THE MANIFEST DARKNESS:

EXORCISM AND POSSESSION IN THE CHRISTIAN TRADITION

by

JAMIE HELEN PARSONS

(Under the Direction of William Power)

ABSTRACT

The thesis of this paper is as follows: The belief in demonic possession is historically integral to

the Christian faith, and the corresponding practice of exorcism is experiencing a modern

resurgence. I will address the theology of possession and the practice of exorcism within the

context of Christianity, with particular focus on Catholic exorcism and Protestant deliverance.

The foundation for this study is developed through a discussion of theodicy and the evolution of

adversarial personalities within the Christian tradition. Following this, an examination of the

practice of exorcism, its role within the religious experience, its therapeutic benefits and

hindrances, its primary controversies, and a few sample cases, will further develop the thesis.

INDEX WORDS: Exorcism, Possession, Satan, Theodicy, Christianity, Demonology,

Department of Religion, Jamie H. Parsons, Masters of Arts, The
University of Georgia
 THE MANIFEST DARKNESS:

EXORCISM AND POSSESSION IN THE CHRISTIAN TRADITION

by

JAMIE H. PARSONS

B.A., University of California, Santa Cruz, 2005

A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

MASTER OF ARTS

ATHENS, GEORGIA

2012
 © 2012

Jamie H. Parsons

All Rights Reserved

 THE MANIFEST DARKNESS:

EXORCISM AND POSSESSION IN THE CHRISTIAN TRADITION

by

JAMIE H. PARSONS

Major Professor: William Power

Committee: Sandy Martin

Carolyn Medine

Electronic Version Approved:

Maureen Grasso
Dean of the Graduate School
The University of Georgia
May 2012
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The faculty, students, and staff of the University of Georgia Department of Religion have been

endlessly helpful to me in the pursuit of this thesis. I would specifically like to thank Dr. Carolyn

Medine, for her optimism and encouragement when I needed it most; Dr. Sandy Martin, for

generously shepherding me through the wayward historical pathways; and my thesis advisor, Dr.

William Power, for guiding my mind with the subtlety and skill of a philosophical magician.

Finally, without the unconditional support of my family and friends, this thesis would not have

been possible.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... iv

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION: SCOPE AND PURPOSE...............................................................1

2 THEOLOGY AND HISTORY OF ADVERSARIAL PERSONALITIES ...................5

Theodicy ..................................................................................................................5

The Role of Satan in the Christian World..............................................................17

3 FOUNDATIONS OF EXORCISM AND DEMONIC POSSESSION .......................20

Demons in the New Testament ..............................................................................20

The Practice of Exorcism .......................................................................................24

Exorcism of Objects and Places .............................................................................25

Exorcism of People ................................................................................................26

Symptomology .......................................................................................................28

The Ritual of Exorcism ..........................................................................................30

4 DELIVERANCE MINISTRY .....................................................................................35

Comparing Catholic and Protestant Exorcism Ministries ......................................35

History of Protestant Exorcism ..............................................................................39

Protestant and Possessed in 1574 ...........................................................................43

Exorcist as Shaman, Exorcism as Therapy ............................................................47

5 MODERN EXORCISM...............................................................................................52

v
 Controversies and Crimes ......................................................................................52

Exorcists Online .....................................................................................................59

Representative Cases .............................................................................................62

Mount Rainier, 1949 ..............................................................................................64

Florida, 1991 ..........................................................................................................68

Deliverance and Mass Exorcism ............................................................................71

Conclusion .............................................................................................................72

BIBLIOGRAPHY ..........................................................................................................................74

vi
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION: SCOPE AND PURPOSE

And when he has stepped out of the boat, immediately a man out of the tombs with

an unclean spirit met him. He lived among the tombs; and no one could restrain

him any more, even with a chain; for he had often been restrained with shackles

and chains, but the chains he wrenched apart, and the shackles he broke in pieces

and no one had the strength to subdue him. Night and day among the tombs and

on the mountains he was always howling and bruising himself with stones. When

he saw Jesus from a distance, he ran and bowed down before him; and he shouted

at the top of his voice, “What have you to do with me, Jesus, Son of the Most High

God? I adjure you by God, do not torment me.” For he had said to him, “What is

your name?” He replied, “My name is Legion; for we are many.1

Whether one believes that evil exists as a personified, physical reality, capable of infesting the

hearts, bodies, and souls of any who crosses its path, or as an abstraction, a vague and

treacherous philosophical idea reflective only of the darkness which naturally resides within all

people, one cannot deny the power of these words: ―My name is Legion; for we are many.‖

This statement taps into a deep and very human fear of the monstrous. Many children

grow up afraid of the monsters under the bed, in the closet, in the dark itself. These fears are

primal; they echo the uncertainty of life, wherein our understanding of the world is truly, starkly

limited, and we are incapable of defending ourselves against those things which we do not
1
Mark 5:2-5:9

1
understand, and cannot see. These ancient demons—Legion; Satan; Beelzebub; Asmodeus, and

so on—attack human beings in the most brutal way: by taking away humanity and turning the

victim into no more than a vessel for Evil.

Demonic possession and its cure, the practice of exorcism, is an oft neglected aspect of

theological discourse. Most often seen as a relic of a superstitious past, perhaps even slightly

embarrassing to those who can cite such beliefs in the genetics of their religion, the idea of

demonic possession is commonly believed to have wasted away in popular belief, and been

replaced by the less intangible disciplines of medicine, neurology, psychology, and their kin.

However, there is no denying the reality of these beliefs. They are firmly entrenched in

Christian tradition, both Catholic and Protestant.2 They are hopelessly and permanently

intertwined with more dignified theology; in many ways, demonology, possession, and exorcism

comprise the dark underbelly of a respectable Christianity. Additionally, in recent years a

resurgence in such beliefs can be seen, particularly among Catholics and more conservative

Protestant groups.

The study of demonic possession and exorcism is not an obscure or elusive evaluation of

some distant theology. This is a real-world issue, with real-world consequences. A 2007 Harris

poll, which sampled 2,455 Americans, found that 62 percent believed in the existence of Satan,

compared to 42 percent who wholly accepted the Darwinian theory of evolution.3 It found that

belief in the Devil was much higher amongst ―born-again‖ Christians, and slightly lower among

other Protestants or Catholics. Whether these beliefs are in the forefronts of the believer‘s minds

2
Throughout this paper, I refer very generally to ―Catholic‖ and ―Protestant‖ Christianity. This is merely a
convenience which reflects the doublet-nature of exorcism, and should not suggest that all of the many varieties and
subtypes of each, or the other strains of Christianity, such as Eastern Orthodox or Coptic, are somehow less
important.
3
W. Scott Poole, Satan in America (Plymouth: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc, 2009), 3. Ed Stoddard, ―Poll
Finds More Americans Believe in Devil Than Darwin‖ Reuters, November 29, 2007, accessed February 1, 2012,
http://www.reuters.com/article/2007/11/29/us-usa-religion-beliefs-idUSN2922875820071129

2
or are simply the standard answer given based on a religious heritage, is difficult to tell.

However, it is certain that belief in Satan is widespread, particularly among fundamentalist

Christians. As a result, his presence can be felt by believers and non-believers alike, and that

presence may take the form of demonic possession, which translates into heavy controversy.

That controversy is based on more than just the assumption by non-believers that the belief is

superstitious; rather, it involves the vitriolic dispute over the necessity and forms of exorcism.

Exorcism has arguably helped many people, but also it can have tragic consequences.

Horrific, painful deaths have occurred during exorcisms; they have occurred with frequency in

recent years, and they occur all over the world, in nearly every denomination. Satan was cast

very early in Christian history as a battlefield foe, and that attitude of a warlike fight very often

translates directly into the actions of an exorcism. This is not a subject for casual discussion.

People are dying, and a critical evaluation of the factors surrounding their deaths is necessary.

The thesis of this paper is as follows: The belief in demonic possession is historically

integral to the Christian faith, and the corresponding practice of exorcism is experiencing a

modern resurgence. I will address the theology of possession and the practice of exorcism within

the context of Christianity, specifically Catholic and Protestant, and show how the understanding

of these beliefs and practices is important in modern society. Chapter Two begins with a

discussion of theodicy, the issue which has given Satan his armor against expulsion. Then, I will

show how he has become the Devil as he is known today, through a tour of his development,

from his first appearances as a minor character in the Old Testament, to his starring roles in

modern films. Chapter Three will address the basics of the practice of exorcism, as well as the

New Testament foundations of that practice. Chapter Four will focus on Protestant exorcism: the

ministry of deliverance. Chapter Five will conclude with a discussion of the modern practice of

3
exorcism, and will highlight several controversies and crimes associated with exorcism which

have appeared in the media, and finally will highlight a few sample cases.

4
 CHAPTER 2

THEOLOGY AND HISTORY OF ADVERSARIAL PERSONALITIES

Theodicy

The phenomena of demonic possession and exorcism do not exist in a vacuum. They originate

from a complex network of beliefs associated with the satanic, and at its core is theodicy, the

problem of evil. The problem of evil has plagued the minds of human beings since the dawn of

conscious thought, but it is only in the strict monotheism of the Abrahamic religions that the

issue becomes treacherous, both in terms of betrayal and in theological danger. How does one

reconcile one God, alone and almighty, who is at once omnibenevolent, omniscient, and

omnipotent, with the existence of evil in the world? This issue is a frequent subject of discussion

among philosophers of religion and apologists; likewise, its inherent difficulty has resulted in its

regular use among critics of monotheistic religion.4

There are two different types of evil which are often cited in theological analysis: natural

evils and moral evils. Natural evils are those which humans seemingly have no control over,

such as tornadoes, cancers, and miscarriages. Moral evils are those which are caused by the

actions of humans, such as murder and rape, all the way down to the most venial of sins.

The question of why God allows natural evils tends to get less attention than that of moral

evil. Why does God allow individuals to commit atrocities? Why did he not create man such that

he would not feel such compulsions? Why does he not prevent them once they are in danger of

occurring? Because, any interference between God and the actions of humanity constitutes a

denial of free will. Since free will is a cornerstone of the Christian faith, taking away the ability
4
James C. Livingston, Anatomy of the Sacred, (New Jersey: Pearson, 2009), 254.

5
of people to choose sin, commit sin, or even think of sinning, would fundamentally damage the

theological structure of Creation.

However, at the same time, by granting humanity free will, giving the capability to do

evil, and permitting sin, could it not then be argued that evil originates with God? This is another

sticking point in theodicy. From where does evil originate, ultimately? It cannot be said that it

originates with God, for he is omnibenevolent. Yet, to say that it originates elsewhere is to grant

power to something other than God. Augustine argued for privatio boni: evil is simply an

absence of good.5 If one moves away from God, one removes oneself from the good. Origen

made a similar argument.6 Leibniz argued that evil is necessary so that the greater good may

come about:

…God could not prevent sin without acting unreasonably…although God wills by

his ‗antecedent‘ will that men sin not, He permits them to sin by His ‗consequent‘

or ‗final‘ will for ‗superior reasons.‘ The ‗consequent‘… ‗tends towards the

production of as many goods as can be put together, whose combination thereby

becomes determined and includes also the permission of some evils and the

exclusion of some goods, as the best possible plan of the universe demands.7

Many theodicies have emerged since the youth of Abrahamic faith; Augustine‘s privatio

boni and the Greater Good of Leibniz are prime examples.8 The issues with many of these

theodicies include their complexity and basis in faith; as with many other aspects of religion,

they are unlikely to satisfy a determined critic. It can also be argued that the average person,

particularly in the early days of Christianity, would not have been well-versed in the theological

5
George F. Thomas, Philosophy and Religious Belief (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1970), 226.
6
Jeffrey Burton Russell, Satan: The Early Christian Tradition (New York: Cornell University Press, 1981), 202.
7
George F. Thomas, Philosophy and Religious Belief , 230.
8
Ibid, 226-232.

6
arguments of the Church Fathers or in Rabbinical discourse. How much easier it would have

been for the clergy to assign the difficulties of the problem of evil to a stalking, sin-enticing,

terror-inspiring Figure of Evil, than to discuss at length the vagaries and twisting pathways of

theology! This figure, in all his dark and terrible drama, has spellbound the minds of the people

and gripped their hearts with an unrelenting fear to a depth which the other theodicies can never

hope to achieve. Never mind that his existence damages the house of cards which is the problem

of evil; Satan is an enthralling personality, at once a scapegoat for man‘s worst inclinations and

weaknesses, as well as an example of the inevitability of a Fall.9

The problem of evil is mainly a monotheistic issue. A religion which contains deities of

evil enjoys a balance which Christianity does not; evil of all types is simply blamed on the evil

Gods. The evil Gods of non-Judaic traditions formed the basis for the demonology of

Christianity. Belief in specific entities which could directly act on the lives of human beings was

widespread for most of recorded history prior to Christianity, and was popular during the

Hellenistic period. Leaching of these beliefs into the early ministry was only natural, and Jesus

was not unique as an exorcist, except perhaps in that his abilities were deemed miraculous rather

than magical.

The Biblical texts do not make it clear either from where Satan or the demons came or

where their powers originate, or what their greater purpose is here on Earth. This has led to a

great deal of speculation and interpretation, from the very earliest days of Christianity, up to

9
A parallel can be drawn between the Fall in the Garden and the Fall of Lucifer. Both falls are indirectly related to
desire to rebel against God; even if the First Couple were tempted by the serpent, they made the free will choice to
act against his prohibitions. Likewise, Lucifer was tempted by his own desire for power, fuelled by pride. Pride,
ultimately, is the source of both Falls. Also noteworthy is a detail regarding the serpent: it is only a serpent, not
Satan. It was not until much later that the serpent was equated with a specific personality of Evil. See: Jeffrey
Burton Russell, The Prince of Darkness (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988), 131; Edward Langton, Satan, A
Portrait (London: Skeffington & Son, Ltd, 1945), 20.; Bernard Bamberger, Fallen Angels, (Philadelphia: The
Jewish Publication Society, 1952), 35. James H. Charlesworth, The Good and Evil Serpent (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 2010), 278-279.

7
modern commentary. Certainly, he did not arrive fully formed. There are only three references to

him in the Hebrew Bible, and none of those refers to a distinct personality. He does not appear as

Satan, a specific embodiment of Evil, until the New Testament. What do appear are numerous

references to demons and lesser ―satans,‖ and, perhaps more importantly, the myths of the fallen

angels, which were later assimilated into the satanic legacy. 10 Essentially, three categories of

adversarial personalities can be identified in the Hebrew literature: Satan as the adversary; the

myths of the fallen angels, from which an extensive demonology can be extracted; and other

demons, such as Leviathan, Azazel, and Belial, who appear occasionally as solitary

personifications of evil independent of their own mythologies. Additionally, many aspects of the

early satanic legacy can be traced to pre-Judaic beliefs and personalities of evil.11

By the late Second Temple Period, theodicy had become a crisis; it was necessary to

resolve the issues of human suffering in the face of the soul-shattering evils which were

perpetrated against the devout. One such method was apocalyptic and eschatological literature;

another was the development of the satanic.12 Despite the dangers a figure of Evil presented to

monotheistic theology, the idea gripped hold, and became an integral part of the Christianity

which would emerge out of Judaism over the next several centuries.

