A. Y. C.

Lou

Relationship of Tire Rolling

Resistance to the Viscoelastic
Properties of the Tread Rubber

REFERENCE: Lou, A. Y. C., "Relationship of Tire Rolling Resistance to the Visco-

elastic Properties of the Tread Rubber," Tire Science and Technology, TSTCA, Vol. 6,
No. 3, Aug. 1978, pp. 176-188.

ABSTRACT: For radial and belted bias automobile tires having replicate bodies
but different tread materials, the rolling resistance force was found to be nearly
a linear function of the tread material loss ratio (fractional hysteresis) measured at
either constant strain or constant stress. Loss ratio is calculated as the ratio of energy
loss (hysteresis) to total energy input obtained from constant crosshead speed (sawtooth)
loading cycles on an Instron tester. Good correlation was also observed between rolling
resistance force and a viscoelastic index (loss tangent) obtained from sinusoidal
strain cycles on a Rheovibron instrument. When related to energy loss of the tread,
rolling resistance showed good correlation only for a series of natural rubber compounds
of varied black content; a tread based on a solution styrene-butadiene rubber polymer
fell outside the natural rubber pattern.

KEY WORDS: tires, rolling friction, treads, energy dissipation, radial tires, belted
bias tires, rolling resistance force, tread compounds, energy loss

High rolling resistance in tires is u n d e s i r a b l e because it increases the

fuel c o n s u m p t i o n of the vehicle [1,2] a n d raises the t e m p e r a t u r e of the
tires [3, 4].
Tire rolling resistance is affected by tire c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d materials that
can be controlled by the m a n u f a c t u r e r s who, however, have no control over
such i m p o r t a n t oPerational factors [5] as speed, load, inflation pressure,
state of tire wear, a n d road surface conditions. I n fact, the relative ratings
of different tires may be c h a n g e d significantly by changes in these opera-
tional factors. The scope of the present study is limited to the effect of
changes in the tread c o m p o u n d only.

Presented at a symposium of ASTM Committee F-9 on Tires, Cleveland, Ohio, 10 May

1978.
1The Firestone Tire & Rubber Co., Central Research Laboratories, 1200 Firestone Parkway,
Akron, Ohio 44317.

0090-8657/78/0008-0176500.40 176 9 1979 by the American Society

for Testing and Materials
 LOU ON ROLLING RESISTANCE 177

Investigators disagree on the relative effects of different tire compo-

nents on rolling resistance. For instance, Khromov and Konovalova [ 6 ]
assign 30 to 40% of the loss to the cords and 60 to 70% to the rubber
components, with more than 80% of the loss in the rubber occurring in
the tread. Collins and co-workers [7] postulated that the tread undergoes
only compressive and bending deformations in the footprint area, while
the carcass and sidewall are subjected only to bending deformations. By
assuming that bending is determined by vertical deflection (constant strain
cycling) and that compression is determined by tire load (constant stress
cycling), they were able to separate these two effects experimentally. The
viscoelastic energy loss in bending was related to the loss modulus E", and
the loss in compression to the loss compliance C" ---- E"/(E*) 2, where E*
is the complex modulus. Willet [8-10] applied a similar technique to the
analysis of tire energy losses.
Although Collins et al [7] and Willet [8-10] showed some ability to
predict heat generation and rolling resistance from viscoelastic properties
of the tread compounds, their model assumed that energy loss depends on
two viscoelastic properties, E" and C". As Kainradl and Kaufmann [4]
pointed out, however, the validity of this assumption could be demonstrated
o n l y by adequate multiple correlation calculations. Furthermore, their
model of tread deformation included only compression and bending, no
shear. Therefore, a significant deformation not assignable to either constant
strain or constant stress flex cycles was left out.
In the present study we have therefore eschewed a preconceived model
in favor of searching for empirical relationships between the measured
rolling resistance force and each of several viscoelastic indices obtained
from the tread compounds. This approach has been adopted by previous
investigators. Khromov and co-workers [11] found that the best correlation
existed between tire rolling loss and loss tangent, tan ~ = E"/E', where
E ' is the storage modulus of the tread compound. Hunt and co-workers
[12] found excellent correlation between tire rolling resistance and loss
modulus for various tread rubbers compounded to equal hardness for
certain specimen test conditions.

