Rivera-Arriaga, E., EI. spejel-Carbajal, F.J.

Gutiérrez-
Mendieta, L. E. Vidal-Hernández, A. Espinoza-
Tenorio, J.C. Nava-Fuentes, M. García-Chavarría,
and A. Sosa-López. 2020. Global Review of ICZM
in Mexico. Revista Costas vol esp., 1: 133-154. doi:
10.26359/costas.e107

Global Review of ICZM in Mexico

E. Rivera-Arriaga1, I. Espejel2, F. J. Gutiérrez-Mendieta3,
L. E. Vidal-Hernández4, A. Espinoza-Tenorio5, J. C. Nava-Fuentes6,
M. García-Chavarría7 and A. Sosa-López1
e-mail: [email protected]

1
Instituto EPOMEX, Keywords: Coastal management, Mexican coastal zone,
Universidad Autónoma de Campeche, México. coastal governance.
2
Facultad Ciencias,
Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, México.
3
Laboratorio de Ecosistemas Costeros, DCBS,
Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Iztapalapa.
México. Abstract
In Mexico, the Integrated Coastal Zone Manage-
4
Facultad Ciencias, U. Multidisciplinaria
de Docencia e Investigación de Sisal, UNAM ment (ICZM) as it, is an uncommon instrument
México. for coastal management. Nevertheless, ICZM was
5
Departamento Ciencias de la Sustentabilidad,
understood as a regional planning endeavor, similar
Colegio De la Frontera Sur, Campeche, México. in perspective to the marine and coastal ecological
ordinances performed for all Mexican seas, some
6
Consultor Independiente
coastal municipalities and coastal states, many of
7
Instituto EPOMEX, Estudiante de Maestría, which have been published as laws. The exercise of
Universidad Autónoma de Campeche, México.
participatory planning has been fully developed in
the country, but there is an alarming lack of imple-
Submitted: October 2019
mentation. In this paper we analyse the top-down
policies that rule the marine areas (and coasts). At
Reviewed: November 2019
present the National Policy for the Sustainable Use
Accepted: December 2019
of Coasts and Seas, is used as the main conveyor for
Associate Editor: Marinez Scherer governmental actions and interventions. It was pro-

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posed by the Inter-ministries Commission for the Sustainable Management of Seas and Coasts (CIMARES)
that coordinates the actions of the several dependencies and entities related to the formulation and imple-
mentation of national policies for the planning, management and sustainable development of the seas and
coasts at the federal level. This is a documental research that analysed the major policies using the methodolo-
gy of “The Decalogue” which is an analysis of the main aspects of the public administration. The results show
that institutional coordination capacity is a major challenge and planning instruments are still miss-used in
decision-making processes.

1. Introduction
Mexico does not have a long history in developing and Castañeda, 2004; De la Lanza, 2004). The Mex-
its coasts and marine resources. It was the beach- ican Republic consists of 32 states, 17 of which have
sun tourism industry that revealed the world´s map access to the sea and represent 56% of the national
coastal paradises like Acapulco, Cancun and Los territory. Within these 17 states, 156 municipalities
Cabos. Municipalities rule land use and fisheries, oil have beachfront shores and represent approximately
mining, navigation and marine protected areas are 21% of the continental area of the country (Alva-
federal controlled. Therefore, most Integrated Coast- rez-Torres et al., 2015). Escofet (2004, 2009) and
al Zone Management (ICZM) efforts have been at Espejel and Bermudez (2009) have produced useful
the national level and designed as regional planning regionalizing maps for marine and coastal ordinanc-
processes and marine ecological ordinances (Espino- es, starting with the five seas that the country rec-
za-Tenorio et al., 2014). ognizes: Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea on the
The short history of coastal development brought Atlantic Ocean; the California Current Region; the
a total population of 14,572,188 inhabitants within Gulf of California; and the America’s Central Pacific
a 100 km coastal strip in the 2010 census, which is Coastal Zone (Rivera-Arriaga and Villalobos (2001)
roughly 14.9% of the total national population (Al- (Figure 1).
varez-Torres et al., 2015). Notably, the coastal zone As in all coastal countries Mexico is exposed to the
displays the highest population growth rate at 2.8% threats that Climate Change means (Seinger et al.,
annually, with further coastal migration expected 2010; Sosa 2010, Pozada y Vega, 2010; González
in the future (Azuz y Rivera-Arriaga, 2007, 2009). Turrubiates, 2010; Espejel et al., 2010; Andrade,
Mention should be made to hotspots where 16% 2019; Arreola et al., 2019; Escamilla-Rivera et al.,
growth rates have been estimated as new tourism cit- 2019; Azuz, 2019; Frutos et al., 2019; Seingier et al.,
ies are developed (Seingier et al., 2009; 2011). 2019; Vegas Castilleja et al., 2019; Fernández y Can-
Mexico’s marine area is larger than its terrestri- ul, 2019).
al area and comprises approximately 11,600 km of The aim of this paper is to compare and evaluate
coastline (Figure 1); the territorial sea embraces near- the major actual federal policies using the method-
ly 291,585 km2 and the Exclusive Economic Zone ology named “Decalogue” (Barragan, 2011), which
(EEZ) extends to 3,149,920 km2 (Arriaga Cabrera et is a qualitative documental analysis of the 10 main
al., 1998; Burke et al., 2001; Casco, 2004, Contreras aspects of the public administration.

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Figure 1. To the left coastal marine regions of Mexico according to Espejel and Bermudez (2009) and to the right the five Mexican
seas which are used officially for marine ecological ordinances (source Rivera-Arriaga and Villalobos, 2001).