The idea of a vindictive, hostile, militaristic Satan resulted from the persecutions and

martyrdoms which were widespread before the conversion of Constantine in the early 4th

century, and the subsequent conversion of his empire to Christianity.13 These traits were perhaps

only minor shifts from the fallen angel mythology and the vaguely militaristic construction of the

angelic hierarchies which were present in the Old Testament and the extra-canonical literature, as

10
Peggy Day, An Adversary in Heaven: Satan in the Hebrew Bible (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988), 15.
11
For an extensive discussion of these influences, see: Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil From
Antiquity to Early Christianity (New York: Cornell University Press, 1977).
12
Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil From Antiquity to Early Christianity, 175.
13
Carolyn Eng Looi Tan, "Humanity's Devil." Evangelical Review of Theology (2010): 138.

8
well as the aggressive and relentless Satan of the New Testament, but they had far-reaching

consequences for the elaboration of Satan as a battlefield enemy.

This idea of Satan as a militant, warlike leader was quickly and thoroughly integrated

into many of the theodicies which developed during those early centuries of Christianity.

Although later theologians, such as Augustine and Aquinas, may be the darlings of Church

theology, it seems that it was the earlier thinkers who had a more profound impact on the idea of

Satan. It was they who molded him into the The Old Enemy, and who created the enduring core

of his personality.

Among the early martyrs was Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, who died in Rome in 107

CE.14 On his journey to Rome after his conviction, he addressed seven letters to Churches

throughout the Near East, and from these an understanding of early Christian beliefs in Satan can

be gleaned.

Ignatius was a borderline gnostic, and his worldview placed materiality firmly in the

realm of Satan. The ever-present threat of martyrdom was reflected in his fear of the material

world; Ignatius believed that Satan was a real, personal threat to every individual Christian, and

that the trials of this world were a tool by which Satan sought to corrupt the faithful.15

Perhaps the largest threats Ignatius perceived were those of the schismatics and the

heretics, those individuals and groups who, in his view, were out to destroy the community of

God either through their violence or through their corrupting philosophies.16 These individuals

were not the misguided or honorable heathens whom Dante would later trap in Purgatory; they

were evil, and Satan was their Lord. Martyrdom at the hands of these agents of Satan was the

ultimate sacrifice by which Ignatius hoped to reach God; his blood would seal his pact of love in

14
Justo L. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1984), 4.
15
Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil From Antiquity to Early Christianity, 35.
16
Ibid.

9
Christ: ―I am God‘s wheat, to be ground by the beasts, so that I may be offered as pure bread of

Christ.‖17 Ignatius‘ wish was granted, and it is presumed that he was killed in a flurry of

celebratory games in Rome.

In the early 2nd century the Epistle of Barnabas was written by an anonymous author, and

it furthered the idea that the Earth was a battleground between the forces of good and evil.18

However, the strongly anti-Jewish rhetoric which saturates much of this work lends a polemical

tone which is much more direct than is found in some of the other Apostolic works; his emphasis

on Jewish doctrine and thought has led some to argue that this author was a converted rabbi.19

The worldview expressed by Barnabas was one of a clearly divided world in which the

armies of darkness were ranged in opposition against the armies of light.20 While the tone of

Ignatius is rousing, it is often resigned; the acceptance of martyrdom and the conquest of evil

through surrender are recurring themes. Barnabas on the other hand, is more assertive; he calls

for individuals to recognize that they are either on one side of the battle or the other. To him, it is

very much an attitude of ―with us, or against us.‖

A very important theme in the development of theodicy emerges in this work: the human

soul as battleground. Ignatius had placed the fight against Satan in the hearts and minds of

individuals; Barnabas recognized that the soul was key to the corruption of the individual.

Therefore, Satan would perceive it as the ultimate prize, and use every means in his arsenal to

capture it. For Barnabas, the primary weapon was temptation. Although obsession and

possession (demonic attack from without and invasion of the physical body for the purpose of

17
Justo L. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, 43.
18
Encyclopedia of Religion, s.v. ―Biblical Literature.‖
19
Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil From Antiquity to Early Christianity, 38.
20
Ibid, 39.

10
attack from within) were widely accepted possibilities at this time,21 Barnabas seems to have

realized that neither of these attacks could ultimately conquer a soul. For this to occur, the heart

of the individual would have to consciously and willfully turn away from God; therefore, Satan

sought to accomplish this through temptation. This idea that individuals have the power either to

yield to or to conquer the Devil within their own souls is perhaps a reflection of the Jewish

conception of the good and evil inclinations.22

Like both Ignatius and Barnabas, Bishop Polycarp of Smyrna (d. 155) emphasized the

earthly battle against the forces of Satan. In the early 2nd century, a correspondence between

Pliny, governor of Bithynia, and Emperor Trajan clarified the law surrounding the legality of

Christianity. Christians were not to be hunted down and executed, but rather if they happened to

be accused and they refused to recant, they should be punished. However, their sentence would

be eradicated should they recant their ―atheistic‖ beliefs and praise the gods and Emperor.23

Despite this mitigated policy of Christian persecution, execution and harassment still occurred

regularly, and the mood of fear was well established within the Christian community. Polycarp

himself was executed at age 86 when he refused to recant his beliefs before a judge.24

His theodicy appears to be an elaboration upon and clarification of that of Ignatius—

though Polycarp was much younger, the two men did know each other—and that of Barnabas.

Martyrdom, persecution, and the evil designs of the heretics were at the forefront of his

worldview. Torture and execution were weapons of the devil, but rather than emphasizing the

external consequences of these acts on the Christian community, he focused on the internal battle

that the victim underwent. Torture could influence a good Christian to reject God, and the

21
Ibid, 40.
22
Ibid, 41.
23
Justo L. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, 40.
24
Ibid, 44.

11
temptation to do so was firmly in the territory of the Devil.25 Therefore, he acknowledged the

soul as the ultimate prize of Satan, and the individual‘s responsibility to fight against him with

the whole of his being.

He further developed this idea of the soul as battlefield by reasoning that if Satan could

tempt the soul, so too could it be strengthened by the Holy Spirit.26 Therefore, the yetzerim of

rabbinical thought are further elaborated upon and absorbed into early Christian theology; the

good and evil inclinations are personified, respectively, by Satan and the Holy Spirit, and each

individual becomes a soldier of Christ from his or her material body—which could perish in the

flames of the tyrants—to the deepest parts of his or her spiritual self: the soul.27

Following on the heels of the Apostolic Fathers was Justin Martyr, one of the first

Apologists. He was a converted pagan who nurtured a deep dislike of his former religion, and he

spent a great deal of time refuting pagan and gnostic ideas. However, he retained his predilection

for classical philosophy, and much of his theology reflects philosophical methods.28 While

Ignatius had spoken explicitly against pagans who seemed to present logical and valuable ideas,

Justin was more forgiving and argued that these virtuous philosophers were hated by the demons,

thereby releasing their thought for use by Christians.29 Justin‘s hatred of paganism is reflected in

his notion that all of the myths which seemed to have influenced Scripture were in fact placed by

demons into the minds of the pagans; since the demons are aware of future events, they were

able to discredit Christian doctrine in a pre-emptive strike.30

25
Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil From Antiquity to Early Christianity, 42.
26
Ibid.
27
For extensive discussions of the yetzerim, see Ishay Rosen-Zvi, "Two Rabbinic Inclinations? Rethinking a
Scholarly Dogma." Journal For The Study Of Judaism: In The Persian Hellenistic & Roman Period 39, no. 4/5
(2008): 513-539; or Johann Cook, "The Origin of the Tradition." Journal For The Study Of Judaism: In The Persian
Hellenistic & Roman Period 38, no. 1 (2007): 80-91.
28
Henry Chadwick, The Early Church. (New York: Penguin Books, 1993), 75.
29
Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil From Antiquity to Early Christianity, 71.
30
Ibid, 70.

12
 Justin incorporated the myths of the fallen Watcher angels into his diabology (the

theology of the demonic), which included three distinct categories of adversarial personalities:

Satan alone, the fallen angels, and the demons, who seem to be the children spawned by the

fallen angels when they engaged in intercourse with human women.31 Justin leans far away from

a dualistic mythology; all of these personalities are inferior to God, and their evil is a result of

sins that they chose to commit of their own free will.32 Satan himself appears to be just another

fallen angel, although his sin is far antecedent to the sins of the other angels; he assumes a

position of primacy in evil by being the first to rebel against God‘s good will.

Although Justin held that Satan was defeated by the Passion of Christ, he maintained that

Satan was still permitted to enact evil in the world, despite being under punishment. Although

Christians were not actively sought out during Justin‘s time, prosecution and execution were still

common. Like the Apostolic Fathers before him, he felt he was living during the last days, and

that the parousia was imminent. It was this event, the Second Coming, that would bring about

Satan‘s ultimate defeat and usher in the new age. Also like the Apostolic Fathers, he argued that

persecution, torture, and martyrdom were tools of the devil. It was the duty of the Christian to

surrender to death at the hands of the heathens, for only then could the good Christian prove his

conquest of Satan. 33

The theology of Irenaeus followed shortly after that of Justin Martyr. He was an active

participant in the late-second century Christian community, both with his writing and through his

position as Bishop of Lyon. He was a student of Polycarp, and therefore his theological heritage

can be traced back to the first theologian discussed here, Ignatius.34 Theology at this time was

31
Bernard Bamberger, Fallen Angels, 82.
32
Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil From Antiquity to Early Christianity, 66.
33
Ibid, 69.
34
Justo L. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, 68.

13
still very young; many devout Christians spent their lives attempting to elucidate and systematize

the doctrine of this new religion. Irenaeus was fortunate to have roughly a century of Christian

theological thought come before him; he was able to stabilize that thought to a degree which had

not yet been achieved.35

Although Irenaeus was the theological grandchild of Ignatius, he rejected the gnostic idea

that the world is inherently evil and a product of Satan.36 Rather, he further developed the notion

that Satan, along with the other fallen angels, was born good and later became evil as a result of

his own free will choice to sin. Here the Devil develops a distinct personality as the Tempter;

like Justin, Ignatius emphasized Satan‘s desire to turn the hearts of mankind away from God:

―the Devil deceives our minds, darkens our hearts, and tries to persuade us to worship him rather

than the true God.‖37 Satan‘s animosity towards humanity is based on jealousy. He envies the

favor God placed on humans by creating them in his own image; this act placed the material

universe under the authority of Adam rather than the angels.38 Since the angels have divine

primacy over humans, this was a slight which Satan could not forgive.

Though he was far from the first to do so, Irenaeus‘ diabolical structure places Satan in

the Garden with Adam and Eve. 39 There, either as the serpent or through the manipulation of

the serpent, he succeeds in tempting the first couple to sin, thereby polluting all future

generations of humanity; the only defense against him is Christ. Here, Satan is firmly fixed as the

jealous tempter, united with the myth of the fallen angels. Now, he is fully recognizable as the

Satan of modern Christianity.

35
Henry Chadwick, The Early Church, 80.
36
Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil From Antiquity to Early Christianity, 80.
37
Ibid, 81.
38
Ibid.
39
Elaine Pagels, "The Social History of Satan, Part Three, John of Patmos and Ignatius of Antioch: Contrasting
Visions of "God's people." Harvard Theological Review (2006): 488.

14
 However important these early theologies were, the necessity for a personality of evil was

distasteful because it echoed pagan dualisms. Some early theologians, like Augustine and

Origen, managed to create elaborate systems wherein God was absolved of responsibility for evil

and Satan became extraneous. For example, Origen argued that evil was non-being, and that it

strengthened the farther one moved away from God. Augustine took this argument further, and

showed that evil was not a thing in and of itself, but rather a privation, a lack of good. Disease,

for example, is merely an absence of health; likewise hate exists because love is lacking.40 This

privation theory should be taken in context with his evaluation of free will and the completeness

of the universe. Free will is a good granted by God. It is not inherently evil in any way, although

humans, as well as angels, may use it to do evil. God permits this corruption of his good gift in

order to lend plenitude to his creation. Perfection requires comparison against something less

than perfect in order to be recognized as perfect; therefore the evils of the world, when viewed in

comparison to the ultimate perfection of God, can be understood to be lacking in degrees of

goodness.

This argument is necessarily complex, and it is not difficult to see why it did not appeal

to the masses. Satan may have been a threat to Christian theology, but he was not going to give

up his position of power quite so easily. Over the course of a millenium, satanic theology

developed into a form recognizable today. The general movement of much of the thought

regarding Satan leading up to the time of the Scholastics was toward solidification of the

concepts that had been developed by earlier thinkers.

Also important during this period was the development of the practice of exorcism.

Finding its roots in Scripture, the tradition of exorcism was well established in the Church early

40
George F. Thomas, Philosophy and Religious Belief, 227.

15
on; there was a formal order of ordained exorcists in the early Church, but soon their duties were

taken over by the priesthood.41 Exorcism of possessed individuals occurred, but far more

common were the routine exorcisms of ritual items such as salt, holy water, and incense, as well

as the exorcism of the catechumen during baptism.42 Most were simple affairs which did not

draw undue attention to the event, but some were far more involved, as in this liturgical piece

from a later period quoted by Jeffrey Burton Russell:

I accost you damned and most impure spirit, cause of malice, essence of crimes,

origin of sins, you who revel in deceit, sacrilege, adultery, and murder! I adjure

you in Christ‘s name that, in whatsoever part of the body you are hiding you

declare yourself, that you flee the body that you are occupying and from which

we drive you with spiritual whips and invisible torments. I demand that you leave

this body, which has been cleansed by the Lord. Let it be enough for you that in

earlier ages you dominated almost the entire world through your action on the

hearts of human beings…43

While the early theologians gave the Devil access to human souls, they were really just

elaborating upon and justifying what was written in the New Testament accounts of Christ as

exorcist. Therefore, although it was believed at that time that Satan and his demonic forces could

enter into the physical body, it was also believed that he was weak in the face of Christ. Drawing

on scriptural references, Christ was seen to be the key which could free the possessed and the

oppressed. That key remains in the hands of the faithful today.

41
Jeffrey Burton Russell, Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Age. (New York: Cornell University Press, 1984): 124.
42
Ibid, 125; Henry Asgar Kelly, The Devil at Baptism: Ritual, Theology, and Drama (Ithaca: Cornell University
Press, 1985).
43
Jeffrey Burton Russell, Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages, 126.

16
 The Role of Satan in the Christian World

The development of the idea of Satan can be described as logarithmic: rapid growth in the first

400 years after Christ, then tapering off. He continues to develop today, but toward the end of the

medieval period he became more solid and consistently recognizable, with less dramatic

variation. Satan and the demons were now understood as independent, individualized forces of

evil, with distinct personalities, physical traits, and abilities, and they were primed for the

explosion of literature and artistic representation which occurred in the late Middle Ages and in

the early modern period.

The great bastion which Christianity had become by the Middle Ages did not allow for

great deviations in thought; musings that wandered too far from the fold were deemed

heretical.44 As a result, there was little development in the satanic idea throughout this period.

Then came the Reformation. This great ecclesiastic earthquake shook the very foundations of

Christian tradition; the Protestant Reformation sought to return Christians to their New

Testament roots, and the Catholic Reformation sought to dig the cancer of corruption out from its

very core. The door to innovation was thrown wide open, despite the fear of the Inquisition. The

Devil surged back to power, the Protestants finding his presence in the New Testament to be

irrefutable proof of his real-world danger, and the Catholics finding evidence of his machinations

in these heretical new upstarts, the Protestants. The Protestants called the Pope the Antichrist.