Experimental Procedure
An experimental program was devised for detecting relationships between
rolling resistance and each of various viscoelastic indices of the tread
compounds. The compounds listed in Table 1 provided a wide range in
viscoelastic properties. (Also listed in Table 1 is the Shore A hardness.)
The three natural rubber compounds form a series in which only the
content of N220 black (intermediate super-abrasion furnace) was varied.
Low black treads in Table 1 are of course unlikely to be commercially
feasible because they usually have poor wear and traction. They were
178 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

TABLE 1--Tread materials.

Carbon Black
Shore A
Tread Compound Polymer Type Amount, % Hardness
A natural rubber _.. 0 49
B natural rubber N220 (ISAF)a 30 64
C natural rubber N220 (ISAF) 60 77
D solution SBR N339 (HS/HAF) b 90 63.5
a ISAF = intermediate super-abrasion furnace.
bHS/HAF = high-structure/high-abrasionfurnace.

included for methodical rather than practical reasons. A compound based

on solution styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) with N339 black (high-struc-
ture/high-abrasion furnace) was added as a check on whether or not rolling
resistance was entirely determined by the measured viscoelastic properties.
I f the test results show that the solution SBR compound fits the curves
determined by the natural rubber series, then we can be confident that the
rolling resistance force is a function of only those properties that were
measured.
Both radial and belted bias tires were built with steel belts in the H78-15
size so that only the tread compounds were varied within each series.
Tread Compound A was built into radial tires only.

Tire Tests
The equipment and technique used in measuring tire rolling resistance
were described previously [13]. The test procedures used in this study
were as follows:
1. W a r m - u p test: The tire was initially inflated to 165 kPa and run
on a 3.05-m diameter drum at 5.78-kN load and 48 k m / h for 30 min.
RoUing resistance force data were taken at 5-min intervals. Inflation pres-
sure was measured at 30 min.
2. Constant inflation pressure test: The pressure was reset to 193 kPa
and the tire was run at 5.78-kN load and constant speeds of 16, 48, 80,
and 113 k m / h . Rolling resistance forces were measured at each speed. The
total time required for this test was 2 min. The final pressure was found
to remain at approximately 193 kPa.
3. Constant speed test: The pressure was increased to 248 kPa and the
tire was run at 48 k m / h for the measurement of rolling resistance force.
Then the same procedure was repeated at pressures of 221, 193, 165, and
138 kPa.
Results of the warm-up test and the constant pressure and speed tests
are shown in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively, for both radial and belted bias
 LOU ON ROLLING RESISTANCE 179

/k
\
140. \
W \
L)
z 120. \
<
I.-
_~z I00.
03

__LL
60
_J
J 40
0
rr
2O i i i

6 ,b zb '
3O
TIME, MIN.

HR78-15 Radial
...... H78-15 Belted Bias
[] CompoundB
Zl Compound D

FIG. 1--Effect of running time on rolling resistance force of tires at 165 kPa initial pres-
sure, 5. 78 kN load, and 48 km/h. Pressure at 30 rain was 186 kPa for the radial and 197
kPa for the belted bias tires.

,rl

w 120 \
(..)
z
/
< I00
I.-
ooz
.80
hlW

__LL
,g60 /o fa

-- 40
d P = 193 k Po V = 4 8 km/h
o
n- 20 I t6 ' i ,
8O 138 193 2 4 8
SPEED, PRESSURE,
km/h kPa

HR78-15 Radial
...... H78-15 Belted Bias
[] Compound B
Zk Compound D

FIG. 2--Rolling resistance force of tires at 5. 78 kN load.

180 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

tires. These are averages of two tires except for radial tires with A and B
treads; only one tire of each of these was tested.