2. Methods
This paper made a top-down qualitative analysis us- we were able to compare the facts from the papers
ing as framework the qualitative methodology named to reality that we collected through questionnaires
“Decalogue”. The Decalogue methodology (Barra- applied in Garcia (2019), to all the CIMARES insti-
gan, 2011, 2012) was proposed by the IBERMAR tutions that contained three sets of questions that re-
network which permits to compare and evaluate the lated to efficiency, effectiveness and efficacy. Through
situation of the coastal zones through a Decalogue their answers we were able to establish relations
of structural elements of the administrative and legal among literature and institutional answers. Garcia
subsystems: 1) policy; 2) legal framework, 3) insti- (2019) applying the CONEVAL (2013) methodol-
tutions; 4) strategies; 5) instruments; 6) managers ogy, also designed performance indicators to get to
training; 7) knowledge and research; 8) economical know the institutional perception and opinion grad-
resources; 9) education for sustainability; and 10) ed through a Likert scale, regarding their capacity,
public participation. achievements and advances on the compromises for
Additionally, the ten aspects of the “Decalogue” the Mexican oceans and coasts.
methodology were complemented with the analysis In order to know the institutional performance
of the 1) institutional capacity, 2) the stakeholder’s within the CIMARES, Garcia (2019) made a
participation, 3) financial sustainability, 4) the polit- Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities, Threats
ical suitability, and 4) the governance advances that (SWOT) analysis for each institutional component.
Mexico has achieved pursuing the ICZM. This analysis allowed knowing and assessing the
For this we analysed relevant literature from envi- operational conditions of the institutions that con-
ronmental, economic and social studies published by formed CIMARES. Garcia (2019) implemented the
State government institutions, non-governmental or- methodology developed by Ramirez (2009) that de-
ganizations and research institutions. For the analysis veloped the steps for identifying the criteria to anal-

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yse, as well as the internal and external variables of 2=some importance, 3= very important) to assess
the SWOT; and also implemented the methodology the response of each institution facing each factor.
by Serbolov (2001) who developed a numerical anal- To get the pondered punctuation each given percent-
ysis for SWOT, which results in a diagnosis map of age was multiplied by the Likert value; and finally,
the institutional situation. all the pondered punctuations were added to each
Two matrixes were developed for internal and ex- institution for each level of performance (efficiency,
ternal values of SWOT. For both matrix each SWOT effectiveness and efficacy).
component was analysed and each one got a pon- To get the strategic performance map, the final re-
deration factor (0% not important; 100% very im- sults of the matrixes were used to locate in the axis X,
portant) that was add up vertically to get 100%. Y the strengths and weakness (Y, endogenous); and
Each key factor got a Likert value (1= not important, opportunities and threats (X, exogenous) (Figure 2).

Weakness Strength Threat Opportunity

Effectiveness 660.34 802.7 789.96 739.38
Efficiency 689.12 704.89 775.54 745.6
Efficacy 725.17 817.14 795.4 823.87
   
  660.34 823.87

Figure 2. Institutional performance of CIMARES through the indicators of efficiency, effectiveness and efficacy
(García-Chavarría, 2019).

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3. Results and discussion

Legal framework for ICZM in Mexico National Policy of Seas and Coasts
Currently, the primary laws governing Mexico’s coast- (PNDSOC)
al zones include: the Federal Oceans Law of 1986, Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Mexico
which pertains to Mexico’s national boundaries and took significant steps forward in 2006 with the pub-
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in accordance with lication of PNDSOC (National Environmental Pol-
international law; the National Law enshrined in the icy for the Sustainable Development of Oceans and
Mexican Constitution of 1917, which governs land Coasts: Strategies for its Conservation and Sustain-
use rights across the nation; the Marine Ordinances, able Use), an integrated policy for the environmental
Ecological Ordinances and Urban Development Pro- sector with regard to oceans and coasts which was
grams of coastal cities become land-use laws, and the reviewed and amended and finally institutionalized
Federal Coastal Zone of 156 municipalities, which in 2018. The policy ensures that each federal agency
governs all federal coastal land zones (Paisley et al., has the responsibility to communicate and collabo-
2003). The Secretariat of the Environment and Nat- rate with each other and through the different na-
ural Resources (SEMARNAT) is the federal office tional levels (Federal, State and Municipal) to fulfil
mostly responsible for administration and manage- its duties, since a lack of coordination between fed-
ment of coastal zones. In 2000, its President’s Office eral agencies has plagued initiatives in the past (Alva-
led the Agenda Del Mar initiative, which “aimed to rez-Torres et al., 2015). Additionally, PNDSOC was
create a discussion forum for all of the perspectives designed to develop integrated management strate-
and activities promoted among the public federal ad- gies for Mexico’s coastal zones, strengthen the coordi-
ministration and other sectors with a stake in ocean nation between federal, state, and local governments
and coastal activities” (Alvarez-Torres et al., 2015). and private institutions, and improve the economic,
The legal framework considers only the federal social, and ecological welfare of coastal regions.
level, leaving the state and municipal governments The PNDSOC has three general objectives that
with minimal possibilities for administrative and seeks the improvement of coastal inhabitants’ life
participation in decision-making for the coastal and conditions though the sustainable development;
marine zones. Federal efforts for governing the coast- strengthen local economies and improving the re-
al-marine zone are poor facing the variability of the gional ones; incentivizing economic and productive
coastal zone local contexts and dynamics. Decisions activities liable to coastal-marine environments; and
made from central government lack of enforcement ensure that the structure and functions of coast-
and purpose. Dialogues with Agenda del Mar never al-marine ecosystems do not suffer irreversible alter-
took place and left the coastal zone up to this day ations. Its guidelines recognize the social importance
with a limited vision for a granting permits program and highlight the relevance of coastal services for
through the General Direction of the Federal Marine coastal populations; the protection and preservation
Zone. of coastal environments, urges the creation of a Na-
tional Coastal Inventory and Ecological Land-use
Programs: marine, regional and local with an ICZM
scope.