The Catholics insisted that the Protestants were possessed by Devils.45 Throughout this dark

period, Satan became the standard-bearer of each opposing force; and throughout this period, his

power cracked the whips upon the religious battlefield.

44
Gerald Messadié, A History of the Devil (New York: Kodansha International, 1997), 277.
45
Heiko A. Oberman, Luther: Man Between God and the Devil (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 253,
258; Anonymous, The Morning-Star out of the North… (London : Printed for B.H., 1680).; Anonymous, Babel and
Bethel, or, The Pope in His Colours (Harvard University Library: Microfilm, Reel position: Wing/1560:62, 1680).

17
 Over the next several hundred years, the presence of the Devil rose and fell with the

religious and secular fashions of the times. Perhaps his greatest moment of power occurred

during the Inquisition, but it was also the Inquisition that burned his throne. The disgust many

people felt as a result of the extensive tortures and executions, as well as the practical abuses

which occurred, caused many to question the entire construct of religious evil.46

The Devil experienced another surge in popularity, this time primarily secular, with the

Romantic movement, which began around the late eighteenth century and peaked during the

nineteenth. 47 This splintered into a number of others, such as Victorian occultism, Decadence,

and Naturalism; and in the end it expired as most flights of fancy do. It was replaced by the cold

hardness of the new sciences, psychology, and political philosophies, which were still in their

fresh youth when Romanticism was aging and wasting away. Christianity survived through all of

the hardships of the previous centuries, but technology and Industrialism dealt a heavy blow

from which it never fully recovered.

There was little room for the mysterious, the hidden, and the dark, in this new movement

which exalted experimentation and evidence above all things. While God survived and

religiosity was maintained, Satan was sidelined. Few aside from the hard-core philosophers,

psychologists, and scientists would dare say that Satan did not exist, but he was largely ignored

as a relic of a superstitious past. The nature of evil turned away from a distinct metaphysical

Adversary and toward the hidden darkness within humanity itself, and the great atrocities of the

twentieth century only served to bolster this position. Atheism, nihilism, and materialism were

46
Jeffrey Burton Russell, Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages, 293.
47
The exaltation of the Devil as a Romantic Hero with wisdom as great as any other religious figure is perhaps best
summarized by Blake‘s concept of the poets and the Devil‘s party: ―In the eternal conflict between belief and denial,
Blake said, true poets are always of the Devil's party…The poet's most important service to religion may be to insist,
as Milton did, that the artist's divine vocation brought with it a religious magisterium at least equal in dignity to that
of any prelate or presbyter.‖ Robert M. Ryan, "Christianity and Romanticism: A Reply." Christianity and Literature
(1999): 88.

18
rampant, as the problem of evil slammed head-on into the Holocaust, nuclear devastation,

genocides, horrific dictatorships, and every other massive atrocity instituted by human hands.

How could a God who was omnibenevolent, omniscient, and omnipotent allow such evils to

occur? This question combined with the growing tendency to refer to scientific evidence in

nearly every situation and dismiss those things which could not be experimentally replicated

dealt a near-fatal blow to the old Satan of the theologians and the religious. Even those who

retained their religiosity tended to speak now of Satan in a metaphorical sense, as a way of

consciously personifying the evil which exists within every Christian soul.

Of course, there still were many individuals and congregations who professed belief in

the Devil as a real adversary, but they became a minority in a world that had simultaneously

glorified and sterilized him. Films like The Exorcist and The Rite spark interest among the

religious, and cause others to reflect on the nature of evil, sometimes with drastic consequences.

But for many today, he is now no more than a relic of a superstitious past, a character in a film,

or an abstract archetype, and the widespread, integral presence of Satan in the day-to-day life of

the general population is long gone. However, the manifestation of the Devil is cyclic.

Throughout his history, he has come, and he has gone, but always he finds a way to re-emerge.

The Harris poll underscores that his re-emergence is occurring now, during the early twenty-first

century. This is partly due to the Devil‘s sudden celebrity as a main character in so many popular

films and books, and partly due to much deeper religious and secular crises. And a share of his

modern homecoming is manifesting in the ancient disease of demonic possession.

19
 CHAPTER 3

FOUNDATIONS OF EXORCISM AND DEMONIC POSSESSION

Demons in the New Testament

Theodicy and the history of Satan are critical to an understanding of demonic possession and

exorcism. The last chapter showed that many of the earliest theologians integrated the concept of

physical invasion by a demonic personality without hesitation. This idea was in no way new or

foreign; it was common in neighboring cultures and religions, and appeared frequently in the

documents that would later comprise the New Testament.

Demonic possession and exorcism were not novel concepts during the New Testament

period. Holy men and pagan practitioners of magical practices were well known to perform

works which were said to control demons.48 The term ―demon,‖ in fact, did not come to be

associated with evil entities specifically until the time of Xenocrates in the Hellenistic Period. It

comes from the Greek daimon, which has sometimes been translated by scholars as

―apportioner;‖ however others have noted that the verb root means ―to divide.‖49 Originally, it

was not suggestive of division in the sense of creating a divide in terms of adversarial conflict;

rather, the word referred to those deities or spirits which acted as intermediaries between the

Gods and humanity. It was an ambiguous term that did not indicate malevolence.50 However,

48
Bart Ehrman, The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2004), 263.
49
Lars Albinus, ―The Greek daimon Between Mythos and Logos.‖ In Die Daimonen/Demons, ed. by Armin Lange
et al. (Tubingen, 2003), 426.
50
Ibid. 428

20
Xenocrates made the distinction between good spirits and demons, and by the end of that era the

negative connotations were firmly in place.51

Jesus‘ exorcism ministry is well attested throughout the New Testament. Further

examples beyond the Mark 5:2-9 passage which opened this thesis abound: Paul exorcises a

spirit of divination from a slave girl in the name of Jesus (Acts 16:16-18); Jesus exorcises a

young boy taken by seizures, healing him (Luke 9:37-43); exorcised demons will return with

reinforcements if the individual has not mended her ways and is strong in faith (Matthew 12:43-

45); and several others. The sense of physical evil is present and immediate in the New

Testament. Demonic possessions and their exorcisms do not come across as strange and

unknown occurrences; rather, they fit easily with the other miraculous healings and ministries of

Jesus and his disciples.

A common modern objection to the New Testament focus on devilry is that this belief

was simply the product of a ―primitive‖ worldview. Jeffrey Burton Russell asserts the extreme

danger of adopting this chronocentric perception:

The fallacy of chronocentrism is dangerous for all scholars, but for scholars of a

Christian persuasion it is particularly odd to maintain that Jesus and the apostles

were primitive people who were not as enlightened as we. Since belief in the

Devil permeates the New Testament, it follows that if belief in the Devil is

rejected, any other belief expressed by the New Testament—including belief in

the incarnation and the resurrection—is subject to the same treatment...52

This is an idea echoed in the 1972 Anglican document Exorcism; The Report of a

Commission Convened by the Bishop of Exeter, commonly referred to simply as the ―Exeter

51
Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil From Antiquity to Early Christianity, 142.
52
Jeffrey Burton Russell, Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World (New York: Cornell University Press,
1986), 263.

21
Report.‖ This report was compiled in response to the sudden resurgence in public interest in the

concept of exorcism, as well as the occult and concerns over Satanic activity in England, which

occurred during the New Age revival of the 1960s.53 Published the year before the release of the

horror film ―The Exorcist,‖ which is often cited as partially responsible for the shift in public

perception of demonic activity from either mere superstition or fascinating curiosity (and,

commonly, legitimate religious fear) to an entertaining character, the issuance of The Exeter

Report shows that focus on the topic was already in full swing before release of the film, at least

in England. In reference to the New Testament accounts of exorcism and demonic possession, L.

Malia explains that the Exeter Report is quite clear:

It was expected that the Messiah when he came would show that he possessed the

power of an exorcist" (p. 11 [Exeter Report]). The report on exorcism in the New

Testament which follows includes many well-known examples from Jesus' life

and ministry, as well as examples from the Acts of the Apostles, and notes the

importance of exorcism in the New Testament as a powerful means of

evangelization. Should we dismiss such accounts as the product of a primitive

understanding of the world…or as metaphorical language? Should we gloss over

them as proof of the power of suggestion to treat psychosomatic illness? If the

answer to any of the above is "yes," he says, then we are left in serious doubt as to

the reliability of the witness of the gospels.54

The tendency to cherry-pick ideas and beliefs from Biblical works is quite common, and here

Russell and the editors of The Exeter Report aptly demonstrate why this is theologically

treacherous. At the same time, it is quite dangerous to take as fact and law every sentence of the

53
Linda Malia, "A Fresh Look at a Remarkable Document: Exorcism: The Report of a Commission Convened by
the Bishop of Exeter." Anglican Theological Review (2000): 65-88.
54
Ibid.

22
Bible; were one to do so, this would quickly put one on the wrong side of both the law and

common morality.55 That being said, it is quite clear that the demonic activity of the New

Testament is not a fluke or a metaphor; it is persistent and consistent, and it serves a greater

theological purpose.

Theories on the origin and nature of the demons and Satan changed with the times. In the

early years of Christianity, when Christians were still being actively persecuted by the dominant

powers and religions of the time, the persistent terror which was simply a fact of Christian life

translated directly into the blooming theologies, and into theodicy in particular. The human soul

was a battlefield, and the forces of evil were in full combat with the forces of good. Demons and

Satan were real entities with real power to destroy the faithful; their aim was to crush the faith of

the people and ultimately bring down the house of God.

This theory dominated until Christianity began to take control over the empire. Once that

occurred, theodicy adopted a much more sterile nature; Augustine‘s privatio boni, mentioned

earlier, is a prime example of this new attitude. He and the theologians after him tended to take a

somewhat abstract position in terms of the logic of theodicy, but at the same time they developed

very elaborate demonological systems which were based partially on the New Testament,

partially on the extra-canonical sources (particularly the Enochic works), and partially on their

own philosophical conclusions. However, by the medieval period, the formula was set: The

Devil was created good, but fell through pride; likewise, the demons were fallen angels. Satan is

a tempter who seeks to bend the hearts of the faithful away from God. He uses heresy, magic,

and sexual indiscretion to achieve his goals. 56

55
One of the more well-known examples is Exodus 22:18: You shall not permit a female sorcerer to live.
56
For broad treatments of this subject, see: Bamberger, Fallen Angels: Soldiers of Satan‟s Realm; Jeffrey Burton
Russell, Satan, The Early Christian Tradition, and Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages; On pride specifically,
though he cites Russell: Neil Forsyth, The Old Enemy, (New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1987), 245.

23
 The key to the previous statement is ―bend the hearts of the faithful.‖ Exorcism has never

been about grand rites and demonstrations of the power of the Church or priest, although it has

certainly been used as such. Rather, solely through the faith of the afflicted and the faith of the

exorcist is the victim released from his or her satanic bondage. The power comes not from the

participants themselves, but rather Christ flows through them, and from the calling of his divine

name, the demon is exorcised.

If one is to take at face value the proclamations of the New Testament—and for the

purposes of laying the foundation of the theology, this is necessary—then Satan and demons are

real threats, ready to invade the bodies and minds of the people, Jesus Christ was the

consummate exorcist, and he granted the ability to exorcize to all Christians of faith.57 However,

it must be noted that all scholars are not in agreement on this note. Some insist that Jesus was not

in fact an exorcist, and that, like the ―Morning Star, Son of Dawn‖ passage in Isaiah 14, the

―Legion‖ passage quoted at the beginning of this paper is merely veiled political propoganda. 58

The Practice of Exorcism

Generally, when one thinks of exorcism and possession, one immediately goes to the spinning

heads and demonic shrieking made so popular by Hollywood movies. However, aside from this

extremely sensationalistic aspect of exorcism, there are several subtypes that have historically

been both innocuous and common; such as the rite of baptism, the cleansing of holy water, or the

consecration of holy ground, among others.

57
Gabriele Amorth, An Exorcist Tells His Story (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1999) 43-44; Mk 3:14-15; Mk 6:7,
13; Mt 10:1; Mt10:7-8; Lk 9:1; Lk 10:17-18; Jn 3:10; Jn 3:8; Jn 5:18;Mt 7:22-23; Mk 16-17; Acts 5:16; Acts 8:6-7;
Acts 16:16-18; Acts 19:11-12; Lk 11:19.
58
Joseph Blenkinsopp, A History of Prophecy in Israel. (1996); Pieter F. Craffert, "Crossan's Historical Jesus as
Healer, Exorcist and Miracle Worker." Religion & Theology 10 no. 3-4 (January 1, 2003): 258-259.

24
 In order to understand how exorcism applies to the subtypes, let us first address the

meaning of the word itself. It is derived from the Greek exousia, which translates as ―to swear or

bind by oath.‖59 This ties in with the previous discussion of the power of the name of God, and

how that name is the primary weapon in the exorcist‘s arsenal against a possessing demon. Note

also that the word does not have any connotations towards either good or evil; it is neutral.

Additionally, a minor semantic note that often comes up is the confusion over the exorcised; it is

the demon, not the afflicted, who is exorcised. This does make a subtle difference in the power of

the possessor. If it is the victim that needs to be exorcised, then the suggestion is that the

possessor has somehow damaged the soul of the victim. However, by specifying that it is the

demon who is exorcised, it is suggested that the victim has merely been temporarily invaded, and

with the proper treatment, can be healed. This is the goal of every exorcism: to cleanse the victim

and restore her to a life free from evil and strong in faith.

The following discussion is concerned primarily with Catholic exorcism, although many

of the details apply to Protestant ideas and practices as well. In general, there are three main

types of exorcism: that of objects; places; and people. Exorcism of individuals also contains two

main subtypes: the simple exorcism, which occurs in baptism, and the solemn rite of exorcism,

which is the ritual reserved for exorcists.60

Exorcism of Objects and Places

Exorcism of objects can include the consecration of holy water, oil, and salt, for example, as well

as of animals.61 Since Christian tradition does not assign a soul to animals, there is little threat of

animal possession, since they have no soul for the Devil to turn away from God. Likewise, the

59
Encyclopedia of Religion, s.v. ―Exorcism.‖
60
Gabriele Amorth, An Exorcist Tells His Story, 44.
61
Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), 29

25
utilization of exorcism for the purpose of consecrating holy objects seems to be less critical for

the holiness of the object, but still a necessary step.62 Perhaps the assumption is that the demonic

could pollute such objects, and use them as a conduit to the faithful, or simply damage their

efficacy in the normal course of their use.

Exorcism of places can include the consecration of holy ground as well as the cleansing

of physical areas which are contaminated in some way, such as by hauntings.63 Usually, in such

cases, the priest will look for evidence of some type of ―unchristian‖ activity at the site; such as

pagan worship, occult happenings, or even, for the most conservative, activities like yoga or

meditation. Many of the requirements and much of the procedure for exorcising a place are the

same as for exorcising a person.64

Exorcism of People

Before going into a discussion of the details of exorcism as it pertains to people, let me first

make a disclaimer. Much of this material is considered paranormal; meaning, it is firmly outside

the realm of normal human experience.65 As such, it is unusual, often bizarre, and sometimes

revolting. I make no claims as to the truth or falsehood of the accounts and beliefs of those who

have had direct experience with the phenomena of demonic possession and exorcism, only that

they believe it to be true, and as a result these beliefs have a long standing tradition and position

within Christianity.