Dynamic Material Tests

Mechanical properties of tire components are usually determined from
tests that apply pure sinusoidal cycles of load or deformation, even though
such cycles are not apparent in a rolling tire. Priss's results [14] showed
that the distinctions between sinusoidal and other cycles may be important
because the results obtained may differ both in magnitude and in relative
ranking given to a series of compounds. A definitive guideline as to the
correct cycle shape is still lacking. In this study, the following viscoelastic
indices of the tread compounds were measured:

(1) loss ratio (ratio of energy loss to energy input) at either constant
stress amplitude or constant strain amplitude,
(2) energy input at either constant stress amplitude or constant strain
amplitude,
(3) energy loss at either constant stress amplitude or constant strain
amplitude, and
(4) loss tangent (tan 6 -----loss modulus E"/storage modulus E ' ) .

Data for the loss ratio, energy input, and energy loss were obtained from
cyclic tests made on an Instron tester, where cyclic loading was imposed on
specimens 10 by 0.64 by 0.19 cm at four tensile strains (20, 50, 100, and
300%) and four tensile stresses (1.10, 1.80, 3.65, and 7.38 MPa), each
at four crosshead speeds (0.42, 2.12, 4.23, and 8.46 mm/s).
Energy input is the total area under a loading curve, and energy loss is
the area of the hysteresis loop between loading and unloading curves. Each
of the required areas was obtained by use of an automatic integrator. Since
the relative importance of constant strain and stress cycles is controversial
for tire tread, both were applied. Loss tangent was measured from sinusoi-
dal experiments on a Rheovibron instrument at 110 Hz from --40 to 100~

Effect of Strain Rate on Energy Indices

The strain rate (ranging from 25 to 500%/min) had small effect on any
of the energy indices considered. The relative ranking of compounds was
the same at each strain rate studied. This was true for either constant
strain amplitude or constant stress amplitude tests. Therefore the data
obtained at 250%/min (crosshead speed of 4.23 mm/s) were used in all
analyses.

0090-8657/78/0008-0176500.40
 LOU ON ROLLING RESISTANCE 181

Effect o f Prestretching on Energy Indices

Since the loss ratio of the tread compound material appeared to relate
more precisely to rolling resistance than any of the other viscoelastic indices
did, it seemed desirable to determine how it is affected by stress softening.
The loss ratio decreased from the first to the second cycle and only slightly
more in the third and fourth cycles, as shown in Fig. 3 for a constant
strain cycling. Constant stress tests appeared to be a bit more discriminating
than constant strain tests. More important, however, is the fact that the
different compounds maintained the same rankings for each number of
cycles tested in both constant strain and stress cycles. We conclude that
first-cycle determinations give adequate loss ratio characterizations for
these compounds.

Effect o f Strain Amplitude

Figure 4 shows that the loss ratio increased with an increase in strain
amplitude. The rate of increase was greater in those stocks that had higher
black content, but the curve for the solution SBR compound did not seem
to belong to the family of curves for the natural rubber compounds. Except
at the 300% strain amplitude, however, the ranking of the compounds
did not change with change in amplitude. Although it is not shown in
Fig. 4, each component of the loss ratio (energy input and energy loss)
also showed an increasing function with black content in the natural rub-
ber series. The solution SBR compound fell between the natural rubber
stocks having 30 and 60 parts black per hundred of rubber. The relative
ranking of the different compounds was unchanged by changes in the

0.6

o4 o

b9

o
_J
0 A 0 0

NO. OF CYCLES
O CompoundA
[] CompoundB
O CompoundC
A CompoundD
FIG. 3--Effect of number of cycles of prestretching or~ loss ratio of tread compounds
cycled at 50% strain amplitude.
182 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

o
0 o.6

y__0.4- D A i
<
n"O.2, c 0 ~ ~ ~
09009 g n-'--'-------O/o~O
.J O. A 0 0
I
20 ,bo 3OO
'

STRAIN, %
0 CompoundA
[] CompoundB
0 CompoundC
A CompoundD
FIG. 4--Effect of strain amplitude on loss ratio (first cycle ) of tread compounds cycled at
constant strain amplitude.

strain amplitude. In view of these results, 20% was chosen as a standard

strain amplitude and represents an upper strain limit commonly observed
in various parts of a running tire.

