Name: Sadiq Ur Rehman

Reg: 1947-FLL/BSENG/F18

COURSE: Discourses Analysis

Submitted to : sir Abdul Haseeb khan

Assignment : analyzing formal links by applying on the text.

Formal Links

Cook formulates that formal links are facts inside language, or features

that operate within sentence. He categorizes formal links into seven

aspects: verb form, parallelism, referring expression, repetition, substitution,

ellipsis and conjunction. Each of those will be explained in a detailed way below:

1. Verb Form

It means that the form of verb in one sentence can limit the choice of the

verb form in the next.

2. Parallelism

It is a device which suggests the connection, simply because the form of one sentence or
clause repeats the form of another .
For example: Best friend cares without see the condition, gives without hesitation, and
understands without explanation. The form of the verb cares , gives, and understands , is
simple present tense so the sentence above is parallel.

3. Referring Expressions

They are words whose meaning can only be discovered by referring to other words or
to elements of the context, which are clear to both sender and receiver. Based on the
place of specific item and pronoun, it can be divided into two kinds, anaphora and cataphora
and the explanations as follows:
A: Anaphora
It is one kind of referring expression where the identity of someone or something to be
given once at the beginning, and thereafter referred to as she or he or it). For example: I
promised to my friends be a good woman, they believe in me.
The word ‘ they’ refers to ‘my friends’ which appear first.

b. Cataphora

It is another kind of referring expression where pronoun is given first, and then kept in
suspense as to its identity, which is revealed after.
For example: Her work and spirit make Mira. Who becomes one of famous novelist in
Indonesia. The word his, refers to Mira. Which appear after the pronoun.
4. Repetition

Repetition of words can create the same sort of chain as pronouns, and there are
sometimes good reasons for preferring it. The repetition form, which may comprise sound,
words, phrase, etc.
for example: You are my red red rose.
5. Substitution
It is the representation of words or group of words in the form of incomplete items,
such as do or so for a group of words, which have appeared in the earlier sentence.
For example: A: Do you like mangoes ? B: Yes, I think so . The word so substitutes mangoes ,
so is representation of word mangoes.

6. Ellipsis

It is omitting art of sentences on the assumption that an earlier sentence or the context will
make the meaning clear (1989, p. 20). For example:

A: What are you doing?

B: Eating mango.It does not need to put “I am” before ‘eating a mango’, because “I am” has

been understood by the receiver.

7. Conjunction

It is words and phrases, which explicitly draw attention to the type of relationship,
which exist between one sentence or clause and another
For example: He is very good brother, so I love him very much.

Analyzing data by applying formal links

Data 1
'One morning, as Gregor Samsa was waking up from anxious dreams, he discovered that in bed he had
been changed into a monstrous verminous bug. He lay on his hard, armored back and saw, as he raised
his head a little, his domed, brown belly, divided into arched segments; he could hardly keep the bed
sheets from sliding from his stomach's height completely to the floor. His numerous legs, lamentably
thin in comparison to his new girth, flickered helplessly before his eyes.
“What has happened to me?” he thought. It was no dream. His room, a proper room for a human
being (albeit a little too small), lay still between the four familiar walls. Above the table, upon which a
collection of sample cloth goods was spread out in stacks—Samsa was a traveling salesman—hung the
picture which he had cut out of an illustrated magazine a little while ago and set in a pretty gilt frame. It
depicted a woman who, with a fur hat and a fur boa, sat erect, lifting up in the direction of the viewer a
solid fur muff into which her entire forearm had disappeared.

Gregor's glance then turned to the window, and the dreary weather—one heard raindrops falling upon
the window ledge—made him quite melancholy. “How would it be if I kept sleeping for a little while
longer and forgot all this foolishness,” he thought; but this was entirely impractical, for he was
accustomed to sleeping on his right side, and in his present circumstances, he couldn't bring himself into
this position. No matter how hard he threw himself onto his right side, he always rolled again into a
prone position. He tried it a full hundred times, closing his eyes because he had to avoid seeing the
wriggling legs, and gave up trying when he began to feel a slight, dull pain in his side that he had
hitherto not felt.

a: verb form
he discovered that in bed he had been changed into a monstrous verminous bug (1 st and 2nd
line)
the verb discovered is form of past influence the second verb appears, had been changed. The
second verb form is past perfect continuous because it has happened first. The discovered is
simple past tense because it is to show the act that is done later.

b: referring expression
'One morning, as Gregor Samsa was waking up from anxious dreams, he discovered that in bed
he had been changed into a monstrous verminous bug. The word he occurs after Gregor Samsa.
As the identity of something, that is given once at the beginning is called anaphora. Here the
pronoun he is used in reference the subject Gregor Samsa.
What has happened to me?” he thought. ( 7th line).
In this sentence he is given after me. Cataphoric.
c : conjunction

How would it be if I kept sleeping for a little while longer and forgot all this foolishness,” he
thought; but this was entirely impractical, for he was accustomed to sleeping on his right side,
and in his present circumstances, he couldn't bring himself into this position.( Line 16 and 17)

1. In this sentence the word ‘but’ is used as conjunction. It shows two different thoughts with in
a sentence.
2. The use of conjunction and is found to connect two phrases into a sentence and to make a
relation one to another.
d: ellipsis
. It depicted a woman who, with a fur hat and a fur boa, sat erect, lifting up in the direction of
the viewer a solid fur muff into which her entire forearm had disappeared.
There is omitting art of sentence that is called an ellipsis. before the word lifting it should be
put she is. The omitting of the word here is to makes the meaning clearer.

Data 2
This is our hope. This is the faith that I go back to the South with. With this faith we will be able
to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith we will be able to
transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With
this faith we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail
together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day.

a: parallelism
With this faith we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to
jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day.( 4th and
5th line).
In this sentence the words work, pray, struggle, go and stand is simple present tense. So the
sentence above is parallel.

b: Repetition
With this faith we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to
jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day. ( line 4th
and 5th).

In the above lines the word together is repeated five times. It is the word which make a stress
in saying something ( in stating the main idea in the sentence).

Thank you