Machine Design –II (

MEC -602 )
• CO1: Analyze the stress and strain on mechanical
components.
• CO2: Demonstrate knowledge of basic machine elements
used in machine design.
• Design machine elements to perform functions in order to
obtain desired objectives under various operating
conditions.
Plain Surface Bearing
Geometry
 Plain Surface Bearing
Short Description
Bearing Description Friction Bearing Velocity Life Span
Type Stiffness

Plain Rubbing Depends on Good, Low to very Low to very

Bearing surfaces, materials provided high high -
usually with and wear is low, depends
lubricant; construction but some upon
some e.g., PTFE slack is application
bearings use has normally and
pumped coefficient present lubrication
lubrication of friction
and behave ~0.05-0.35,
similarly to depending
fluid upon fillers
bearings. added
 Lubrication Mechanisms
A given bearing system can operate with any of three
types of lubrication:

•Boundary lubrication:

•Mixed-film lubrication:

•Full-film lubrication:
 STRIBECK CURVE
Bearing performance and types of
lubrication related to the bearing
parameter, µn/p
 The Bearing Design Task
Design of a plain surface bearing demands :
•Whether full-film hydrodynamic lubrication can be
achieved with its advantages of low friction and long
life. Or will the shaft operate in the bearing with
boundary lubrication?
•What materials will the bearing and the journal be
made from?
•What dimensions will be specified?
•What lubricant should be used?
 Bearing Requirements
• Magnitude, direction, and degree of variation of
the radial load.
• Magnitude and direction of the thrust load, if any.
• Rotational speed of the journal (shaft).
• Frequency of starts and stops, and duration of idle
periods.
• Magnitude of the load when the system is stopped
and when it is started.
• Life expectancy of the bearing system.
• Environment in which the bearing will operate.
 Design Decisions
• Materials for bearing visa vis shaft
• Diameter & tolerances
• clearance
• Ra of Journal and Bearing
• Length of the bearing
• Method of manufacturing the bearing system
• Type of lubricant to be used and the means of supplying it
• Operating temperature of the bearing system and of the
lubricant
• Method of maintaining the lubricant cleanliness and
temperature
 Analyses Required
• Type of lubrication: boundary, mixed-film, full-film
• Coefficient of friction
• Frictional power loss
• Minimum film thickness
• Thermal expansion
• Heat dissipation required and the means of
accomplishing it
• Shaft stiffness and slope of the shaft in the bearing
 BEARING MATERIALS
• Bronze (88% copper & 12% tin)
• Babbitt
• Aluminum
• Zinc
• Porous metals: Sintered from powders of bronze,
iron and aluminium; some mixed with lead or
copper.
• Plastics (nylon, TFE, PTFE, phenolic, polycarbonate,
filled polyimide)
Diagram of the multilayer
soft metal bearing
Fatigue life as a function
of babbitt layer thickness
 Design requirements
• Compressive Strength
• Fatigue Strength
• Embeddability
• Compatibility
• Corrosion resistance
• Conformability
• Wettability
 Properties Continued…
• High thermal conductivity
• Low thermal expansion
• Low coefficient of friction
• Relative hardness
• Availability
• Cost
• Elasticity
• Availability
 Commonly used Bearing
Materials & their Properties
Material Load Capacity Maximum Compa Conform Embeda Corro Fatigue
Operating tibility ability bility sion Strengt
Temperat Resist h
ure ance