E f f e c t o f Stress A m p l i t u d e

Figure 5 shows that the loss ratio increases with an increase in stress
amplitude. The natural rubber compounds consistently showed that the loss
ratio increases with an increase in black content but remains below that

/x
0.6
0
I-
< 0.4
rr
c
~0.2-
o B
..J
O- A
i I I I
2 5 5 10
STRESS, MPo
0 CompoundA
[] CompoundB
0 CompoundC
A CompoundD
FIG. 5--Effect of stress amplitude on loss ratio (first cycle) of tread compounds cycled at
constant stress amplitude.
 LOU ON ROLLING RESISTANCE 183

of the solution SBR compound. Each component of the loss ratio, however,
decreased with an increase in black.
In view of these results, a stress amplitude of 1.10 MPa was chosen as
a standard. No important information is added by testing at higher stresses.

Effect o f Temperature
At temperatures above 5~ the loss tangent data from the Rheovibrin
instrument (Fig. 6) rank the compounds in the same order as did the loss
ratio data from the Instron machine. The dependence of the loss tangent
on temperature decreased with increased black content in the natural
rubber series. Although the glass transition temperature of each compound
was about --30~ the loss tangent of the solution SBR compound was
less sensitive to temperature change than was that of any of the natural
rubber compounds. The ranking in loss tangent reversed when the tempera-
ture was lower than 5~ Since an increase in temperature above 5~ did
not alter the relative ranking of these four stocks, the loss tangent data
at 20~ were compared with the rolling resistance data.
For the compounds studied in this paper, the relative ranking was found
to be the same from either cyclic ramp (Instron) or sinusoidal (Rheovibron)
loading at room temperature.

Results
Since all of the tread variations were built into the radial tire construc-
tion, the following analysis is concerned mostly with the rolling resistance

4.00-
I--
z
,,, 1.00-
s
z 0.40.
<
t-
en O.10-
03
o 0.04 ~.~ " ~ ' m B
._1

0.01
I I I I I I I

-40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 I00 120

TEMPERATURE, ~

...... CompoundA
..... Compound13
..... CompoundC
CompoundD
FIG. 6--Effect of temperature on loss tangent of tread compounds.
184 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

data obtained from those tires. Of all the viscoelastic indices tested, the
most consistent relationship was found between rolling resistance and loss
ratio. Figure 7 (cyclic tests at constant strain amplitude) and Fig. 8 (cyclic
tests at constant stress amplitude) show a linear relationship between rolling
resistance force and loss ratio. Furthermore, the two types of tests rate the
compounds in the same order, and, most importantly, the solution SBR

z~ too[ kr/,i,3
< 80[ .,,. ,,-'~ .~ 48
~Z r-1..I, .~.. % A 16
-- ~," . , , 0 / D
o~ -60 t .- /" n /

oo 40
zu_ Of B

_1 20 A P = 193 kP0
0
0 ' ' I , i
0 0.1 0.2 0 5 0.4
LOSS R A T I O

O Compound A
[] Compound B
O Compound C
A CompoundD
FIG. 7--Relationship of rolling resistance force of radial tires to loss ratio of tread com-
pounds cycled at 20% strain amplitude.

V, kmlh
L~
s I00- ~. A I15
Z
< 80- /A 48
-'D~'I _0. -~" j A 16
-60-
i.l.j LI.J ~.. .t./0/D
~o 40-
Zb_
-J 20- A
...J P=195 kPo
o
~: 0 I I I I I
0 0.I 02. 0.3 0.4
LOSS R A T I O

0 Compound A
["1, Compound B
O CompoundC
A Compound D
FIG. 8--Relationship of rolling resistance force of radial tires to loss ratio of tread com-
pounds cycled at 1.10 MPa stress amplitude.
 LOU ON ROLLING RESISTANCE 185