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Besides the PNDSOC specific policy, other broad- (who chairs it); Governorate; External relationships;
er or sectorial policies were passed. In 2004, the “Hy- Environment and Natural Resources; Energy; Econ-
dric National Policy” was passed with an integrated omy; Agriculture and Rural Development; Commu-
hydric resource and watershed management. In nications and Transportation; Agrarian, Territorial
2010, the “Wetland National Policy” was published, and Urban Development; and Tourism. CIMARES
drafted by the “National Wetlands Committee”, coordinates and promotes actions that promotes eco-
where its goals and scope for wetlands sustainable use nomic opportunities and competitiveness and faces
and protection were based on the RAMSAR Con- the effects of climate change protecting the goods
vention Strategic Plan 2009 - 2015 (SEMARNAT, and services of the nation (https://digaohm.semar.
2010). The main contribution toward the national gob.mx/CIMARES.html). It publishes the Seas and
environmental policy is the inclusion of all coastal Coasts Policy until 30/11/2018.
environments, including those that have been modi- At national level, CIMARES is entitled is entitled
fied or altered (Nava-Fuentes et al., 2017). to coordinate management efforts in coastal and ma-
The PNDSOC requires an institutional implemen- rine zones. The ministry in charge of CIMARES is
tation considering the local governments. Unfortu- the Ministry of the Navy which acts together with
nately, there is limited capacity within the current fourteen other ministries to address the main coastal
government for coordinating efforts that include and marine issues through three general objectives
the three levels of government and coastal stake- and four working groups. The general objectives are
holders. The coastal and marine policy is supposed the following: 1) Improve life conditions of coastal
to be implemented by a number of governmental populations through natural resources sustainable
institutions, but is currently under the Commission use; integrated land planning and reducing climate
for the Sustainable Management of Seas and Coasts change vulnerability; considering a more equitable
(CIMARES), which is a coordination arrangement wealth allocation; 2) Strengthen local economies,
among several ministries of the federal government improve regional competitiveness, and promoting
with no teeth nor real power over the coasts and ma- incentives for coastal and marine economic activi-
rine zones. ties; and 3) Prevent irreversible damages on coastal
and marine ecosystems’ structures and functions,
Institutional capacity: and promoting their resilience maintaining, induc-
Commission for the Sustainable ing, or incrementing their goods and services. The
Management of Seas and Coasts CIMARES four working groups attending these objectives are
The Inter-ministries Commission for the Sustainable the following: 1) Ecological processes land planning;
Management of Seas and Coasts (CIMARES by its 2) Economy and competitiveness; 3) International
Spanish acronym) began its functions in June-13- Agenda; 4) Ocean Health.
2008. It is a permanent body whose purpose is to co- An institutional assessment of the CIMARES was
ordinate the actions of the dependencies and entities performed during 2018 (Garcia- Chavarría, 2019).
of the Federal Public Administration, related to the Institutional capacity’s evaluation is a necessary step
formulation and implementation of national policies for following-up and compliance with the goals and
for the planning, management and sustainable devel- strategies of CIMARES and it was based on indica-
opment of the seas and coasts of the national territory. tors of effectiveness, efficiency, and efficacy (ILPES/
CIMARES is made up of the Secretariats of the Navy CEPAL, 2010). “Effectiveness of public policies

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can be defined as the extent to which policies are Stakeholder’s participation:

achieving the benefits they are supposed to achieve Roles of national and State actors
plus any unanticipated side benefits. Efficiency of ICZM was understood in Mexico through spatial
public policies can be defined mainly as the extent plans called “Territorial Ordinances”, applied to
to which their benefits and costs are spread among coastal municipalities, marine regions, states, water-
those affected in such a way that no group or indi- sheds, and influenced the environmental issues of
vidual receive less than a minimum benefit level or a coastal cities. The basic purpose of these regulations
maximum cost level” (Nagel, 1986). was to enhance local development as Ramirez et al.
In order to know the institutional capacity of CI- (2015) mentioned it was “a tool for planning and
MARES, a cross-cutting and within sectorial analysis local development, seen as pillar for the construction
was performed according to an effectiveness, efficien- of the proposed participation of stakeholders in the
cy, and efficacy methodological approach (Garcia, public, private and social sector, so that their visions
2019; CONEVAL, 2013). combine the perspective of sustainable management
The investigation results suggested that there is an natural resources in the same effort to decide local
absence of coordination, evaluation and monitoring affairs”. According to Espinoza-Tenorio et al. (2014;
of the various regulatory and planning instruments 386 p) “the Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) has been
established to address the effects of climate change adopted in Mexico as an environmental planning in-
and sustainable development objectives 13 and 14 strument attending coastal-sea issues and guiding the
(SDO 13 and SDO14) on oceans and coasts in Mex- activities carried out on those realms”.
ico. The results also allowed to detect an inconsistent Nevertheless, these regulations were published
financial support for programs addressed for oceans without complementary economic instruments and
and coasts related to climate change and sustainabil- other tools to apply the guidelines, so most ordinanc-
ity; as well as a poor coordination between minis- es still assist authorities to deny conflicting uses, but
tries involved with CIMARES regarding non-com- are useless where illegal or highly economic activities
pliance of national nor international climate change prevail. As well, Espinoza-Tenorio et al. (2014) men-
and sustainability commitments. It is determined tion that “its application is still a challenge for the
that effectiveness and efficiency analysis suggested government, who has requested scientists to actively
that threats that the institutions face for not getting participate in developing proposals in order to pro-
enough funding for implementing the CIMARES’ mote effective implementation of the MSP trough
agenda are greater than opportunities; and strengths operative plans: Marine Spatial Planning Programs
due to the objectives of CIMARES are greater than (MSPP)”. The role given to the academia, NGO´s
weaknesses. There are strengths and greater opportu- and consultancies keep the legal instrument as an ex-
nities; however, the difference between the percent- periment to control coastal land-use. One of many
age that we obtained vs. weaknesses and threats was lessons learned from applying territorial land-use in-
low. When the analysis of the degree of performance struments in large areas and very complex systems
of the institutions was carried out, low levels of effec- is that coastal participative regulations need to be
tiveness and efficiency were observed (Figure 2). co-generated and promote future co-management of
smaller, less heterogeneous and targeted aims such as
Arroyo, et al. (2019) propose for alternative protect-
ed areas.
     