Tin Based 5.5 to 10.3 149⁰C 1 1 1 5 5

Babbit

Lead 5.5 to 8.3 149⁰C 1 1 3 5 5

Based
Babbit
Copper 10.3 to 17.2 177⁰C 2 2 5 3 3
Lead

1 = Highest Range
Lead 20.7 to 27.6 232⁰C 3 4 4 2 2
5 = Lowest Range
Bronze
Applications of different
materials of plain bearing
• Cast Bronze: It possesses a good combination of
properties for such uses as pumps, machinery, and
appliances.
• Babbitt: Because of their softness, babbitts have
outstanding embeddability and resistance to seizure,
and are often applied as liners in steel or cast iron
housings.
• Aluminum: With the highest strength of the
commonly used bearing materials, aluminum is used
in severe applications in engines, pumps, and
aircraft.
Continued….
• Zinc: Used during operation on steel journals, a thin
film of the softer zinc material is transferred to the
steel to protect it from wear and damage. It performs
well in most atmospheric conditions except for
continuously wet environments and exposure to
seawater.
• Porous Metals: Such bearings are particularly good
for slow-speed, reciprocating, or oscillating motions.
 GRAPHALLOY….A
Special Bearing Material
GRAPHALLOY, a graphite/metal alloy, is formed from
molten metal, graphite and carbon; it is a uniform, solid,
self-lubricating, bushing and bearing material. From this
material we manufacture a unique, self-lubricating
bearing solution, offering superior performance in
hundreds of applications.
GRAPHALLOY material is suited for
submerged or high temperature bearings or
bushings - applications where oil, grease and plastics
fail.
Features & Benefits of
GRAPHALLOY
Features & Benefits
Continued…..
Features & Benefits
Continued….
 GRAPHALLOY High
Temperature Bearings
A graphite/metal alloy, is ideally suited to applications
where temperatures are too high to permit the use of oil
or other lubricants. GRAPHALLOY High Temperature
Bearings and Bushings will not soften at extreme
temperatures or extrude under load. Many grades are
suitable for temperatures to 750°F (400°C) in air. In
addition, special grades provide service up to 1000°F
(535°C) and higher in non-oxidizing atmospheres.
 Applications of
Graphalloy Bearings
1. GRAPHALLOY High Temperature Bearings Solve
Problems in Bakery Ovens.
Applications continued...
2. High Temperature Bearings Deliver Savings of More
than $10,000 per year in Pulp and Paper Industry.
Applications Continued..
3. Glass Manufacturer Saves Over $20,000 per year
with GRAPHALLOY High Temperature Bearings.
 GRAPHALLOY
Bearing Solutions for Food
Applications
Food processing solutions for Ovens, Dryers, Roasters, Mixers,
Freezers, Sterilizers
• Graphalloy bearings are key ingredients for minimal maintenance
and uninterrupted production in food contact equipment.
• Self-lubricating; works without external lubrication
• Operate in extreme temperatures (-450° F to +750° F/-240° C to
+400° C)
• Avoid loss of lubricant in steam/pressure washes
• Contain no oil or grease
• Can be immersed in liquids without contaminating food production
• Operate submerged in low viscosity and corrosive liquids
 Wear
in Bearings
• Wear of the bearings can be calculated as
K= W/FVT
• K Wear factor (in³ min / lb ft hr)
• Expected life time, T is T= t/KPV
• W = volume of material lost, in
• T = hours of running time
• F = load
• K = wear factor
• t = thickness of wear
 Design of Boundary
Lubricated Bearings
The factors to be considered when selecting materials for
bearings and specifying the design details include the
following:
• Coefficient of friction: Both static and dynamic
conditions should be considered.
• Load capacity, p: Radial load divided by the projected
area of the bearing (Pa).
• Speed of operation, v: The relative speed between the
moving and stationary components, m/s.
• Temperature at operating conditions.
• Wear limitations.
• Producibility: Machining, molding, fastening, assembly,
and service.
 PV Factor
The product pv between the load capacity(p) and
speed of operation(v) is an important performance
parameter for bearing design when boundary
lubrication occurs.
Therefore, pv can be thought of as the rate of energy
input to the bearing per unit of projected area of the
bearing if the coefficient of friction is 1.0.
•In SI units,
pv= kPa.m/s
PV chart
 Operating Temperature
Most plastics are limited to approximately 200°F
(93°C). However, PTFE can operate at 500°F (260°C).
Babbitt is limited to 300°F (150°C), while tin-bronze and
aluminum can operate at 500°F (260°C). A major
advantage of carbon-graphite bearings is their ability
to operate at up to 750°F (400°C).
 Wear Factor
The wear factor K is measured under fixed conditions with the
material loaded as a thrust washer. When equilibrium is reached,
wear is measured as a volumetric loss of material as a function of
time. The load and the velocity affect wear, thus K is defined as

