge (DSR)
trending NW-SE is located below mean
sea level (~-300m) (Virdi,1994; Thussu,

B 1995; Saini and Ananad, 1996; GSI,

2000). A map of the Sirsa –Hissar area
showing part of the DSR configuration
Figure 5. Exposure of Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) at the mountain exit of a drainage at is given in Fig.6. It is traversed by NE-
Khetpurali village in Panchkula district Haryana. (A). The Holocene piedmont gravel beds SW and NW-SE buried faults, with no
overridden by Middle Siwalik rocks on the right bank. (B.) At the right bank the under-thrusted visible reflection on the surface.
gravel showing rotations below the HFT. However, the Ghagghar river tends to

March 2020
 531

F 2. There is strong possibility of a subsidiary channel of the Sutlej

F

er
10 20 Km.
0
N connecting the Saraswati in the piedmont zone of Punjab-

iv
rr
MAUZGARH

ha
gg
Haryana plains supplying perennial water. The connection

ha
G
appears to have been lost around 11.6 ka ago. This inferred
(-)
13 connection needs to be validated by the startigraphic and
0
(-)
11 chronological studies in relation with the surrounding upland.
0
(-) ZALANIA
90 3. Linkage of the Yamuna River with the Saraswati River through
SIRSA (-)
70 its westerly flow appears to had been severed by ~18 ka. This
m

(-)
ELLENABAD palaeocourse was subsequently encroached upon by aeolian

50
(-)3

m
0m F
deposits during 18-12 ka.
Tertiary Clays
4. Drying of the Saraswati River, generally attributed to
Nagaur Gruop
F deterioration of Indian Summer Monsoon, needs to be
Basement fault (?) HISSAR
Granites
(-)130 Basement contour (m)
evaluated in light of the active tectonics of Himalaya and
Delhi Group (Quartzite)
basement structures of the foreland to explain why only the
Figure 6. Basement contour map of Sirsa –Hissar area, Haryana Saraswati River dried without affecting the nearby the Sutlej
showing a part of the NW-SE trending Delhi-Surgodha Ridge and the Yamuna rivers.
(Below sea level) with lithology and structure (Based on the bore 5. View that the Saraswati river was the lifeline of Indus
hole data of CGWB, GSI and field observations). civilization may not be tenable in light of new results
suggesting considerable drying up of Saraswati river during
15-5 ka much before the advent of mature Indus civilization
become wider and shallower downstream of the NNW-SSE fault
4.5-4.4 ka BP.
passing through Sirsa (Fig.3. C, D; Saini and Anand, 1996). Indirect
6. Our understanding of the activities of active faults in outer
evidence of tectonics can also be seen in the anomalous behavior of
Himalayan belts and in the basement below the Quaternary
Ghagghar river in form of off-settings, one north of Tohana, between
plains is poor especially in relation to the drainage
Phulad and Akalgarh (Patiala district) where southwest flowing
reorganization and landscape evolution of the Saraswati
Ghagghar suddenly assumes a straight northwesterly course for about
palaeocourse belt and catchment. Investigations are needed
5km and then again becomes southwesterly. This right lateral shift
to develop this data base.
appears to be due to a subsurface NW-SE strike-slip fault (?) with no
7. Validating the course of buried Saraswati river in the dynamic
surface trace. The left out part of Ghagghar downstream of Makror
Quaternary plains of northwestern India from Himalaya exit
Sahib occurs as a highly meandering, dry, incipient channel of about
to its sinking in Arabian sea requires a thematic ground
7 km length, as Joya nalla. A second off-setting occurs NW of
mapping of thousands of sq km area along its path
Fatehabad along the Haryana-Punjab boarder, between Ahlapur and
complemented by sedimentological, chorological and
Sardulewala. It also represents a right-lateral shift.
geochemical framework
The DSR is perpendicular to the NNE-SSW Delhi Fold Belt
associated with the Mahendragarh-Dehradun fault on its west flank
(Srivastava and Somayajulu 1996; Shukla et al., 2007). Intersection
Acknowledgements
of these two features in Sonepat-Rohtak-Bahadurgarh area is
frequently reactivated and is manifested by earthquakes the focal The paper benefited from discussions with Shri S.A.I Mujtaba,
mechanism of which indicate compressional tectonics in the ambience Director (Retd.) Geological Survey of India. The field work in part
(Shukla et al., 2007; Prakash and Shrivastava, 2012). Twelve was supported by the Ministry of Earth Sciences grant on “A 100ka
earthquakes varying between 2.2-5.0 magnitude on Richter scale have glaciations-deglaciation history of Ladakh: its comparison with Sutlej
been reported in this small area since August, 2016 (India valley and signatures in the alluvial plains of NW India (MoES/PAMC/
Meteorological Department,. www.imd.gov.in) which itself is H&C/51/2013-PC-II to NCP. We are thankful to an anonymous reviver
indicative of an active tectonic regime below the plains. Ground tilt whose suggestions helped us in improving this manuscript.
induced by the active faults can have long term bearing on the
landscape and drainage evolution. Such shifts have potential to detach
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H.S.Saini passed his M.Sc Geology from Naresh Chandra Pant works on
Kurukshetra University. He has Ph.D in microdomain characterization of geological
Quaternary Geology and geomorphology material including the instrumentation
from Garhwal University, Srinagar. Before associated with it. He has applied the
joining Geological Survey of India in 1979 technique to wide range of terrains
he briefly worked as Lecturer and including in Indian shield, East Antarctica
geohydrologist. During his 34 years in GSI, and in the Himalaya. He is involved in
he mapped Quaternary terrains in NW planning of Indian Antarctic program
Himalaya and Indo-Gangetic plains and set nationally and with Scientific Committee on
up its first OSL dating lab where he dated Antarctic Research (SCAR) internationally
about 400 samples from diverse terrains. (2011-till date). He is a National Mineral
Presently he is teaching geology and awardee and fellow of Electron Microscope
working on paleoclimate and palaeodrainge Society of India. He is the Deputy Chief
of the NW Indian plains. He has over 50 Officer of SCAR currently. His PhD is from
publications and 20 technical reports. Mohan Lal Sukhadia University Udaipur in
1990 was the first doctoral thesis out of
Indian Scientific Expeditions to Antarctica.
He has over 90 research publications and
three edited books.

Apurva Alok, is a research scholar in

University of Delhi working on the topic
related to drainage evolution and
reorganization in North Western India and
in context of the Harappan Civilization and
climate changes.

March 2020

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