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ICZM can be implemented at different levels in tributing to national economy; and to encourage
Mexico. Considering that the coastal zone is under economic and productive responsible activities
the federal government jurisdiction, at national level to coastal and marine environments.
ICZM is directly in charge of the Ministry of the • General Objective 3. To ensure that coastal and
Environment together with the inter-ministries com- marine ecosystems structure and function do not
mission for oceans and coasts CIMARES, in charge suffer irreversible damages; improve their resil-
of the Navy. At regional level, CIMARES, as a focal ience, and keep and increment their ecological
point, may implement ICZM strategies also at the goods and services and their landscape value.
Gulf of Mexico region; the Mexican Caribbean re- This top-bottom implementation occurred at na-
gion; etc. At local level, ICZM may be implement- tional or regional levels. Another implementing
ed for any municipality’s coastal zone or even at a structure is bottom-up lead by the municipality
smaller scale, at any city’s water-front. The federation which organize an advisory group that would tackle
has a signed agreement with each coastal municipal- the identified coastal issue. This advisory group may
ity granting it the ICZM responsibilities. And each integrate “Regidores” and “Síndicos” (advisers and
coastal municipality has an environmental or devel- vigilantes of the municipal interests); local deputies;
opment department in charge of the ICZM. It is im- issue-related municipal departments; issue-related
portant to clarify that this department most of the state and federal ministries; academia; private sector;
time does not enable any ICZM activity or plan. The and organized civil society. And a third implement-
shared benefits from the fees collected in the Federal ing structure for ICZM may involve the leadership
Coastal Zones are used in each coastal municipality of an organized civil society or the academia helping
in a discretionary form. a coastal community in the bottom-up ICZM pro-
There are three possible structures for implement- cess. In this case an advisory group is conformed, and
ing ICZM in Mexico. Considering the federal lead- coastal issues are identified through a participatory
ership, there is a top-bottom implementation that process together with government authorities.
requires that CIMARES works with four different In Mexico there is no division of authority over
topics (1. land ordinances processes; 2. economy and ocean issues among other levels of government but
competitiveness; 3. international agenda; 4. ocean the federal one. The Mexican Constitution estab-
health) through working groups conformed by in- lished this, and therefore, oceans and coastal zones
dividuals from different participant ministries. Each that correspond to 20 meters in width by the Nation-
group meet and develop an agenda under the same al Assets Law, are part of the national goods. More-
common objectives that had been previously identi- over, local government actions should be consistent
fied by CIMARES: with the national development policies and legal
• General Objective 1. To contribute to improve framework. Any discrepancies or issues would be set-
life conditions for coastal communities through tled through agreements and coordination agendas.
the sustainable use of natural resources, imple- At local level, the federation may grant individuals
menting ICZM and reducing vulnerability to permits for the use of parts of the coastal zone for a
climate change while promoting an equitable certain period of time. These permits may be issued
shared benefit to the state or municipal governments as well. Nev-
• General Objective 2. To strengthen local econ- ertheless, coastal issues may be produced by the poor
omies; improving regional competitiveness; con- capacity of the municipal and state governments in

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addressing their responsibilities. For example, coastal the coastal zone” in large part by enhancing coordi-
waters bad quality may result from the absence of nation at the operational level (Alvarez-Torres et al.,
municipal water treatment; as well as littering that 2015).
may have occurred from the lack of and adequate The federal government of Mexico is not the sole
solid waste management. Despite the division of au- party responsible for coastal management policy.
thority over ocean issues among national and sub- Coordination among federal, state, and local govern-
national levels of government, federal authorities are ment entities has come a long way in the past few
willing to aid the municipal and state governments decades as many individual communities take the
through financial and technical aid. initiative in managing their own coastlines with the
Ocean and coastal issues may arise on federal-local help of federal resources. In 2015, Alvarez-Torres et
linkages with hydrocarbon exploitation and fisher- al. described the poor communication before PND-
ies in the Bank of Campeche in the Gulf of Mexico. SOC as a result of “different visions and competences
Fisheries activities are banned from oil and gas ex- in the coastal region and the country as a whole,”
traction facilities, reducing the possibilities of fishers claiming the lack of coordination “increased when
for their activities at coastal municipalities. This is- the different sectors could not reach a consensus
sue imposes a few conflicts on the municipality, but on productive activities and conservation strategies,
mainly on the national oil company PEMEX and thereby risking the sustainability of efforts made in
the federal energy and fisheries authorities. After de each region.” However, some observers still view the
Energy Reform (2013-2014) further economic and coordination framework as insufficient and short
political challenges emerged because of a new insti- sighted, with more action needed on creating solid,
tutional framework and actors in the governance are- long term integration strategies (Azuz et al., 2018).
na such as international oil companies (e.g., Exxon,
ENI, CHEVRON). These unprecedented circum- Financial sustainability of the coastal zone
stances have stressed the historically fragile equilibri- The revenue generated by state and local levels is by
um between fisheries and oil industry in the Gulf of the concession and payments for the right of use
Mexico (Rivera-Arriaga et al., 2019). and exploitation of the ZOFEMAT (Maritime and
The Ministry of Environment and Natural Re- Terrestrial Federal Zone). Even though this revenue
sources (SEMARNAT) has primary responsibility must be designated for the management, mainte-
for creating a federal ICZM policy, although many nance and preservation of this zone; in a period
other federal agencies have similar and even overlap- analysed by Nava-Fuentes et al. (2017) it was not a
ping responsibilities with regards to the coastal region specific designation and a clear correlation in revenue
as seen in Table 1. SEMARNAT led the project to uses, given that 20.6% of ZOFEMAT is franchised
prepare PNDSOC, which aimed to establish an in- (2292.74 km of the 11,122 km).
ter- and intra-institutional coordination mechanism A prime example of an innovative financing solu-
for efficiently addressing current and emerging man- tion is the Temporary Employment Program (PET),
agement and planning issues in the ocean and coastal a cash-for-work social safety net program created to
zones (Alvarez-Torres et al., 2015). Ultimately, Agen- assist in economic recovery from natural disasters,
da del Mar (the federal initiative guiding PNDSOC) and other crisis alleviation programs, especially those
“transitioned to a decentralized model, granting state affecting the fisheries industry. Over time, the PET
governments partial, but limited, stewardship over has become a major support mechanism for coastal