K=W/FVT
Where, W= Wear, volume of material lost
F= Applied load
V= Linear velocity
T= Time
Note that the K factor and the above equation may not be used
to predict actual wear in the application. The K factor only allows
the comparison of relative wear among alternative materials
 Design Procedure for BL
Plain Surface Bearings
Given Information: Radial load on the bearing, F (N); speed
of rotation, n (rpm); nominal minimum shaft diameter, Dmin
(in or mm)
Objectives of the design process: To specify the nominal
diameter and length of the bearing and a material that will
have a safe value of pv.
•Step 1: Specify a trial diameter, D, for the journal and the
bearing.
•Step 2: Specify a ratio of bearing length to diameter, L/D,
typically in the range of 0.5 to 2.0. For non-lubricated (dry-
rubbing) or oil-impregnated porous bearings, L/D = 1 is
recommended. For carbon-graphite bearings, L/D = 1.5 is
recommended.
• Step 3: Compute L = D(L/D) = nominal length of the
bearing.
• Step 4: Specify a convenient value for L.
• Step 5: Compute the bearing pressure (N/m2 =Pa):
p = F/LD
• Step 6: Compute the linear speed of the journal
surface:
In SI metric units: V =  Dn/(60 000) m/s
• Step 7: Compute pv (Pa.m/s).
• Step 8: Multiply 2(pV) to obtain a design value for
pv.
• Step 9: Specify a material with a rated value of pv
equal to or greater than the design value.
 Complete the design of the bearing system considering
diametrical clearance, lubricant selection, lubricant supply,
surface finish specification, thermal control, and mounting
considerations.
Example Problem :A bearing is to be designed to carry a radial
load of 667N from a shaft having a minimum acceptable
diameter of 38mm and rotating at 500 rpm. Design the bearing
to operate under boundary-lubrication conditions.
Solution:
• Step I. Trial diameter: Let D = Dmin = 38mm = 0.038 m
• Steps 2-4. Let L/D = 1, Then L = D= 0.038m
• Step 5. Bearing pressure: p = F/LD = (667N)/(0.038m)(0.038m)
= 461911.36 N/m2
• Step 6. Journal speed:
V =  Dn/(60 000) m/s = π(0.038)(500)/60000 = 9.94×10-4 m/s
• Step 7. pv factor:
pv= (461911.36)( 9.94×10-4) = 459.139Pa-m/s
• Step 8. Design value of pv = 2(459.139) = 918.279 Pa-m/s
 Problem Continued…
• Step 9. From Table below, we could use a bearing
made from high tin babbit having a rated value of
pv of 1050kPa-m/s.
 Problem Continued…
• Steps 10-11. Nominal diametrical clearance:
From Figure below, we can recommend a minimum Cd = 0.002 in
based on D = 38mm and n = 500 rpm. Other design details are
dependent on the details of the system into which the bearing
will be placed.
Properties of Dry Rubbing
Bearing Materials
Properties Continued…
 wear rates of dry bearing
material groups
Light loads and low speeds (frictional heating
negligible) against smooth (0.15 µm Ra) mild steel.
BEARING FAILURES
 Foreign Matter

• Causes: Dirt particles in lubricant exceeding the

minimum oil film thickness.
 Foreign matter

• Causes: Contamination of lubricant by excessive

amounts of dirt particularly non-metallic particles
which can roll between the surfaces.
 Wiping