62
Jeffrey Burton Russell, Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages, 125.
63
Michael Harper, Spiritual Warfare (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1970), 105-106.
64
Gabriele Amorth, An Exorcist Tells His Story, 125; Fortea, Interview with an Exorcist, 71
65
But often, well within religious experience, as shown in a recent study: Joseph O. Baker, and Scott Draper.
"Diverse supernatural portfolios: certitude, exclusivity, and the curvilinear relationship between religiosity and
paranormal beliefs." Journal For The Scientific Study Of Religion 49:3 (September 1, 2010): 413-424.

26
 Father Gabriele Amorth was the Vatican‘s chief exorcist from 1989 until he retired in

2000. He is widely considered the foremost Catholic expert on demonic possession and exorcism

in the world, and he has been very outspoken regarding the lack of attention the issue has

received over the last several decades. He has written two books, An Exorcist Tells his Story and

An Exorcist: More Stories, which, aside from the numerous anecdotes of cases he has handled,

also include a wealth of information regarding the procedure and theology with which exorcism

is associated. Far from saying, as some do, that cases are exaggerated, he insists that people do

not understand the gravity of the situation. He has even been quoted as stating that The Exorcist

is his favorite film: ―Of course, the special effects are exaggerated. But it is a good film, and

substantially exact, based on a respectable novel which mirrored a true story."66 The Exorcist

will be discussed in greater detail later in this paper.

There are five types of demonic attacks which Father Amorth cites: demonic possession,

demonic oppression, demonic obsession, demonic infestation, and demonic subjugation.

Demonic oppression involves cases in which the Devil has in some way attacked an individual

but has not possessed them. Oppression can cause illness, problems with work or home, financial

difficulties, and so on.67 Cases in which people believe they have been cursed can be attributed to

this category. Demonic obsession causes obsessive negative, dark, and violent thoughts against

oneself or others. Demonic infestation was discussed earlier, and involves the possession of

physical places, resulting in hauntings, especially of the violent, poltergeist type of activity.

Demonic subjugation results from a voluntary and willful decision to submit to the Devil, as in

Satanism.68

66
Gyles Brandreth, ―An Interview with the Church's Leading Exorcist,‖ The Sunday Telegraph, October 29, 2000,
5.
67
Gabriele Amorth, An Exorcist Tells His Story, 33.
68
Ibid, 33-35.

27
 Possession itself is not a hard and fast category in which, if a person fits x out of y

symptoms, he can be deemed possessed. Rather, it is an extensive triangulation of medical

reports, psychiatric and psychological reports, along with the paranormal symptoms and

religious distress which lay the foundation for suspicion of possession.69 Father Amorth is

careful to point out that even in the most clear-cut cases, it is only during the exorcism itself that

one can be sure that the individual is possessed.70 This makes the performance of exorcism

fraught with danger, not just for the victim, but also for the exorcist. If one performs an

exorcism, then one is left open to the possibility of prosecution if the victim is injured or killed.

This occurred with the priests who attempted to exorcise Anneliese Michel in the mid-seventies;

she died during the prolonged series of exorcisms, and the priests were prosecuted and convicted

of negligent manslaughter. The 2005 film Exorcism of Emily Rose is loosely based on

Anneliese‘s story; supposedly, the audio recordings played in the film are the actual recordings

from her exorcism.71

Essentially, the possessed person is placing his or her mental, spiritual, and physical well-

being in the hands of the exorcist. This may be part of the reason why so few priests are willing

to pursue the possibility of exorcism; with common knowledge of mental illness, most are

inclined to send someone complaining of possession to a mental health professional.

Symptomology

Not surprisingly, symptoms of demonic possession are many and varied. As with physical

illness, symptoms do not define the condition. Rather, it is a confluence of one or several

symptoms with more general issues of a spiritual nature. In addition to this symptomology,

69
Although not all exorcists conform to this ideal, as will be shown later in this paper.
70
Gabriele Amorth, An Exorcist: More Stories (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2002), 75.
71
Eric Hansen, ―What‘s In God‘s Name?!,‖ The Washington Post, September 4, 2005.

28
responsible exorcists require medical and psychological evaluations before performing an

exorcism, to protect not just the victim, but the exorcist as well.72 Normally, it is only after

physical causes have been ruled out that an exorcism will be considered.

Probably the most cited and universal—if one can even use that term in this subject—

symptom is a revulsion to religious symbols, and religiosity in general. Crosses, holy water,

communion, churches, priests, prayers, and other hallmarks of faith can all incite feelings like

dread, sickness, hate, or disgust. Specifically, these feelings will be unusual; the individual will

usually not have felt this revulsion before, will not be able to assign a reason for it, and will not

be able to control it. Following revulsion to religious objects is the tendency to blaspheme and

commit other insults which are out of character.73 Malachi Martin, who was a prominent (if

sometimes questionable) demonologist and former priest, cites a list of other symptoms:

The inexplicable stench; freezing temperature; telepathic powers about purely

religious or moral matters; a peculiarly unlined or completely smooth or stretched

skin, or unusual distortion of the face, or other physical and behavioral

transformations; ‗possessed gravity‘ (the possessed person becomes completely

immovable, or those around the possessed are weighted down with a suffocating

pressure); levitation…; violent smashing of furniture, constant opening and

slamming of doors, and tearing of fabric in the vicinity of the possessed, without a

hand being laid on them.74

72
Malachi Martin, Hostage to the Devil (San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 1976), 13.
73
Gabriele Amorth, An Exorcist Tells His Story, 78.
74
Malachi Martin, Hostage to the Devil, 13.

29
Others add to the list: gain and loss of consciousness, hallucinations, amnesia, rolling of the eyes

upwards or downwards, twitching of the face and hands, and rigidity of the body.75 Father Fortea

cites the following as the most frequent symptoms of possession [emphases his]:

The person suddenly understands foreign (or even „dead‟) languages he has never

studied. Regardless of the person‘s age or intelligence, he will obey orders given

in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and other languages, even when used simultaneously.

Sometimes the possessed will speak to those present in these unknown languages,

though this is less common…The possessed displays abnormal physical strength,

sometimes over the course of several hours. Sometimes the person is even able to

perform acts that are usually impossible, such as lifting several people at

once…The person demonstrates a knowledge of hidden things.76

A common notation among exorcists is that the possessed individual does not go about all day

under attack; rather, these are acute episodes, and after they pass, the individual is able to resume

his or her normal life—at least, until the next episode. However, all seem to agree that despite

this, the possession will inevitably cripple the individual, and a strong and complete change—

usually of a religious and moral nature—must be made to the life of the individual for him or her

to be wholly cured.

The Ritual of Exorcism

Christians have been performing exorcisms since the time of Jesus, but it was not until the

fifteenth century that the Catholic Church attempted to make the ritual consistent. The medieval

75
Fr. Jose Antonio Fortea, Interview With an Exorcist: An Insider‟s Look at the Devil, Demonic Possession, and the
Path to Deliverance (Pennsylvania: Ascension Press, 2006), 73.
76
Ibid, 87.

30
period was rich with extensive demonological beliefs, and this was reflected in the exorcisms;

some even included prayers in a supposed demonic language, composed by Satan himself:

―Take the head of the possessed person in your left hand and place your right

thumb in the possessed person‘s mouth, saying the following words in both ears:

ABRE MONTE ABRYA ABREMONTE CONSACRAMENTARIA SYPAR

YPAR YTUMBA OPOTE ALACENT ALAPHIE. Then hold him firmly and say

these conjurations: I conjure you, evil spirits, by the terrible name of God

Agla....‖77

Hardly a prayer expected of the Church, but this illustrates how varied the practice of exorcism

was prior to the codification of the ritual in 1614.

The Roman Ritual, which contains the Church‘s official rite of exorcism, remained

unchanged until 1999.78 Many traditionally-inclined exorcists, including Father Amorth, were

extremely unhappy with the changes that were made. Overall, they felt that the impact of the

original was lost in the new edition; essentially, that the original was not broken, and yet they

attempted to fix it, thus breaking it. These changes included sterilizing the figure of Satan to fit

with a more modern vision of him and publishing the rite in the common languages rather than in

Latin.79

Still, the Rite of Exorcism remains largely unchanged, and is the only standard for

Catholics; although simple prayer and other types of faithful devotions, such as fasting, can

result in deliverance. Additionally, a successful exorcism rarely occurs on the first attempt;

usually it will take several rites, sometimes over the course of years, before the afflicted can be

77
Encyclopedia of Religion, s.v. ―Exorcism.‖
78
Henry Samuel, ―How to Become an Exorcist,‖ The Telegraph, March 30, 2011.
79
Stefano Maria Paci, ―Vatican Exorcist Amorth Speaks on Satan‘s Smoke,‖ Spero News, March 16, 2006, accessed
February 10, 2012. http://www.speroforum.com/site/article.asp?id=2879

31
completely free. It depends largely on the degree of infestation; deep-seated and more powerful

demons will take much longer to root out and expel.80

The rite begins with a list of 21 instructions for the priest. I will not list them all here, but

give a general outline: 1-4 are instructions regarding the procedure for deciding to exorcise, and

include the admonition to secure the permission of the bishop, specifications for the type of

priest who should perform the exorcism, and instructions for interviewing the victim. 5-10 are

general descriptions of the behavior of evil spirits, such as the tendency to hide from the priest,

revelation of occult spells, and deception. 11-17 are specific instructions regarding the method of

exorcism, such as the admonition to peform the exorcism with command and authority, to

perform it in a church or other holy place, if possible, which questions to ask the demons, and to

avoid speeches and vainglorious attitude. Number 18 is interesting because it specifically tells

the priest not to give medicine to the victim, and to leave this to the medical doctors; likewise, 19

advises the priest to have a female assistant for the exorcism of a woman, to avoid any scandal.

20 advises the exorcist to locate any evil spells or documents. The last, 21, tells the newly

liberated to avoid sin and live a faithful life.81

The exorcism itself contains ten sections. It is designed as a call-and-response ritual,

usually between the exorcist and his assistant. The sections are as follows: preliminary

instructions, invocations, summoning of evil spirit, gospel readings, laying of hands on the

possessed, exorcism addresses to evil spirit, further instructions and prayers, profession of faith,

Psalm readings, and concluding prayer of thanks.

80
Gabriele Amorth, An Exorcist Tells His Story, 49.
81
Malachi Martin, Hostage to the Devil, 460-462.

32
 The general mood of the ritual is commanding, with frequent calls to God and

instructions to make the sign of the cross. The longest portion by far is section six, the addresses

to the demon itself. An excerpt is as follows [+ indicates the sign of the cross]:

I exorcise you, Most Unclean Spirit! Invading Enemy! All Spirits! Every one of

you! In the name of Our Lord Jesus + Christ: Be uprooted and expelled from this

Creature of God. + He who commands you is he who ordered you to be thrown

down from the highest Heaven into the depths of Hell. He who commands you is

he who dominated the sea, the wind, and the storms. Hear, therefore, and fear,

Satan! Enemy of the Faith!...82

What occurs during the course of the ritual is the inspiration for numerous stories and horror

films. Exorcists insist that all of the symptoms listed previously, including more bizarre ones

such as vomiting of glass and nails, the appearance of toads in the bedsheets, and aberrant sexual

behaviors can manifest during an exorcism. Conversely, many demons will simply refuse to

show themselves or speak; the common fear that a demon present will list everyone‘s sins is

apparently extremely rare, although Father Amorth cites a case where that did occur, as does

Malachi Martin.83

It seems that the majority of exorcisms are somewhat solemn affairs, and do not recall the

extremes promoted by Hollywood. They are generally protracted, requiring repeated attempts in

a gradual reduction of infestation, rather the sudden and dramatic banishment of Satan himself.

The exorcists themselves tend to be calm men of sound mind, not prone to superstition, strong in

faith, and above all, humble. Humility is vitally important, and the reason for this is simple: the

82
Ibid, 465.
83
Gabriele Amorth, An Exorcist Tells His Story, 94; Malachi Martin, Hostage to the Devil, 31-32.

33
exorcist is no more than a conduit; he has no special powers.84 Vanity in this case would be a sin

that would seriously undercut the efficacy of what the priest is trying to achieve.

Within the Catholic tradition, any priest can perform an exorcism, but trained exorcists

are hard to come by. For many decades, it was near impossible to locate one anywhere except

Rome; but, since 2007, Pope Benedict XVI has decreed that every diocese will now have a

trained exorcist ready to serve the community.85 Additionally, it is made clear in the gospels that

God granted the gift of exorcism to the entire community of the faithful; therefore, any person of

faith is capable of performing and exorcism effectively. Father Amorth wholeheartedly agrees

with this statement, but adds that a priest is given an additional power to exorcise that is not

granted to the laity. So, although a layperson or priest of another denomination or faith may

perform an exorcism, an ordained Catholic priest would be more effective, in the Catholic

perception.86

Thus far, I have mainly addressed exorcism and possession as it occurs in the Catholic

tradition. As we shall see in the following chapter, it is also common in Protestant traditions,

particularly among more conservative denominations. Protestant exorcisms, as a general rule, are

much less rigid and formulaic than their Catholic counterparts, since there is far less ecclesiastic

oversight, if any. Protestant theologies and methodologies with regard to possession and

exorcism are no less important and complex than the Catholic.

84
David Kiely and Christina McKenna, The Dark Sacrament: True Stories of Modern-Day Demon Possession and
Exorcism (New York: Harper Collins, 2007), xxix.
85
Nick Pisa, ―Vatican to Create More Exorcists to Tackle 'Evil,'‖ The Telegraph, December 29, 2007.
86
Gabriele Amorth, An Exorcist Tells His Story, 153.

34
 CHAPTER 4

DELIVERANCE MINISTRY

Comparing Catholic and Protestant Exorcism Ministries

A Catholic exorcism is a form of high ritual. Its efficacy is connected to its very specific,

organized, and traditional nature. Variation does not exist. Exorcism within this tradition is rigid

and formulaic; there is no room for creative expansion or expression. In fact, if an exorcising

priest were to deviate significantly from the ritual in order to satisfy his or the victim‘s creative

whims, regardless of the intention, the exorcism would be rendered not only ineffective, but

possibly also dangerous. This is because the exorcist would have no way of knowing if the

variation was a legitimate inspiration whose source was Godly, or its opposite, a devilish trick

designed to corrupt the process and deepen the demon‘s hold on the victim.

Therefore, the rigidity of the Roman Ritual serves as a kind of safeguard. If the exorcist

remains within the given parameters, performs the ritual to its specifications, and is true in his

own faith, then the ritual should be a success. Deviation would only open the exorcist to the

possibility of failure. Additionally, one of the requirements of the Catholic exorcism is that it

must be performed by a priest, not a lay person. It is a sacred piece of liturgical architecture that

must be performed not only by someone who is a person of deep and consecrated faith, but also

by someone who understands the profound theological implications and subtleties of the process.

As mentioned, only in recent years has the rite been made available in the language of the

participants; in the past, it was only practiced in Latin.

35
 The issue of language is an excellent point to begin delineating the differences between

Catholic and Protestant exorcisms. One of the reasons Catholic exorcisms were performed in

Latin was that the priest was interacting with the demon, not with the victim. Since the demon

understands Latin, there is no need to speak the language of the victim. In fact, speaking the

language of the possessed individual was considered detrimental to the exorcism process.

Speaking only Latin—and assuming the victim does not understand—allows the priest to more

accurately gauge the validity of a possession.87 If a victim who does not speak Latin suddenly

begins understanding and responding to the priest, then the priest can draw the conclusion that he

is dealing with a demon.