compound fits well into the curves determined by the natural rubber com-
pounds. So it seems that the loss ratio can be used to predict relative
tire rolling resistance forces without the decision having to be made before-
hand what proportion of the deformation in the tire is at constant strain
amplitude and what proportion is at constant stress amplitude. This obser-
vation is strengthened by data from an earlier study [12], which showed
a correlation coefficient of 0.85 between rolling resistance and tread loss
ratio.
Similar observations were made (not shown here) when the tires were
tested at constant speed rather than constant pressure; however, the rolling
resistance force was then no longer a linear function of the loss ratio, even
for the radial construction.
Plots of tire rolling resistance force as a function of the total energy
input rather than of the loss ratio of the tread material did not form smooth
curves. These are shown in Fig. 9 for constant strain amplitude cycling.
Hence, this index does not well represent rolling resistance force. The same
comments, apply to the plots of tire rolling resistance forces as functions of
energy loss, shown in Fig. 10. In both figures, the solution SBR tread
compound does not fit the curves determined by the three natural rubber
compounds. In Figs. 7 and 8, however, they all fit equally well to one curve;
so, again, the loss ratio appears to be the best of the indices studied.
The loss ratio, obtained from constant crosshead speed (sawtooth) cycles
on an Instron tester, has a direct yet complicated relationship with a familiar
viscoelastic property, the loss tangent, obtained from sinusoidal cycles. So
it is not surprising that rolling resistance force, which happened to be

in I00 v, km/h
/k
Z .O 113
< 80
I--
o,)Z .-" 1 3 ~ ...-0 48
cO . 6 0 f
I..IJ I.IJ / ~..-" --0 16
n- r 0 /H"
~ 40 0~" DD " ' ~ C
zu_
J__1 2 0 A P = 193 kPa
o
a: 0
6 do 8'o
ENERGY INPUT, kd/m 3

9 CompoundA
[] CompoundB
0 CompoundC
A CompoundD
FIG. 9--Relationship of.rolling resistance force of radial tires to energy input of tread
compounds cycled at 20% strain amplitude.
186 TIRE S C I E N C E A N D T E C H N O L O G Y

w I00 v, k m / h
'o A
z
< 0 1f3
~- 80
09Z
[3"" Z~ O 48
0 .0 -----------0 16
n~ 0 ,I D ~ D C
oo 40
xu_ 9
J 20 ~ A
.A P : 193 kPa
O
m 0
6 ,'s 2'2,5
ENERGY LOSS, kJ/rn 3

O CompoundA
[] Compound B
O Compound C
A Compound D
FIG. lO--Relationship of rolling resistance force of radial tires to energy loss of tread
compounds cycled at 20% strain amplitude.

linear with loss ratio (Figs. 7 and 8), shows up as a function, but not
a linear function, of the loss tangent of the tread compound, as seen in
Fig. 11. The loss tangent data were obtained on a Rheovibron tester at
20~
Similar correlations were found for a group of steel belted bias tires
having the same tread variations as those in the radial tires. Figure 12

r'-
LLI v, krn/h
~,D IOO* ~-~Zh 113
Z I"
0 /
I-" z 8o~- / .~A 48
O9
O O / ~A 16
W6O
n~ (D dO / r ~j /oC / D
(..9 o 40
z [.u 0/ B
_J A
_J 2O P = 193 k Po
o
n--
0 I I I t I
0 .04 ,08 .12 ,16
LOSS TANGENT

O Compound A
[] Compound B
O Compound C
A Compound D
FIG. ll--Relationship of rolling resistance force of radial tires to loss tangent of tread
compounds as obtained from Rheovibrin tester at 20~
 LOU ON ROLLING RESISTANCE 187

UJ
r V, krnlh
Z
~-A If3
~- 120 ~.0~
0oz
r--ll
,~, ~ IO0- .I0 .... A 48
I~CD f ..-----A 16
n- 8 0 - /" 0~
(.90
ZLL
-- 60- B
._1
o P=193 kPo
rr
0.1 012 0 .' 5 0 .' 4
LOSS R A T I O

Compound B
0 Compound C
A Compound D
FIG. 12--Relationship of rolling resistance force of belted bias tires to loss ratio of tread
compounds cycled at 20% strain amplitude.

shows that the loss ratio of solution SBR treads fits well into curves deter-
mined by rubber treads with different carbon black contents, although it
is not linear for this construction.