• Causes: Inadequate clearance, overheating,

insufficient oil supply, excessive load, or operation
with a non-cylindrical journal.
Fatigue
 Fatigue

• Causes: Excessive dynamic loading which exceeds

the fatigue strength at the operating temperature.
 Excessive interference

• Causes: Excessive interference fit or stagger at joint

faces during assembly.
 Fretting

• Causes: Inadequate interference fit; flimsy housing

design; peirmtting small sliding movements between
surfaces under operating loads.
 Misalignment

• Causes: Misalignment of bearing housings on assembly,

or journal deflection under load.
 Dirty Assembly

• Causes : Entrapment of large particles of dirt (e.g.

swarf), between bearing and housing, causing distortion
of the shell, impairment of heat transfer and reduction of
clearance
 Dirty Assembly

• Causes: Entrapment of dirt particles between bearing

and housing. Bore of bearing is shown in previous column
illustrating local overheating due to distortion of shell,
causing reduction of clearance and impaired heat
• transfer.
 Cavitation Erosion

• Causes: Changes of pressure in oil film associated

with interrupted flow.
 Dsicharge cavitation
erosion

• Causes: Rapid advance and retreat of journal in

clearance during cycle. It is usually associated with the
operation of a centrally grooved bearing at an
excessive operating clearance.
 Cavitation Erosion

• Causes: Impact fatigue caused by collapse of vapour

bubbles in oil film due to rapid pressure changes. Softer overlay
(Nos 1, 2 and 3 bearings) attacked. Harder aluminium -20% tin
(Nos 4 and 5 bearings) not attacked under these particular
conditions.
 Corrosion

• Causes: Formation of organic acids by oxidation

of lubricating oil in service. Consult oil suppliers;
investigate possible coolant leakage into oil.
Tin dioxide Corrosion
 Sulphur corrosion

• Causes: Attack by sulphur-compounds from oil

additives or fuel combustion products.
Wire wool damage
Wire wool damage
Electrical discharge
Fretting due to external
vibration
Overheating
 Thermal cycling

• Causes: Thermal cycling in service, causing plastic

deformation, associated with the non uniform thermal
expansion of tin crystals.
 Faulty assembly

• Causes: Stagger at joint faces during assembly,

due to excessive bolt clearances, or incorrect bolt
disposition (bolts too far out).
 Faulty assembly

• Causes: Incorrect grinding of journal radii, causing

fouling at fillets,
 Incorrect journal
grinding

• Causes: Too coarse a surface finish, or in the case of SG

iron shafts, the final grinding of journal in wrong direction
relative to rotation in bearing.
 Inadequate oil film
thickness

• Causes: Incorrect groove design, e.g. positioning

a groove in the loaded area of the bearing.
 Inadequqte lubrication

• Causes: Inadequate pump capacity or oil gallery or

oilway dimensions Blockage or cessation of oil supply.
 Bad bonding

• Causes: Poor tinning of shells; incorrect metallurgical

control of lining technique.
ROLLING ELEMENT
BEARINGS
Single--row, deep-
Single deep-groove
ball bearing
Double-row, deep-
Double- deep-groove
ball bearing
Angular contact ball
bearing
Cylindrical roller
bearing
Single- and double-
Single- double-row
needle bearings
Spherical roller bearing
Tapered roller bearing
Sectional views
 Ball
bearing pillow block
Loads on Bearing
Comparison of Rolling
bearing types
Hertzian contact stress
Consider a solid sphere held in a Cup by a force F
such that their point of contact expands into a
circular area of radius, a