Protestant exorcisms are performed in the language of the participants. Latin (and other

languages) may be used, but if they are it is only in passing. If a Catholic exorcism is rigid and

formulaic, a Protestant exorcism is creative, and reflects a high degree of active exchange

between the exorcist and the possessed. Here the focus is on ―deliverance,‖ which is a term most

often encountered within charismatic Protestant groups, but which is becoming more common

and widespread within the more mainstream denominations and congregations.88

Practically, the meaning is the same, but deliverance is a much more general term than

exorcism, and reflects the more inclusive nature of Protestant exorcism. The word itself has a

long history within Christianity, perhaps due to its inclusion in the penultimate final lines of the

Lord‘s Prayer:

87
Fr. Jose Antonio Fortea, Interview With an Exorcist: An Insider‟s Look at the Devil, Demonic Possession, and the
Path to Deliverance, 77-78.
88
The term ―exorcism‖ is often unwelcome in these settings. R. S. DePalatis, An exploration of different responses
to a deliverance ministry procedure: Possession trance and dissociation in a protestant Christian expulsion ritual
setting. Capella University. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses (2006). 230 p.

36
 Our Father in heaven,

Hallowed be Your name.

10
Your kingdom come.

Your will be done

On earth as it is in heaven.
11
Give us this day our daily bread.
12
And forgive us our debts,

As we forgive our debtors.

13
And do not lead us into temptation,

But deliver us from the evil one.

For Yours is the kingdom and the power and the glory forever.

Amen.89

To be ―delivered‖ from evil, by any means necessary, is the basic idea behind Protestant

exorcism.

However, it should be emphasized that Protestantism is a very general term, an umbrella

under which many different traditions fall, and not all of these traditions believe either that

exorcism should be a part of the Christian practice, or that Satan is a physical threat to the

faithful.90 Some go so far as to debate the semantics of the term ―possession,‖ arguing that it

indicates ownership, when in fact the Devil has no claim over a Christian soul.91 However, this is

a minor issue and neglects the usage of the term ―possession,‖ which in common practice does

not indicate ownership so much as invasion. Other arguments are more theological in nature. For

89
Matt 6:913
90
Steven Carter, ―Demon Possession and the Christian,‖ Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies 3/1 (2000): 20.
91
Agnieszka Tennant, "Many Christians Say They are in Need of Deliverance but Some may be Giving Demons
More Than Their Due," Christianity Today 45:11 (September 3, 2001): 46-48.

37
example, a 2010 article by Dr. Albert Mohler, the President of the Southern Baptist Theological

Seminary, addresses this issue. In it, he discusses the old argument that the New Testament does

not contain a specific ―rite‖ of exorcism, or an ordained order of exorcists. The name of Jesus

and the authority of the Gospel are the Christian‘s weapons in spiritual warfare; these alone are

sufficient. Therefore, Evangelicals have no need for a rite of exorcism, and their practice of

spreading the word of God is one of the most potent weapons against the Devil. He goes on to

discuss the impossibility of physical possession:

Furthermore, there is absolutely no New Testament evidence that a believer in

Christ can be possessed by demons. Tormented and tempted? Sure. But never

possessed. Once we are united with Christ by faith and given the gift of the

indwelling Spirit, there is no way a demon can possess us. As the Apostle John

reminds us, ―Little children, you are from God and have overcome them, for he

who is in you is greater than he who is in the world.‖ [1 John 4:4]…So, we should

respect the power of the Devil and his demons, but never fear them. We do not

need a rite of exorcism, only the name of Jesus. We are not given a priesthood of

exorcists — for every believer is armed with the full promise of the Gospel,

united with Christ by faith, and indwelt by the Holy Spirit.92

Dr. Mohler is making the distinction that those who are possessed in the New Testament are non-

believers. However valid his argument may be, it is a subtle distinction and an opinion that is not

necessarily noticed or shared by every Evangelical Christian.

92
R. Albert Mohler, Jr., ―On Exorcism and Exorcists: An Evangelical View,‖ Albertmohler.com, November 15,
2010, accessed February 10, 2012. http://www.albertmohler.com/2010/11/15/on-exorcism-and-exorcists-an-
evangelical-view/.

38
 History of Protestant Exorcism

This tendency to refer to the finest details of the New Testament, while discarding later traditions

and theological machinations, is a Protestant convention which originated during the

Reformation. The ritualism of Catholic exorcism was rejected in favor of a more Puritan

approach during this time. The Protestants drew parallels between magic, witchcraft, and

Catholic ritual, specifically calling out the consecration of the host, baptism, and exorcism as

examples of devilish corruption within the Church. The miraculous was rejected as

superstition.93 In 1651 Thomas Hobbes wrote Leviathan, in which he denounced many traditions

of the Catholic faith, here quoted by Keith Thomas in Religion and the Decline of Magic (1971):

For did not the Catholic priest conjure the devil out of the holy water, salt and oil,

and then proceed to make the infant himself ‗subject to many charms‘? And ‗at

the church door the priest blows thrice in the child‘s face, and says: Go out of him

unclean spirit and give place to the Holy Ghost the comforter‟: after which came

exorcisms and ―some other incantations.‖94

Throwing exorcism and ―some other incantations‖ together in the same heap clearly shows

Hobbes‘ disapproval of the miraculous nature of the exorcism rite. By combining a previously

holy ritual with something commonly believed to be the simple work of witches and devils, he is

underlining both what he believed to be the Catholic corruption of the true Christian faith and the

heresy of performing magic and calling it the work of Jesus Christ. Hobbes also argued that

demons did not exist in a real sense, that the exorcisms performed by Jesus in the New

Testament were general admonitions and no different than his exhortations against other

93
Jeffrey Burton Russell, Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World, 91.
94
Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, 55.

39
inanimate, consciousless objects.95 Exorcism as the Catholics practiced it was considered no

more than another pagan magic trick and, as such, was a tool of Satan himself. This belief is still

carried in many Protestant communities today.

The rejection of the ritual of exorcism left early Protestants in a peculiar position: how to

deal with possession when its primary surgical instrument, exorcism, was discarded. Possessions

remained a problem, and some authors have noted an apparent increase in their occurrence

amongst Puritans and other early conservative Protestant groups. One of the psychological

arguments is that the more restrictive a community, the more likely its adherents will find ways

to break free from that restriction.96 Demonic possession offers an opportunity for a repressed

individual to act out all of his or her most base, wanton desires, and not accept any of the blame

for him or herself. Therefore, the increase should be unsurprising within communities that are

very conservative in belief and community values.

Since demonic activity was not completely rejected, it was necessary to retain against it

some practical defenses. In some cases, a Catholic formula against the demonic was reworked to

remove those aspects which to the Protestants echoed magic charms and superstition. For

example, the Anglican Book of Common Prayer contained a blessing for baptismal water which

was an adaptation of the Catholic Missale Mixtum. The original Catholic version called for an

exorcism and exsufflation of the water. Exsufflation, the blowing of air onto the object to be

consecrated, was a way to blow the demons out of the object and was a common practice in

Catholic ritual, as were minor rites of exorcism.97 The reworked Anglican rite removes the

95
Henry Ansgar Kelly, Towards the Death of Satan: The Growth and Decline of Christian Demonology (London:
Geoffrey Chapman, 1968), 86.
96
Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, 479.
97
Jeffrey Burton Russell, Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages, 126-127.

40
officious language of the priest against the demons (―I exorcise you‖) and replaces it with

entreaties to God:

O most merciful God, our Savior Jesu Christ…

Grant that all carnal affections may die in them, and that all things

belonging to the spirit may live and grow in them. Amen.

Grant to all them which at this fountain forsake the devil and all his works

that they may have power and strength to have victory and to triumph against

him, the world, and the flesh. Amen.98

By replacing the orders against the demons with exhortations towards God, the Anglican ritual

refuses to acknowledge the power of the demons as separate from God himself. In practical

terms, by speaking to God directly, the priest removes the formulaic ritualism upon which the

Catholics rely. In short, a Catholic priest performing a rite of exorcism is dealing directly with a

demon and the power of God flows through him in order to exorcise the demon. By removing

this direct aspect, as in the example of the consecration of the baptismal font, the priest is

acknowledging that he has no special position within the proceedings. He is merely an

intercessor, speaking on behalf of the people to God, who may or may not ―grant‖ his requests.

However, it should not be suggested that a Catholic priest is claiming some kind of superpower;

on the contrary, one of the acknowledged characteristics of successful Catholic exorcists is their

humble nature. They fully understand that they are no more than a conduit, through which the

power of Christ may work.99

To return again briefly to the Lord‘s Prayer, one of the most well-known prayers in the

whole of Christianity, I believe it is a safe assumption that the majority of Christians do not think

98
Henry Asgar Kelly, The Devil at Baptism: Ritual, Theology, and Drama, 255-256.
99
David Kiely and Christina McKenna, The Dark Sacrament: True Stories of Modern-Day Demon Possession and
Exorcism, xxix.

41
of it as a form of exorcism. However, among some more conservative circles of Christianity, it is

indeed considered to be one of the many weapons that may be used against Satan. Here again an

example is seen of an entreaty to God to intercede against Satan on behalf of the faithful, as

elucidated by James Kallas in his discussion of the Lord‘s Prayer:

The entire prayer of Jesus is demonologically oriented, based on the conviction

that this present world is not under God‘s rule but Satan‘s sway. The prayer asks

that the rule of God come soon, and when it does, that the elect be sustained and

cared for during the time of the devil‘s counterattack, that they be delivered out of

the hand of the evil one.100

Both Catholic and Protestant priests are essentially doing the same thing: that is, entreating God

for help on behalf of the faithful. However, Catholics believe that by following a prescribed set

of patterns that has proven effective over centuries their chances of success in freeing the

possessed are greatest. Protestants on the other hand, believe that with faith and prayer, God will

deliver the faithful, or, that the faithful are already delivered. However, this is not to say that the

Protestants place no importance on tradition or formula. Specific groups will often have their

own methods that can be quite rigid, but this does not even begin to approach the level of

unyielding tradition which the Catholics have applied to their rites over periods of centuries.

The weapons which replaced the rite of exorcism among the early Protestants were

primarily fasting and prayer, followed by the triumphant casting out of the demons in the name

of Jesus Christ. The holy name was used as a spiritual bludgeon; the demons, who were weak to

the power of Good, were beaten with it until they fled the invaded faithful. The name gains a

talismanic power in its expansive use for the treatment of all manner of spiritual ailments,

including: salvation, justification, healing, preaching, church discipline, worship, prayer, holy
100
James Kallas, The Real Satan, (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2006), 89. Emphasis mine.

42
gifts, persecution, and of course exorcism.101 However, it should be noted that the usage of the

term ―talisman‖ would likely be regarded as objectionable, as it hearkens back to pagan magical

practices and the very accusations the Protestants made against the Catholics.102

Protestant and Possessed in 1574

One of the earliest and most complete accounts of a Protestant exorcism was that of Robert

Brigges in 1574, whose dispossession was handled by none other than John Foxe, one of the

early Protestant Reformers. Brigges‘ case is unique in that it was recorded largely by Brigges

himself, in his own words, rather than by observers or analysts after the fact.103 Additionally,

Brigges was, although not a member of the noble class, certainly well off and a gentleman; this is

quite unlike the majority of possession cases which occurred at this time, which primarily

affected the lower classes, the young, and those in poverty.104 It is an excellent example of how

the issue of exorcism and possession acted as a wedge to drive the rift between Catholicism and

Protestantism further apart. Exorcisms were one of the many ways that religious authorities on

each side of the battle sought to prove their worth.105 Certainly, if God were not on their side,

then their exorcisms would prove ineffective, much like the Old Testament Elijah and the

Prophets of Baal (1 Kings 20-40). Therefore, each side emphasized the aspects of their exorcisms

that were unique to their own camp. For the Catholics, that was the necessity of ordained priests

and the arcane and mysterious ritualism of the exorcism rite; for the Protestants, it was the name

of Christ and the redemptive power of prayer.

101
Michael Harper, Spiritual Warfare, 73.
102
Ibid, 74.
103
Kathleen Sands, An Elizabethan Lawyer‟s Possession by the Devil: The Story of Robert Brigges (Connecticut:
Praeger, 2002), 5.
104
Ibid, 4.
105
George F. Thomas, Philosophy and Religious Belief , 492.

43
 Although it is uncertain, Brigges is believed to have been raised Catholic.106 Following a

rousing sermon, he decided to convert to Protestantism, a momentously personal event which

spurred a flurry of demonic activity within his life. This calm and learned man suddenly began

attempting suicide—he made three failed attempts—contemplating murder, and arguing

theological discourse in a rapid-fire fashion at length with Satan himself.107

Brigges‘ case is not at all unusual in its details. He is assaulted with tales of heresy and

sin; he is tempted by beautiful demonesses; he, his family and friends are threatened; his physical

senses are attacked and he is blinded. The Devil in this instance is particularly fond of utilizing

rationale and rhetoric against Brigges, perhaps due to his education and intellect. Powerless to

help himself and seeing his hard-built life crashing down around him, he sought the help of John

Foxe, whom he idealized as an impeccable Christian.

Foxe utilized what would become a common Protestant method of exorcism: community

prayer and support combined with the power of the Word: the name of Jesus Christ. The

significance of using the name of Christ as a weapon against the demonic has already been

briefly discussed. Its usage in this context is significant however, because if it is not the first

recorded instance of its use in a Protestant setting in such a specific and narrow manner, it is

certainly one of the first; additionally, John Foxe was firmly anti-Catholic, and his method of

exorcism reflects a complete rejection of Catholic ritualistic methods, and helps to set the

patterns for the anti-exorcisms: the depossessions and deliverances of later centuries.

Foxe arrived when Brigges was at his worst: catatonic and deprived of all his senses. First

he assembles the bystanders and exhorts them to extend forgiveness to their enemies and repent

of their sins. Then, the group kneeling while he stands, he leads them in a loud and charismatic

106
Sands, Kathleen. "John Foxe: Exorcist." History Today 51: 2 (February 2001): 37.
107
Ibid, 38.

44
prayer for the restoration of Brigges‘ health, which occurs immediately. Kathleen Sands‘

extensive study of the Brigges manuscripts provides a succinct summary of the importance of the

Word at this moment:

By making a first and separate prayer for the restoration of Brigges‘ speech alone,

Foxe emphasized the significance of the word, adjuring the demon to depart

Brigges‘ body in the name of Christ Jesus. This adjuration demonstrated the

power of the five-letter ―weapon‖ that Brigges and Stephens [another possessed

victim to whom Foxe attended] had lost (―J-E-S-U-S‖), for at the moment Foxe

pronounced Jesus‘ name, Brigges recovered his speech and cried out, ―Christ

Jesus, magnified and blessed be thy name, at whose name the devil ceaseth to

molest thy creature. Blessed and glorified be thy name, who by the humble prayer

of thy penitent servants and by the pronouncing of thy most glorious name, Jesus,

the devil departeth.‖ The word is the way of God: ―he hath promised me by his

word I shall have a way out‖—a way out of sin and into grace, a way out of death

and into life.‖108

This usage of the name of Christ as a weapon against the demonic goes beyond the many

testaments contained within the gospels of Jesus‘ abilities as an exorcist. Prior to his ministry,

the world lived in unbroken thrall to Satan. The pagan exorcists did their work through the

agency of the Devil.109 If their attempts to free a possessed person were effective, they were only

effective in appearance.