Conclusions
Tire rolling resistance was found to be related more closely to the loss
ratio or loss tangent of the tread compound than to other viscoelastic
properties studied. This was true for rolling resistance measured at either
constant speed or constant inflation pressure and for loss ratio measured at
either constant strain or constant stress cycles. Loss ratio was calculated
from sawtooth cycling on an Instron tester. Relative rankings based on
the loss ratio were the same as those based on the loss tangent calculated
from sinusoidal cycles on a Rheovibron tester. By contrast, when the rolling
resistance force was plotted against either energy input or energy loss, the
results were less uniform.
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank Dr. J. D. Walter for initiating this work
and for his continued interest, Dr. D. J. Schuring and Mr. F. S. Conant
for many helpful discussions, Dr. J. D. Hunt for tire fabrication and
specimen preparation, Messrs. G. L. Hall and P. J. Sekula for tire testing,
and The Firestone Tire & Rubber Co. for permission to publish these
results.
188 TIRE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

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[1] Crum, w. B. and MeNall, R. G., "Effects of Tire Rolling Resistance on Vehicle Fuel
Consumption," Tire Science and Technology, Vol. 3, No. 1, Feb. 1975, pp. 3-15.
[2] Schuring, D. J., Bird, K. D., and Martin, J. F., "Power Requirements of Tires and
Fuel Economy," Tire Science and Technology, Vol. 2, No. 4, Nov. 1974, pp. 261-285.
[3] Conant, F. S., "Tire Temperatures," Rubber Chemistry and Technology, Vol. 44, No. 2,
April 1971, pp. 397-439.
[4] Kainradl, P. and Kaufmann, G., "Heat Generation in Pneumatic Tires," Rubber
Chemistry and Technology, Vol. 49, No. 3, July 1976, pp. 823-861.
[5] Walter, J. D. and Conant, F. S., "Energy Losses in Tires," Tire Science and Technology,
Vol. 2, No. 4, Nov. 1974, pp. 235-260.
[6] Khromov, M. K. and Konovalova, N. P., "Rolling Losses of Tyres," Soviet Rubber
Technology, Vol. 29, No. 8, Aug. 1970, pp. 45-47.
[7] Collins, J. M., Jackson, W. L., and Oubridge, P. S., "Relevance of Elastic and Loss
Moduli of Tire Components to Tire Energy Losses," Transactions of the Institution of
Rubber Industry, Vol. 40, No. 6, Dec. 1964, pp. 239-256, and Rubber Chemistry
and Technology, Vol. 38, No. 2, June 1965, pp. 400-414.
[8] Willett, P. R., "Hysteretic Losses in Rolling Tires," Rubber Chemistry and Technology,
Vol. 46, No. 2, June 1973, pp. 425-441.
[9] Willett, P. R., "Variation in Tire Hysteretic Losses Due to Tire Design," Rubber
Chemistry and Technology, Vol. 47, No. 1, March 1974, pp. 118-126.
[10] Willett, P. R., "Heat Generation in Tires Due to the Viscoelastic Properties of Elastomeric
Components," Rubber Chemistry and Technology, Vol. 47, No. 2, June 1974,
pp. 363-375.
[11] Khromov, M. K., Sakhnovskii, N. L., Konovalova, N. P., and Stepanova, L. I., "Rela-
tionship Between Rolling Losses of Truck Tyres and Hysteresis of the Tread Vul-
canisates," International Polymer Science and Technology, Vol. 1, No. 9, Sept. 1974,
pp. 31-33.
[12] Hunt, J. D., Walter, J. D., and Hall, G. L., "The Effect of Tread Polymer Variations
on Radial Tire Rolling Resistance," presented at the Society of Automotive Engineers/
Energy Research and Development Administration Rolling Resistance Symposium,
Boston, Oct. 1977.
[13] Sekula, P. J., Hall, G. L., Potts, G. R., and Conant, F. S., "Dynamic Indoor Tire
Testing and Fourier Transform Analysis," Tire Science and Technology, Vol. 4, No. 2,
May 1976, pp. 66-85.
i14] Priss, L. S. "Untersuchung des Verhaltens yon Reifen-Vulkanisaten bei mehrfacher
Deformation," Kautschuk und Gummi, Kunststoffe, Vol. 19, No. 10, Oct. 1966,
pp. 639-643.