Where,
F= Applied force
V1 & V2= Poisons ratios for the sphere and cup
E1 & E2 = Elastic Modulii for sphere and cup
D1 and D2= diameters of sphere and cup
The maximum contact pressure occurs at the center
point of the contact area
 TYPES OF LOADING
AND STRESS RATIO
The primary factors to consider when specifying the
type of loading to which a machine part is subjected
are the manner of variation of the load and the
resulting variation of stress with time. Stress variations
are characterized by four key values:
The maximum and minimum stresses are usually
computed from known information by stress analysis or
finite-element methods, or they are measured using
experimental stress analysis techniques. Then the
mean and alternating stresses can be computed from
 Stress Ratio
The behavior of a material under varying stresses is
dependent on the manner of the variation. One
method used to characterize the variation is called
stress ratio. Two types of stress ratios are commonly
used, defined as
Static Stress
Repeated and Reversed
Stress
Fluctuating Stress
Fluctuating Stress
continued…
Endurance Strength
Endurance strength vs. tensile strength for
wrought steel for various surface conditions
Rolling Bearing Failures
Fatigue failure
 Failures continued….

Fractured Flange Outer Race Fretting Inner Race Fretting

 Failures continued….

Uneven Wear Marks Roller End Collapse Roller End Chipping

 Failures continued….

Overheating Smearing Abrasive Wear

 Failures continued….

Roller Peeling Roller Breakage Magnetic Damage

Comparison of bearing
materials
 LOAD/LIFE
RELATIONSHIP

Where
P1 & L1 = rated load and life
P2 & L2= Design load and life
Bearing Selection data for single
row, deep groove ball bearings
Table continued….
 Rated Life and Basic
dynamic load rating
• The rated life is the standard means of reporting the
results of many tests of bearings of a given design. It
represents the life that 90% of the bearings would
achieve successfully at a rated load.
• It also represents the life that 10% of the bearings
would not achieve. The rated life is thus typically
referred to as the L10 life at the rated load.
• Now the basic dynamic load rating can be defined
as that load to which the bearings can be
subjected while achieving a rated life (L10) of 1
million revolutions (rev).
Problem: A catalog lists the basic dynamic load rating
for a ball bearing to be 7050 lb for a rated life of 1
million rev. What would be the expected L10 life of the
bearing if it were subjected to a load of 3500 lb?
Solution:
Procedure for computing the required basic
dynamic load rating C for a given design
load Pd and a given design life Ld
We have already discussed

If the reported load data in the manufacturer's

literature is for 106 revolutions the above equation
can be written as
The required C for a given design load and life would
be

Now, for a specified design life in hours, and a known

speed of rotation in rpm, the number of design
revolutions for the bearing would be
Recommended design life
for bearings
• The rated life of 1 million rev would be achieved by
a shaft rotating at rpm for 500 h.
• If the actual speed or desired life is different from
these two values, a speed factor fN and a life factor
fL can be determined from charts shown in the next
slide.
• The factors account for the load/life relationship.
• The required basic dynamic load rating, C, for a
bearing to carry a design load, Pd, would then be
Life and speed factors for
ball and roller bearings
Problem: Compute the required basic dynamic load
rating, C for a ball bearing to carry a radial load of
650 lb from a shaft rotating at 600 rpm that is part of an
assembly conveyor in a manufacturing plant.
Solution:
let's select a design life of 30 000 h from table .
Then Ld is

Also, Dynamic load rating

• If we solve this problem by using the charts of
speed and life factors, we have

• This compares closely with the value of 6670 lb

found previously.
 Procedure for Selecting a
Bearing—
Bearing —Radial Load Only
Step 1: Specify the design load on the bearing, usually
called equivalent load. The method of determining the
equivalent load when only a radial load, R, is applied
takes into account whether the inner or the outer race
rotates.

• where V = rotation factor

=1.0 if the inner race of the bearing rotates,
= 1.2 if the outer race rotates
Step 2: Determine the minimum acceptable diameter
of the shaft that will limit the bore size of the bearing.
Step 3: Select the type of bearing, using following table
Step 4: Specify the design life of the bearing, using the
following table
Step 5: Determine the speed factor and the life factor
if such tables are available for the selected type of
bearing.
Step 6: Compute the required basic dynamic load
rating C from following equations

or
Step 7: Identify a set of candidate bearings that have
the required basic dynamic load rating.