With the advent of the ministry of Jesus, suddenly the demons were no longer free to

assault humanity at their pleasure. Jesus was able to truly cast them out and to free the afflicted

108
Ibid, 62.
109
Jeffrey Burton Russell, Satan: The Early Christian Tradition, 70.

45
from their torment.110 Theologically this was a turning point, and the symbolism of Jesus as not

only the consummate exorcist, but also as the first true exorcist, cannot be denied. Therefore, an

exorcist who calls upon the name of Christ to exorcise a demon from a possessed individual, is

linking himself to the absolute beginning, the genesis of the first legitimate healing ministry.

Aside from any apparent miraculous abilities which may result from the invocation of the name

of Jesus Christ, the exorcist is symbolically and ritualistically drawing the participants back to

that critical moment when the demons were chained beneath the power of the believer. This is an

idea echoed by religious anthropologist Simon Coleman, who relates miraculous Gifts of the

Spirit—i.e., speaking in tongues, spiritual ecstasy, visions of Christ—to attempts, whether

conscious or unconscious, to connect directly to significant events within the tradition,111 such as

exorcisms, in this case.

Protestant exorcisms can be as simple as an invocation of the name of Jesus Christ,

through which the demons are ―bound‖ under the dominion of God.112 Compare this to a

Catholic exorcism, with its extensive preparation and detailed ritual (although preliminary

blessings are comparable to Protestant prayers). A Catholic exorcism draws upon this critical

moment as well; however, the focus is on the entire ritual, and the ritual itself becomes, as a

whole, talismanic. With the non-traditional Protestant ritual, the name itself is the critical

ingredient, and combined with repentance, faith, and prayer it becomes a complete ritual.113

Everything else is superfluous.

110
Jeffrey Burton Russell, Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World, 42.
111
Simon Coleman, ―Ta(l)king Possession: Exchanging Words and Worlds Among Charismatic Christians,‖ in
Summoning the Spirits: Possession and Invocation in Contemporary Religion, ed. Andrew Dawson (London: I.B.
Tauris, 2011), 126.
112
Michael Harper, Spiritual Warfare, 114.
113
Ibid, 112.

46
 Coleman also points out that Pentecostal groups—within which exorcism ministries are

more common—believe that the Holy Spirit resides within the person as well as working through

the person. He cites the admonition from Corinthians 6:19 as the source of this belief:114 ―Or do

you not know that your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit within you, which you have from

God, and that you are not your own?‖ If this is the theological reasoning behind the spiritual

gifts, then it may also be viewed that demonic possession is possible, and would indeed be

sought after by the satanic element. If a demon can turn the temple of the Holy Spirit into his

own house, then he is corrupting not only the individual but also the temple. This corruption

extends beyond the physical and far into the spiritual, where such things as human boundaries

and walls seem less relevant. Corrupting the house of God in one person may go beyond the

damage done in that one person.

Exorcist as Shaman, Exorcism as Therapy

Among the horrific accounts of spiritual and physical pain, fear, and death, it can be easy to

forget the very basic nature of exorcism: healing ministry. Exorcism is about healing—healing

the spiritual pains of a person, and through that, also healing the physical mind, body, and

environment. Coleman passingly drew a (perhaps unwelcome) parallel between shamanism and

charismatic Christianity; although this was far from the focus of his article, it is intriguing

nonetheless.115 A shaman, as he defines it, is ―a figure who gains power through travelling and

making contact and communicating with the spirit-world.‖116 This is quite different from Mircea

Eliade‘s definition, that a shaman is one whose magico-religious community centers upon him,

114
Simon Coleman, ―Ta(l)king Possession: Exchanging Words and Worlds Among Charismatic Christians,‖ 127.
115
Ibid, 125.
116
Ibid.

47
and who experiences controlled spiritual ecstasy.117 Still others argue that there is no one

acceptable definition of shamanism. Keeping in mind these varied and disagreeing definitions of

the word, if it can be accepted for discussion here that a shaman is one who is the center of his

magico-religious community and who is well-versed and educated in the practice of

communicating with non-human entities, then certainly, an exorcist can be considered a type of

shaman.

Of course, this distinction bears little meaning within the community itself, because the

term ―shaman‖ hearkens back to a pagan past with which charismatic Christians would not like

to be associated. However, the term is useful because it points out a few key features of exorcists

and the exorcism ministry: first, the exorcist is unique among his religious peers. He is uniquely

educated in the specifics of demonology, a largely overlooked aspect of Christianity. Second, he

becomes the focus of the possessed person and often that person‘s entire community as well. He

is the healer, the one person who can help free the victim from his or her strange and painful

bondage. Third, he has the willingness—not ability, as the ability resides with God; he is only

the conduit—to engage in interaction with otherworldy entities. This places him among the

dwellers of the liminal regions; demons and angels, despite their reality to the Christian, are

simply not part of everyday physical experience. By taking the role of exorcist, the exorcist

assumes responsibility for the social isolation with which it comes. Within many communities,

the isolation may be a form of honor and celebrity, but it is isolation nonetheless. Fourth,

although trance on the part of the exorcist—with the possessed it is a hallmark—is not a feature,

the experience of perfoming an exorcism is certainly charismatic. It is dramatic, and when

reading the many accounts of performed exorcisms, one quickly notes the intense and

otherworldy nature of the proceedings. To use Eliade‘s terms, the performance of exorcism
117
Mircea Eliade, Encyclopedia of Religion, s.v. ―Shamanism.‖

48
makes the physical, spiritual, and emotional space sacred, which is especially interesting because

of the profane poison at the focus of the proceedings.

In the above paragraph, point two specifies: ―He [the exorcist] is the healer, the one

person who can help free the victim from his or her strange and painful bondage.‖ This point

bears repeating because it is the launching point for an entirely different mode of inquiry into the

phenomena of spirit possession and exorcism. A great deal has been said within the scholarly and

medical literature relating demonic possession with illness; seizure disorders, such as epilepsy,

and any of a plethora of mental diseases being the most usual proposed culprits. An extensive

evaluation of the possible physical and psychological bases of possession is beyond the scope of

this study, but also it is not entirely relevant here, for two connected reasons. First, although one

can find an occasional denial of the reality of non-spiritual culprits in possession cases, the vast

majority of believers in demonic possession acknowledge that many cases are no more than

physical or mental illnesses.118 There is little doubt that many cases which in the past may have

been mistaken for demonic attacks were in fact the dramatic symptoms of a physical or mental

disorder. Even the official Catholic rite of exorcism cautions the exorcist directly to eliminate all

medical factors before considering the possibility of demonic possession.

Second, there is simply no way to prove scientifically that the victims are not in fact

demonically possessed. Science cannot prove or disprove the existence of God; likewise, it

cannot for the demonic. The idea may seem unrealistic or even absurd and superstitious;

however, disproof is not forthcoming. To take a small step back from this idea, one can assume

that the possessed individual (usually) believes him or herself to be demonically possessed.

Often, it is the approach of the psychological or psychiatric communities to treat this belief—or

118
See Fr. Fortea, for example: Fortea, Interview With an Exorcist: An Insider‟s Look at the Devil, Demonic
Possession, and the Path to Deliverance, 33-34, or M. Scott Peck, Glimpses of the Devil: A Psychiatrist‟s Personal
Accounts of Possession, Exorcism, and Redemption, (New York: Free Press, 2005).

49
delusion, as they would call it, with therapy or medication. However, given the often very

isolated nature of possession cases—a person who functions normally in every other aspect of

life, possession episodes excepted, for example—would it not be possible that the exorcist acts as

therapist, healing the afflicted? Whether he is indeed casting out demons, or is only causing the

victim to believe his or her demons have been exorcised, is the result not the same? Granted that

I am not a psychologist, it seems to me that treating mental illness would be most effective when

the culture of the patient is taken into account. An exorcist is acting within the culture of the

patient to treat a disease whose origin is regarded as spiritual rather than mental or physical. The

exorcist is the healer within the community; he acts as doctor, therapist, and spiritual bodyguard.

An example of this occurred in 1993, when a Phoenix psychologist and ordained Evangelical

Lutheran Church in America minister lost his clinical license for performing an exorcism on a

boy believed to be a victim of Satanic abuse. It was the second time he had performed an

exorcism under the auspices of medicine. Although the 1993 exorcism was successful by his

terms and the terms of the patient, he was censured and later ―forced to resign from pastoring his

former church because of his pro-exorcism stance.‖119 Clearly, exorcists are not always regarded

in a positive light, even within their own communities. This is an aspect of liminalism; with

reverence often comes fear and rejection.120

The dangers of treating demonic possession with exorcism are not to be disregarded. The

controversy surrounding what many people regard as a medieval and non-scientific practice is,

unfortunately, well founded. Injuries and trauma occur during exorcisms. Deaths occur. Children

and the weak are often in the most danger during a practical exorcism, as the event by its very

nature is highly stressful. When caution is neglected and irresponsible individuals charge ahead,

119
Perucci Ferraiuolo, "Exorcism Costs Counselor License." Christianity Today 37, no. 14 (November 22, 1993).
120
Victor Turner, The Ritual Process (Chicago: Aldine, 1969), 95, 128.

50
people can die. Too frequently newspapers are splashed with headlines regarding murders and

manslaughters resulting from botched exorcisms. Just a couple of weeks before writing this,

three young children in South Korea were killed by their father, who was a minister, during a

series of exorcisms.121 The entire concept surrounding exorcism is fraught with high emotion;

people are confronted with what they believe is a life or death situation. Further, that life or death

is not simply physical life or death, but also ownership of the eternal soul. It is spiritual as well,

and is a miniaturized version of the great, ongoing battle between God and Satan. The stakes are

high, and the need to defend oneself extends to a moral duty to defend the City of God. When so

much is on the line, danger looms.

121
The crime occurred in February, 2012. Lee Sun-young, ―Pastor‘s Kids Were Beaten, Starved: Police‖ Korea
Herald, February 13, 2012, accessed March 1, 2012,
http://www.koreaherald.com/national/Detail.jsp?newsMLId=20120212000357.

51
 CHAPTER 5

MODERN EXORCISM

Controversies and Crimes

The last chapter concluded with a brief introduction to the controversies surrounding exorcism

and possession. The topic has not always been controversial; rather, in the youth of Christianity

exorcism was a legitimate and commonplace treatment for a variety of illnesses, many of which

were thought to be caused by demons. Of course, in modern times the views are quite different,

and range through a spectrum from ―every illness is caused by demons‖ to ―every illness is

caused by physical factors only.‖ It seems clear that the more fundamentalist a person‘s beliefs,

the more likely he or she is to fall near the ―demon‖ end of the spectrum. However, as with all

human theories, there is much variation and exception.

Likewise, with all controversies there are two sides to the story. With exorcism, if for a

moment one were to neglect the possible spiritual factors, then there is the argument that

exorcism is potentially psychologically therapeutic. If an exorcism results in the healing of an

individual, can it really be argued that the methods are archaic or superstitious? Are these

methods more barbaric than using psychotherapy or hypnosis on patients? Or perhaps they are

more unsettling than hallucinogens or shock therapy? Healing is healing after all, and different

therapies may be appropriate for different persons and situations.

Why would exorcism be an attractive option? Aside from the spiritual implications for

the religious person, the much more mundane psychological aspects should also be evaluated.

Michael Cuneo, author of American Exorcism: Expelling Demons in the Land of Plenty, tells in

52
an interview some of the reasons why the prospect of demonic possession may attract the

attention of an individual dealing with personal problems:

We live in a therapy-mad culture…Everyone, it seems, has been looking for some

kind of an instant fix to problems. Exorcism fits in very nicely because it is a kind

of therapy that promises to be immediately and dramatically effective. And for

many people, by the way, this in fact is the case. Demon expulsion may be

therapeutically beneficial, at least in the short term. There's no question about

that. It's a relatively inexpensive therapy that can be taken with dispatch.

Exorcism is, for the most part, morally exculpatory. It lets us off the hook.122

Elaborating on his meaning, Dr. Cuneo goes on to describe how demonic possession shifts blame

off of the patient and onto the demon. The societal scorn resulting from sexual infidelity,

animosity, or even murder can be mitigated by having someone else with whom to share blame,

and examples of this can be traced back to the Middle Ages.123 Any moral crime wherein the

individual may suffer some kind of shame or be the subject of blame may benefit from having an

external scapegoat. Incidentally, the term ―scapegoat‖ has its origins in history, when ancient

Hebrews would send a goat into the desert for Azazel.124 Like the ancient goat, the demon who is

now the focus of condemnation becomes the target for blame and animosity, sparing the victim

the responsibility for accepting the consequences of their actions. I would argue that in some

cases demonic possession actually increases the individual‘s standing within their group. There

122
Agnieszka Tennant, ―Exorcism Therapy,‖ Christianity Today, September 3, 2001, accessed February 1 2012,
http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/september3/2.49.html.
123
Elmo Nauman, Jr., Exorcism Through the Ages (New York: Philosophical Library, 1974), 76.
124
Miguel A. De la Torre and Albert Hernandez, The Quest for the Historical Satan (Minneapolis: Fortress Press,
2011), 59-60.

53
is some belief that only the most pious are attacked by the Devil,125 therefore if an individual

falls victim to the demonic, it is sometimes seen as a mark of holiness. In addition, an individual

who undergoes an exorcism often becomes the center of their community, temporarily, and their

success story may continue to give a boost to their standing within their group.

In a sense, having a demonic scapegoat gives the patient an alibi that in some ways

absolves them from their crime. ―The Devil made me do it‖ is a common refrain among the

guilty, and may or may not be meant literally by the speaker. Additionally, one may or may not

be aware that he or she is shifting blame. One may truly believe that one is possessed, and their

actions while ―possessed‖ may be simply a manifestation of psychological repressions.

The counter to this argument is that these therapies were and are conducted by medically

qualified professionals: medical doctors, psychologists, and trained and certified therapists.

Exorcists, ideally, are trained spiritual counselors, but rarely are they more than that. In some

traditions, exorcists and ministers have no formal training at all; in many cases lay people are

performing exorcisms, often with disastrous results.

Sadly, it is not difficult to find current examples of these disasters. News article abound

of injuries, abuses, and deaths resulting from botched exorcisms. It seems that most often the

victims are children. Parents, in attempts to exorcise their children‘s demons, perform horrific

acts resulting in the children‘s murder. There are many current examples from all over the world,

including Japan, Bolivia, and Romania, of abuses and deaths related to exorcism, but here I will

highlight four recent American cases, quoting news reports:

125
Father Amorth describes the satanic attacks against Padre Pio: Andrea Monda, ―The Devil and Padre Pio‖
CatholicCulture.org, accessed Februrary 1, 2012,
http://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=1021.

54
November 2009, Ft. Wayne, Indiana:

Latisha Lawson, 31, forced her two-year-old son Jezaih to drink a vile mixture of

olive oil and vinegar as part of a ritual to drive the devil from his body. As he

choked on the liquid she held her hand over his mouth to stop him vomiting and

crushed his neck. Jurors heard Lawson had wanted to drive a demon named as

"Marzon" from her son's body. She had become convinced that her son was

possessed and blamed herself because she did not profess her love for God while

she was pregnant. Lawson and another woman, who also believed her children

were possessed, fed the mixture to four children at their home in Fort Wayne,

Indiana.126

June 2009, Gwinnett County, Georgia:

A judge dismissed charges Thursday against a Gwinnett County woman accused

of performing an exorcism on her teenage son…‗(She was) trying to explain to us

that we were sent to her by God as angels to help her this evening. That this was

the third day, and it was supposed to be the worst day, and that her son was

possessed by Satan,‘ said Sgt. Stephen Weed with the Lilburn Police Department.

Police said it was part of an exorcism, where the boy was handcuffed for hours at

a time. ‗Along with handcuffing, the victim, over the course of three days (he)

went without food and water for a period of 12 hours from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m.,‘ said

Weed. As for the claims of an exorcism, the judge said, ―I‘m going to have a hard

126
Paul Thompson, ―Woman 'Killed Son in Botched Exorcism,'‖ The Telegraph, May 29, 2011, accessed February
1, 2012, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/8545301/Woman-killed-son-in-botched-
exorcism.html.

55
 time believing you‘re going to get anybody to say in Gwinnett County, Georgia,

that Satan doesn‘t exist…‖127

February 2008, Odessa, Texas:

Jan David Clark, 60, of Odessa, was arrested Friday after authorities went to his

home and found his wife‘s body wrapped in a sheet with a cross and sword on top

of it on the floor of the master bathroom. Jan David Clark told investigators he

had his wife pinned on the floor of the bathroom when she died. Clark said he was

trying to exorcise demons from her body when they entered him and caused her to

die, probable-cause documents say.128

August 2003, Milwaukee,Wisconsin:

The forensic pathologist who autopsied an 8-year-old autistic child hours after he

was killed during an exorcism told jurors Wednesday the boy died from

asphyxiation due to intense pressure on his chest… Minister Ray Hemphill, 47,

who prayed and sang over Terrance Cottrell's chest as parishioners held [the

child] down Aug. 22, 2003, stands trial for felony physical child abuse. If

convicted, he faces up to five years in prison. Terrance, like most autistic

children, hated to be touched and had few words to express his needs, according

to previous testimony. His mother and two female parishioners helped restrain

him as he lay on his back on the floor of the strip-mall based Faith Temple of the

Apostolic Faith Church, where Hemphill administered the boy's 12th such ‗prayer

service,‘ as the defense calls it. Hemphill told investigators he had no formal

127
―Charges Dropped in Gwinnett Exorcism,‖ wsbtv.com, June 25, 2009, accessed February 1, 2012,
http://www.wsbtv.com/news/news/charges-dropped-in-gwinnett-exorcism/nJW8b/.
128
―Autopsy Shows Suffocation in Exorcism Death,‖ ReligionNewsBlog, February 4, 2008, accessed February 1,
2012, http://www.religionnewsblog.com/20533/susan-kay-clark.

56
 theological training and had received his calling from God. He also said that his

brother, the reverend of the independent church, had ordained him.129

Popular cinema entertains the public with movies devoted to the horror of demonic possession

and exorcism. Released in 2005, The Exorcism of Emily Rose is a Hollywood horror film based

on the real-life exorcism of Anneliese Michel, a young German woman.130 Audiences were

treated to scenes of impossible contortions,131 terrifying voices, and physical deformation.

Despite being based on true events—as sensationalized as they may have been, given

Hollywood—they exist as a plastic veneer of entertainment. The viewer can remove him or

herself from the blatant horror of the wars, crimes, and ills of the Evening News, if only for an

hour and a half. However, the four cases cited above are not entertainment. They are part of the

news, part of the problem, part of the reality from which people seek to be removed. These are

real crimes and real tragedies that occurred in very recent memory within the immediate space of

the United States. They and similar incidents occur with disturbing frequency, and dismissing

them as one-offs or simply the products of disturbed minds is to ignore the reality of an entire

culture based on the concept of Good versus Evil.

To return to the other side of the argument, that for the potential healing benefits of

exorcism, it can be argued that the news is undeniably skewed towards the tragic, for two

reasons. First, happy stories do not bring in the ratings. Second, it is highly unlikely that a victim

of possession who has been cured by an exorcism would wind up in the news at all. There is a

great deal of stigma within the broader public regarding possession. I would argue that although

an individual who has undergone an exorcism may feel free within his own religious community

129
Lisa Sweetingham, ―Medical Examiner: Autistic Boy Suffocated During Exorcism‖ CourtTV.com, July 1, 2004,
accessed February 1, 2012, http://news.findlaw.com/court_tv/s/20040707/07jul2004175303.html.
130
Gabriele Amorth, An Exorcist Tells His Story, 170.
131
Interestingly, Jennifer Carpenter, the actress who played Emily Rose, actually did perform the contortions:
http://movies.radiofree.com/interviews/theexorc_jennifer_carpenter.shtml.

57
to speak openly about their experience, he may not be so open with strangers or those whom they

do not trust.

However, within the community there may be more openness, and religious groups that

emphasize proselytization may focus on demonic possession and the need for exorcism in

gaining converts. Additionally, the internet has been something of a God-send for many

practitioners of exorcism. A simple Google search for ―exorcism and healing‖ returns countless

relevant links. One of the first, an article in St. Francis Magazine entitled ―The Practice of

Exorcism and Healing,‖ points out the relationship between physical healing and spiritual:

Illness may have many causes. It is significant that Luke, the physician,

recognized Satan‘s hand in some illness and understood that healing could be

miraculously given when Satan was rebuked, as in the case of Peter‘s mother-in-

law (Lk. 4:38-39). Some illnesses are not so straightforward – there may be a

satanic element, but medicine and surgery may be required. Thus, everything

should be done with prayer, for the Lord God is our healer.132

This is a pattern among most modern exorcists. Rarely are the medical or psychological aspects

denied, and often, as in the article cited above, there is a recommendation for a unified medico-

spiritual approach. If illness has its source in the demonic, as suggested above, there is no

theological reason to deny the patient medical treatment. Although some may be inclined to

point out the omnipotence of God and the apparent weakness of modern medicine in rhetorical

comparison, simply put, God has nothing to prove, and to deny a patient every opportunity for

healing at his or her disposal is both dangerous and unfair.

132
Vivienne Stacey, ―The Practice of Exorcism and Healing,‖ St. Francis Magazine, 3 Vol III (2007): 7.

58
 Exorcists Online

The internet as proselytization tool is extremely effective. Never in religious history has religion

had so wide an audience as it has had since the internet became an integral part of day to day life.

Every preacher with a sermon now has a virtual pulpit that is potentially larger than the largest

mega-churches. He can reach people all over the world, simultaneously, and language as a

barrier is becoming weaker.

Exorcism ministries with an internet presence have websites that range from slick and

elaborate resembling corporate styles, to single pages with flashing, eye-piercing logos and

cartoonish, animated GIFs of knights stabbing the air. Some are merely informational, some

preach, and some scream about the end of days. One of the most well-known exorcism

evangelists with a prominent online presence is Bob Larson, a self-styled fundamentalist who

travels around the United States performing exorcisms.133

A look at the front page of his site quickly reveals his style of ministry: charismatic,

evangelistic, and not at all shy about proclaiming the existence of widespread demonic

infestation. The viewer is immediately greeted by a prominent banner showing a picture of

Larson thrusting a silver crucifix into the forefront, in the style of cinematic exorcists. ―Bob

Larson DWJD Spiritual Freedom Church‖ appears next to his image. Interestingly, ―DWJD‖ (Do

What Jesus Did) is a registered trademark, and in order to join and become a ―core team

member,‖ individuals must pay an annual donation of $99 minimum to receive ―core team

member benefits.‖ Sadly, charging for his deliverance services is a pattern seen throughout his

site.

The core of his ministry is his seminars and one-on-one sessions. Featured prominently

on the front page of his site is a logo, again with Larson and his crucifix, with the caption: ―Got
133
―Bob Larson DWJD Spiritual Freedom Church,‖ accessed February 1, 2012, http://www.boblarson.org/.

59
Demon? Click Here to Take the Demon Test.‖ Clicking the logo will take the visitor to another

site, demontest.com, which does not detail the demon test specifically, but rather encourages the

visitor to participate in his other services as well. Once clicking the ―Start The Test‖ link, the

visitor is taken to a second page which again sings the praises of Bob Larson and the demon test,

in language like: ―Break family curses at the ROOT!‖ and ―Get free, stay free, live free!‖134

Like DWJD, ―Demon Test‖ is trademarked, and unsurprisingly, there is a $9.95 fee to

take the online test. Larson made a recent appearance on Anderson Cooper 360°, during which

he was confronted with the fees associated with his ministry and spiritual services. During the

show he did not provide an adequate response, but he responded in writing a defense on his blog

after the fact:

At one point he [Anderson Cooper] tried to paint me as homophobic (surprise,

surprise) but when that failed he complained that it cost $9.95 to go to

demontest.com, our web site, and take the test that shows the likelihood of

demonic possession. When I tried to explain that we have internet management

costs to build and maintain the site, Cooper admitted that he scored high on the

test! Interesting. Cooper‘s brother committed suicide right in front of him by

jumping to his death from a tall building. But worst of all, Anderson Cooper

stacked all the other guests against us, including a priest who called our ministry

―voodoo magic.‖ He also brought on an Assemblies of God missionary who

doesn‘t believe Christians can have demons and whose daughter was reportedly

abused more than 10 years ago in an exorcism gone bad. (As if somehow her

unfortunate experience was typical of what we do.) Worse yet, he turned his stage

134
―A Few Words About Your Demon Test,‖ demontest.com, accessed February 5, 2012,
http://www.demontest.com/startTest.htm.

60
 over to a self-styled Baptist preacher with a vendetta against all deliverance

ministries. The man mocked our ministry (to the cheers of the audience, egged on

by Cooper) and accused me of taking five offerings a night in our seminars, a

patently false lie.135

It might be tempting to simply dismiss Larson as a scam-artist, however his ministry is extremely

popular and he has a powerful voice. His YouTube channel contains a plethora of videos of his

exorcisms, and has received over 360,000 views, and his appearance on Anderson Cooper is a

testament to his popularity.

Unfortunately, one does not need to look far to find exorcists who are, without doubt,

scam artists. In Ft. Lauderdale in 2011, three women were arrested for running an extensive

―sorcery‖ scam which included exorcisms. The women would convince their clients to turn over

money and valuable items which needed to be exorcised of evil spirits. In one incident, the

women took a Rolex watch for use in ridding their clients of demons, but they never returned the

watch. They were accused of netting $59,000 over two years in the scam.136 Although these

women were performing exorcisms, they billed themselves as ―fortune tellers‖ and not

―exorcists.‖ In 2008 in Italy, a Catholic priest was investigated for an extensive fraud operation

in which he allegedly had his associates pretend to be possessed during large staged shows. He

would then ―exorcise‖ their demons, and proceed to persuade others in the crowd to also undergo

exorcisms. It is unclear if he charged outright for his services or if he merely encouraged

135
Bob Larson, ―Bob‘s Response to the Anderson Cooper Show,‖ Bob‟s Blog: Spiritual Freedom Church, February
29, 2012, accessed March 1, 2012, http://boblarson.org/blog/2012/02/bob%E2%80%99s-response-to-the-anderson-
cooper-show/.
136
Edecio Martinez, ―Polly, Bridgette and Olivia Evans Arrested in $59,000 Fla. Sorcery Scam,‖ cbsnews.com, May
10, 2011, accessed February 1, 2012, http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-504083_162-20061388-504083.html.

61
donations, but in either case his bank account was found to be bloated with over 6.5 million

dollars.137

Despite the prevalence of fraudulent practitioners of exorcism, it should be noted that the

vast majority of ministers and priests perform the rite as a public service, free of charge, and with

the best of intentions. One only needs to peruse the many accounts of former victims of

possession, their family members, and their exorcists to confirm this. Exorcism is a painful affair

after all, and it seems that legitimate exorcisms—i.e. those performed for the purposes of healing

under the auspices of religious authority—are often quite traumatic and difficult for the exorcists

as well.138

Representative Cases

I have so far refrained from including more than passing references to the more sensational

anecdotes which are, admittedly, fairly common. The reason I chose not to do so is because it is

very simple to fall into a fictive mindset when reading the rather tragic accounts; they are so far

beyond what we experience as ―reality‖ on a day-to-day basis that the mind has difficulty

thinking of them objectively. The temptation to dismiss them as superstition or mental illness is

founded on a logical worldview based on science, evidence, and modernism. However, religion

has always existed outside that realm. This does not mean that they cannot coexist peacefully,

because they can. One has to remember that every scientific discovery is based initially on

questions and mysteries, and every discovery births new questions.

I am not advocating for the truth or falsehood of demonic possession, merely for the

open-minded analysis of the phenomenon as it exists for the people who experience it. Within

137
Matt Bachl, ―Priest Investigated Over $6.5m Exorcism Scam‖ ninemsn, April 4, 2008, accessed February 2,
2012, http://news.ninemsn.com.au/world/442091/priest-investigated-over-6-5m-exorcism-scam.
138
Malachi Martin, Hostage to the Devil, 31.

62
the context of Christian theology, the belief is well-founded, secure in its position, and becoming

more and more common, despite the objections of more liberal priests and practitioners in favour

of modernizing Christianity. Outside the security of Hollywood illusion, it is an unsavoury topic;

but one that should not be ignored. Up to this point, I have avoided discussing at length the more

dramatic aspects of exorcism and possession. However, it would be neglectful to avoid them

entirely, as they are without a doubt the most obvious and devastating features of some

possessions. While many possessions may be relegated merely to the realm of obsessive

thoughts139 or culturally improper behavior, severe cases do involve events that are best

described as beyond common Western, American, or Judeo-Christian experience.

This distinction regarding ethnocentric experience is important because it points out the

differences in the role of possession within cultures.140 Possession is by no means universally

derided; many religions focus on possession as the pinnacle of divine interaction.141 There is no

theological room in Christianity to allow for positive possession; therefore it is always a

negative. However, it is worth pointing out that some ―gifts of the Spirit‖ which are often

regarded with much deference within some Christian communities, exhibit features which are

similar to demonic possession. For example, speaking in tongues is highly regarded within some

communities (Pentecostals, for example, are well known for this142) but it is also a feature of

demonic possession; some authors have discussed this issue in more detail.143

At this point it may be helpful to review briefly the most commonly cited symptoms of

demonic possession, and to reiterate that this paper does not seek to prove or disprove the factual

139
Although this is more properly referred to as demonic ―obsession‖ rather than ―possession.‖
140
Erika Bourguignon, Religion, Altered States of Consciousness, and Social Change (Ohio: Ohio State University
Press, 1973), 14.
141
Melville Herskovits, Life in a Haitian Valley, (US: Doubleday and Company, 1971), 142-143.
142
Simon Coleman, ―Ta(l)king Possession: Exchanging Words and Worlds Among Charismatic Christians,‖ 127.
143
For example: Albert William Sadler, "Glossolalia and Possession: An Appeal to the Episcopal Study
Commission." Journal For The Scientific Study Of Religion 4:1 (1964): 85-86.

63
nature of these events. What can be stated as an unequivocal fact is that many victims, exorcists,

and witnesses believe whole-heartedly in the reality of these events; therefore, an evaluation of

Christian possession and exorcism requires a commentary on these sensitive areas.

The Roman Ritual of Exorcism cites several specific signs of possession, as we indicated earlier:

…when the subject speaks unknown languages with many words or understands

unknown languages; when he clearly knows about things that are distant or

hidden; when he shows a physical strength far above his age or normal condition.

These manifestations together with others of the same kind are major

indications.144

Others symptoms include revulsion to holy objects or subjects of a religious nature, foul smells,

telepathy regarding religious and moral matters, unexplained drops in temperature, distortions to

the skin, face, body, or behavior, sudden immobility or immovability, levitation, and physical

manifestations such as door slamming or breaking of furniture.145 An entire battery of mental and

physical symptoms, such as hallucinations, amnesia, and dizziness, can be added to the list.146

Mount Rainier, 1949

In order to begin a survey of a few modern representative cases, it is perhaps most appropriate to

start with what is arguably the most famous case of exorcism. Portrayed in the 1973 film, The

Exorcist, based on the book written by William Peter Blatty (1971), the fictional portrayal

departed significantly from the real case. Michael Cuneo discusses the Exorcist case at length in

the opening chapter of his book American Exorcism. He points out that the case was

144
Malachi Martin, Hostage to the Devil, 460
145
Ibid, 13.
146
Fr. Jose Antonio Fortea, Interview With an Exorcist: An Insider‟s Look at the Devil, Demonic Possession, and
the Path to Deliverance, 73.

64
sensationalized and that some of its most basic details were changed. For example, in the original

case, the afflicted child was a boy who lived in Mount Rainier, but Blatty made the character a

girl living in an upscale neighborhood in Georgetown. The incidences of green vomit, violent

and blasphemous masturbation, and grotesquely spinning heads were literary additions.

However, that is not to say that the original Mount Rainier case was without drama:

For some time prior to the exorcism,… the unidentified boy had been tormented

by a battery of bizarre phenomena: There were scratchings and rappings on his

bedroom walls, pieces of fruit and other objects were sent flying in his presence,

and his bed mysteriously gyrated across the floor while he tried to sleep.147

According to Cuneo, the family initially requested the help of a Protestant minister, but the

situation only worsened, and so they sought help from the Jesuit community. The priests who

initially handled the case were not exorcists, and they ensured that the child underwent a battery

of medical and psychiatric evaluations and was placed under 24-hour observation. However, the

situation continued to deteriorate:

When a natural cure wasn‘t found for his affliction,…and the bizarre symptoms

threatened to rage completely out of control, it was decided to pursue a more

drastic course of action. A Jesuit priest in his fifties was assigned to the case, and

over the next several weeks…he performed more than twenty exorcisms on the

boy. In all but the last of these, [according to an article in the Post] ‗the boy broke

into a violent tantrum of screaming, cursing and voicing of Latin phrases—a

language he had never studied—whenever the priest reached those climactic

points of the 27-page [exorcism] ritual in which commanded the demon to

depart.‘ It was the last of the exorcisms, after two nerve-jangling months, that
147
Michael Cuneo, American Exorcism: Expelling Demons in the Land of Plenty (New York: Doubleday, 2001), 5.

65
 finally did the trick. Following its completion, the strange symptoms disappeared

entirely, and the boy was restored to full health.148

A meticulous diary written by one of the attending exorcists and obtained by Blatty while he was

researching The Exorcist goes into further detail regarding the paranormal occurrences during the

exorcisms:

It told of mysterious inflammations—or ―brandings‖—that spontaneously

materialized on the fourteen-year-old boy‘s skin at various points throughout the

ordeal. The brandings sometimes appeared as actual words, such as SPITE, and

sometimes as pictorial representations, including…a hideous satanic visage. It

told of furniture shaking and crashing in the boy‘s presence and of one especially

memorable incident in which a hospital nightstand levitated rapidly from floor to

ceiling.149

Cuneo notes that these incidents were ―witnessed by a physics professor from Washington

University, who later remarked that ‗there is much we have yet to discover concerning the nature

of electromagnetism.‘‖150

The Exorcist case is important not because it is unusual as possessions go, but because it

is the case that is most familiar to the wider American public. Although The Exeter Report

showed that fear of Satan was already on the rise in England, in America exorcisms had fallen

into a deep sleep post-World War II, and even the Pentecostals tried to dampen their more

charismatic deliverances.151 The launch of The Exorcist in movie theaters all over America

released repressed fears of the unknown amongst the populace. Living in a time when fear was

148
Ibid, 6.
149
Ibid, 7.
150
Ibid.
151
W. Scott Poole, Satan in America, 112.

66
concentrated on the potential for nuclear annihilation, and with World War II still in fairly recent

memory, the Devil had largely been forgotten and replaced with more immediate, real-world

anxieties. Then, with The Exorcist, a long history of satanic belief surged to the surface, and

many people found themselves unable to cope with the sudden revival of religious, soulful terror

within themselves.

This resurgence in satanic awareness caused thousands of people to suddenly fear that

they themselves or someone they cared about was possessed. Although the movie was solidly

Catholic in its focus, it was not only Catholics who were affected. Protestants, Jews, and

agnostics were also profoundly influenced.152 Father Tom Bermingham, one of the minor actors

from the film and researchers of Blatty‘s book, suddenly found himself the focus of hundreds of

phone calls from individuals seeking relief from their newfound possessions. 153 Exorcism and

possession burst into the mainstream, and suddenly the Devil was everywhere.

Cuneo suggests that the fervor sparked by The Exorcist probably would have run its

course had the former Jesuit priest-turned-author Malachi Martin not published his book Hostage

to the Devil.154 Sensationalist and directed at the lay public, the book details, according to the

front cover: ―The Possession and Exorcism of Five Contemporary Americans.‖ The specification

of ―contemporary‖ is important because it highlights the immediate nature of the public‘s hunger

for material on the subject. The implication is this: this is not the story of Brigges or the historic

nuns of Loudon; these are modern Americans, just like you.155

Martin‘s book is entertaining but difficult to read for scholarly purposes. It details five

cases of, at the time it was published in 1976, modern demonic possessions and their exorcisms.

152
Additionally, it is likely that others of non-Judeo Christian faiths were also affected.
153
Michael Cuneo, American Exorcism: Expelling Demons in the Land of Plenty, 12.
154
Ibid, 14.
155
For the Loudun nuns, see: Moshe Sluhovsky, Believe Not Every Spirit: Possession, Mysticism, & Discernment in
Early Modern Catholicism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 233-264.

67
Although his theological credentials prior to his release from his priestly vows are impressive,

his career after the church hinged on his fame as a demon-hunter. Poole notes that his refusal to

give sources or names within his book makes his claims suspect.156 Although the reluctance of

possession victims to release their stories to the general public is understandable, given the

fantastical, novelistic, and very specific nature of Martin‘s stories, I am inclined to agree with

Poole. Even the first promotional quote on the back cover, given by the New York Daily News,

refers to the work as ―interpretive reporting.‖ However, there is no escaping the influence

Hostage to the Devil had on the public. It, like The Exorcist, became part of the developing

American zeitgeist. It became a bestseller, and even today it is one of the books most frequently

cited in reference for modern exorcism.

Florida, 1991

While deliverance became commonplace amongst Protestants, Catholics remained silent. Many

priests disavowed belief in external evil, and did their best to appeal to increasingly ―modern‖

congregants. Cuneo notes his surprise that the Church, at a time when they were suffering from

the winnowing of their flocks, refused to capitalize on the media lust for anything related to

exorcism, the Devil, or Satanism.157 However, in 1990 that changed. The archbishop of New

York spoke out regarding the reality of evil, the dangers of possession, and the prevalence of

Satanism, perhaps as a consequence of the Satanic Panic of the late 1980s. This was followed in

1991 by the full televising of an officially sanctioned Catholic exorcism on the popular television

show, 20/20, hosted by Barbara Walters and Hugh Downs.158

156
W. Scott Poole, Satan in America, 171.
157
Michael Cuneo, American Exorcism: Expelling Demons in the Land of Plenty, 63.
158
Ibid, 61.

68
 Readily available online,159 the episode is just as sensational as The Exorcist was. It

begins with the warning: ―This video contains sensitive and possibly disturbing scenes, and

should not be viewed by the squeamish.‖ It follows with an elaborate montage of demonic

images, churches, and solemn priests over a dense cacophony of operatic music, clearly intended

to shock and reel in the viewer. Walters addresses the already touched upon question: ―Why is

the Church allowing this? Father James Le Bar told us that many people don‘t share the Church‘s

belief that the Devil is real. The Church hopes that this may change some minds.‖160 Cuneo

confirmed this position when he interviewed Le Bar in 1996.161

The exorcism proceeds as expected, with an extensive period of pre-exorcism

interviewing and several initial attempts to ―draw out the demon,‖ that is, to bring the demon to

the forefront so that the exorcist may deal with it directly. When they fail to elicit a response

from the demon, the video cuts to a brief interview with one of the attending priests, who

explains: ‗the Devil plays a great game of deception and will not reveal itself or themselves for

quite a period of time.‘162 Shortly after this, the interview takes a turn, and suddenly Gina begins

retching. Soon she is arguing with the priests, thrashing violently, screaming, babbling in

nonsensical language, and speaking in different voices. It is often claimed that possessed

individuals will speak in voices not their own; however, in this case the voices do not seem to be

out of the normal range of a teenage girl.

At this point, the actual exorcism begins. The priest begins reading the Rite of Exorcism.

Interestingly, the Rite is performed in English, although in 1991 it was only officially recognized

159
The full video is, at the time of this writing, available on youtube.com in four separate parts. Part 1 can be found
here: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kn9GaVqeAEs&feature=relmfu.
160
4:00, ―ABC's 20/20 Showing a Real Exorcism - 1991 - part 2 of 4‖ youtube.com, accessed March 1, 2012,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pTiGtIlMFSI&feature=relmfu.
161
Michael Cuneo, American Exorcism: Expelling Demons in the Land of Plenty, 64.
162
6:50, ―ABC's 20/20 Showing a Real Exorcism - 1991 - part 2 of 4‖

69
in Latin—a procedural adjustment no doubt made for the benefit of English-speaking audiences.

Throughout, Gina—or, as those present would correct, the demon—screams, makes obscene

gestures, fights, speaks in strange languages, and flips from one demonic personality to the next

with no warning. She mocks the priest and cries that she doesn‘t want to burn, and viciously tells

all present that more wars are coming. The narration indicates that the exorcism proceeds for

several hours. Eventually the exorcist reaches the climactic end to the Rite, and commands the

demons to leave Gina. She looks relieved, relaxes, and the exorcism ends. However, that evening

she complained of hearing more voices, and the priest went to her house and exorcised it as well.

In the end, the priest and her family decided that she needed further, more specialized

treatment at a children‘s mental hospital. After two months, 20/20 returned to interview her.

Although medicated with antipsychotics, she insists that she was possessed. ‗Thanks to God that

he liberated me from Evil. I had a lot of bad things happen to me in the beginning, but I‘m much

better now. I‘m very happy now. I feel free.‘163 The 1996 interview of Le Bar that Cuneo

conducted revealed that Gina was still deeply troubled, and that she had not in fact been

‗suffering from full-scale possession, but rather very severe demonic oppression.‘164

Catholic exorcism is truly a singular entity. As previously discussed, there is little room

for variation. The Rite must be adhered to, the rules followed, the priest faithful in his recitation

and enactment. In the previous case, it was noted that the performance of the rite in English was

unusual and cause for attention. Such a difference, though critical in relatively Catholic terms,

would barely be noticed with the far broader Protestant exorcisms.

163
2:00, ―ABC's 20/20 Showing a Real Exorcism - 1991 - part 4 of 4‖ youtube.com, accessed March 1, 2012,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=endscreen&NR=1&v=oiktEQfuuiM.
164
Michael Cuneo, American Exorcism: Expelling Demons in the Land of Plenty, 65.

70
 Deliverance and Mass Exorcism

As mentioned, it is far more common for Protestants, particularly those of the fundamentalist,

charismatic variety, to abstain from use of the term ―exorcism‖ in favor of ―deliverance.‖

Additionally, some prefer ―casting out,‖ in an attempt to move as far as possible away from

―conjurations, incantations, and religious or magical ceremonies…‖165 However, the basic

theology sees no difference; fundamentally, the exorcist is utilizing the power of Christ to

exorcise demons. The difference occurs in practice. While Catholic exorcisms are very specific

and detail oriented, deliverances can be considered a broad umbrella under which an entire

spectrum of liberation from evil may be found.

Large ministries which perform mass exorcisms fall under this umbrella. Bob Larson‘s

practice is an example of this; however, there are many legitimate, well-meaning ministries aside

from his rather suspicious scheme. Cuneo details a scene he witnessed:

…Throughout the auditorium, demoniacs are paired off with exorcism ministers,

wailing, thrashing, regurgitating. Demons are being expelled in gushes of vomit

and strands of mucus, and assistants pick their way through the heaving mess,

handing out paper towels, holding brown paper bags up to peoples‘ chins. Not

more than five yards from me, a teenage girl, eyes dancing crazily, hurtles herself

to a clearing on the floor, where four women hold her down, one of them praying

fervently. Across the hall an attractive, middle-aged blond woman named Linda

wails constantly, a high-pitched air raid siren of a voice. Young children roam the

hall, taking it all in nonchalantly.166

165
Unger, quoted by Michael Harper, Spiritual Warfare, 116.
166
Cuneo, American Exorcism: Expelling Demons in the Land of Plenty, 168.

71
There is no script. Exorcists may insult, taunt, or mock the demons. It becomes a battle of wills

that, rather than resembling a fight between good and evil, begins to sound like a schoolyard

fight between bullies. One of the pastors tells them ―that they‘re sorry excuses for demons,

useless, weak. He laughs at them, scoffs at them.‖167 The demons retort with vindictive swearing

and homophobic insults.

This is clearly a great deviation from traditional Catholic exorcisms, wherein engagement

with the enemy is limited to discovering its name and basic details. Although the invectives

occur within a Catholic exorcism as well, the priests do not intend to engage the demons in these

battles.

Conclusion

This chapter has highlighted not only the prevalence of exorcism today, but also the dramatic

evolution the practice has undergone since the early days of Christianity. As needs change and

communities expand and blend, the practice will also continue to change. The Devil evolved

during the infancy of Christianity into a battlefield general. For a time, he was subverted by

modernism, but his absence left a hole within the Western consciousness that turned out to be

only a temporary vacancy.

He has returned, and he has returned with even greater power than before. Many of the

sins of the past are commonalities today; surely, the Inquisitors of the Middle Ages would find

themselves quite busy trying to track down the Devil in modern America. This resurgence in his

presence and the corresponding resurgence in demonic possession at a time when the world, due

to the internet and modern communications, is so transparent, has resulted in an increased

awareness amongst the wider public of the controversies associated with exorcism. As more
167
Ibid, 168.

72
people become aware of the Devil, become fearful of modern sin,168 and find themselves gorged

on information overload, an increase in tragedies associated with exorcism can be expected. The

more exorcisms appear in the news, the more people will expect to encounter possession in their

own lives. These people will turn to the internet, and the cycle continues. Likewise, among some

Christian groups, the iniquities of modern day are seen as even more evidence of Satan‘s

presence, as more and more of his demons range out across the Earth; possessions follow this

logic, as do exorcisms.

The tragedies will continue, as will the healings. Whether one believes in the Devil,

whether one believes in possession, and whether one believes in the efficacy of exorcism is

irrelevant. Exorcism is powerful, and it is here to stay.

168
Such as sexual freedoms and religious laxity, for example.

73
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