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Table 1. Stakeholders in the integrated ocean and coastal strategy in Mexico. (Alvarez- Torres et al., 2015).
Institution
Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Rural Development, Fisheries and Food
(Secretaría de Agricultura, Ganadería, Desarrollo Rural, Pesca y Alimentación, SAGARPA)
National Fisheries Commission (Comisión Nacional de Acuacultura y Pesca CONAPESCA)
National Fisheries Institute (Instituto Nacional de la Pesca, INP)
Ministry of Tourism (Secretaría de Turismo, SECTUR)
National Trust Fund for Tourism Development (Fondo Nacional de Fomento al Turismo, FONATUR)
Ministry of the Navy (Secretaría de Marina, SEMAR)
Ministry of Communications and Transport (Secretaría de Comunicaciones y Transportes (SCT)
Ministry of Economy (Secretaría de Economía, SE)
Ministry of Social Development (Secretaría de Desarrollo Social, SEDESOL)

Federal Ministry of Energy (Secretaría de Energía, SENER)

Mexican State Oil Corporation (Petróleos Mexicanos, PEMEX)
Federal Electricity Commission (Comisión Federal de Electricidad, CFE)
Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales,
SEMARNAT)
National Commission for Natural Protected Areas (Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas,
CONANP)
National Water Commission (Comisión Nacional del Agua, CONAGUA)
National Forestry Commission (Comisión Nacional Forestal, CONAFOR)
National Ecology and Climate Change Institute (Instituto Nacional de Ecología y Cambio Climático,
INECC)
National Congress
Local State governments
Municipal governments
Local Congress
Social Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
Coastal communities
Academia Universities and research institutions
Private Industry and Commerce

regions, directing funds towards mangrove and wet- change, while some states and municipalities have
lands hydrological systems restoration, marine mam- been able to build and train their own environmental
mal and turtle protection, and beach, river, cenotes, and Land-Sea Use Plan departments. The program
and wetlands clean-up actions (Alvarez-Torres et al., has also enhanced legal frameworks and led to the
2015). Additionally, the program has been applied development of air quality networks and vehicle veri-
to enhancing coastal resilience in the face of climate fication processes (Alvarez-Torres et al., 2015).

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Education for sustainability: versities, municipalities, aquariums and NGOs have

Capacity development developed initiatives to highlight the importance of
and raising awareness. oceans preservation; however, in most of the cases,
The Sectoral and Regional Integration division with- due to the lack of resources, they were isolated and
in the Directorate General for Environmental Poli- without continuity (Nava-Fuentes et al., 2017).
cy has emphasized Land-Sea Use Plans (LSUP) as a Four mechanisms of public participation within
central component to sustainable management with SEMARNAT were identified, which aimed to involve
the goals of green development and climate change society in the decision making for the environmental
adaptation (Alvarez-Torres et al., 2015). LSUPs have protection and natural resources management and
evolved to become a key tool for local governments sustainable use. Nevertheless, public participation
in addressing risk and vulnerability issues (Alva- had been considered as a mere procedure, which in
rez-Torres et al., 2015). As a binding instrument, some cases was limited to the projects, programs and
having a published LSUP allows coastal communi- plans published in the institutional website. The lack
ties to access resources necessary to prevent and alle- of disclosure makes inquiries go unnoticed by the so-
viate coastal disasters. LSUPs often involve all three ciety who is practically not involved. Besides, coastal
levels of government, as well as academia, NGOs, or- populations are characterized by a low economical
ganized social groups, stakeholders, and the private income with poor accessibility to both new technol-
sector, in order to “provide general environmental, ogies and internet so this kind of public consultation
social, economic assessment of the threats that each is not really efficient or adequate.
marine zone faces” (Alvarez-Torres et al., 2015). On the other hand, there were a growing number
The National Council of Environmental Educa- of NGOs and organized groups interested in preserv-
tion for Sustainability is the responsible entity of ing coastal resources, which have been a key compo-
making recommendations to the SEMARNAT for nent to raise awareness and have served as agents for
the formulation and evaluation of strategies, policies, stopping projects that were approved by the federal
programs and projects on environmental education; government but with a high negative impact in the
as well as linking with other consultative bodies or coastal environment.
public participation spaces and collaboration with Moreover, there is an important diversity of gov-
the Center for Education and Training for Sustain- ernmental expertise among the natural coastal and
able Development (CECADESU). marine resources, derived from more than one hun-
In 2006, the “Environmental Education Strategy dred years of history of controlling the extractive use
for Sustainability in Mexico” was passed with the aim of fish, invertebrates, mangrove woods, sediments
to enhance the government participation in environ- and coastal waters. However, as a consequence of
mental aspects, with educational institutions under such fragmented view of systems components and
the framework of the “Decade of the United Nations fluxes for administrative reasons, those capacities
Education for Sustainable Development (2005- have been exceeded, thus it is still necessary to create
2014)” which resulted in an increase of environmen- academic and integral administrative capacities for
tal education within formal basic education (SEP, better research and decision-making teams. Mem-
2013). Nevertheless, continuity into higher educa- bers of these trained teams will need to incorporate
tional levels is lacking; as well as the development of multidisciplinary experience, information, theories
strategies to avoid generational gaps. Likewise, uni- and methodologies, will be able to construct a con-

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textualized vision of the coastal-marine issues, will In graduate programs, Mexico has a specialization in
conceptualize constant change as the basic element Environmental Management from the Autonomous
of the coasts and, will incorporate concepts of com- University of Baja California, six master’s degrees and
plex systems, adaptive management and theory of seven doctorates in Sciences, Marine-Coastal Scienc-
change as mentioned by Arora et al. (2019); and as a es or Marine Ecology and a specific multidisciplinary
consequence they will offer possible explanations and Master’s degree for the management of the coastal
more integrated solutions. This base for integrated zone. Again, these programs are taught mainly in Pa-
coastal management can only be efficiently imple- cific states (e.g. Baja California, Baja California Sur,
mented when human capital is formed explicitly in Sinaloa, Jalisco and Oaxaca) and only two in Atlantic
this field of knowledge. States (e.g. Quintana Roo and Campeche). In half of
In Mexico there are 63 public universities (7 fed- these programs, emphasis is placed on learning and
eral, 34 states and 22 states with solidarity support) developing research capacities in: Marine biology.
and various research centres that serve 52% of un- Marine Geology, Marine Ecology and Systematics,
dergraduate students and 48% of graduate students Oceanography, Marine Chemistry and Population
(ANUIES, 2018). Among the 17 coastal states of the Dynamics; and in productive activities such as com-
country, 11 have at least one university education mercial fisheries, aquaculture and tourism; while the
program related to scientific and technical knowl- other half includes research on aspects of natural
edge and coastal management; These programs are resource management, coastal and insular manage-
better represented within Mexican Pacific states (e.g. ment, sustainable management and the application
Baja California, Baja California Sur, Jalisco, Sinaloa, of geographic information systems, in order to pre-
Colima, Chiapas and Oaxaca) than in Atlantic states vent and propose possible solutions to problems re-
(Quintana Roo, Yucatán, Campeche and Veracruz). lated to the conservation and exploitation of natural
At the undergraduate level there are ten educational coasts resources.
programs whose graduation profile or special lines of In addition, there are other graduate programs in
specialization include the study of areas of knowl- general sciences taught by research centres and col-
edge that can support proposals for production, con- leges in Mexico that prepare students for the study
servation and protection of coastal resources. Among and management of coastal resources through re-
them, there are five programs of Marine Biology, four search and participation in technical-scientific con-
of zones or coastal resources management, and one of sultancies; for example: the Centre for Research and
systems engineering, taught in the following univer- Higher Studies of Ensenada (CICESE, Master’s and
sities: University of Guadalajara (CUCSUR), Auton- Doctorate in Earth Sciences or Life Sciences), the
omous University of Yucatan (UADY); University of College of the Northern Frontier (Colef, Master of
the Sea of Oaxaca (UMAR); Veracruzana University Integrated Environmental Management), the Auton-
(UV), Autonomous University of Baja California omous University of Baja California (Master in Man-
Sur (UABCS), University of Chiapas (UNACH), agement of Ecosystems of Arid Zones and Doctorate
Autonomous University of Sinaloa (UAS), Universi- of Environment and Development), Centre for Re-
ty of Colima (UCOL), University of Quintana Roo search and Advanced Studies of the IPN Mérida Unit
(UQROO) and National Autonomous University of (CINVESTAV, PhD in Sciences with a specialty in
Mexico (UNAM, Yucatan Campus). Marine Sciences), El Colegio de la Frontera Sur in

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E. Rivera-Arriaga et al.

Campeche, Chetumal, San Cristobal de Las Casas, As documented by Vidal and colleagues (2019),
Tapachula and Villahermosa headquarters (ECOS- these interdisciplinary study programs are aimed at
UR, Master of Science in Natural Resources and Ru- contributing to the integrated management of coast-
ral Development, Doctorate in Sciences in Ecology al zones in Mexico with a humanist perspective that
and Sustainable Development), etc. (Table 2). analyses the daily socio-environmental problems of

Table 2. Study programs in knowledge and management training for MIZC in Mexico.
Level of studies Study Programs
Atlantic Pacific
Natural Resource Management, UQROO Engineer in coastal systems, UNACH
Sustainable Management of Coastal Zones, Management of Coastal Zones, UAS
UNAM Yucatán
Undergraduate Marine Biology UADY, UV Marine Biology, CUCSUR, UMAR,
UABC
Hydrobiology, UAM-I Management of Marine and Port Resourc-
es, UCOL
Specialty Environmental Management, UABC
Marine Sciences and Limnology, UNAM Marine and Coastal Sciences, UABC
Sciences with specialty in Marine Sciences, Coastal Oceanography, UABC
Graduate (Masters and Doctorate) CINVESTAV, Yucatán
Earth Sciences, CICESE
Life Sciences, CISESE
Multidisciplinary Masters for the manage- Sciences: Marine Ecology, UMAR, UABC
ment of the coastal-marine zone, UAC
Sciences in Natural Resources and Rural Sciences in Aquatic Resources, UAS
Masters Development, ECOSUR
Comprehensive Environmental Manage-
ment, COLEF
Management of Arid Zones, UABC
Sciences in Ecology and Sustainable Devel- Sustainable Development, UQROO
opment, ECOSUR
Sciences in Biosystematics, Ecology and
Doctorate Management of Natural and Agricultural
Resources, CUCSUR
Marine Ecology, UMAR
  Environment and Development, UABC

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these areas. With this goal, students must understand classroom as an academic object of study; highlight
and deal with transversal tensions that arise from the importance of context and teaching by projects.
addressing issues such as democratic culture, multi- It is also necessary to promote the link between in-
culturalism, sustainable development, education for stitutions, companies and organizations and diverse
good living and environmental education, human members of society related to the professional work
rights and environmental justice, total value of na- of a coastal area manager for the provision of diverse
ture, risk , among others; and be challenged to: anal- services and professional practices that contribute to
yse, discuss, integrate, innovate in the methodologies the enrichment of said institutions, programs and
of analysis, take positions, work in interdisciplinary students. In other words, these links will contribute
teams and learn a process of constant change that to carry out and update the profile of Professional
requires rehearsing and learning from error. How- Practice, and the relationship of the study plans with
ever, integrated management learning experiences of the social need.
the coastal zone in Mexico are isolated, and cases of Mexico faces and will face several challenges in the
learning with the coastal management of a resource creation of professional capacities to plan and miti-
are much more common (e.g. a beach, a kind of fish); gate the growing demand for environmental resourc-
sectorial coastal management (e.g. ports); manage- es and services from the coasts, and with this, the
ment to serve a couple of interconnected sectors (e.g. opportunity to innovate in the teaching strategies
ports and tourism); management of a coastal area and linking mechanisms of the study programs arise.
(e.g. coastal lagoon, reef system), that fully integrates
geographic, thematic, intergovernmental, tempo- 3.7 Governance and ICZM
ral, strategic and intersectorial experiences. It is also Governance addresses the values, policies, laws, and
clear that our teaching experiences tend to focus on institutions by which a set of issues are addressed; it
the analysis of the impacts of one activity from one probes the fundamental goals and the institutional
coastal area to another, on the needs of sectorial de- processes and structures that are the basis for plan-
velopment and, more rarely, on the study of coastal ning and decision making (Olsen et al., 2009). A
risks; but always with the constant of having defi- thorough understanding of critical institutional, le-
cient databases and the lack of political and adminis- gal, and policy drivers at international, national and
trative coordination to make management decisions local scales is key to ensuring the relevance and effec-
with a holistic and long-term vision. tiveness of an ICZM strategy.
Some formal training aspects still need to be de- Governance in coastal areas is challenging in Mex-
veloped in the education of ICZM in the country; ico. Positive achievements are the marine ordinances,
these include documented evaluation of how differ- and such is the case of the Gulf of California, Gulf
ent types of curriculum (e.g. formal, real, hidden and of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, South and North
null) incorporate attributes that define ICZM and Pacific. The real consequences have not yet been eval-
how teaching models adapt to facilitate the construc- uated, but these ordinances have made the mobility
tion of skills and competencies necessary for gradu- and integration of actors from the academy, govern-
ates “to learn while doing”. Some optimal teaching ment, and communities possible.
strategies to be dominated are: horizontal discussion Scholars are strongly implicated in several govern-
in the classrooms; access to experiences outside the ment initiatives, especially those related to environ-

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E. Rivera-Arriaga et al.

mental management (Cordova et al., 2006). Several The ICZM analysis through the Decalogue
institutions whose investigators have kept close con- Quesada et al. (2018) notes that Mexico currently
tact with government agencies as advisors and partic- faces obstacles in implementing ICZM practices,
ipants in several coordination committees at regional namely the lack of adequate legal and policy frame-
and local levels (Fraga et al., 2009). works for ICZM and the struggle to enforce existing
The Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) ICM laws and policies (Table 3). It is therefore essen-
have played a vital role in the transition to new forms tial that Mexico places a stronger political emphasis
of coastal governance in Mexico. NGOs’ work was on implementing a robust policy and legal frame-
mostly focused on environmental issues such as en- work for ICZM, in addition to maintaining strong
dangered species (e.g. flamingos, vaquita marina, and enforcement measures.
sea turtles), habitat protection, and natural protect-
ed areas. However, over the last couple of decades, Particular issues facing ICZM in Mexico
NGOs have shifted their objectives and now are There is a high complexity that characterizes the rela-
playing a crucial role in working with users for the tionships between highly diversified groups of users
sustainable management of fisheries and ecosystems and institutions. Many difficulties related to gover-
(Espinosa-Romero et al., 2014). Currently, NGOs’ nance are frequently associated with a false or blurred
work includes efforts to promote increased scientific distinction between territories and the limits of the
information and the use of traditional knowledge, social groups that exploit them; Federal government
supporting the development of management plans, changes occurring in Mexico every six-year, admin-
building local capacities, promoting information istrative modifications are registered having conse-
sharing across different levels, and fortifying fishers’ quences in coastal management.
organization and participatory processes (Herman Due to the recent and tumultuous development
2004; Basurto et al., 2000). of the Mexican academic research system, much of
However, many things should change in Mexico to the knowledge accumulated centres on commercial
be able to build an efficient and effective governance resources, and the renovation of the system itself is
process. There is a high degree of difficulty to close geographically inconsistent.
the gap between the goals and objectives of environ- CONACYT continues supporting sectorial re-
mental and sectorial policies conceived by the fed- search aimed at diagnosis and technical management
eral government and its translation into actions and of species economically important or protected, but
specific management achievements at other levels of it does not promote an academic discussion of the
government (Fraga et al., 2009). research priorities nor the possibilities according to
For Mexico’s coastal management, it is necessary the national capabilities.
to take into account the fact that many ministries This situation results in a complex and fluctuating
are involved, due to the vast marine zones and the administrative system, where short and contrasting
vital role they play in the national economy, espe- contextual conditions cause a kind of tug-of-war in
cially concerning to oil, tourism, and fishing. These Mexican marine policy- making (Espinoza-Tenorio
economic activities require a substantial state control et al., 2010). In such a way, that in order to respond
due to its importance in the national economy, in a to the international agencies, several ministries have
situation that minimizes local authorities. established, through committees of citizens partici-
pation, public consult mechanisms in order to rein-

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Table 3. Decalogue of the SPA’s in ICZM in Mexico.

Aspect General diagnosis
Until the presentation of PNDSOC in 2006, ICZM was not a priority on the political agenda; neverthe-
Policy less in 2018 the National Policy for the Sustainable Use of Coasts and Seas was passed. 
Additionally, there is a National Wetland Policy and the National Policy.
There is no specific law for coastal zones regulation; laws are still sectorial. The demarcation is established
by the General Law of National Assets with the ZOFEMAT figure which is considered as arbitrary and
Legal framework
did not consider natural ecosystem’s boundaries. There is a gap between “land” and “sea” regulations. In
2018, an initiative of the “Coastal Law” was presented but dismissed.
In Mexico the management of coastal zones relies in institutions of the three administrative levels, which
means that, in the State and Municipal scale, depends on the administration of each local government.
Institutions In the federal scale the SEMARNAT is responsible for monitoring and managing the Mexican coast.
However there are other institutions with intervention on specific resources. The importance of this area
was highlighted through the creation of the CONANP in 2000.
Prior to the approval of the National Policy, coastal strategies depended on administration priorities,
Strategies without an interest in integrated coastal management. The interest in developing oceanic and coastal
spatial plans initiated together with a strategy on Climate Change (2007) and Wetlands (2013).
Instruments The main instruments related to ICZM are the Regional and Maritime Ecological Spatial Plans which
are present in three of the four regions (North Pacific, Gulf of California; Gulf of Mexico and Carib-
bean Sea). Additionally, 54 protected areas located on the coast were approved. Fisheries Management
Plans for 18 species with commercial interest. Spatial planning of coastal municipalities and “Municipal
Climate Action Plans”. Existing operational tools are the Environmental Impact Assessments, Mexican
Official Standards, fishing quotas and concessions of the ZOFEMAT.
Managers training There are currently 25 higher education programs with an ICZM approach. Nevertheless, administrative
vacancies are still demanding managers with a sectorial profile dismissing the importance of the ICZM
approach.
Knowledge and The importance of coastal and marine ecosystems has increased through government institutions (IN-
research ECC and CONABIO), research centres and universities; however, knowledge of the current status of
certain ecosystems and their distribution is still limited. A geographic information system that integrates
the status and distribution of coastal ecosystems is missing.
Economical An increase in public spending on projects focusing on coastal areas was registered. However, they were
resources focused on building infrastructure, contrasting with the increase of resources designated to Climate
Change programs.
Education for sus- Education for sustainability is a duty of SEMARNAT, which should formulate and develop environmen-
tainability tal education strategies. In 2006, the “Environmental Education Strategy for Sustainability in Mexico”
was created despite not including a coastal-marine approach. NGOs are important actors in the develop-
ment of education programs; however, they are concentrated only in certain regions of the country.
Public participation Community participation is considered as a mere process to be performed. Social group’s representatives
that focus on the preservation of coastal ecosystems are not adequately represented.

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force their initiatives; however, the number of those, regard to the challenges of sustainable marine man-
and their lack of coordination, without mentioning agement. A complicated mixture between unbeaten
that their composition and responsibilities may vary management and academic vestiges caused the pres-
from one ministry to the other (Fraga et al., 2009). ent circumstances of an enhanced but limited gover-
The current situation is largely dysfunctional with nance system.

4. Conclusions
Coastal and maritime areas are of high importance stages. Currently there are deficient data bases of ar-
for Mexico due to their total extension, abundant eas under legal or illegal use and proper labelling of
natural resources, human settlements and diverse generated income is not insured for environmental
economic and social activities. However these areas and development purposes. Other economic mecha-
also face a number of anthropic and natural threats nisms to promote voluntary responses for the benefit
that challenge national and local capabilities to reach of the preservation of coastal natural resources and
sustainable development objectives as enunciated at the sustainable development of their communities
international compromises, mainly those referring to need to be explored.
climate actions and its effects (SDO13) and life be- Education and awareness raising programs have
low water (SDO14). influenced some social participation of Mexican aca-
Most government capabilities to improve coastal demia, NGOs, organized social groups, stakeholders
inhabitants’ life conditions, strengthen local econo- and private sectors for coastal resource management
mies and ensure structural and functional ecosystems and sustainable use; but there is still a long path to
permanence have been addressed by political state- go to. It is required that participation could be ex-
ments, definition of institutional competencies and pressed in active involvement in the decision process
planning instruments, mainly territorial and marine with co-responsibility to implement control and sur-
ordinances that provide guidelines for a sustainable veillance measures that could replace the passive re-
use of the coastal and marine zones. Although some ception of information on environmental challenges
local implementation and coordination experiences in the coastal areas.
have succeeded, at national level there are critical Particularly outstanding is the contribution of
government strategies that need to be improved. Ma- public universities and research centres throughout
jor challenges appear when inter and intra institu- the country to train future coastal managers in gen-
tional agency coordination is required, since sectorial eral sciences with strong management capacities;
perspectives strongly persist in decision making and however, the increase of real experiences within insti-
local government capabilities are differentially con- tutions, companies, organizations and diverse soci-
structed by unequal decentralization processes. Up ety members will contribute to carry out and update
to now, planning instruments are still misused for this professional profile. Mexico’s capacity for ICZM
decision-making. is based on a legal structure but requires it to be
Economic mechanisms to generate funds to effi- strengthened at its financial and operational capacity.
ciently manage coastal zones by concessions and Finally, integrated perspective of coastal manage-
permits of coastal resources are still in development ment is needed in the country. Ecosystem Based

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Management of mangrove wetlands, coral reefs, sea change effects. ICZM would supply governance with
grasses, and dune-beach systems among other natu- the required framework to face changes in the coastal
ral coastal ecosystems, is required to decrease their and marine zones related to old and new challenges.
vulnerability and increase the resilience to climate

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