Step 8: Select the bearing having the most convenient

geometry, also considering its cost and availability.

Step 9: Determine mounting conditions, such as shaft

seat diameter and tolerance, housing bore diameter
and tolerance, means of locating the bearing axially,
and special needs such as seals or shields.
Problem: Select a single-row, deep-groove ball
bearing to carry 650 lb of pure radial load from a shaft
that rotates at 600 rpm. The design life is to be 30 000
h. The bearing is to be mounted on a shaft with a
minimum acceptable diameter of 1.48 in.
Solution:
• Note that this is a pure radial load and the inner
race is to be pressed onto the shaft and rotates with
it. Therefore, the rotation factor V= 1.0 in
• Therefore From equation

P=R
the design load is equal to the radial load.
We know,

Also, Dynamic load rating

• Giving design data for two classes of bearings, we
find from table that we could use a bearing 6211 or
a bearing 6308.
• Either has a rated C of just over 6670 lb.
• But note that the 6211 has a bore of 55 mm (2.1654
in), and the 6308 has a bore of 40 mm (1.5748 in).
The 6308 is more nearly in line with the desired shaft
size.
Summary of data for the selected bearing:
 BEARING SELECTION:
RADIAL AND THRUST LOADS
COMBINED
For this case equivalent load is given by
• The values of X and Y vary with the specific design
of the bearing and with the magnitude of the thrust
load relative to the radial load.

• For relatively small thrust loads, X = 1 and Y = 0, so

the equivalent load equation reverts to the form for
pure radial loads.
i.e.,
• To indicate the limiting thrust load for which this is
the case, manufacturers list a factor called e.
• If the ratio T/R > e Equation

must be used to compute P.

• If T/R < e. Equation

must be used to compute P.

 Radial and thrust factors for
single--row, deep
single deep--groove ball
bearings

where Co is the static load rating of a particular

bearing.
 Procedure for Selecting a
Bearing—
Bearing—Radial and Thrust Load
Step 1: Assume a value of Y from Table . The value Y
=1.50 is reasonable, being at about the middle of the
range of possible values.
Step 2: Compute

Step 3: Compute the required basic dynamic load

rating C.
Step 4: Select a candidate bearing having a value of
C at least equal to the required value.
Step 5: For the selected bearing, determine Co.
Step 6: Compute T/Co.
Step 7: From Table determine e,

Step 8: If T/R > e, then determine Y from Table.

Step 9: If the new value of Y is different from that

assumed in Step 1, repeat the process.

Step 10: If T/R < e, use equation to

compute P, and proceed as for a pure radial load.
Problem: Select a single-row, deep-groove ball
bearing from Table 14-3 to carry a radial load of 1850
lb and a thrust load of 675 lb. The shaft is to rotate at
1150 rpm, and a design life of 20000 h is desired. The
minimum acceptable diameter for the shaft is 3.10 in.
Solution:
Tapered roller bearing
Tapered roller bearing
installation
The American Bearings Manufacturers" Association
(ABMA) recommends the following approach in
computing the equivalent loads on a tapered roller
bearing:
Tapered Roller Bearing
data
Problem: The shaft shown in previous figure carries a
transverse load of 6800 lb and a thrust load of 2500 Ib.
The thrust is resisted by bearing A. The shaft rotates at
350 rpm and is to be used in a piece of agricultural
equipment. Specify suitable tapered roller bearings for
the shaft.
Solution:
we must assume values of YA and YB.
Let's use YA = YB = 1.75. Then,

• Using Table as a guide, let's select 4000 h as a

design life.
The required basic dynamic load rating can now be
calculated , using k = 3.33
From following Table , we can choose the bearings.
 Life of bearing
mean effective load, Fm:
Problem

Solution: